KONGUNADU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(AUTONOMOUS)
NAMAKKAL- TRICHY MAIN ROAD, THOTTIAM
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
OIE751 & ROBOTICS
COURSE HANDOUTS
UNIT 1 – FUNDAMENTALS OF ROBOT
ROBOT:-
RIA- Robotics Industry Association (or) Robot Institute of America
According to RIA robot is defined as ―a re-programmable, multifunctional manipulator
designed to move material, parts, tools or specialized devices through variable programmed
motion for the performance of the variety of tasks‖.
Robots are generally used to perform unsafe, hazardous, highly repetitive and unpleasant tasks.
They have many different functions such as material handling, assembly , arc welding, resistance
welding and machine tool load and unload functions, painting, spraying, etc.,.
Robots are used as follows: (i) To reduce production cost- fast, accurate and difficulties in human
nature (ii) To avoid 4D jobs- dirty, dangerous, difficult and dull (iii) 4A task- automation,
augmentation, assistance and autonomous.
Robotics: - It is a branch of engineering that involves the conception, design, manufacture and
operation of robots. It is the study and technology of robots.
Laws of Robotics:-
Asimov's Laws / Three Laws of Robotics are a set of rules devised by the science fiction
author Isaac Asimov. The rules were introduced in his 1942 short story "Run around", although
they had been foreshadowed in a few earlier stories. The Three Laws are:
1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come
to harm.
2. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings, except where such orders would
conflict with the First Law.
3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the
First or Second Law.
General areas of robotics:
 Industrial ,Military ,Educational ,Medical
 Domestic or personal ,Hobbyist , Show or promotional
Robot Anatomy:-
A robot anatomy is concerned with the physical construction and characteristics of the body, arm
and wrist which are the component of the robot manipulator. It is a study of skeleton of robot (or)
physical part. It has the following parts.

Base - It is the bottom portion of the robot. Mostly it is fixed or movable.

Manipulator- It has arm and wrist. It is also called as assembly of links and joints which has
several degrees of freedom. It is used for moving the tools in the work volume and adjust the tools
End-effector or gripper- holding a part/ work piece or tools
Drives or actuators – Causing the manipulator arm or end effector to move in a space.
Controller – with hardware & software support for giving commands to the drives
Sensors - To feed back the information for subsequent action of the arm or grippers as well
as to interact with the environment in which the robot is working.
Interface – Connecting the robot subsystem to the external world.
Joints- it is used to connect two links or arms and to perform sliding, rotating, twisting and
revolving movements of the arms.

Robot Motions, Links and Joints:- Robot Joints:

Linear joint: Type L joint; the relative movement between the input link and the output link is a
translational sliding motion, with the axes of the two links parallel.
Orthogonal joint: Type O joint; the relative movement between the input link and the output link
is a translational sliding motion, but the output link is perpendicular to the input link.
Rotational joint: Type R joint; this provides rotational relative motion, with the axis of rotation
perpendicular to the axes of the input and output links.
Twisting joint: Type T joint; this provides rotary motion, but the axis of rotation is parallel to the
axes of the two links
Revolving joint: Type V joint; the axis of the input link is parallel to the axis of rotation of the
joint, and the axis of the output link is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
Robot Motions:-

Rotational movement: this enables the robot to place its arm in any direction on a horizontal plane
Radial movement: this enables the robot to move its end effector radially to reach different radius.
Vertical movement: this enables the robot to move its end effector radially to reach different
heights.

From the above figure (a) is LL robot, (b) RRR robot and (c) TL robot
ROBOT CONFIGURATION:
Basically the robot manipulator has two parts viz. a body-and-arm assembly with three degrees-of-
freedom; and a wrist assembly with two or three degrees-of-freedom. For body-and-arm
configurations, different combinations of joint types are possible for a three-degree-of-freedom
robot manipulator. Five common body-and-arm configurations are outlined below:
Cartesian configuration

It is also known as rectilinear robot and x-y-z robot. It consists of three sliding joints, two of which
are orthogonal O-joints. Cartesian manipulators has 3 perpendicular axes which define a
rectangular work volume. Simplest configuration, move in linear, prismatic manner.
Notation: LOO
Advantages: high accurate and speed, less cost, simple operating procedure, high pay loads
Disadvantages: less work envelope, reduced flexibility.
Application: assembly, surface finishing, inspection.
Types: Cantilevered Cartesian, Gantry style
Cantilevered Cartesian – good repeatability, accuracy, less work envelope. Used for light
weight loads.
Gantry style Cartesian used for heavy loads less accuracy.
Cylindrical Configuration
It consists of a vertical column. An arm assembly is moved up or down relative to the vertical
column. The arm can be moved in and out relative to the axis of the column. Common
configuration is to use a T-joint to rotate the column about its axis. It can reach the workspace in a
rotary movement as like a cylinder. An L-joint is used to move the arm assembly vertically along
the column, while an O-joint is used to achieve radial movement of the arm.
Notation: TLO
Advantages: increased rigidity, high pay loads, easy to program off-line, good repeatability and
accuracy
Disadvantages: less work volume, floor space required is more
Application: loading and unloading, conveyor pallet transfers, material handling.
Polar configuration
It consists of a sliding arm L-joint, actuated relative to the body, which rotates around both a
vertical axis (T-joint), and horizontal axis (R-joint). It has one linear and two rotary joints that
allows the robot to operate in a spherical work volume.
Notation: TRL
Advantages: long reach capacity in the horizontal plane, simple design, high payloads, light weight,
easy to program, good precision
Disadvantages: vertical reach is low, lower mechanical rigidity, more sophisticated control system,
large variable torque on joints that gives the counter balance problem, positional error
Application: injection moulding, forging, machine tool loading, material transfer.

Jointed-arm robot
It is similar to the configuration of a human arm. It consists of a vertical column that swivels about
the base using a T-joint. Shoulder joint (R-joint) is located at the top of the column. The output link
is an elbow joint (another R joint).
Notation: TRR
Advantages: long reach capacity in the horizontal plane, huge work volume, increased flexibility,
quick operations.
Disadvantages: very expensive, difficult operating procedures, more components
Application: automatic assembly, in-process inspection, machine vision, painting and welding
SCARA
Its full form is ‗Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm'. It is similar in construction to the
jointer-arm robot, except the shoulder and elbow rotational axes are vertical. It means that the arm
is very rigid in the vertical direction, but compliant in the horizontal direction.
The SCARA body-and-arm configuration typically does not use a separate wrist assembly; its usual
operative environment is for insertion-type assembly operations where wrists joints are
unnecessary. The other four body-and-arm configurations more-or-less follow the wrist-joint
configuration given above, by deploying various combinations of rotary joints type R and T.

A Selective Compliant Assembly Robotic Arm (SCARA) manipulator has been developed with
rotary hydraulic actuators for industrial automation. The robotic arm is mounted on a vertical
column which has an 'I'-shaped cross section. .
Advantages: long reach capacity in the vertical plane, huge work volume, increased flexibility,
quick operations.
WRIST ASSEMBLY:
The three degree of freedom wrist assembly

Pitch: up and down motion of wrist

Yaw: left right rotation of wrist
Roll: rotating about horizontal axis of wrist
Wrist assembly is attached to end-of-arm, End effector is attached to wrist assembly, Function
of wrist assembly is to orient end effector, and Body-and-arm determines global position of end
effector. Two or three degrees of freedom: Roll, Pitch and Yaw. Notation: RRT
ROBOT PARTS and their FUNCTIONS:

ROBOT ACCESSORIES
A Robot is a system, consists of the following elements, which are integrated to form a whole:
Manipulator / Rover: This is the main body of the Robot and consists of links, joints and
structural elements of the Robot.
End Effector: This is the part that generally handles objects, makes connection to other machines,
or performs the required tasks. It can vary in size and complexity from end -effector on the space
shuttle to a small gripper.
Arm: Robot arms come in all shapes and sizes. The arm is the part of the robot that positions the
End Effector and sensors to do their pre-programmed business. Many (but not all) resemble human
arms, and have shoulders, elbows, wrists, even fingers.
Actuators: Actuators are the muscles of the manipulators. Common types of actuators are
servomotors, stepper motors, pneumatic cylinders etc.

Sensors: It is defined as a sensory device coverts physical parameters into electrical signal. Sensors
are used to collect information about the internal state of the robot or to communicate with the
outside environment. Robots are often equipped with external sensory devices such as a vision
system, touch and tactile sensors etc., which help to communicate with the environment. Most
robots of today are nearly deaf and blind. Sensors can provide some limited feedback to the robot so
it can do its job.
Controller:
• Every robot is connected to a computer, which keeps the pieces of the arm working together. This
computer is known as the controller. The controller functions as the "brain" of the robot. The
controller also allows the robot to be networked to other systems, so that it may work together
with other machines, processes, or robots.
Drive
The drive is the "engine" that drives the links (the sections between the joints into their desired
position. Without a drive, a robot would just sit there, which is not often helpful. Most drives are
powered by air, water pressure, or electricity.

ROBOT SPECIFICATION:
Accuracy: Capacity to position the wrist at a target point in the work volume. One half of the
distance between two adjacent resolution points. Affected by mechanical inaccuracies.
Manufactures don‘t provide the accuracy (hard to control). The ability of a robot to go to the
specified position without making a mistake. Closely related to spatial resolution.
Repeatability: Ability to position back to a point that was previously taught. Ability to position a
wrist back to the previously visited point. Repeatability errors form a random variable. Mechanical
inaccuracies in arm, wrist components. Larger robots have less precise repeatability values.

Resolution: The smallest increment of motion or distance that can be detected or controlled by the
robotic control system. It is a function of encoder pluses per revolution and drive ratio. It is
dependent on the distance between the tool centre point and the joint axis.
Spatial Resolution: It is an ability of the robot to break down its movements into increments.
Increments=2n, Where, n=Number of bits in control memory, Spatial resolution=Range/ 2n
Example: A robot controller has 12-bit storage capacity, the full range of the robot=1.0m for one
joint , Spatial resolution= 1.0m/4096=0.244mm.
Envelope: The three dimensional shape that defines the boundaries that the robot manipulator can
reach, also known as reach envelope.
Reach: The maximum horizontal distance from the centre of the robot base to the end of its wrist.
Maximum Speed: A robot moving at full extension with all joints moving simultaneously in
complimentary directions at full speed. The maximum speed is the theoretical values which does
not consider under loading condition.
Payload: The maximum payload is the amount of weight carried by the robot manipulator at
reduced speed while maintaining rated precision. Nominal payload is measured at maximum speed
while maintain precision. These ratings are highly dependent on the size and shape of the payload
due to variation in inertia.
Pay load = End Effector Weight + Part Weight
Payload Capability Of Robot: A maximum load which can be carried by the manipulator at low
speed.
Offset: Point of action for the tool mounted to the robot tool plate or tool centre point.
Duty Cycle: Ratio of run time to total operational time that a robot can continuously work at the
rated payload without overheating the robot specifications.
Quality of robot: A robot is said to be high quality, when the precision and accuracy is more.
Work Envelope of the Manipulator: It is defined as the envelope or space within the robot can
manipulate the end of the wrist. A robot‘s work envelope is its range of movement. The shape of the
reachable work area of the robot. These distances are determined by the length of a robot arm and
the design of its axes. Each axis contributes its own range of motion. Robot can only perform within
the confines of this work envelope.
Work Volume: The volume of the space swept by the robot arm is called work volume. The robot
tends to have a fixed and limited geometry. The work envelope is the boundary of positions in space
that the robot can reach.
Work Space: In which the end point of the robot arm is capable of operating is called as work
space. It defined by the geometry of the robot; i.e., Cartesian, cylindrical, spherical, revolute.

Reach Envelope: A three dimensional shape that defines the boundaries that the robot manipulator
can reach.
Maximum Envelope: The envelope that encompasses the maximum designed movements of all
robot parts, including the end effector, work piece and attachments.
Restricted Envelope: It is that portion of the maximum envelope which a robot is restricted by
limiting devices.
Operating Envelope: This is the operating zone or area of the robot, while performing its
programmed motions.
Robot Selection: Size of class, DOF, Velocity, Drive type, Control mode, Repeatability, lift
capacity, weight of robot.
Types of robot: Industrial robot- (i) sequence robot,(ii) playback robot, (iii) Intelligent robot,
(iv)repeating robot , laboratory robot, medical robot , service robot , military robot , space robot
explorer robot, hobbyist robot, class room robot, educational robot, tele- robot.
Classification of Robot:
1. Physical configuration-Cartesian, cylindrical, polar, jointed arm, SCARA.
2. Sensory System – vision robot, intelligent robot,
3. Movement – fixed, mobile, legged robot
4. Degrees of Freedom(DOF)- 1,2,3,6 dof
5. Types of Drive- electric, pneumatic , hydraulic robot
6. Control systems- point to point robot, straight line robot, continuous robot.
7. Capabilities of robot system- program control, system parameters, end effector control,
external robot communication
8. Application – manufacturing, handling and testing.
The Industrial application of robot:
Application Degrees Structure Drive Program Nature of Task Control systems
of system
Freedom
Material 3-5 Jointed Servo Programmable Safe/hazardoR Motion
Handling Adaptable motors Automation us Controllers with
Robot arm Control (PAC) Complicated Sensor
Technology.
Part loading 4-5 Polar, Electronic Programmable Complicated Micro controller
and Multiple Cylindrical Servo Automation and and Motion
unloading arms Jointed arm Motors Control (PAC) safe Controller with
(Adoptable) (For heavy environments vision.
loads)
Spot 5-6 Polar Electronic Programmable Simple and Microcontroller
welding Jointed Stepper logic safe with Changeable
adaptable motors Controllers functions
robotic arm (PLC)
Arc Welding 5-6 Polar Direct Programmable Complicated Continuous path
modular drive servo Automation and unsafe motion
Cartesian motors and Control controllers with
with sensor
adaptable Technology.
jointed arm
Spray 6 or Jointed arm Hydraulic Programmable Simple and Continuous path
Coating more with Actuators automation unsafe motion
adoptable control with controllers
gun controller area
Network
Electronic 3-6 Jointed Stepper Programmable Complicated Microcontroller,
Assembly Multiple adaptable, motors and automation and safe nodes with
arms Cartesian direct control with sensors and end
coupled modular Drives controller area effectors with
motion robotic arm Network vision systems.
Automobile 3-6 Jointed arm Electrical Programmable Complicated Microcontroller,
Assembly Multiple Cartesian and automation and safe nodes with
arms SCARA powered control with sensors and end
coupled lead controller area effectors with
motion through Network vision systems

Other areas of applications include:

1. Biomedical applications – Surgical
a. Probe to detect cancer
b. Drug development
c. Research and development
2. Space exploration –space vehicles, Example: Rover robots along with path finder in Mars
3. Defence – Surveillance Robots and Combat machines.
4. Mining – exploration, search and rescue, tunnelling for main road ways, operations in short
passages
5. Municipal services- fire fighting, underground(dangerous gas), sewer clearing
6. Undersea - oil/mineral exploration, salvage operations
7. Nuclear – maintenance of atomic reactors.
FUTURE AREAS OF ROBOTS:
1. Fast communication –new robot language, communication protocol
2. Precision sensors
3. Internet based robot
4. Medical robot
5. General purpose robot
6. Social issue.
ADVANTAGES OF ROBOTS:
 Greater flexibility, re-programmability, adjustable kinematic system
 Greater response time to input than humans
 Improved product quality
 Maximize capital intensive equipment in multiple work shifts
 Accident reduction
 Reduction of hazardous exposure for human workers
 Automation less susceptible to work stoppages
 Industrial robot – increased productivity, improved quality, more consistent product quality,
 reduced scrap and waste, reduced reworking costs, reduced raw goods inventory, direct
labour cost saving, indirect cost savings
DISADVANTAGES OF ROBOTS:
 Replacement of human labour
 More unemployment
 Training cost for both unemployed and users of new technology
 Hidden cost because of the associated technology
LIMITATION OF ROBOT:
 Assembly section needs human being particularly eye-hand coordination work
 Payload to robot weight ratio is poor that is less than 5%
 Robot structural configuration, constraints in joints
 Work volume constraints
Case study: Application of robot in inspection work
Robot-based inspections systems are an application whose time has come. As vision systems
become increasingly powerful and flexible, more end-users will consider inspection tasks being
integrated into robotic work cells. Robot makers and integrators can offer end-users some valuable
advice on having vision systems do more than just guide the robot.
―Robotic inspection systems are performing flaw detection on parts, ensuring complete part
assembly, and measuring parts‖. ―The vision system must be able to both find and inspect the part
accurately. Most importantly, integrators have to make sure of getting very good positional
accuracy and communicating that back to the robot quickly.‖

UNIT II
ROBOTS DRIVE SYSTEMS AND END EFFECTORS

Robot Drive sytems

 Pneumatic drive system
 Hydraulic drive system
 Electric drive system
Stepper motors
Servo motors
End Effectors
 Grippers
 Mechanical Grippers
 Magnetic Grippers
 Vacuum Grippers
 Factors to be considered for gripper selection

TYPES OF DRIVE SYSTEMS USED IN ROBOTS.

Electric motors like: Servomotors, Stepper motors
Hydraulic actuators
Pneumatic actuators

CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTUATING SYSTEMS

 Weight
 Power to weight ratio
 Operating pressure
 Stiffness Vs compliance

PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS SYSTEM:

Pneumatic systems use pressurized air to make things move. Basic pneumatic system
consists of an air generating unit and an air-consuming unit. Air compressed in compressor is
not ready for use as such, air has to be filtered, moisture present in air has to be dried,
and for different applications in plant pressure of air has to be varied. Several other treatments
are given to the air before it reaches finally to the Actuators. The figure gives an overview of a
pneumatic system. Practically some accessories are added for economical and efficient operation
of system.

Compressor:

A device, which converts mechanical force and motion into pneumatic fluid power, is called
compressor. Every compressed-air system begins with a compressor, as it is the source of airflow
for all the downstream equipment and processes Electric Motor Electric motor is used to drive
the compressor.

Air Receiver:

It is a container in which air is stored under pressure. Pressure Switch. Pressure Switch is used to
maintain the required pressure in the receiver; it adjusts the High Pressure Limit and Low Pressure
Limit in the receiver. The compressor is automatically turned off when the pressure is about to
exceed the high limit and it is also automatically turned on when the pressure is about to fall
below the low limit.

Safety Valve:

The function of the safety valve is to release extra pressure if the pressure inside the receiver
tends to exceed the safe pressure limit of the receiver.

Hydraulic Actuator Systems:

A hydraulic actuator consists of a cylinder or a fluid motor that uses hydraulic power to
facilitate mechanical operation .the mechanical motion gives an output in terms of
linear,rotary or oscillatory motion.because liquids are nearly impossible to compress a
hydraulic actuator can exert considerable force.the drawback of this approach is its limited
acceleration.

Types of Hydraulic Actuators

(i) Linear hydraulic actuator cylinder

 Single acting cylinder
 Double acting cylinder
 Double acting double rod cylinder
(ii) Hydraulic rotary actuator motor
 Gear motor
 Vane Motor
 Piston motor
Working of a stepper motor.

A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical pulses into

discrete mechanical movements. The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete
step increments when electrical command pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence.
 The motors rotation has several direct relationships to these applied input pulses. The
sequence of the applied pulses is directly related to the direction of motor shafts rotation.
The speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly related to the frequency of the input pulses
and the length of rotation is directly related to the number of input pulses applied.

Advantages:

 Low cost
 Ruggedness
 Simplicity in construction
 Less likely to stall or slip
 Excellent start-stop and reversing response.

Servo motors:

 Servo motors are special electromechanical devices that produce precise degrees of
rotation.A Servo motor is a DC or AC or brushless DC motor with apposition sensing
device.

 A reference input is sent to the servo amplifier which controls the speed of the servo motor
and a feed back device is mounted on the machine,which is either an encoder or resolver.

DC SERVO MOTORS

Components:

 DC motor
 Gear Assembly
 Position sensing device
 Control circuit

DC Servo
motor
Permanent magnet DC Servo
motor
Seperately excited
motor Brushless DC motor
Working principle:

 A DC reference voltage is set to the value corresponding to the desired output. this voltage
can be applied by using another potentiometer, control pulse width to voltage converter or
through timers depending on the control circuitry

 The dial on the potentiometer produces a corresponding voltage which is then applied as one
of the inputs to the error amplifier

 In some circuits , a control pulse is used to produce DC reference voltage corresponding to

desired positon or speed of the motor and it is applied to the pulse width to voltage
converter.

Advantages of DC motors

High efficiency due to absence of field loss

Linear torque Vs speed curve
Field flux is less affected by temperature rise

AC SERVO MOTOR
 In this type of motor,the magnetic force is generated by a permanent magnet and current
which produces the torque .
 It has no brushes so there is alittle noise/vibration and this motor provides high precision
control with the help of high resolution encoder..
Advantages:
 Provides high intermittent torque ,high torque to inertia ratio and high speeds
 Works well for velocity control
 Available in all sizes
 Quiet in operation and smoother rotation at lower speeds
Disadvantages:
 More expensive than stepper motors
 Require tuning of control loop parameters.
 Not suitable for hazardous environment or in vacuum‘
 Excessive current can result in partial demagnetization of DC type servo motor
Comparison of Stepper and servo motor

Sl no Characteristics Servo motor(DC brushed) Stepper Motor(Hybrid)

1 Cost Higher Lower

2 Reliability Depends on how well the Higher because it does not

motor is protected require encoder which may fail

3 Frame sizes Available in a wide variety Do not have as many size

of frame sizes selections

4 Overload safety Will malfunction if Unlikely to get damaged by

overloaded mechanica loads

5 Efficiency 80-90% 70%

Application and comparison of Drives

Sl Comparing Features Hydraulic Drive Pneumatic Electric Drive

no Drive

1 Power to weight ratio High Moderate Low

2 Payload carrying capacity Heavy Medium Low

3 Controlling devices Needs a Control system Pneumatic

hydraulic power is needed power control
pack devices needed

4 Size and Stiffness Very High Low stiffness Very Low

5 Compliance of the system Low Better Good

End effector.
End effector is a device that is attached to the end of the wrist arm to perform specific task.
Examples of Robot End Effector.
 Gripper
 Tools
 Welding equipment
 End of arm tooling(EOAT)
 Gripper

In internal grippers, the finger pads are mounted on the inside of the fingers. This
mounting allows the pads to fit into the inside diameter of the part it must lift. The pads are
pressed against the inside wall of the part.
An external gripper is designed so that the finger pads press against the outside
of the component. Grips the exterior surface of the objects with closed fingers.

Various types of Gripper mechanisms.

Pivoting or Swinging Gripper

Mechanisms:

When the piston 1 is pushed by pneumatic pressure to the right, the elements in the cranks 2
and 3, rotate counter clockwise with the fulcrum F and clockwise with the fulcrum F
respectively, when B < 180°. These rotations make the grasping action at the extended end
of the crank elements 2 and 3. The releasing action can be obtained by moving the piston
to the left. An angle B ranging from 160° to is commonly used.

This is the swing block mechanism. The sliding rod 1, actuated by the pneumatic piston
transmits motion by way of the two symmetrically arranged swing-block linkages 1--2--3--4 and
1—2—3‗—4‗ to grasp or release the object by means of the subsequent swinging motions of
links 4 and 4‗ at their Pivots F.

Rotary Actuator:
 A gripper using a rotary actuator in which the actuator is placed at the cross point of the two
fingers. Each finger is connected to the rotor and the housing of the actuator, respectively.
The actuator movement directly produces grasping and releasing actions.

Cam Actuated Gripper

The cam actuated gripper includes a variety of possible designs, one of which is shown.

A cam and follower arrangement, often using a spring-loaded follower, can provide the
opening and closing action of the gripper. The advantage of this arrangement is that the spring
action would accommodate different sized objects.

Screw type gripper:

The screw is turned by a motor, usually accompanied by a speed reduction mechanism. Due
to the rotation of the screw, the threaded block moves, causing the opening and dosing of the
fingers depending on the direction of rotation of the screw.

Magnetic Grippers.

Magnetic grippers are used extensively on ferrous materials. In general, magnetic

grippers offer the following advantages in robotic handling operations
Vacuum grippers

Vacuum grippers are used in the robots for grasping the non – ferrous objects. It
usesvacuum cups as the gripping device, which is also commonly known as suction cups. This type
of grippers will provide good handling if the objects are smooth, flat, and clean. It has only one
surface for gripping the objects. Most importantly, it is not best suitable for handling the objects
with holes.

Vacuum cups:

Generally, the vacuum cups (suction cups) will be in the round shape. These cups will be
developed by means of rubber or other elastic materials. Sometimes, it is also made of soft plastics.
Moreover, the vacuum cups are prepared of hard materials for handling the soft material objects.

Two different devices are used in the suction cups for creating the vacuum. They are:

 Venturi
 Vacuum pump
Venturi device is operated with the help of shop air pressure, while the vacuum pump is driven
either by means of vane or piston device. The vacuum pump has the ability to create the high
vacuum. As the venturi is a simple device, it is more reliable and inexpensive. Both these devices
are very well capable of providing high vacuum if there is a sufficient supply of air pressure.
Types of vacuum grippers:

 The ball joint type vacuum gripper is capable of changing into various contact angles
automatically. Moreover, the bending moments in the vacuum cups are also decreased. It is
used for carrying irregular materials, heavy objects, etc.
 A vacuum gripper with level compensator can be very helpful in balancing the objects with
different levels. It also has the capability to absorb the shocks.
Applications of vacuum grippers:

 Vacuum grippers are highly useful in the heavy industries, automobiles, compact disc
manufacturing, and more for material handling purposes.
 It is also used in the tray & box manufacturing, labeling, sealing, bottling, and so on for
packaging purposes

Selection and design consideration of grippers:

Sl no Factors Considerations

1 Part to be Handled Weight and size, changes in shape during processing, tolerances
on the part size, surface condition, protection of delicate surfaces

2 Actuator Method Mechanical Grasping, Vacuum cup, Magnets

3 Power and signal Pneumatic,hydraulic,electric,Mechanical

Transmission

4 Gripper force weight of the object, Method of holding, speed and acceleration
during motion cycle

5 Positioning Length of finger, inherent accuracy, repeatability of the robot,

Problems Tolerances on the part size

6 Service conditions No of actuators, Maintenance and serviceability, replacement of

worn components

7 Operating Heat and temperature,humidity,moisture,dust,chemicals

environment

8 Temperature Heat shield, long finger, forced cooling, use of heat resistant
protection materials
 Unit III
Sensors and Machine Vision
 Used for interaction with the environment
 To receive information from the environment
 To manipulate: send signals to various joints necessary

Categories:
 Tactile sensors
 Proximity and range sensors
 Miscellaneous sensors and sensor-based systems
 Machine vision system

Sensor is a transducer used to make a measurement of a physical variable.

Measured variable Output signal
Calibration

Characteristics of Sensing device:

Range:
Minimum and maximum change in input signal to which the sensor can respond

Good if it possesses a wide operating range

Response:
How quick the change is sensed

Should be instantaneous

Accuracy:
Should reflect the quantity exactly, Input must be measured or sensed properly

Should be as high as possible

Sensitivity:
Change in output exhibited for a unit change in input

Should be as high as possible

Linearity:
Should exhibit same sensitivity over its entire operating range
Necessary qualities of sensor:
Should not disturb the quantity sensed or measured
Should be suitable for the environment
Must sustain even if there is excess signal
Must be handy
Must be economic
Must have ease of operation

Basic types of sensors

Tactile sensors
Tactile sensors are also called as contact sensors are brought in contact with the object to
obtain signal to measure the necessary qualities as Force sensors, torque sensors, touch sensors,
position sensor.
Used to obtain information associated with the physical contact between a manipulator hand and
objects in workspace
Information by contact could give:

 location of object,
 recognition of object
 force exerted by manipulator

Contact sensors can be further classified into two as

 touch sensors , i.e. binary sensor, which is also known as binary sensors
 Force sensors i.e. force sensors, which is also known as analog sensors
Non-tactile sensors
Non-tactile sensors are also called as contactless sensors, which sense the signals remotely,
with in specific range, this can measure magnetic fields, infrared and ultraviolet rays, electrical
fields, ultrasonic sound waves or electromagnetic waves. There are other methods to measure, they
are :
 Electro-optical imaging sensors,
 Proximity sensors
 Range imagining sensors.
 Touch sensors ( Binary sensors)

Touch sensors are switches that respond to the presence or absence of an object.
It provides binary output signal which indicates whether or not contact has been made with the
object
It indicates when contact is made without regard to the magnitude of the contacting force.
Devices such as limit switches, micro switches are used, multiple binary touch sensors can be used
on the inside or outside surface of each finger to provide further tactile information.
Position and displacement sensors
Used as components of the robot control system
The position of each joint in order to calculate the position of the end-effector.
The movements of the joints can be either linear or angular (rotary)
Position sensors could be absolute or incremental(displacement sensor)
Potentiometers
Analog devices for linear and angular
Output voltage is proportional to the position of a wiper (between wiper and ground)
Voltage is applied across the resistive element.

Vo=K.θ
Vo = output voltage
K = voltage constant of the potentiometer
in units per radian (angular)
in volts per mm (linear)
θ= position of the wiper with referenc

 Potentiometeres are relatively inexpensive

 They are temperature sensitive, which affects accuracy as well
 Wiper could create wear and also electrical noise

Encoders
Non-contact type position sensors
Encoders give digital signal, they are either incremental or absolute type.
Encoeder disc has alternate transparent and opaque stripes aligned radially.
A photo transmitter is placed at one side of encoder disc which transmits light source. Generally
two sets of photo transmitters used along with receivers.

Absolute encoders
Position can be known in absolute terms
More tracks, corresponding sets of transmitters and receivers
Strips are usually aligned
Resolution=2n, where n is number of tracks.

Linear Variable Differential Transformer

It is a position sensor, the construction shows a primary coil excited with an A.C. source and two
secondary, .there is a movable core
Construction:
Stage 1: core in central location, voltage will be some in secondary, Output in null position.
Stage 2: when core moves to right end, amplitude of voltage is S1 and S2 vary resulting in
output change.
Stage3: when core moves to left end (vice versa) similar but voltage out in positive phase.
A.C. output of LVDT can be converted to D.C. using rectifiers.
Wrist sensors
The force calculated must be computed properly to perform complex jobs.
Wrist sensors are
 Small
 Sensitive
 Light in weight
Forces acting on wrist, moment are measured by gauges, through the information
computation can be carried out by the robot controller or by specified amplifier.
 When there is no contact on the sides of the hole, the sensing pads will receive no force
accommodation, based on the pattern on sensing pad the controller give movements to
correct the action.
Based on the force (reaction) the controller guides it to keep the roller roll and follow the
edge.
Classification of sensors and their functions.
Senosrs can be broadly classified in two:
 Internal state sensors
 External state sensors
Where the external states sensors are further classified based on their function method as
 Non-contact sensors
 Contact sensors
The chart given below shows the broad classification with brief description about it

Pneumatic switch sensors.

Fingers are fitted internally with a source of pneumatic (or liquid) pressure
‗Skin‘ - a flexible membrane is used to cover the sensor, beneath that lies a thin metal sheet
from a diaphragm which can make contact with the electrode.
The diagram shows the insertion of a peg in the provision.
The binary distribution of forces caused by the peg on the finger is sensed and this is used to
modify the gripper‘s orientation so as to facilitate insertion.

Proximity and Range sensors

 May be located on the end effector or wrist.
 The presence of an object can be sensed by a proximity sensor. It is used to control the
motion of a manipulator arm.
 Range sensors are used to sense and measure the distance between the objects and the
sensing device, which is used to locate the work piece. Ranges from several millimeter to
several feet.
 Proximity sensors do not make any physical contact to sense the object. They are designed
with various techniques, such as
 Optical devices
 Acoustics
 Eddy currents
 Magnetic fields, etc.

Photoelectric proximity sensor

 These kind of sensor senses the presence of an object without making
physical contact.
 Distance of object can be measured using the reflecting light.
Located the part with the help of the distance of separation between the source and point of
reception.
D=l/2 tanθ
Based on the use of electric fields
When sensing objects are brought near the object, it creates an alternating magnetic field in a small
region
This field induces eddy currents through conducting object
Eddy current produces their own magnetic field
These eddy current interacts with the primary field to change is flux density
Probe detects the change in the flux density and this
Based on the use of magnetic field
It is simple in construction
Permanent magnet is made either as sensor or object to be detected
With the presence of magnetic field, it completes the magnetic circuit and activates the reed switch.
Use of acoustics
Ultrasonic frequency (above 20,000Hz) beyond the range of human hearing
Made at one end of cylindrical chamber with an acoustic emitter
Waves pass the cavity, get altered in the presence of obstacle if any.
Microphone receives and senses the change in sound pattern.

The signal obtained is digitized and fed to a microprocessor.

When there is a slip, the micro processor detects and sends signal to input output module of the
robot controller.
Range imaging sensor.
A light source ranges in this sensor.
LASER is used for scanning
Two major methods to range:
Based on transmitting a laser pulse and measuring the time of arrival of the reflected (beam) signal.
Based on transmitting an amplitude modulated laser beam and measuring the phase shift of the
reflected signal.

Can be used to sense metallic work piece with the help of inductive proximity swithches. Contour
can be prepared simultaneously on two planes.
Grid picture may be prepared.

Opto-electronic sensors
A linear array of opto-electronic sensors consisting of photo transistors acting as detectors.
For continuous generation (pattern recognition)

Light falls on base of NPN transistor Connected in Darlington configuration Voltage at

the common collector of each element will be low or high depending on whether the
transistor is ON or OFF.
Function:
Consists of matrix of data representing projections of the scene sensed by the camera.
Element of matrix  picture elements pixels
A single pixel is the projection of a small portion of the scene which reduces the portion to a single
value.
The value is a measure of light intensity
Each pixel intensity is converted into a digital value.
Image processing
Digital image matrix for each frame is storedimage processinganalysis
Several hundred thousand bytes of raw image dataseveral hundred bytes
Hence the data size is reduced by around thousand times
Imaging devices
Principal device used are
Television cameras:
 consisting either of a tube (Vidicon tube)
 solid state cameras Change Coupled Device(CCD), Charge Injection Devices (CID)
 Silicon bipolar sensor cameras

Solid state cameras possess a number of advantages over tube cameras such as

Lighter weight, smaller size, longer life and lower power consumption.

However resolution of certain tubes is still beyond the capabilities of solid state cameras.
 UNIT -4 ROBOT KINEMATICS AND ROBOT PROGRAMMING

Kinematics:
Kinematics studies the motion of bodies without consideration of the forces or moments that cause
the motion.
Robot kinematics refers the analytical study of the motion of a robot manipulator.

FORWARD KINEMATICS
It is a scheme to determine joint angles of a robot by knowing its position in the world coordinate
system. For a manipulator, the position and orientation of the end-effector are derived from the
given joint angles and link parameters, the scheme is called the forward kinematics problem.
Considering the revolute type of joint only, the position of the end-effector can be represented by
the joint angles, θ1, θ2, θ3 … etc.,
Pjoint = (θ1, θ2, θ3)

REVERSE KINEMATICS
It is a scheme to determine the position of the robot in the world coordinate system by knowing the
joint angles and the link parameters of the robot.
If, the joint angles and the different configuration of the manipulator are derived from the position
and orientation of the end effector , the scheme is called the reverse kinematics problem.
The position of the end-effector can also be defined in world space as,
Pworld = ( x, y, z )

TRAJECTORY PLANNING
It is defined as planning of the desired movements of the manipulator.

DEGREES OF FREEDOM.
The number of independent ways by which a dynamic system can move without violating any
constraint imposed on it, is called degree of freedom. In other words, the degree of freedom can be
defined as the minimum number of independent coordinates which can specify the position of the
system completely.

JACOBIAN:
Let the linear velocity and the angular velocity of the end effector be represented in the vectorial
form by
Singularity :
A robot singularity occurs when robot axes are redundant (more axes than necessary to cause the
same motion) or when the robot is in certain configurations that extremely high joint rates to move
at some nominal speed in Cartesian space.
Redundancy:
Most industrial robots have six or less joints, thus redundancy is not inherent to their design. Some
robots , though do have a certain joint arrangement in their final orientation joints that can lead a
redundancy for certain orientations.
Robot motion Analysis:
Generally , for robots the location of the end effector can be defined in two systems.
a. Joint space
In joint space, the joint parameters such as rotating or variable link length and twisting
joint angles are used to define the position of the end effector.
Vj = (θ , a) for RR robot (rotating)
Vj = (L1, L2 ) for LL robot (Variable joint angles)
Vj = (α , L2 ) for TL robot (Twisting joint angles)

b. World (Global ) space

In world space, rectilinear coordinates with reference to the basic Cartesian system are used
to define the position of the end effector. Usually the origin of the Cartesian axes is located
in the robot‘s base.
Vw = (x, y)

Vj, Vw refers to the position of the end effector in joint and world space.
The transformation of coordinates from joint to world space is known as forward kinematic
transformation. Similarly, from world to joint space is known as backward kinematic
transformation.
Robot Programming Methods.

A program consists of individual command steps which state either the position or function
to be performed, along with other informational data such as speed, dwell or delay times, sample
input device, activate output device, execute, etc.
When establishing a robot program, it is necessary to establish a physical or geometrical
relationship between the robot and other equipment or work to be serviced by the robot. To
establish these coordinate points precisely within the robot's working envelope, it is necessary to
control the robot manually and physically teach the coordinate points. To do this as well as
determine other functional programming information, three different teaching or programming
techniques are used:

 lead-through, walk-through, and off-line.

1. Lead-Through Programming or Teaching. This method of

teaching uses a proprietary teach pendant (the robot's control is
placed in a "teach" mode), which allows trained personnel
physically to lead the robot through the desired sequence of events by
activating the appropriate pendant button or switch. Position data
and functional information are "taught" to the robot, and a new
program is written (Figure ). The teach pendant can be the sole
source by which a program is established, or it may be used in
conjunction with an additional programming console and/or the
robot's controller. When using this technique of teaching or
programming, the person performing the teach function can be
within the robot's working envelope, with operational safeguarding
devices deactivated or inoperative.

2. Walk-Through Programming or Teaching. A

person doing the teaching has physical contact with the
robot arm and actually gains control and walks the
robot's arm through the desired positions within the
working envelope

During this time, the robot's controller is scanning and

storing coordinate values on a fixed time basis. When the robot is later placed in the automatic
mode of operation, these values and other functional information are replayed and the program run
as it was taught. With the walk-through method of programming, the person doing the teaching is in
a potentially hazardous position because the operational safeguarding devices are deactivated or
inoperative.

Advantages of online programming:

Easy, No special programming skills or training

3. Off-Line Programming. The programming establishing the

required sequence of functional and required positional steps is
written on a remote computer console (Figure ). Since the
console is distant from the robot and its controller, the written
program has to be transferred to the robot's controller and
precise positional data established to achieve the actual
 coordinate information for the robot and other equipment. The
program can be transferred directly or by cassette or floppy
discs. After the program has been completely transferred to the
robot's controller, either the lead-through or walk-through
technique can be used for obtaining actual positional
coordinate information for the robot's axes.

When programming robots with any of the three techniques

discussed above, it is generally required that the program be verified and slight modifications in
positional information made. This procedure is called program touch-up and is normally carried
out in the teach mode of operation. The teacher manually leads or walks the robot through the
programmed steps. Again, there are potential hazards if safeguarding devices are deactivated or
inoperative.

Teach Method

The logic for the program can be generated either using a menu based system or simply
using a text editor but the main characteristic of this method is the means by which the robot
is taught the positional data. A teach pendant with controls to drive the robot in a number of
different co-ordinate systems is used to manually drive the robot to the desired locations.
These locations are then stored with names that can be used within the robot program. The
co-ordinate systems available on a standard jointed arm robot are :-
JointCo-ordinates
The robot joints are driven independently in either direction.
GlobalCo-ordinates
The tool centre point of the robot can be driven along the X, Y or Z axes of the robots global
axis system. Rotations of the tool around these axes can also be performed
ToolCo-ordinates
Similar to the global co-ordinate system but the axes of this one are attached to the tool
centre point of the robot and therefore move with it. This system is especially useful when
the tool is near to the workpiece.
WorkpieceCo-ordinates
With many robots it is possible to set up a co-ordinate system at any point within the
working area. These can be especially useful where small adjustments to the program are
required as it is easier to make them along a major axis of the co-ordinate system than along
a general line. The effect of this is similar to moving the position and orientation of the
global co-ordinate system.
This method of programming is very simple to use where simple movements are required. It
does have the disadvantage that the robot can be out of production for a long time during
reprogramming. While this is not a problem where robots do the same task for their entire
life, this is becoming less common and some robotic welding systems are performing tasks
only a few times before being reprogrammed.
Teach-Pendants

A teach pendant device is needed to control an industrial robot remotely. The device allows its
controller to work with robots without the need for tethering to a fixed terminal. Teach pendants
offer a variety of settings to control robots and are also utilized to design new capabilities and
features. Within the robotics repair industry, technicians not only repair the units themselves but use
the device to test robotic equipment. The teach pendant is an essential component for industrial
robots and utilized for application use, along with the repair and refurbishment process.
The teach pendant has the following primary functions:
 Serve as the primary point of control for initiating and monitoring operations.
 Guide the robot or motion device, while teaching locations.
 Support application programs.
 The Teach Pendant is used with a robot or motion device primarily to teach.
 Robot locations for use: in application programs. The Teach Pendant is also used with
custom. Applications that employ ―teach routine's that pause execution at specified points
and allow an Operator to teach * re-teach the robot locations used by the program. There
are two styles of Teach Pendants: the programmer‗s pendant, which is designed for use
while an application is being written and debugged, and the operator‗s pendant, which is
designed for use during normal system operation.

The major areas of the Teach Pendant are:

1. Data Entry Buttons:

The data entry buttons are used to input data, normally in response to prompts that appear on the
pendant display The data entry buttons include YES/NO, DEL, the numeric buttons, the decimal
point and the REC/DONE button, which behaves like the Return or Enter key on a normal
keyboard. In many cases, application programs have users press the REC/DONE button to signal
that they have completed a task.
2. Emergency Stop Switch:
The emergency stop switch on the Teach Pendant immediately halts program execution and turns
off arm power.
3. User LED:
The pendant is in background mode when the user LED is in not lit and none of the predefined
functions are being used. The user LED is lit whenever an application program is making use of the
Teach Pendant.
4. Mode Control Buttons:
The mode control buttons change the state being used to move the robot, switch control between the
Teach Pendant and the application programs and enable arm power when necessary.
5. Manual Control Buttons:
When the Teach Pendant is in manual mode, these buttons select which robot joint will move, or the
coordinate axis along which the robot will move.
6. Manual State LEDs:
The manual state LEDs indicates the type of manual motion that has been selected.
7. Speed Bars:
The speed bars are used to control the robot‗s speed and direction. Pressing the speed bar near the
outer ends will move the robot faster, while pressing the speed bar near the center will move the
robot slower.
8. Slow Button:
The slow button selects between the two different speed ranges of the speed bars.
9. Predefined Function Buttons:
The predefined function buttons have specific, system- wide functions assigned to them, like
display of coordinates, clear error, etc.
10. Programmable Function Buttons:
The programmable function buttons are used in custom application programs, and their functions
will vary depending upon the program being run.
11. Soft Buttons:
The ―soft‖ buttons have different functions depending on the application program being run,or the
selection made from the predefined function buttons.

Robot Programming Languages

Robot languages have been developed for ease of control of motions of robots having different
structures and geometrical capabilities.
 Some of the robot languages have been developed by modifying the existing general
purpose computer languages and some of them are written in a completely new style.
 Programming languages have been developed by the pioneer efforts of various researchers
at Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory; research laboratories of IBM Corporation,
under U.S. Air Force sponsorship, General Electric Co., Unimation and many other robot
manufacturers.

WAVE and AL:

 WAVE, developed at Stanford, demonstrated a robot hand—eye coordination while it was
implemented in a machine vision system.
 Later a powerful language AL was developed to control robot arms. WAVE incorporated
many important features.
 Trajectory calculations through coordination of joint movements, end-effector positions and
touch sensing were some of the new features of WAVE. But the algorithm was too complex
and not userfriendly.
 They could not be run in real-time and on-line. On the other hand, trajectory calculations are
possible at compile time and they can be modified during run time.
AML:
 A manufacturing language, AML was developed by IBM. AML is very useful for assembly
operations as different user—robot programming interfaces are possible.
 The programming language AML is also used in other automated manufacturing systems.
 The advantage of using AML is that integers, real numbers and strings can be specified in
the same aggregate which is said to be an ordered set of constants or variables.
MCL:
 US Air force ICAM project led to the development of another manufacturing control
language known as MCL by McDonnel—Douglas.
 This is a modification of the popular APT (Automatically Programmed Tooling) language
used in CNC machine tools as many similar commands are used to control machine tools in
CAM applications.
RAIL:
  RAIL was developed by Automatic for robotic assembly, inspection, arc welding and
machine vision. A variety of data types as used in PASCAL can be used.
 An interpreter is used to convert the language into machine language commands. It uses
Motorola 68000 type microcomputer system; It supports many commands and control of the
vision system.

I. VAL (Versatile Algorithmic Language)

It is a specific set of computer and robot commands that allow the operator to enter and edit
complex robot programs efficiently.
The set of instructions included in VAL provide for the following:
a.Control the robots configuration
b.Control the manipulators motions
c.Control of the gripper

II. The MCL Language

The MCL stands for machine control language and was developed by McDonnell-Dougles
Corporation under contract to the U.S Air Force ICAM.
Simple robot program listing for using unimarion’s VAL language

Motion Interpolation
There are different interpolation schemes that can be specified by the robot to get one point to
another.
a.Joint interpolation b.Straight line interpolation c.Circular interpolation d.Irregular smooth
motions.
a.Joint interpolated motion is the dominant type of joint motion when moving the robot in
forward kinematics. Typically, the robot is commanded to move from the current configuration to a
new set of joint values. Obviously, there are numerous ways the robot controllere could choose to
make the change. For example, the robot controller could choose to move joint one to its new value,
then joint 2, etc., until all the joints have been moved to their new values, but this would take more
time than necessary. For this reason, joint interpolated motion is the algorithm of choice.
The joint interpolated algorithm
1. examines each joint for the changes in joint angles,
2. estimates the time to accomplish each joint change at the current speed setting, given the
speed allowables for each joint,
3. determines the joint which will take the longest time to accomplish the joint change,
4. then slows the remaining joints down so that all accomplish their change in the sameperiod..
b.Circular Interpolation
-requires the programmer to define a circle in the robot‘s workspace which is done by
specifying three points that lie along the circle.
Circular interpolation therefore produces a linear approximation of the circle.If the grid work of
addressable points is dense enough, the linear approximation looks very much like a real circle.
c.Manual lead through programming
When the programmer moves the manipulator wrist to teach spray painting or arc welding, the
movements typically consist of combinations of smooth motion segments.
d.Irregular smooth motions
The segments in manual leadthrough programming are sometimes approximately straight
sometimes curved and sometimes back and forth motions. These motions are called irregular
smooth motions.
WAIT, SIGNAL AND DELAY COMMANDS
SIGNAL M:
It instructs the robot controller to output a signal through line M 9( where M one of several
o/p lines available to the controller)
WAIT N :
It indicates that the robot should wait at its current location until it receives a signal on line
N (where N is one of several input lines available to the robot controller).
DELAY X SEC:
This command indicates that the robot should wait X seconds before proceeding to the next step in
the program.

UNIT V IMPLEMENTATION AND ROBOT ECONOMICS

Material Handling:
It can be defined as using the right method to provide safely the right amount of the right material at
the right place at the right time in the right sequence in the right position in the right condition and
the right cost.
Material handling equipment is mechanical equipment used for the movement, storage, control
and protection of materials, goods and products throughout the process of manufacturing,
distribution, consumption and disposal.The different types of handling equipment can be classified
into four major categories: transport equipment, positioning equipment, unit load formation
equipment, and storage equipment.
Types of material handling equipments:
1.Industrial trucks 2.Cranes 3.Hoists 4.Conveyor 5.Mono rails 6.Automated guided vehicles
7.Robots
Types of Transportation:
1.Overhead 2. Below floor 3. Above floor 4.Storage interface
AUTOMATIC GUIDED VEHICLES (AGV):
An automated guided vehicle or automatic
guided vehicle (AGV) is a portable robot that
follows markers or wires in the floor, or uses
vision, magnets, or lasers for navigation. They are
most often used in industrial applications to move
materials around a manufacturing facility or
warehouse.
An AGV can also be called a laser guided vehicle
(LGV). Lower cost versions of AGVs are often
called Automated Guided Carts (AGCs) and are
usually guided by magnetic tape. AGVs are
available in a variety of models and can be used to
move products on an assembly line, transport goods
throughout a plant or warehouse, and deliver loads.
The first AGV was brought to market in the 1950s,
by Barrett Electronics of Northbrook, Illinois, and
at the time it was simply a tow truck that followed a wire in the floor instead of a rail. Out of this
technology came a new type of AGV, which follows invisible UV markers on the floor instead of
being towed by a chain. The first such system was deployed at the Willis Tower (formerly Sears
Tower) in Chicago, Illinois to deliver mail throughout its offices.
Navigation
a.Wired
A slot is cut in to the floor and a wire is placed approximately 1 inch below the surface. This slot is
cut along the path the AGV is to follow. This wire is used to transmit a radio signal. A sensor is
installed on the bottom of the AGV close to the ground. The sensor detects the relative position of
the radio signal being transmitted from the wire. This information is used to regulate the steering
circuit, making the AGV follow the wire.
b.Guide tape
AGVs (some known as automated guided carts or AGCs) use tape for the guide path. The tapes can
be one of two styles: magnetic or colored. The AGV is fitted with the appropriate guide sensor to
follow the path of the tape. One major advantage of tape over wired guidance is that it can be easily
removed and relocated if the course needs to change. Colored tape is initially less expensive, but
lacks the advantage of being embedded in high traffic areas where the tape may become damaged or
dirty.
The navigation is done by mounting reflective tape on walls, poles or fixed machines. The AGV
carries a laser transmitter and receiver on a rotating turret. The laser is transmitted and received by
the same sensor. The angle and (sometimes) distance to any reflectors that in line of sight and in
range are automatically calculated. This information is compared to the map of the reflector layout
stored in the AGV's memory.
Another form of an AGV guidance is inertial navigation. With inertial guidance, a computer control
system directs and assigns tasks to the vehicles. Transponders are embedded in the floor of the work
place. The AGV uses these transponders to verify that the vehicle is on course. A gyroscope is able
to detect the slightest change in the direction of the vehicle and corrects it in order to keep the AGV
on its path. The margin of error for the inertial method is ±1 inch.
Navigation without retrofitting of the workspace is called Natural Features or Natural Targeting
Navigation. One method uses one or more range-finding sensors, such as a laser range-finder, as
well as gyroscopes or inertial measurement units with Monte-Carlo/Markov localization techniques
to understand where it is as it dynamically plans the shortest permitted path to its goal. The
advantage of such systems is that they are highly flexible for on-demand delivery to any location.
Steering control:
To help an AGV navigate it can use three different steer control systems.
The differential speed control is the most common. In this method there are two independent drive
wheels. Each drive is driven at different speeds in order to turn or the same speed to allow the AGV
to go forwards or backwards.
The second type of steering used is steered wheel control AGV. This type of steering can be
similar to a car's steering. But this is not very manoeuvrable. It is more common to use a three-
wheeled vehicle similar to a conventional three wheeled forklift. The drive wheel is the turning
wheel. It is more precise in following the programmed path than the differential speed controlled
method.
Path Decision:
AGVs have to make decisions on path selection. This is done through different methods:
1.frequency select mode (wired navigation only), and 2. path select mode (wireless navigation only)
or via 3. a magnetic tape on the floor not only to guide the AGV but also to issue steering
commands and speed commands.
1. Frequency select mode
Frequency select mode bases its decision on the frequencies being emitted from the floor. When an
AGV approaches a point on the wire which splits the AGV detects the two frequencies and through
a table stored in its memory decides on the best path. The different frequencies are required only at
the decision point for the AGV. The frequencies can change back to one set signal after this point.
This method is not easily expandable and requires extra cutting meaning more money.
2. Path select mode
An AGV using the path select mode chooses a path based on preprogrammed paths. It uses the
measurements taken from the sensors and compares them to values given to them by programmers.
When an AGV approaches a decision point it only has to decide whether to follow path 1, 2, 3, etc.
This decision is rather simple since it already knows its path from its programming. This method
can increase the cost of an AGV because it is required to have a team of programmers to program
the AGV with the correct paths and change the paths when necessary. This method is easy to
change and set up.
3. Magnetic tape mode
The magnetic tape is laid on the surface of the floor or buried in a 10mm channel; not only does it
provide the path for the AGV to follow but also strips of the tape in different combinations of
polarity, sequence, and distance laid alongside the track tell the AGV to change lane, speed up, slow
down, and stop.
Traffic control:
Flexible manufacturing systems containing more than one AGV may require it to have traffic
control so the AGV‘s will not run into one another. Traffic control can be carried out locally or by
software running on a fixed computer elsewhere in the facility. Local methods include zone
control, forward sensing control, and combination control. Each method has its advantages and
disadvantages
a. Zone control uses a wireless transmitter to transmit a signal in a fixed area. Each AGV contains
a sensing device to receive this signal and transmit back to the transmitter. If the area is clear the
signal is set at ―clear‖ allowing any AGV to enter and pass through the area. When an AGV is in
the area the ―stop‖ signal is sent and all AGV attempting to enter the area stop and wait for their
turn.
System management
Industries with AGVs need to have some sort of control over the AGVs. There are three main ways
to control the AGV: locator panel, CRT color graphics display, and central logging and report.
A locator panel is a simple panel used to see which area the AGV is in. If the AGV is in one area
for too long, it could mean it is stuck or broken down.
CRT color graphics display shows real time where each vehicle is. It also gives a status of the
AGV, its battery voltage, unique identifier, and can show blocked spots.
Central logging used to keep track of the history of all the AGVs in the system. Central logging
stores all the data and history from these vehicles which can be printed out for technical support or
logged to check for up time.
Vehicle types:
1. Towing Vehicles (also called "tugger" vehicles) were the first type introduced and are still a very
popular type today. Towing vehicles can pull a multitude of trailer types and have capacities
ranging from 2,000 pounds to 160,000 pounds.
2. AGVS Unit Load Vehicles are equipped
with decks, which permit unit load
transportation and often automatic load
transfer. The decks can either be lift and
lower type, powered or non-powered roller,
chain or belt decks or custom decks with
multiple compartments.
3. AGVS Pallet Trucks are designed to
transport palletized loads to and from floor
level; eliminating the need for fixed load
stands.
4. AGVS Fork Truck has the ability to
service loads both at floor level and on
stands. In some cases these vehicles can also
stack loads in rack. They can sometimes lift up
to 30' to store or retrieve on high-bay racking.

5. Light Load AGVS are vehicles which have capacities in the neighborhood of 500 pounds or less
and are used to transport small parts, baskets, or other light loads though a light manufacturing
environment. They are designed to operate in areas with limited space.
6. AGVS Assembly Line Vehicles are an adaptation of the light load AGVS for applications
involving serial assembly processes.
Battery charging:
AGVs utilize a number of battery charging options. Each option is dependent on the users
preference
a. Battery swap
"Battery swap technology requires an operator to manually remove the discharged battery from the
AGV and place a fully charged battery in its place after approximately 8 – 12 hours (about one
shift) of AGVs operation. 5 – 10 minutes is required to perform this with each AGV in the fleet.
b. Automatic and opportunity charging
"Automatic and opportunity battery charging allows for continuous operation. On average an AGV
charges for 12 minutes every hour for automatic charging and no manual intervention is required. If
opportunity is being utilized the AGV will receive a charge whenever the opportunity arises. When
a battery pack gets to a predetermined level the AGV will finish the current job that it has been
assigned before it goes to the charging station.
Automatic battery swap
"Automatic battery swap"]is an alternative to manual battery swap. It requires an additional piece of
automation machinery, an automatic battery changer, to the overall AGV system. AGVs will pull
up to the battery swap station and have their batteries automatically replaced with fully charged
batteries. The automatic battery changer then places the removed batteries into a charging slot for
automatic recharging. The automatic battery changer keeps track of the batteries in the system and
pulls them only when they are fully charged.
Applications of AGV’s
Automated Guided Vehicles can be used in a wide variety of applications to transport many
different types of material including pallets, rolls, racks, carts, and containers. AGVs excel in
applications with the following characteristics:
Handling raw materials, Work-in-process movement, Pallet handling, Finished product handling,
Trailer loading, Roll handling, Pharmaceutical, Chemical, Manufacturing, Automotive, Paper and
print, Food and beverage, Hospital, Warehousing, Theme parks.
Advantages of AGVs
1.Reduced Labor Costs 2.Increased Safety 3.Increased Accuracy and Productivity 4.Easy to
Expand 5.Improved Material Accountability 6.Reduced product damage
RGV (Rail Guided Vehicle)
Rail Guided Vehicle (RGV) is a flexible transportation vehicle developed by SMC's own
technology. It can link multiple destinations and be a good & economic alternative of conveyor by
its characteristic that it can eliminate complex and fixed layout of conveyors, which enables simple
and easily maintainable transportation system.
RGV rail can be installed linear or circular.
RGV is controlled by distribution control system and can be expanded easily as the system
parameter changes. This characteristic cannot be obtained in normal conveyor system.
Features
· Independent operation of vehicle by individual controller on each vehicle
· Low noise & vibration
Application
Super high speed-RGV application
· Driving speed 265m/min, C/V loading speed 30m/min
· Inactivity server motor & S-curve urgent acceleration/deceleration
· Installation of absolute encoder in external timing belt
Performance Measures of material handling systems:
A number of different performance measures have been used in the design and analysis of material
handling systems. These performance measures have measured either:
(1) the entire manufacturing system (e.g. job throughput), or
(2) the material handling system independently (e.g. vehicle travel distance).
A review of performance, reliability, and performability measures used in the analysis and design
of material handling systems in a manufacturing environment.
Steps to be followed to implement Robot in industries:
Five Keys for Implementing Robotic Automation"
  Identifying the Need
 Where to Automate First
 Understanding the True Cost of Ownership
1. Intial familiarization with the technology
2. Plant survey to identify potential applications
a.Hazardous or uncomfortable working conditions b.Repetitive operations c.Difficult
handling jobs d.Multishift operations
3. Selection of the best application
4. Selection of the robot
5. Detailed economic analysis and capital authorization
6. Planning and engineering the installation
7. Robot installing
Robotic automation requires careful study, planning, and implementation. Despite being
automated, robotic automation requires manual intervention in: • Studying the process and business
structure • Selecting the right automation model • Determining the degree of automation • Selecting
the aspects that can be automated • Writing codes • Mapping the selected automation model •
Monitoring progress and results • Optimizing automation for best results
Selection of Robot:
1.Number of axes 2. Type of control system 3.Work volume 4.Ease of programming 5.Precision of
motions 6.Load carrying capacity

Safety considerations for robot operations:

Be sure to observe all of the following safety precautions.Strict observance of these warning and
caution indications are a MUST for preventing accidents, which could result in bodily injury and
substantial property damage. Make sure you fully understand all definitions of these terms and
related symbols given below, before you proceed to the text itself.
a.Warning Labels
The robot unit and controller have warning labels. These labels alert the user to the danger of the
areas on which they are pasted. Be sure to observe the instructions printed on those labels.
b. Insuring the proper installation environment
The standard and cleanroom types have not been designed to withstand explosions, dust-proof, nor
is it splash-proof.
Therefore, it should not be installed in any environment where:
(1) there are flammable gases or liquids, (2) there are any shavings from metal processing or other
conductive material flying about, (3) there are any acidic, alkaline or other corrosive material, (4)
there is a mist, (5) there are any large-sized inverters, high output/high frequency transmitters, large
contactors, welders, or other sources of electrical noise.
c. Service space
The robot and peripheral equipment should be installed so that sufficient service space is
maintained for safe teaching, maintenance, and inspection.
d. Control devices outside the robot's restricted space
The robot controller, teach pendant and mini-pendant should be installed outside the robot's
restricted space and in a place where you can observe all of the robot‘s movements and operate
the robot easily.
e.Positioning of gauges
Pressure gauges, oil pressure gauges and other gauges shouldbe installed in an easy-to-check
location.
f. Protection of electrical wiring and hydraulic/pneumatic piping
If there is any possibility of the electrical wiring or hydraulic/pneumatic piping being damaged,
protect them with a cover or similar item.
g. Grounding resistance
The protective grounding resistance of the robot power supply should not be more than 100Ω.
h.Positioning of emergency stop switches
 Emergency stop switches should be provided in a position where they can be reached easily should
it be necessary to stop the robot immediately. (1) The emergency stop switches should be red. (2)
Emergency stop switches should be designed so that they will not be released after pressed,
automatically or mistakenly by any other person. (3) Emergency stop switches should be separate
from the power switch.
i. Positioning of operating status indicators:
Operating status indicators should be positioned in such a way where workers can easily see
whether the robot is on a temporary halt or on an emergency or abnormal stop.
j. Setting-up a safety fence
A safety fence should be set up so that no one can easily enter the robot's restricted space.
(1) The fence should be constructed so that it cannot be easily moved or removed.
(2) The fence should be constructed so that it cannot be easily damaged or deformed through
external force.
(3) Establish the exit/entrance to the fence. Construct the fence so that no one can easily get past it
by climbing over the fence.
(4) The fence should be constructed to ensure that it is not possible for hands or any other parts of
the body to get through it.
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF ROBOTS
In addition to the technological considerations involved in applications engineering for a robotics
project, there is also the economic issue.
Will the robot justify itself economically? The economic analysis for any proposed engineering
project is of considerable importance in most companies because management usually decides
whether to install the project on the basis of this analysis.

To perform the economic analysis of a proposed robot project, certain basic information is needed
about the project. This information includes the type of project being considered, the cost of the
robot installation, the production cycle time, and the savings and benefits resulting from the project.
Type of Robot Installation:
There are two basic categories of robot installations that are commonly encountered. The first
involves a new application. This is where there is no existing facility.
The second situation is the robot installation to replace a current method of operation.
The present method typically involves a production operation that is performed manually, and
the robot would be used somehow to substitute for the human labor.
In either of these situations, certain basic cost information is needed in order to perform the
economic analysis.
The following subsection discusses the kinds of cost and operating data that are used to analyze the
alternative investment projects.
Cost Data Required for the Analysis
The cost data required to perform the economic analysis of a robot project divide into two types:
investment costs and operating costs.
Investment costs:
1. Robot purchase cost—The basic price of the robot equipped from the manufacturer with the
proper options (excluding end effector) to perform the application.
2. Engineering costs— The costs of planning and desig engineering staff to install the robot.
3. Installation costs— This includes the labor and materials needed to prepare the installation site
(provision for utilities, floor preparation, etc.).
4. Special tooling— This includes the cost of the end eflector, parts position and other fixtures and
tools required to operate the work cell,
5. Miscellaneous costs—This covers the additional investment costs not included by any of the
above categories (e.g., other equipment needed for the cell).
Operating costs and savings:
6. Direct labor cost—The direct labor cost associated with the operation of the robot cell. Fringe
benefits are usually included in the calculation of direct labor rate, but other overhead costs are
excluded.
7. Indirect labor cost—The indirect labor costs that can be directly allocated to thc operation of the
robot cell. These costs include supervision, setup, programming, and other personnel costs not
included in category 6 above
8. Maintenance—This covers the anticipated costs of maintenance and repair for the robot cell.
These costs are included under this separate heading rather than in category 7 because the
maintenance costs involve not only indirect labor (the maintenance crew) but also materials
(replacement parts) and service calls by the robot manufacturer. A reasonable of thumb in the
absence of better robot will be approximately 10 percent of the purchase price
9. Utilities—this includes the cost of utilities to operate the robot cell (e.g., electricity, air pressure,
gas). These are usually minor costs compared to the above items.
10. Training—Training might be considered to be an investment cost because much of the
training required for the installation will occur as a first cost of the installation. However,
training should he a continuing activity, and so it is included as an operating cost.

Three methods to develop a robot with profit

Before starting the development of a robot, some of the data must be collected to carry
out economic analysis effectively. They are:
· Type of robot to be installed.
· Cost to install a robot.
· Time taken to produce a robot.
· Savings and benefits in the development.
In an industry, the investment put on the development of a robot can be compared and
analyzed by three common methods such as:
· Payback method
· EUAC (Equivalent Uniform Annual Cost) method
- ROI (Return on Investment) method
Payback method:
The duration taken to equal the initial investment and net accumulated cash flow in the
development of a robot is called as payback period or payback method. If the net annual cash flows
are identical to every year, then it can be stated by a formula given below.
Payback period = Investment Cost / Net Annual Cash Flow
EUAC method:
The EUAC is the short form of Equivalent Uniform Annual Cost method. It is used to alter thetotal
cash flows and investments into the equivalent uniform costs over the expected time of developing a
robot. It is done by employing different interest features that are connected with the calculations of
engineering economy.
ROI method:
The Return on Investment is the expansion of ROI method. It is used to determine the return
ratio of the current project, which is related to the anticipated expenditures and profits. If the rate of
return is low to the expected cost of a company, then the investment made is accepted.