17

Functions of a
Complex Variable

In elementary algebra courses

you learned about the existence CHAPTER CONTENTS
and some of the properties of
complex numbers. But in courses
such as calculus, it is likely that 17.1 Complex Numbers
you did not even see a complex 17.2 Powers and Roots
number. Introductory calculus is 17.3 Sets in the Complex Plane
basically the study of functions
of a real variable. In advanced 17.4 Functions of a Complex Variable
courses, you may have seen 17.5 Cauchy–Riemann Equations
complex numbers occasionally
17.6 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
(see Sections 3.3, 8.8, and 10.2).
However, in the next four 17.7 Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
chapters we are going to 17.8 Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
introduce you to complex
analysis; that is, the study of Chapter 17 in Review
functions of a complex variable.
Although there are many
similarities between complex
analysis and real analysis, there
are many interesting differences
and some surprises.
 whenever the discriminant b  4ac is negative. So, for example, simple equatio
x2  5  0 and x2  x  1  0 have no real solutions. For example, the roots of the la
1 "3 1 "3
are   and   . If it is assumed that "3  "3"1, the
2 2 2 2
1 "3 1 "3
are written   "1 and  2 "1.
2 2 2 2
A Definition Two hundred years ago, around the time that complex numbers
ing some respectability in the mathematical community, the symbol i was originally
disguise for the embarrassing symbol "1. We now simply say that i is the imag
and define it by the property i2  1. Using the imaginary unit, we build a genera
number out of two real numbers.

Definition 17.1.1 Complex Number

A complex number is any number of the form z  a  ib where a and b are real nu
and i is the imaginary unit.

Terminology The number i in Definition 17.1.1 is called the imaginary uni

number x in z  x  iy is called the real part of z; the real number y is called the i
part of z. The real and imaginary parts of a complex number z are abbreviated Re(z)
Note: The imaginary part of respectively. For example, if z  4  9i, then Re(z)  4 and Im(z)  9. A real consta
z  4  9i is 9, not 9i.
of the imaginary unit is called a pure imaginary number. For example, z  6i is a pure
number. Two complex numbers are equal if their real and imaginary parts are equal.
simple concept is sometimes useful, we formalize the last statement in the next defin

Definition 17.1.2 Equality

Complex numbers z1  x1  iy1 and z2  x2  iy2 are equal, z1  z2, if

Re(z1)  Re(z2) and Im(z1)  Im(z2).

A complex number x  iy  0 if x  0 and y  0.

Arithmetic Operations Complex numbers can be added, subtracted, mult

divided. If z1  x1  iy1 and z2  x2  iy2, these operations are defined as follows.

Addition: z1  z2  (x1  iy1)  (x2  iy2)  (x1  x2)  i( y1  y2

Subtraction: z1  z2  (x1  iy1)  (x2  iy2)  (x1  x2)  i( y1  y2

Multiplication: z1z2  (x1  iy1)(x2  iy2)

 x1x2  y1 y2  i( y1x2  x1 y2)

z1 x1  iy1
Division: 
z2 x2  iy2

x1x2  y1y2 y1x2 2 x1y2

 2 2
i
x 2  y2 x 22  y 22

820 | CHAPTER 17 Functions of a Complex Variable

 Distributive law: z1(z2  z3)  z1z2  z1z3

In view of these laws, there is no need to memorize the definitions of ad

and multiplication. To add (subtract) two complex numbers, we simply add
responding real and imaginary parts. To multiply two complex numbers, we
law and the fact that i 2  1.

EXAMPLE 1 Addition and Multiplication

If z1  2  4i and z2  3  8i, find (a) z1  z2 and (b) z1z2.
SOLUTION (a) By adding the real and imaginary parts of the two num
(2  4i)  (3  8i)  (2  3)  (4  8)i  1  12i.
(b) Using the distributive law, we have
(2  4i)(3  8i)  (2  4i)(3)  (2  4i)(8i)

 6  12i  16i  32i 2

 (6  32)  (16  12)i  38

There is also no need to memorize the definition of division, but before

need to introduce another concept.

Conjugate If z is a complex number, then the number obtained by c

its imaginary part is called the complex conjugate or, simply, the conjugat
then its conjugate is
z  x 2 iy.
For example, if z  6  3i, then z  6  3i; if z  5  i, then z  5  i.
say z  7, then z  7. From the definition of addition it can be readily show
of a sum of two complex numbers is the sum of the conjugates:

z1  z2  z1  z2 .
Moreover, we have the additional three properties

z1 z1
z1 2 z2  z1 2 z2 , z1z2  z1z2 , a b  .
z2 z2

The definitions of addition and multiplication show that the sum and pro
number z and its conjugate z are also real numbers:
z  z  (x  iy)  (x  iy)  2x
zz  (x  iy)(x  iy)  x2  i2y2  x2  y2.
The difference between a complex number z and its conjugate z is a pure im
z  z  (x  iy)  (x  iy)  2iy.
Since x  Re(z) and y  Im(z), (1) and (3) yield two useful formulas:

zz z2z
Re(z)  and Im(z)  .
2 2i

17.1 Complex Num

 z2 z1
SOLUTION In both parts of this example we shall multiply both numerator and de
by the conjugate of the denominator and then use (2).

2 2 3i 2 2 3i 4 2 6i 8 2 12i 2 12i  18i 2

(a)  
4  6i 4  6i 4 2 6i 16  36

10 2 24i 5 6
  2 i.
52 26 13

1 1 2  3i 2  3i 2 3
(b)     i.
2 2 3i 2 2 3i 2  3i 49 13 13
y
z = x + iy
Geometric Interpretation A complex number z  x  iy is uniquely determ
ordered pair of real numbers (x, y). The first and second entries of the ordered pairs c
in turn, with the real and imaginary parts of the complex number. For example, the o
(2, 3) corresponds to the complex number z  2  3i. Conversely, z  2  3i dete
ordered pair (2, 3). In this manner we are able to associate a complex number z  x
x
a point (x, y) in a coordinate plane. But, as we saw in Section 7.1, an ordered pair of rea
can be interpreted as the components of a vector. Thus, a complex number z  x 
be viewed as a vector whose initial point is the origin and whose terminal point is
FIGURE 17.1.1 z as a position vector coordinate plane illustrated in FIGURE 17.1.1 is called the complex plane or simply the z-
horizontal or x-axis is called the real axis and the vertical or y-axis is called the imagi
The length of a vector z, or the distance from the origin to the point (x, y), is clearly "
This real number is given a special name.

Definition 17.1.3 Modulus or Absolute Value

The modulus or absolute value of z  x  iy, denoted by ZzZ, is the real number

ZzZ  "x 2  y 2  "z z.

EXAMPLE 3 Modulus of a Complex Number

If z  2  3i, then Zz Z  "22  (3)2  "13.

y
z1 + z2 As FIGURE 17.1.2 shows, the sum of the vectors z1 and z2 is the vector z1  z2. For t
given in the figure, we know that the length of the side of the triangle corresponding to
z1 z1  z2 cannot be longer than the sum of the remaining two sides. In symbols this is
z1

Zz1  z2 Z  Zz1 Z  Zz2 Z.

z2
x
The result in (5) is known as the triangle inequality and extends to any finite sum:
FIGURE 17.1.2 Sum of vectors
Zz1  z2  z3  p  zn Z  Zz1 Z  Zz2 Z  Zz3 Z  p  Zzn Z.

Using (5) on z1  z2  (z2), we obtain another important inequality:

Zz1  z2 Z  Zz1 Z  Zz2 Z.

822 | CHAPTER 17 Functions of a Complex Variable

 z1 and z2 are real. We can, however, compare the absolute values of two c
Thus, if z1  3  4i and z2  5  i, then |z1|  5 and |z2|  !26, and conse
This last inequality means that the point (3, 4) is closer to the origin than is

17.1 Exercises Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-39.

In Problems 1–26, write the given number in the form a  ib. In Problems 27–32, let z  x  iy. Find the indi
3 2
1. 2i  3i  5i 27. Re(1/z) 28. Re(z 2)
2. 3i 5  i 4  7i 3  10i 2  9 29. Im(2z  4z  4i) 30. Im( z 2 
31. Zz  1  3iZ 32. Zz  5z Z
3. i 8 4. i 11
5. (5  9i)  (2  4i) 6. 3(4  i)  3(5  2i) In Problems 33–38, use Definition 17.1.2 to f
number z satisfying the given equation.
7. i (5  7i) 8. i (4  i)  4i(1  2i)
33. 2z  i(2  9i) 34. z  2z 
9. (2  3i)(4  i) 10. ( 12  14 i)( 23  53 i)
35. z 2  i 36. z 2  4z
11. (2  3i)2 12. (1  i)3 22i z
37. z  2z  38. 
2 i 1  3i 1z
13. 14.
i 1i In Problems 39 and 40, determine which com
2 2 4i 10 2 5i closer to the origin.
15. 16.
3  5i 6  2i 39. 10  8i, 11  6i 40. 12  14 i,
(3 2 i) (2  3i) (1  i) (1 2 2i) 41. Prove that |z1  z2| is the distance betwe
17. 18. z2 in the complex plane.
1i (2  i) (4 2 3i)
42. Show for all complex numbers z on the ci
(5 2 4i) 2 (3  7i) (4  5i)  2i 3 Zz  6  8iZ  12.
19. 20.
(4  2i)  (2 2 3i) (2  i)2
21. i (1  i)(2  i)(2  6i) 22. (1  i )2 (1  i)3 Discussion Problems
1 43. For n a nonnegative integer, in can be one o
23. (3  6i)  (4  i )(3  5i )  i, and 1. In each of the following four case
22i
exponent n in terms of the symbol k, wher
22i 2 (a) in  i (b) in  1 (c) in  i
24. (2  3i) a b
1  2i 44. (a) Without doing any significant work
i 1 1 out or using the binomial theorem, th
25. a b a b 26. of evaluating (1  i)8.
32i 2  3i (1  i) (1 2 2i) (1  3i)
(b) Use your method in part (a) to evalu

17.2 Powers and Roots

INTRODUCTION Recall from calculus that a point (x, y) in rectangular c

be expressed in terms of polar coordinates (r, u). We shall see in this sectio
express a complex number z in terms of r and u greatly facilitates finding po
Polar Form Rectangular coordinates (x, y) and polar coordinates (r,
equations x  r cos u and y  r sin u (see Section 14.1). Thus a nonzer
z  x  iy can be written as z  (r cos u)  i(r sin u) or
z  r (cos u  i sin u).

17.2 Powers and R

FIGURE 17.2.1 Polar coordinates equation are not unique, since if u0 is an argument of z, then necessarily the angles
u0 4p, . . ., are also arguments. The argument of a complex number in the interval p
is called the principal argument of z and is denoted by Arg z. For example, Arg(i) 

EXAMPLE 1 A Complex Number in Polar Form

Express 1  "3i in polar form.
SOLUTION With x  1 and y   "3, we obtain r  ZzZ  #(1)2  ("3)2  2.
y the point (1,  "3) lies in the fourth quadrant, we can take the solution of tan u   "3/
5π /3 to be u  arg z  5p/3. It follows from (1) that a polar form of the number is
x
– π /3 5p 5p
z  2 acos  i sin b.
3 3
As we see in FIGURE 17.2.2, the argument of 1  "3i that lies in the interval (p, p
1 – √3i
cipal argument of z, is Arg z  p/3. Thus, an alternative polar form of the complex
FIGURE 17.2.2 Two arguments of p p
z  2 ccos a b  i sin a b d .
z  1  "3i in Example 1 3 3

Multiplication and Division The polar form of a complex number is espe

venient to use when multiplying or dividing two complex numbers. Suppose
z1  r1(cos u1  i sin u1) and z2  r2(cos u2  i sin u2),
where u1 and u2 are any arguments of z1 and z2, respectively. Then
z1z2  r1r2[(cos u1 cos u2  sin u1 sin u2)  i(sin u1 cos u2  cos u1 sin u2)]
and for z2  0,
z1 r1
 [(cos u1 cos u2  sin u1 sin u2)  i(sin u1 cos u2  cos u1 sin u2)].
z2 r2
From the addition formulas from trigonometry, (2) and (3) can be rewritten, in turn,
z1z2  r1r2 [cos(u1  u2)  i sin(u1  u2)]
z1 r1
and  [cos(u1  u2)  i sin(u1  u2)].
z2 r2
Inspection of (4) and (5) shows that
z1 Zz1 Z
Zz1z2 Z  Zz1 Z Zz2 Z , 2 2  ,
z2 Zz2 Z

z1
and arg(z1z2)  arg z1  arg z2, arga b  arg z1  arg z2.
z2

EXAMPLE 2 Argument of a Product and of a Quotient

We have seen that Arg z1  p/2 for z1  i. In Example 1 we saw that Arg z2 
z2  1  "3i. Thus, for

z1 i "3 1
z1z2  i(1 2 "3i )  "3  i and   
z2 1 2 "3i 4 4

824 | CHAPTER 17 Functions of a Complex Variable

is true for any arguments of z1 and z2, it is not true, in general, that Arg(z1z2
and Arg(z1/z2)  Arg z1  Arg z2. See Problem 39 in Exercises 17.2.

Integer Powers of z We can find integer powers of the complex

results in (4) and (5). For example, if z  r (cos u  i sin u), then with z1  z

z 2  r 2 [cos (u  u)  i sin (u  u)]  r 2 (cos 2u  i sin 2u

Since z 3  z2z, it follows that

z3  r3 (cos 3u  i sin 3u).

Moreover, since arg(1)  0, it follows from (5) that
1
 z2  r2 [cos(2u)  i sin(2u)].
z2
Continuing in this manner, we obtain a formula for the nth power of z for an
z n  r n (cos nu  i sin nu).

EXAMPLE 3 Power of a Complex Number

Compute z 3 for z  1  "3i.
SOLUTION In Example 1 we saw that
p p
z  2 c cos a b  i sin a b d .
3 3

Hence from (8) with r  2, u  p/3, and n  3, we get

p p
(1 2 "3i)3  23 c cos a3a b b  i sin a3a b b d
3 3

 8[cos(p)  i sin(p)]  8.

DeMoivre’s Formula When z  cos u  i sin u, we have ZzZ  r 

(cos u  i sin u)n  cos nu  i sin nu.
This last result is known as DeMoivre’s formula and is useful in deriving ce
identities. See Problems 37 and 38 in Exercises 17.2.

Roots A number w is said to be an nth root of a nonzero complex nu

we let w  r(cos f  i sin f) and z  r (cos u  i sin u) be the polar forms
view of (8) , w n  z becomes
rn (cos nf  i sin nf)  r (cos u  i sin u).

From this we conclude that rn  r or r  r1/n and

cos nf  i sin nf  cos u  i sin u.
By equating the real and imaginary parts, we get from this equation

cos nf  cos u and sin nf  sin u.

17.2 Powers and R

 u  2(n  m)p u  2mp
f   2p
n n
u  2mp u  2mp
and so sin f  sin a b, cos f  cos a b.
n n
We summarize this result. The n nth roots of a nonzero complex number z  r (cos
are given by

u  2kp u  2kp
wk  r 1>n c cos a b  i sin a bd,
n n
where k  0, 1, 2, . . ., n  1.

EXAMPLE 4 Roots of a Complex Number

Find the three cube roots of z  i.
SOLUTION With r  1, u  arg z  p/2, the polar form of the given n
z  cos(p/2)  i sin(p/2). From (10) with n  3 we obtain
p>2  2kp p>2  2kp
wk  (1)1>3 ccos a b  i sin a b d , k  0, 1, 2.
3 3

Hence, the three roots are

p p "3 1
k  0, w0  cos  i sin   i
6 6 2 2
5p 5p "3 1
k  1, w1  cos  i sin   i
6 6 2 2
3p 3p
k  2, w2  cos  i sin  i.
2 2
y The root w of a complex number z obtained by using the principal argument
k  0 is sometimes called the principal nth root of z. In Example 4, since Arg
w1 w0
w0  "3/2  (1/2)i is the principal third root of i.
x
Since the roots given by (8) have the same modulus, the n roots of a nonzero
number z lie on a circle of radius r1/n centered at the origin in the complex plane.
w2
since the difference between the arguments of any two successive roots is 2p/n, th
of z are equally spaced on this circle. FIGURE 17.2.3 shows the three cube roots of i equa
FIGURE 17.2.3 Three cube roots of i on a unit circle; the angle between roots (vectors) wk and wk  1 is 2p/3.
As the next example will show, the roots of a complex number do not have to
numbers as in Example 3.

EXAMPLE 5 Roots of a Complex Number

Find the four fourth roots of z  1  i.
SOLUTION In this case, r  "2 and u  arg z  p/4. From (10) with n  4, w
p>4  2kp p>4  2kp
wk  ( "2)1>4 ccos a b  i sin a b d , k  0, 1, 2, 3
4 4

826 | CHAPTER 17 Functions of a Complex Variable

 17p 17p
k  2, w2  ( "2)1>4 ccos  i sin d  1.0696 2 0
16 16

25p 25p
k  3, w3  ( "2)1>4 ccos  i sin d  0.2127 2 1.0
16 16

17.2 Exercises Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-39.

In Problems 1–10, write the given complex number in polar form. i "2  "
19. 20.
1. 2 2. 10 2 2 2i 1  "
3. 3i 4. 6i
In Problems 21–26, use (8) to compute the in
5. 1  i 6. 5  5i
21. (1  "3i)9 22. (2  2i)5
7.  "3  i 8. 2  2 "3i
3 12 23. ( 12  12 i)10 24. ("2 
9. 10.
1  i "3  i p p 12
25. acos  i sin b
8 8
In Problems 11–14, write the number given in polar form in the
form a  ib. 2p 2p 6
26. c "3 acos  i sin bd
7p 7p 9 9
11. z  5 acos  i sin b
6 6 In Problems 27–32, use (10) to compute all ro
11p 11p roots on an appropriate circle centered at the
12. z  8 "2 acos  i sin b
4 4 27. (8)1/3 28. (1)1/8
p p 29. (i)1/2 30. (1  i)1
13. z  6 acos  i sin b
8 8 31. (1  "3i)1/2 32. (1  "
p p
14. z  10 acos  i sin b In Problems 33 and 34, find all solutions of th
5 5
33. z4  1  0 34. z8  2z4 
In Problems 15 and 16, find z1z2 and z1/z2. Write the number in
the form a  ib. In Problems 35 and 36, express the given com
in polar form and then in the form a  ib.
p p 3p 3p
15. z1  2 acos  i sin b, z2  4 acos  i sin b
8 8 8 8 p p 12 p
35. acos  i sin b c2 acos  i sin
p p 9 9 6
16. z1  "2 acos  i sin b,
4 4 3p 3p 3
c 8 acos  i sin bd
p p 8 8
z2  "3 acos  i sin b 36.
12 12 p p 10
c2 acos  i sin b d
16 16
In Problems 17–20, write each complex number in polar form.
37. Use the result (cos u  i sin u)2  cos 2
Then use either (4) or (5) to obtain a polar form of the given
trigonometric identities for cos 2u and si
number. Write the polar form in the form a  ib.
38. Use the result (cos u  i sin u)3  cos 3
17. (3  3i)(5  5 "3i) 18. (4  4i)(1  i) trigonometric identities for cos 3u and si

17.2 Powers and R

 17.3 Sets in the Complex Plane

INTRODUCTION In the preceding sections we examined some rudiments of the a

geometry of complex numbers. But we have barely scratched the surface of the subj
as complex analysis; the main thrust of our study lies ahead. Our goal in the sections an
that follow is to examine functions of a single complex variable z  x  iy and the c
these functions.
Before introducing the notion of a function of a complex variable, we need to s
essential definitions and terminology about sets in the complex plane.

Terminology Before discussing the concept of functions of a complex variabl

to introduce some essential terminology about sets in the complex plane.
z0
Suppose z0  x0  iy0. Since Zz  z0 Z  "(x 2 x0)2  ( y 2 y0)2 is the distance b
ρ points z  x  iy and z0  x0  iy0, the points z  x  iy that satisfy the equation

|z – z0| = ρ Zz  z0 Z  r,

FIGURE 17.3.1 Circle of radius r r 0, lie on a circle of radius r centered at the point z0. See FIGURE 17.3.1.

EXAMPLE 1 Circles
(a) ZzZ  1 is the equation of a unit circle centered at the origin.
(b) Zz  1  2i Z  5 is the equation of a circle of radius 5 centered at 1  2i.

The points z satisfying the inequality Zz  z0 Z r, r 0, lie within, but not on,
radius r centered at the point z0. This set is called a neighborhood of z0 or an ope
z0
point z0 is said to be an interior point of a set S of the complex plane if there exists so
borhood of z0 that lies entirely within S. If every point z of a set S is an interior poin
said to be an open set. See FIGURE 17.3.2. For example, the inequality Re(z) 1 defi
FIGURE 17.3.2 Open set half-plane, which is an open set. All complex numbers z  x  iy for which x 1
set. If we choose, for example, z0  1.1  2i, then a neighborhood of z0 lying entirel
is defined by Zz  (1.1  2i)Z 0.05. See FIGURE 17.3.3. On the other hand, the set S o
the complex plane defined by Re(z)  1 is not open, since every neighborhood of a p
line x  1 must contain points in S and points not in S. See FIGURE 17.3.4.

|z – (1.1 + 2i)| < 0.05

y y

in S

not in S
z = 1.1 + 2i
x
x=1 x=1

FIGURE 17.3.3 Open set magnified view FIGURE 17.3.4 Set S is not open
of a point near x  1

828 | CHAPTER 17 Functions of a Complex Variable

 x

Im(z) < 0 –1 < Re(z) <

lower half-plane infinite strip
(a) (b)
y
y

|z| > 1 1 < |z| < 2

exterior of unit circle circular ring
(c) (d)

FIGURE 17.3.5 Four examples of open sets

The set of numbers satisfying the inequality

r1 Zz  z0 Z r 2,
such as illustrated in Figure 17.3.5(d), is called an open annulus.
If every neighborhood of a point z0 contains at least one point that is in
one point that is not in S, then z0 is said to be a boundary point of S. The b
z2
is the set of all boundary points of S. For the set of points defined by Re(z)
the line x  1 are boundary points. The points on the circle Z z  i Z  2 are
the disk Z z  i Z  2.
z1
If any pair of points z1 and z2 in an open set S can be connected by a pol
entirely in the set, then the open set S is said to be connected. See FIGURE 17.3.6
set is called a domain. All the open sets in Figure 17.3.5 are connected and
set of numbers satisfying Re(z)  4 is an open set but is not connected, sin
to join points on either side of the vertical line x  4 by a polygonal line wit
FIGURE 17.3.6 Connected set (bear in mind that the points on x  4 are not in the set).
A region is a domain in the complex plane with all, some, or none of i
Since an open connected set does not contain any boundary points, it is auto
A region containing all its boundary points is said to be closed. The disk de
is an example of a closed region and is referred to as a closed disk. A region m
nor closed; the annular region defined by 1  Zz  5 Z 3 contains only so
points and so is neither open nor closed.

REMARKS
Often in mathematics the same word is used in entirely different contexts. D
concept of “domain” defined in this section with the concept of the “doma

17.3 Sets in the Complex P

 5. Zz  3i Z  2 6. Z2z  1 Z  4 23. Describe the set of points in the complex plane th
7. Zz  4  3i Z  5 8. Zz  2  2i Z  2 Zz  1 Z  Zz  iZ.
In Problems 9–22, sketch the set of points in the complex plane 24. Describe the set of points in the complex plane th
satisfying the given inequality. Determine whether the set is a ZRe(z)Z  ZzZ.
domain. 25. Describe the set of points in the complex plane th
z2  z 2  2.
9. Re(z) 1 10. ZRe(z) Z 2
26. Describe the set of points in the complex plane th
11. Im(z) 3 12. Im(z  i) 5
Zz  iZ  Zz  iZ  1.
13. 2 Re(z  1) 4 14. 1  Im(z) 4

17.4 Functions of a Complex Variable

INTRODUCTION One of the most important concepts in mathematics is that of a fun

may recall from previous courses that a function is a certain kind of correspondence be
sets; more specifically: A function f from a set A to a set B is a rule of correspondence th
to each element in A one and only one element in B. If b is the element in the set B assi
element a in the set A by f, we say that b is the image of a and write b  f (a). The set
the domain of the function f (but is not necessarily a domain in the sense defined in Sec
The set of all images in B is called the range of the function. For example, suppose the s
of real numbers defined by 3  x q and the function is given by f (x)  !x 2 3; the
f (4)  1, f (8)  !5, and so on. In other words, the range of f is the set given by 0  y
A is a set of real numbers, we say f is a function of a real variable x.

Functions of a Complex Variable When the domain A in the foregoing

of a function is a set of complex numbers z, we naturally say that f is a function of
variable z or a complex function for short. The image w of a complex number z wi
complex number u  iv; that is,
w  f (z)  u(x, y)  iv(x, y),
where u and v are the real and imaginary parts of w and are real-valued functions. Inhe
mathematical statement (1) is the fact that we cannot draw a graph of a complex functio
since a graph would require four axes in a four-dimensional coordinate system.
Some examples of functions of a complex variable are
f (z)  z2  4z, z any complex number
y v z
w = f (z) f (z)  2
, z 2 i and z 2 i
z 1
domain of f range of f
z f (z)  z  Re(z), z any complex number.
w
x u
Each of these functions can be expressed in form (1). For example,
f (z)  z2  4z  (x  iy)2  4(x  iy)  (x2  y2  4x)  i(2xy  4y).
(a) z-plane (b) w-plane
Thus, u(x, y)  x2  y2  4x, and v(x, y)  2xy  4y.
FIGURE 17.4.1 Mapping from z-plane to Although we cannot draw a graph, a complex function w  f (z) can be interpreted as
w-plane or transformation from the z-plane to the w-plane. See FIGURE 17.4.1.

830 | CHAPTER 17 Functions of a Complex Variable

 (a) z-plane (b) w-plane of the line in FIGURE 17.4.2(a) is the parabola shown in Figure 17.4.2(b).

FIGURE 17.4.2 Image of x ⫽ 1 is a We shall pursue the idea of f (z) as a mapping in greater detail in Chapter
parabola It should be noted that a complex function is completely determined
functions u and v. This means a complex function w ⫽ f (z) can be defined by a
y u(x, y) and v(x, y), even though u ⫹ iv may not be obtainable through the famil
symbol z alone. For example, if u(x, y) ⫽ xy2 and v(x, y) ⫽ x2 ⫺ 4y3, then f (z)
is a function of a complex variable. To compute, say, f (3 ⫹ 2i), we substitu
into u and v to obtain f (3 ⫹ 2i) ⫽ 12 ⫺ 23i.

i Complex Functions as Flows We also may interpret a complex

x as a two-dimensional fluid flow by considering the complex number f (z
–i at the point z. The vector f (z) specifies the speed and direction of the flow
FIGURES 17.4.3 and 17.4.4 show the flows corresponding to the complex func
f2(z) ⫽ z 2, respectively.
If x(t) ⫹ iy(t) is a parametric representation for the path of a particle in t
vector T ⫽ x⬘(t) ⫹ iy⬘(t) must coincide with f (x(t) ⫹ iy(t)). When f (z) ⫽ u
follows that the path of the particle must satisfy the system of differential eq
FIGURE 17.4.3 f1(z) ⫽ z (normalized)
dx
⫽ u(x, y)
y dt
dy
⫽ v(x, y).
dt
We call the family of solutions of this system the streamlines of th
with f (z).
x

EXAMPLE 2 Streamlines
Find the streamlines of the flows associated with the complex function
(b) f2(z) ⫽ z2.
SOLUTION (a) The streamlines corresponding to f1(z) ⫽ x ⫺ iy satisfy
dx
FIGURE 17.4.4 f2(z) ⫽ z 2 (normalized) ⫽x
dt
dy
⫽ ⫺y
dt
and so x(t) ⫽ c1et and y(t) ⫽ c2e⫺t. By multiplying these two parametri
that the point x(t) ⫹ iy(t) lies on the hyperbola xy ⫽ c1c2.
(b) To find the streamlines corresponding to f2(z) ⫽ (x2 ⫺ y2) ⫹ i 2xy, note
dy/dt ⫽ 2xy, and so
dy 2xy
⫽ 2 .
dx x 2 y2
This homogeneous differential equation has the solution x2 ⫹ y2 ⫽ c2 y,
family of circles that have centers on the y-axis and pass through the orig

Limits and Continuity The definition of a limit of a complex fun

has the same outward appearance as the limit in real variables.

17.4 Functions of a Complex Var

y v In words, lim zSz0 f (z)  L means that the points f (z) can be made arbitrarily c
point L if we choose the point z sufficiently close to, but not equal to, the point z0. A
f (z) FIGURE 17.4.5, for each e-neighborhood of L (defined by Z f (z)  LZ e) there is a d-neig
z ε
z0 of z0 (defined by Zz  z0 Z d) so that the images of all points z  z0 in this neighbor
δ L
the e-neighborhood of L.
D
The fundamental difference between this definition and the limit concept in rea
x u
lies in the understanding of z S z0. For a function f of a single real variable x, lim xS
means f (x) approaches L as x approaches x0 either from the right of x0 or from
x0 on the real number line. But since z and z0 are points in the complex plane, wh
(a) δ -neighborhood (b) ε -neighborhood
that lim zSz0 f (z) exists, we mean that f (z) approaches L as the point z approach
FIGURE 17.4.5 Geometric meaning of a any direction.
complex limit The following theorem summarizes some properties of limits:

Theorem 17.4.1 Limit of Sum, Product, Quotient

Suppose lim zSz0 f (z)  L1 and lim zSz0 g(z)  L2. Then

(i) lim [ f (z)  g(z)]  L1  L2

zSz0

(ii) lim f (z)g(z)  L1L2

zSz0

f (z) L1
(iii) lim  , L2  0.
zSz0 g(z) L2

Definition 17.4.2 Continuity at a Point

A function f is continuous at a point z0 if
lim f (z)  f (z0).
zSz0

As a consequence of Theorem 17.4.1, it follows that if two functions f and g are c

at a point z0, then their sum and product are continuous at z0. The quotient of the two
is continuous at z0 provided g(z0)  0.
A function f defined by

f (z)  anzn  an1zn1  p  a2z2  a1z  a0, an  0,

where n is a nonnegative integer and the coefficients ai, i  0, 1, . . ., n, are complex

is called a polynomial of degree n. Although we shall not prove it, the limit result
indicates that the simple polynomial function f (z)  z is continuous everywhere—
the entire z-plane. With this result in mind and with repeated applications of Theorem
and (ii), it follows that a polynomial function (2) is continuous everywhere. A
function
g(z)
f (z)  ,
h(z)
where g and h are polynomial functions, is continuous except at those points at which h

832 | CHAPTER 17 Functions of a Complex Variable

 f (z0  Dz) 2 f (z0)
f 9(z0)  lim
DzS0 Dz
provided this limit exists.

If the limit in (3) exists, the function f is said to be differentiable at z0.

function w  f (z) is also written dw/dz.
As in real variables, differentiability implies continuity:

If f is differentiable at z0, then f is continuous at z0.

Moreover, the rules of differentiation are the same as in the calculus of real
are differentiable at a point z, and c is a complex constant, then
d d
Constant Rules: c  0, cf (z)  c f 9(z)
dz dz
d
Sum Rule: f f (z)  g(z)g  f 9(z)  g9(z)
dz
d
Product Rule: f f (z)g(z)g  f (z)g9(z)  g(z) f 9(z)
dz
d f (z) g(z) f 9(z) 2 f (z)g9(z)
Quotient Rule: c d 
dz g(z) fg(z)g 2

d
Chain Rule: f (g(z))  f 9(g(z))g9(z).
dz
The usual Power Rule for differentiation of powers of z is also valid:
d n
z  nz n 2 1 , n an integer.
dz

EXAMPLE 3 Using the Rules of Differentiation

z2
Differentiate (a) f (z)  3z4  5z3  2z and (b) f (z)  .
4z  1
SOLUTION (a) Using the Power Rule (9) along with the Sum Rule (5)

f (z)  3  4z3  5  3z2  2  12z3  15z2  2.

(b) From the Quotient Rule (7),
(4z  1)  2z 2 z 2  4 4z 2  2z
f 9(z)   .
(4z  1)2 (4z  1)2

f
In order for a complex function f to be differentiable at a point z0, lim
DzS0
must approach the same complex number from any direction. Thus in th
variables, to require the differentiability of a function is a greater demand th
If a complex function is made up, such as f (z)  x  4iy, there is a good
differentiable.

17.4 Functions of a Complex Var

 and so lim  lim .
DzS0 Dz DzS0 Dx  iDy
Now, if we let z S 0 along a line parallel to the x-axis, then y  0 and the value o
On the other hand, if we let z S 0 along a line parallel to the y-axis, then x  0 an
of (10) is seen to be 4. Therefore, f (z)  x  4iy is not differentiable at any point z

Analytic Functions While the requirement of differentiability is a stringen

there is a class of functions that is of great importance whose members satisfy even m
requirements. These functions are called analytic functions.

Definition 17.4.4 Analyticity at a Point

A complex function w  f (z) is said to be analytic at a point z0 if f is differentiable
at every point in some neighborhood of z0.

A function f is analytic in a domain D if it is analytic at every point in D.

The student should read Definition 17.4.4 carefully. Analyticity at a point is a neig
property. Analyticity at a point is, therefore, not the same as differentiability at a poin
as an exercise to show that the function f (z)  Zz Z 2 is differentiable at z  0 but is dif
nowhere else. Hence, f (z)  ZzZ 2 is nowhere analytic. In contrast, the simple polynomi
is differentiable at every point z in the complex plane. Hence, f (z)  z 2 is analytic ev
A function that is analytic at every point z is said to be an entire function. Polynomia
are differentiable at every point z and so are entire functions.

REMARKS
Recall from algebra that a number c is a zero of a polynomial function if and only
is a factor of f (x). The same result holds in complex analysis. For examp
f (z)  z4  5z2  4  (z2  1)(z2  4), the zeros of f are i, i, 2i, and 2i
f (z)  (z  i)(z  i)(z  2i)(z  2i). Moreover, the quadratic formula is also v
example, using this formula, we can write
f (z)  z2  2z  2  (z  (1  i))(z  (1  i))
 (z  1  i)(z  1  i).
See Problems 21 and 22 in Exercises 17.4.

17.4 Exercises Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-40.

In Problems 1–6, find the image of the given line under the map- 7. f (z)  6z  5  9i
ping f (z)  z2.
8. f (z)  7z  9i z  3  2i
1. y  2 2. x  3
9. f (z)  z 2  3z  4i 10. f (z)  3z 2  2z
3. x  0 4. y  0
5. y  x 6. y  x 11. f (z)  z3  4z 12. f (z)  z4
z
In Problems 7–14, express the given function in the form 13. f (z)  z  1/z 14. f (z) 
z1
f (z)  u  iv.

834 | CHAPTER 17 Functions of a Complex Variable

17. f (z)  4z  i z  Re(z) In Problems 35–38, give the points at which t
(a) 4  6i (b) 5  12i (c) 2  7i will not be analytic.
18. f (z)  ex cos y  iex sin y z
(a) pi/4 (b) 1  pi (c) 3  pi/3 35. f (z)  36. f (z) 
z 2 3i z2
In Problems 19–22, the given limit exists. Find its value. z3  z z
37. f (z)  2
38. f (z)  2
19. lim (4z3  5z2  4z  1  5i) z 4 z
zSi
5z 2 2 2z  2 39. Show that the function f (z)  z is nowhe
20. lim 40. The function f (z)  |z|2 is continuous th
zS1 2 i z1
4
z 21 z 2 2 2z  2 complex plane. Show, however, that f is d
21. lim 22. lim the point z  0. [Hint: Use (3) and consid
zSi z 2 i zS1  i z 2 2 2i
and z  0. In the second case let z app
In Problems 23 and 24, show that the given limit does not exist. line parallel to the x-axis and then let z a
a line parallel to the y-axis.]
z xy21
23. lim 24. lim
zS0 z zS1 z21 In Problems 41–44, find the streamlines of th
with the given complex function.
In Problems 25 and 26, use (3) to obtain the indicated derivative
of the given function. 41. f (z)  2z 42. f (z)  iz
43. f (z)  1/ z 44. f (z)  x2 
25. f (z)  z2, f (z)  2z
26. f (z)  1/z, f (z)  1/z2 In Problems 45 and 46, use a graphics calcu
to obtain the image of the given parabola und
In Problems 27–34, use (4)–(8) to find the derivative f (z) for f (z)  z2.
the given function.
45. y  12 x2 46. y  (x 
27. f (z)  4z3  (3  i)z2  5z  4
28. f (z)  5z4  iz3  (8  i)z2  6i

17.5 Cauchy–Riemann Equations

INTRODUCTION In the preceding section we saw that a function f of a c

analytic at a point z when f is differentiable at z and differentiable at every p
borhood of z. This requirement is more stringent than simply differentiabilit
a complex function can be differentiable at a point z but yet be differentiab
function f is analytic in a domain D if f is differentiable at all points in D. W
a test for analyticity of a complex function f (z)  u(x, y)  iv(x, y).

A Necessary Condition for Analyticity In the next theorem we

f (z)  u(x, y)  iv(x, y) is differentiable at a point z, then the functions u and
of equations that relate their first-order partial derivatives. This result is a n
for analyticity.

Theorem 17.5.1 Cauchy–Riemann Equations

Suppose f (z)  u(x, y)  iv(x, y) is differentiable at a point z  x  iy. Then
partial derivatives of u and v exist and satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equa
0u 0v 0u 0v
 and  .
0x 0y 0y 0x

17.5 Cauchy–Riemann Equa

 u(x  Dx, y  Dy)  iv(x  Dx, y  Dy) 2 u(x, y) 2 iv(x, y
f 9(z)  lim
DzS0 Dx  iDy

Since this limit exists, z can approach zero from any convenient direction. In pa
z S 0 horizontally, then z  x and so (3) becomes

u(x  Dx, y) 2 u(x, y) v(x  Dx, y) 2 v(x, y)

f 9(z)  lim  i lim .
DxS0 Dx DxS0 Dx

Since f (z) exists, the two limits in (4) exist. But by definition the limits in (4) are the f
derivatives of u and v with respect to x. Thus, we have shown that

0u 0v
f 9(z)  i .
0x 0x

Now if we let z S 0 vertically, then z  i y and (3) becomes

u(x, y  Dy) 2 u(x, y) v(x, y  Dy) 2 v(x, y)

f 9(z)  lim  i lim ,
DyS0 iDy DyS0 iDy

which is the same as

0u 0v
f 9(z)  i  .
0y 0y
Equating the real and imaginary parts of (5) and (7) yields the pair of equations in (1

If a complex function f (z)  u(x, y)  iv(x, y) is analytic throughout a domain D, th

functions u and v must satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations (1) at every point in D

EXAMPLE 1 Using the Cauchy–Riemann Equations

The polynomial f (z)  z2  z is analytic for all z and f (z)  x2  y2  x  i(2xy 
u(x, y)  x2  y2  x and v(x, y)  2xy  y. For any point (x, y), we see that th
Riemann equations are satisfied:

0u 0v 0u 0v
 2x  1  and  2y   .
0x 0y 0y 0x

EXAMPLE 2 Using the Cauchy–Riemann Equations

Show that the function f (z)  (2x2  y)  i( y2  x) is not analytic at any point.
SOLUTION We identify u(x, y)  2x2  y and v(x, y)  y2  x. Now from
0u 0v
 4x and  2y
0x 0y
0u 0v
 1x and  1
0y 0x

we see that 0u/0y  0v/0x but that the equality 0u/0x  0v/0y is satisfied only o
y  2x. However, for any point z on the line, there is no neighborhood or open disk
which f is differentiable. We conclude that f is nowhere analytic.

836 | CHAPTER 17 Functions of a Complex Variable

 first-order partial derivatives in a domain D. If u and v satisfy the Cauchy–R
at all points of D, then the complex function f (z)  u(x, y)  iv(x, y) is an

EXAMPLE 3 Using Theorem 17.5.2

x y
For the function f (z)  2 2
2i 2 we have
x y x  y2
0u y2 2 x 2 0v 0u 2xy
 2 2 2
 and  2 
0x (x  y ) 0y 0y (x  y 2)2
In other words, the Cauchy–Riemann equations are satisfied except
x2  y2  0; that is, at z  0. We conclude from Theorem 17.5.2 that
domain not containing the point z  0.

The results in (5) and (7) were obtained under the basic assumption that
at the point z. In other words, (5) and (7) give us a formula for computing f
0u 0v 0v 0u
f 9(z)  i  2i .
0x 0x 0y 0y
For example, we know that f (z)  z2 is differentiable for all z. With u(x, y) 
v(x, y)  2xy, and 0v/0x  2y, we see that
f (z)  2x  i2y  2(x  iy)  2z.
Recall that analyticity implies differentiability but not vice versa. Theorem 17
that gives sufficient conditions for differentiability:
If the real-valued functions u(x, y) and v(x, y) are continuous and have
order partial derivatives in a neighborhood of z, and if u and v satisfy the C
equations at the point z, then the complex function f (z)  u(x, y)  iv(x, y)
at z and f (z) is given by (8).

The function f (z)  x2  y2 i is nowhere analytic. With the identificatio

v(x, y)  y2, we see from
0u 0v 0u 0v
 2x,  2y and  0, 0
0x 0y 0y 0x
that the Cauchy–Riemann equations are satisfied only when y  x. But si
0u/0x, 0u/0y, v, 0v/0x, and 0v/0y are continuous at every point, it follows that f
the line y  x and on that line (8) gives the derivative f (z)  2x  2y.

Harmonic Functions We saw in Chapter 13 that Laplace’s equation 0

occurs in certain problems involving steady-state temperatures. This partial d
also plays an important role in many areas of applied mathematics. Indeed,
real and imaginary parts of an analytic function cannot be chosen arbitrarily
must satisfy Laplace’s equation. It is this link between analytic functions and
that makes complex variables so essential in the serious study of applied ma

Definition 17.5.1 Harmonic Functions

A real-valued function f(x, y) that has continuous second-order partial deriva
and satisfies Laplace’s equation is said to be harmonic in D.

17.5 Cauchy–Riemann Equa

 sides of 0u/0x  0v/0y with respect to x and differentiating both sides of 0u/0y  0v/0x w
to y then give
0 2u 0 2v 0 2u 0 2v
 and   .
0x 2 0x 0y 0y 2 0y 0x
With the assumption of continuity, the mixed partials are equal. Hence, adding these
tions gives
0 2u 0 2u
2
 2  0.
0x 0y
This shows that u(x, y) is harmonic.
Now differentiating both sides of 0u/0x  0v/0y with respect to y and differentiating
of 0u/0y  0v/0x with respect to x and subtracting yield
0 2v 0 2v
  0.
0x 2 0y 2

Harmonic Conjugate Functions If f (z)  u(x, y)  iv(x, y) is analytic in a

then u and v are harmonic in D. Now suppose u(x, y) is a given function that is harm
It is then sometimes possible to find another function v(x, y) that is harmonic in
u(x, y)  iv(x, y) is an analytic function in D. The function v is called a harmonic
function of u.

EXAMPLE 4 Harmonic Function/Harmonic Conjugate Function

(a) Verify that the function u(x, y)  x3  3xy2  5y is harmonic in the entire comp
(b) Find the harmonic conjugate function of u.
SOLUTION (a) From the partial derivatives
0u 0 2u 0u 0 2u
 3x 2 2 3y 2,  6x,  6xy 2 5,  6x
0x 0x 2 0y 0y 2
we see that u satisfies Laplace’s equation:
0 2u 0 2u
  6x 2 6x  0.
0x 2 0y 2
(b) Since the harmonic conjugate function v must satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann
we must have
0v 0u 0v 0u
  3x 2 2 3y 2 and    6xy  5.
0y 0x 0x 0y
Partial integration of the first equation in (9) with respect to y gives v(x, y)  3x2y 
From this we get
0v
 6xy  h9(x).
0x
Substituting this result into the second equation in (9) gives h (x)  5, and so h(x)
Therefore, the harmonic conjugate function of u is v(x, y)  3x2y  y3  5x  C. T
function is f (z)  x3  3xy2  5y  i(3x2y  y3  5x  C ).

838 | CHAPTER 17 Functions of a Complex Variable

 The family of vertical lines defined by x  c1 is clearly orthogonal to the fa
lines defined by y  c2. In electrostatics, if u(x, y)  c1 defines the equipote
the other, and orthogonal, family v (x, y)  c2 defines the lines of force.

17.5 Exercises Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-40.

In Problems 1 and 2, the given function is analytic for all z. In Problems 17–20, show that the given funct
Show that the Cauchy–Riemann equations are satisfied at every at any point but is differentiable along the ind
point. 17. f (z)  x 2  y 2  2xyi; x-axis
3 2
1. f (z)  z 2. f (z)  3z  5z  6i 18. f (z)  3x 2y 2  6x 2y 2i; coordinate axes
In Problems 3–8, show that the given function is not analytic at 19. f (z)  x 3  3xy 2  x  i( y 3  3x 2y  y)
any point. 20. f (z)  x 2  x  y  i( y 2  5y  x); y 
21. Use (8) to find the derivative of the funct
3. f (z)  Re(z) 4. f (z)  y  ix
22. Use (8) to find the derivative of the funct
5. f (z)  4z  6z  3 6. f (z)  z 2
7. f (z)  x 2  y 2 In Problems 23–28, verify that the given func
x y Find v, the harmonic conjugate function of u.
8. f (x)  22
i 2 sponding analytic function f (z)  u  iv.
x y x  y2
23. u(x, y)  x 24. u(x, y) 
In Problems 9–14, use Theorem 17.5.2 to show that the given
2 2
function is analytic in an appropriate domain. 25. u(x, y)  x  y
26. u(x, y)  4xy3  4x3y  x
9. f (z)  ex cos y  iex sin y
27. u(x, y)  loge(x2  y2)
10. f (z)  x  sin x cosh y  i(y  cos x sinh y)
2 2 2 2 28. u(x, y)  ex (x cos y  y sin y)
11. f (z)  e x 2 y cos 2xy  ie x 2 y sin 2xy
29. Sketch the level curves u(x, y)  c1 and
12. f (z)  4x2  5x  4y2  9  i(8xy  5y  1)
x21 y analytic function f (z)  z2.
13. f (z)  2 2
2i 30. Consider the function f (z)  1/z. Describ
(x 2 1)  y (x 2 1)2  y 2
31. Consider the function f (z)  z  1/z. Des
x 3  xy 2  x x 2y  y 3 2 y
14. f (x)   i v(x, y)  0.
x 2  y2 x 2  y2
32. Suppose u and v are the harmonic functio
In Problems 15 and 16, find real constants a, b, c, and d so that and imaginary parts of an analytic func
the given function is analytic. level curves u(x, y)  c1 and v(x, y)  c2 ar
Consider the gradient of u and the gradi
15. f (z)  3x  y  5  i(ax  by  3)
case where a gradient vector is the zero v
16. f (z)  x2  axy  by2  i(cx2  dxy  y2)

17.6 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

INTRODUCTION In this and the next section, we shall examine the expon
trigonometric, and hyperbolic functions of a complex variable z. Althoug
these complex functions are motivated by their real variable analogues, the
complex functions will yield some surprises.

Exponential Function Recall that in real variables the exponentia

has the properties
f (x)  f (x) and f (x1  x2)  f (x1)f (x2).

17.6 Exponential and Logarithmic Func

 Maclaurin series for ex and replacing x by iy and rearranging terms:

e iy  a
q (iy)k (iy)2 (iy)3 (iy)4
 1  iy    p
k  0 k! 2! 3! 4!

Maclaurin series for y2 y4 y6 y3 y5 y7

cos y and sin y.  a1 2  2  p b  i ay 2  2  pb
2! 4! 6! 3! 5! 7!

 cos y  i sin y.
For z  x  iy, it is natural to expect that

e xiy  e xe iy

and so by (2), e xiy  ex (cos y  i sin y).

Inspired by this formal result, we make the following definition.

Definition 17.6.1 Exponential Function

ez  e xiy  ex (cos y  i sin y).

The exponential function ez is also denoted by the symbol exp z. Note that (3) reduces
y  0.

EXAMPLE 1 Complex Value of the Exponential Function

Evaluate e1.74.2i.
SOLUTION With the identifications x  1.7 and y  4.2 and the aid of a calculato
to four rounded decimal places,

e1.7 cos 4.2  2.6837 and e1.7 sin 4.2  4.7710.

It follows from (3) that e1.74.2i  2.6837  4.7710i.

The real and imaginary parts of e z, u(x, y)  e x cos y and v(x, y)  e x sin y, are c
and have continuous first partial derivatives at every point z of the complex plane. Mo
Cauchy–Riemann equations are satisfied at all points of the complex plane:
0u 0v 0u 0v
 e x cos y  and  e x sin y   .
0x 0y 0y 0x
It follows from Theorem 17.5.2 that f (z)  e z is analytic for all z; in other words, f i
function.

Properties We shall now demonstrate that e z possesses the two desired prope
in (1). First, the derivative of f is given by (5) of Section 17.5:
f (z)  e x cos y  i(e x sin y)  e x (cos y  i sin y)  f (z).

As desired, we have established that

d z
e  e z.
dz

840 | CHAPTER 17 Functions of a Complex Variable

 z ⫽ e x1 ⫹ x2 f( cos( y1 ⫹ y2) ⫹ i sin( y1 ⫹ y2)g ⫽ f (z1 ⫹ z2).
x

In other words, e z1e z2 ⫽ e z1 ⫹ z2.

–π i
z – 2πi
It is left as an exercise to prove that

–3π i e z1
⫽ e z1 2 z2.
e z2
FIGURE 17.6.1 Values of f (z) ⫽ e z at the
four points are the same Periodicity Unlike the real function ex, the complex function f (z) ⫽
the complex period 2pi. Since e2pi ⫽ cos 2p ⫹ i sin 2p ⫽ 1 and, in view of (4)
for all z, it follows that f (z ⫹ 2pi) ⫽ f (z). Because of this complex perio
y
functional values of f (z) ⫽ ez are assumed in any infinite horizontal strip
πi if we divide the complex plane into horizontal strips defined by (2n ⫺ 1)p
n ⫽ 0, ⫾1, ⫾2, . . ., then, as shown in FIGURE 17.6.1, for any point z in the stri
values f (z), f (z ⫹ 2pi), f (z ⫺ 2pi), f (z ⫹ 4pi), and so on, are the same. The
is called the fundamental region for the exponential function f (z) ⫽ ez. The
x over the fundamental region is shown in FIGURE 17.6.2.

Polar Form of a Complex Number In Section 17.2, we saw that th

could be written in polar form as z ⫽ r (cos u ⫹ i sin u). Since eiu ⫽ cos u ⫹
write the polar form of a complex number as
–πi
z ⫽ reiu.

FIGURE 17.6.2 Flow over the fundamental For example, in polar form z ⫽ 1 ⫹ i is z ⫽ "2e pi>4 .
region
Circuits In applying mathematics, mathematicians and engineers often
problem in completely different ways. Consider, for example, the solutio
Section 3.8. In this example we used strictly real analysis to find the steady-
an LRC-series circuit described by the differential equation

d 2q dq 1
L 2
⫹R ⫹ q ⫽ E0 sin gt.
dt dt C

Electrical engineers often solve circuit problems such as this using com
illustrate, let us first denote the imaginary unit !⫺1 by the symbol j to av
the current i. Since current i is related to charge q by i ⫽ dq/dt, the differen
same as

di 1
L ⫹ Ri ⫹ q ⫽ E0 sin gt.
dt C

Moreover, the impressed voltage E0 sin gt can be replaced by Im(E0e jgt ), w

“imaginary part of.” Because of this last form, the method of undetermined c
that we assume a solution in the form of a constant multiple of complex ex
ip(t) ⫽ Im(Ae jgt). We substitute this expression into the last differential equat
q is an antiderivative of i, and equate coefficients of e jgt:

1 E0
a jLg ⫹ R ⫹ b A ⫽ E0 gives A ⫽
jCg 1
R ⫹ j aLg 2
Cg

17.6 Exponential and Logarithmic Func

 Z  ZZ Ze where tan u  .
R

Hence, A  E0 /Z  E0 /(ZZZe ju), and so the steady-state current can be written as

E0 ju jgt
ip(t)  Im e e .
ZZZ

The reader is encouraged to verify that this last expression is the same as (35) in Sec

Logarithmic Function The logarithm of a complex number z  x  iy, z  0

as the inverse of the exponential function—that is,

w  ln z if z  ew.

In (5) we note that ln z is not defined for z  0, since there is no value of w for which
find the real and imaginary parts of ln z , we write w  u  iv and use (3) and (5):

x  iy  euiv  eu (cos v  i sin v)  eu cos v  ieu sin v.

The last equality implies x  eu cos v and y  eu sin v. We can solve these two equa
and v. First, by squaring and adding the equations, we find

e2u  x2  y2  r 2  Zz Z 2 and so u  loge ZzZ,

where loge ZzZ denotes the real natural logarithm of the modulus of z. Second, to solv
divide the two equations to obtain
y
tan v  .
x

This last equation means that v is an argument of z; that is, v  u  arg z. But sin
no unique argument of a given complex number z  x  iy, if u is an argument of z
u  2np, n  0, 1, 2, . . . .

Definition 17.6.2 Logarithm of a Complex Number

For z  0, and u  arg z,

ln z  loge|z|  i(u  2np), n  0, 1, 2, . . . .

As is clearly indicated in (6), there are infinitely many values of the loga
complex number z. This should not be any great surprise since the exponentia
is periodic.
In real calculus, logarithms of negative numbers are not defined. As the next ex
show, this is not the case in complex calculus.

EXAMPLE 2 Complex Values of the Logarithmic Function

Find the values of (a) ln(2), (b) ln i, and (c) ln(1  i).
SOLUTION (a) With u  arg(2)  p and loge|2|  0.6932, we have from (6

ln(2)  0.6932  i(p  2np).

842 | CHAPTER 17 Functions of a Complex Variable

 5p
ln(1  i)  0.3466  i a  2npb .
4

EXAMPLE 3 Solving an Exponential Equation

Find all values of z such that ez  !3  i.
SOLUTION From (5), with the symbol w replaced by z, we have z 
| !3  i |  2 and tan u  1/ !3 imply that arg( !3  i)  p/6, and so

p p
z  log e2  ia  2npb or z  0.6931  ia  2np
6 6

Principal Value It is interesting to note that as a consequence of

of a positive real number has many values. For example, in real calculus,
value: loge 5  1.6094, whereas in complex calculus, ln 5  1.6094  2np
corresponding to n  0 is the same as the real logarithm loge 5 and is called
of ln 5. Recall that in Section 17.2 we stipulated that the principal argument of
written Arg z, lies in the interval (p, p]. In general, we define the princi
that complex logarithm corresponding to n  0 and u  Arg z. To emphasize
of the logarithm, we shall adopt the notation Ln z. In other words,
Ln z  loge|z|  i Arg z.
Since Arg z is unique, there is only one value of Ln z for each z  0.

EXAMPLE 4 Principal Values

The principal values of the logarithms in Example 2 are as follows:
(a) Since Arg(2)  p, we need only set n  0 in the result given in par
Ln(2)  0.6932  pi.

(b) Similarly, since Arg(i)  p/2, we set n  0 in the result in part (

obtain
p
Ln i  i.
2
(c) In part (c) of Example 2, arg(1  i)  5p/4 is not the principal argu
The argument of z that lies in the interval (p, p] is Arg(1  i)  3p
from (7) that
3p
Ln(1  i)  0.3466  i.
4
Up to this point we have avoided the use of the word function for the o
ln z defined in (6) is not a function in the strictest interpretation of that wor
customary to write f (z)  ln z and to refer to f (z)  ln z by the seemingly c
multiple-valued function. Although we shall not pursue the details, (6) can
infinite collection of logarithmic functions (standard meaning of the word). E
collection is called a branch of ln z. The function f (z)  Ln z is then called th
of ln z, or the principal logarithmic function. To minimize the confusion
simply use the words logarithmic function when referring to either f (z)  ln

17.6 Exponential and Logarithmic Func

 EXAMPLE 5 Properties of Logarithms
Suppose z1 ⫽ 1 and z2 ⫽ ⫺1. Then if we take ln z1 ⫽ 2pi and ln z2 ⫽ pi, we get
ln(z1z2) ⫽ ln(⫺1) ⫽ ln z1 ⫹ ln z2 ⫽ 2pi ⫹ pi ⫽ 3pi

z1
ln a b ⫽ ln(⫺1) ⫽ ln z1 ⫺ ln z2 ⫽ 2pi ⫺ pi ⫽ pi.
z2
Just as (7) of Section 17.2 was not valid when arg z was replaced with Arg z , so
not true, in general, when ln z is replaced by Ln z. See Problems 45 and 46 in Exerci
y
Analyticity The logarithmic function f (z) ⫽ Ln z is not continuous at z ⫽ 0 si
branch not defined. Moreover, f (z) ⫽ Ln z is discontinuous at all points of the negative real
cut is because the imaginary part of the function, v ⫽ Arg z, is discontinuous only at th
To see this, suppose x0 is a point on the negative real axis. As z S x0 from the upper
x
Arg z S p, whereas if z S x0 from the lower half-plane, then Arg z S ⫺p. This m
f (z) ⫽ Ln z is not analytic on the nonpositive real axis. However, f (z) ⫽ Ln z is analytic
the domain D consisting of all the points in the complex plane except those on the n
real axis. It is convenient to think of D as the complex plane from which the nonpo
axis has been cut out. Since f (z) ⫽ Ln z is the principal branch of ln z, the nonpositiv
FIGURE 17.6.3 Branch cut for Ln z is referred to as a branch cut for the function. See FIGURE 17.6.3. It is left as exercis
that the Cauchy–Riemann equations are satisfied throughout this cut plane and that
y tive of Ln z is given by
d 1
Ln z ⫽
dz z
for all z in D.
i FIGURE 17.6.4 shows w ⫽ Ln z as a flow. Note that the vector field is not continuou
x branch cut.

–i Complex Powers Inspired by the identity xa ⫽ ea ln x in real variables, we can d

plex powers of a complex number. If a is a complex number and z ⫽ x ⫹ iy, then za is
za ⫽ ea ln z, z ⫽ 0.
In general, za is multiple-valued since ln z is multiple-valued. However, in the special
a ⫽ n, n ⫽ 0, ⫾1, ⫾2, . . ., (10) is single-valued since there is only one value for z2, z
FIGURE 17.6.4 w ⫽ Ln z as a flow so on. To see that this is so, suppose a ⫽ 2 and z ⫽ reiu, where u is any argument of z

e2 ln z ⫽ e 2 (loger ⫹ iu) ⫽ e 2 loger ⫹ 2iu ⫽ e 2 loger e2iu ⫽ r 2 eiueiu ⫽ (reiu )(reiu ) ⫽ z2.
If we use Ln z in place of ln z, then (10) gives the principal value of z a.

EXAMPLE 6 Complex Power

2i
Find the value of i .
SOLUTION With z ⫽ i, arg z ⫽ p/2, and a ⫽ 2i , it follows from (10) that
i2i ⫽ e2i[loge1⫹i(p/2⫹2np)] ⫽ e⫺(1⫹4n)p
where n ⫽ 0, ⫾1, ⫾2, . . . . Inspection of the equation shows that i2i is real for every
Since p/2 is the principal argument of z ⫽ i, we obtain the principal value of i2i fo
four rounded decimal places, this principal value is i 2i ⫽ e⫺p ⫽ 0.0432.

844 | CHAPTER 17 Functions of a Complex Variable

 4 2
3p 39. (i)4i 40. 3i/p
5. z  p  pi 6. z  p  i
2 41. (1  i)(1  i) 42. (1  "3
7. z  1.5  2i 8. z  0.3  0.5i
9. z  5i 10. z  0.23  i
In Problems 43 and 44, find the principal valu
quantity. Express answers in the form a  ib.
In Problems 11 and 12, express the given number in the form a  ib.
43. (1)(2i/p) 44. (1  i)2i
e 2  3pi
11. e15pi/4 e1pi/3 12. 3  pi>2 45. If z1  i and z2  1  i, verify that
e
Ln(z1z2)  Ln z1  Ln z2.
In Problems 13–16, use Definition 17.6.1 to express the given
function in the form f (z)  u  iv. 46. Find two complex numbers z1 and z2 such
iz 2z
13. f (z)  e 14. f (z)  e Ln(z1/z2)  Ln z1  Ln z2.
2
z 1/z
15. f (z)  e 16. f (z)  e
47. Determine whether the given statement i
In Problems 17–20, verify the given result. (a) Ln(1  i)2  2 Ln(1  i)
e z1 (b) Ln i 3  3 Ln i
17. |ez|  ex 18. z2  e z1 2 z2
e (c) ln i 3  3 ln i
19. ezpi  ezpi 20. (ez)n  enz, n an integer 48. The laws of exponents hold for complex
21. Show that f (z)  e z is nowhere analytic. za
(za)n  zn
2
22. (a) Use the result in2 Problem 15 to show that f (z)  e z is an zazb  zab,  zab,
zb
entire function.
2
(b) Verify that u(x, y)  Re(e z ) is a harmonic function. However, the last law is not valid if n is
Verify that (i i)2  i 2i, but (i 2)i  i 2i.
In Problems 23–28, express ln z in the form a  ib.
49. For complex numbers z satisfying Re(z)
23. z  5 24. z  ei can be written as
25. z  2  2i 26. z  1  i
1
27. z  "2  "6i 28. z  "3  i Ln z  loge(x2  y2)  i t
2
In Problems 29–34, express Ln z in the form a  ib. 50. The function given in Problem 49 is anal
29. z  6  6i 30. z  e3 (a) Verify that u(x, y)  loge(x2  y2) is a
31. z  12  5i 32. z  3  4i (b) Verify that v(x, y)  tan1( y/x) is a h
5
33. z  (1  "3i) 34. z  (1  i)4

17.7 Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

INTRODUCTION In this section we define the complex trigonometric a

tions. Analogous to the complex functions ez and Ln z defined in the prev
functions will agree with their real counterparts for real values of z. In add
that the complex trigonometric and hyperbolic functions have the same der
many of the same identities as the real trigonometric and hyperbolic functio
Trigonometric Functions If x is a real variable, then Euler’s form
eix  cos x  i sin x and eix  cos x  i sin x.
By subtracting and then adding these equations, we see that the real function
be expressed as a combination of exponential functions:
e ix 2 eix e ix  eix
sin x  , cos x  .
2i 2

17.7 Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Func

 As in trigonometry, we define four additional trigonometric functions in term
and cos z:
sin z 1 1 1
tan z  , cot z  , sec z  , csc z  .
cos z tan z cos z sin z
When y  0, each function in (2) and (3) reduces to its real counterpart.
Analyticity Since the exponential functions eiz and eiz are entire functions,
that sin z and cos z are entire functions. Now, as we shall see shortly, sin z  0 only f
numbers z  np, n an integer, and cos z  0 only for the real numbers z  (2n  1
integer. Thus, tan z and sec z are analytic except at the points z  (2n  1)p/2, and
csc z are analytic except at the points z  np.

Derivatives Since (d/dz)ez  ez, it follows from the Chain Rule that (d/dz)eiz
(d /dz)eiz  ieiz. Hence,
d d e iz 2 eiz e iz  eiz
sin z    cos z.
dz dz 2i 2
In fact, it is readily shown that the forms of the derivatives of the complex trigonom
tions are the same as the real functions. We summarize the results:
d d
sin z  cos z cos z  sin z
dz dz
d d
tan z  sec 2z cot z  csc 2z
dz dz
d d
sec z  sec z tan z csc z  csc z cot z.
dz dz

Identities The familiar trigonometric identities are also the same in the comp
sin(z)  sin z cos(z)  cos z
cos2z  sin2z  1
sin(z1 z2)  sin z1 cos z2 cos z1 sin z2
cos(z1 z2)  cos z1 cos z2  sin z1 sin z2
sin 2z  2 sin z cos z cos 2z  cos2z  sin2z.

Zeros To find the zeros of sin z and cos z we need to express both functions i
u  iv. Before proceeding, recall from calculus that if y is real, then the hyperboli
hyperbolic cosine are defined in terms of the real exponential functions ey and ey:
e y 2 ey e y  ey
sinh y  and cosh y  .
2 2
Now from Definition 17.7.1 and Euler’s formula we find, after simplifying,
e i(x  iy) 2 ei(x  iy) e y  ey e y 2 ey
sin z   sin x a b  i cos x a b.
2i 2 2

Thus from (5) we have

sin z  sin x cosh y  i cos x sinh y.

846 | CHAPTER 17 Functions of a Complex Variable

Now a complex number z is zero if and only if |z|2  0. Thus, if sin z  0, the
have sin2 x  sinh2y  0. This implies that sin x  0 and sinh y  0, and so
Thus the only zeros of sin z are the real numbers z  np  0i  np, n  0, 1
it follows from (9) that cos z  0 only when z  (2n  1)p/2, n  0, 1,

EXAMPLE 1 Complex Value of the Sine Function

From (6) we have, with the aid of a calculator,

sin(2  i)  sin 2 cosh 1  i cos 2 sinh 1  1.4031  0.489

In ordinary trigonometry we are accustomed to the fact that |sin x|  1 and |c

of (8) and (9) shows that these inequalities do not hold for the complex sin
sinh y can range from q to q. In other words, it is perfectly feasible to
equations such as cos z  10.

EXAMPLE 2 Solving a Trigonometric Equation

Solve the equation cos z  10.
SOLUTION From (2), cos z  10 is equivalent to (eiz  eiz)/2  10. M
equation by eiz then gives the quadratic equation in eiz:

e2iz  20e iz  1  0.
From the quadratic formula we find eiz  10 3 !11. Thus, for n 
have iz  loge(10 3 !11)  2npi. Dividing by i and utilizing lo
loge(10  3 "11), we can express the solutions of the given equa
i loge(10  3 "11).

Hyperbolic Functions We define the complex hyperbolic sine and

analogous to the real definitions given in (5).

Definition 17.7.2 Hyperbolic Sine and Cosine

For any complex number z  x  iy,
e z 2 ez e z  ez
sinh z  and cosh z  .
2 2

The hyperbolic tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions are

sinh z and cosh z:
sinh z 1 1
tanh z  , coth z  , sech z  , csch z 
cosh z tanh z cosh z
The hyperbolic sine and cosine are entire functions, and the functions def
lytic except at points where the denominators are zero. It is also easy to see
d d
sinh z  cosh z and cosh z  sinh z .
dz dz
It is interesting to observe that, in contrast to real calculus, the trigonometric
tions are related in complex calculus. If we replace z by iz everywhere in (10) and
with (2), we see that sinh(iz)  i sin z and cosh(iz)  cos z. These equations

17.7 Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Func

 tions utilizing results for the trigonometric functions. For example, to express sinh z i
u  iv we write sinh z  i sin(iz) in the form sinh z  i sin(y  ix) and use (6)
sinh z  i [sin(y) cosh x  i cos(y) sinh x].
Since sin(y)  sin y and cos(y)  cos y, the foregoing expression simplifies to
sinh z  sinh x cos y  i cosh x sin y.
Similarly, cosh z  cosh x cos y  i sinh x sin y.
It also follows directly from (14) that the zeros of sinh z and cosh z are pure imagina
respectively,
pi
z  npi and z  (2n  1) , n  0, 1, 2, . . . .
2
Periodicity Since sin x and cos x are 2p-periodic, we can easily demonstrat
and cos z are also periodic with the same real period 2p. For example, from (6), note
sin(z  2p)  sin(x  2p  iy)
 sin(x  2p) cosh y  i cos(x  2p) sinh y
 sin x cosh y  i cos x sinh y;
that is, sin(z  2p)  sin z. In exactly the same manner, it follows from (7) that cos(z  2
In addition, the hyperbolic functions sinh z and cosh z have the imaginary period 2p
result follows from either Definition 17.7.2 and the fact that ez is periodic with peri
from (15) and (16) and replacing z by z  2pi.

17.7 Exercises Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-41.

In Problems 1–12, express the given quantity in the form a  ib. 17. sinh z  i 18. sinh z  1
19. cos z  sin z 20. cos z  i sin z
1. cos(3i) 2. sin(2i)
p
3. sina  ib 4. cos(2  4i)
4 In Problems 21 and 22, use the definition of equality o
p numbers to find all values of z satisfying the given equ
5. tan(i) 6. cota  3ib
2 21. cos z  cosh 2 22. sin z  i sinh 2
7. sec(p  i) 8. csc(1  i)
23. Prove that cos z  cos x cosh y  i sin x sinh y.
3p
9. cosh(pi) 10. sinha ib 24. Prove that sinh z  sinh x cos y  i cosh x sin y.
2
25. Prove that cosh z  cosh x cos y  i sinh x sin y.
p
11. sinha1  ib 12. cosh(2  3i) 26. Prove that |sinh z|2  sin2y  sinh2 x.
3
27. Prove that |cosh z|2  cos2y  sinh2 x.
In Problems 13 and 14, verify the given result. 28. Prove that cos2z  sin2z  1.
p 5 29. Prove that cosh2z  sinh2z  1.
13. sina  i ln 2b 
2 4 30. Show that tan z  u  iv, where
p 3 sin 2x sinh 2
14. cosa  i ln 2b   i u and v 
2 4 cos 2x  cosh 2y cos 2x  c
In Problems 15–20, find all values of z satisfying the given 31. Prove that tanh z is periodic with period pi.
equation.
32. Prove that (a) sin z  sin z and (b) cos z  cos z.
15. sin z  2 16. cos z  3i

848 | CHAPTER 17 Functions of a Complex Variable

 17 Chapter in Review Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on

Answer Problems 1–16 without referring back to the text. Fill in 26. Let z and w be complex numbers such tha
the blank or answer true/false. Prove that
10 10
1. Re(1  i )  _____ and Im(1  i )  _____. z2w
2 2  1.
2. If z is a point in the third quadrant, then iz is in the _____ 1 2 zw
quadrant.
z In Problems 27 and 28, find all solutions of th
3. If z  3  4i, then Re a b  _____.
z
27. z4  1  i 28. z 3>2 
4. i127  5i 9  2i1  _____ 2
4i
5. If z  , then |z|  _____. 29. If f (z)  z24  3z20  4z12  5z6, find f
3 2 4i
6. Describe the region defined by 1  |z  2|  3. _____ 30. Write f (z)  Im(z  3z)  z Re(z 2 )
7. Arg(z  z)  0 _____ f (z)  u(x, y)  iv(x, y).
5
8. If z  , then Arg z  _____. In Problems 31 and 32, find the image of the
"3  i w-plane under the given mapping.
9. If ez  2i, then z  _____.
10. If |ez|  1, then z is a pure imaginary number. _____ 31. f (z)  x2  y  i ( y2  x)
11. The principal value of (1  i)(2i) is _____. 1
32. f (z) 
12. If f (z)  x 2  3xy  5y 3  i(4x 2y  4x  7y), then z
f (1  2i)  _____.
13. If the Cauchy–Riemann equations are satisfied at a point, then In Problems 33–36, find all complex numbers
the function is necessarily analytic there. _____ given statement is true.
14. f (z)  e z is periodic with period _____. 1
15. Ln(ie3)  _____ 33. z  z1 34. z 
z
16. f (z)  sin(x  iy) is nowhere analytic. _____
35. z  z 36. z  ( z )2
2

In Problems 17–20, write the given number in the form a  ib. 37. Show that the function f (z)  (2xy  5
32i 2 2 2i is analytic for all z. Find f (z).
17. i (2  3i)2 (4  2i) 18.  38. Determine whether the function
2  3i 1  5i
(1 2 i)10
19. 20. 4epi/3 epi/4 f (z)  x3  xy2  4x  i(4y 
(1  i)3
In Problems 21–24, sketch the set of points in the complex plane is differentiable. Is it analytic?
satisfying the given inequality. In Problems 39 and 40, verify the given equal
2
21. Im(z )  2 22. Im(z  5i) 3 39. Ln[(1  i)(1  i)]  Ln(1  i)  Ln(1 
1
23. 1 24. Im(z) Re(z) 1i
ZzZ 40. Lna b  Ln(1  i)  Ln(1  i)
12i
25. Look up the definitions of conic sections in a calculus text.
Now describe the set of points in the complex plane that sat-
isfy the equation |z  2i|  |z  2i|  5.

CHAPTER 17 in Re