CHAPTER 6

CONTROLLER CHARACTERISTICS AND CONTROL MODES

Properties of Controller
e(t) = b(t) – r(t)

𝑏−𝑟
ep = x 100
𝑏𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑏𝑚𝑖𝑛

Where
ep = error as % of span
b = measured value
r = set point value of variable
bmax = maximum measured value
bmin = minimum measured value
Error
• The error detector compares the feedback signal b(t) with the reference input r(t) to generate an
error
• For example, the set point for a range of 5mV to 20mV and the feedback signal is 11.8mV then
error is 0.2mV. But actual variable to be controlled may be different such as temperature or
pressure.
• Hence to obtain correct information from the error, it is expressed in percentage from related to
the controller operation.
• It is expressed as the percentage of the measured variable range.
• The range of the measured variable b(t) is also called span. Thus, span = bmax - bmin
Classifications of Controllers
• The classification of the controllers is based on the response of the
controller and mode of operation of the controller
Continuous Controller Modes
• In the continuous controller mode, the controller output varies smoothly
proportional to the error or proportional to some form of the error. Depending
upon which form of the error is used as the input to the controller to produce the
continuous controller output, these controllers are classified as,

1. Proportional control mode

2. Integral control mode

3. Derivative control mode

Proportional Control Mode
• In this control mode, the output of the controller is simple proportional to the error e(t).
• The relationship between the error e(t) and the controller output p is determined by constant called
proportional gain constant denoted as Kp.
• The output of the controller is a linear function of the error e(t).
• Thus each value of the error has a unique value of the controller output. The range of the error which covers
0% to 100% controller output is called proportional band, PB.

The equation related to proportional controller is,

P(t)=Kpε+P0

Where;
P(t) = controller output at time t
Kp = proportional gain (constant), Kp=100/PB
P0 = controller output at zero error
ε = error
 Integral Mode Controller
• An integral controller provides an output rate of change that is determined by the magnitude of the error and the integral
constant. It also has the unique ability to return the process back to the exact set point.
• The integral mode of control is not usually used alone because of its slow response towards error signal. It frequently used in
conjunction with the proportional mode.

Integral control is where the rate of change of the control output P

is proportional to the input error signal, ε.
𝑑𝑃
= KIε
𝑑𝑡
𝑡
P(t) = 𝐾𝑖 ‫׬‬0 Iε + P0

where;
P(t) = controller output at time t
KI = integral controller gain (constant), KI = 1/TI (T I is integral
time)
P0 = controller output at zero error
ε = error
Derivative Mode Controller
Figure shows the controller output that results when there is a constant because the rate of change is constant and occurs
immediately the deviation occurs. The controller output is proportional to the rate of change of the measurement or error. It was
calculated by the rate of change of the error with time. Derivative action has the potential to improve performance when sudden
changes in measured variable occur.

𝑑𝑒
P(t) = KD 𝑑𝑡 + P0,

where;
P(t) = Controller output at time t
KD = Derivative gain
P0 = Controller output at zero error
ε = Error
Composite Control Modes
• As mention earlier, due to offset error proportional mode is not used alone.
Similarly integral and derivative modes are also not used individually in practice.
Thus to take the advantages of various modes together, the composite control
modes are used. The various composite control modes are:

1. Proportional + Integral Mode (PI)

2. Proportional + Derivative mode (PD)

3. Proportional + Integral + Derivative mode (PID)

 Proportional Integral Mode Controller (P+I)
• Figure shows how the system reacts when there is an abrupt change to a constant error.
• The error give rise to the proportional controller output which remains constant since the error does not change.
• There is then superimposed on this a steadily increasing controller output due to the integral action.

P(t)=Kpε + KpKI ‫׬‬ 𝜀 dt + P0

Where;
Kp = Proportional gain
ε = error
KI = integral controller gain (constant), KI = 1/TI (T I is
integral time)
P0 = controller output at zero error
 Proportional + Derivative Mode (PD
Control Mode)
The Fig shows the behavior of PD control for
the arbitrary load changes for reverse action.
For the reverse action, the controller output is
image of the error for the proportional mode.
While derivative mode causes sudden increase
or decrease in the output corresponding to
decrease or increase in the error. This mode
cannot eliminate the offset of the proportional
mode.

𝑑 𝑒(𝑡)
P(t) = Kp e(t) + Kp Kd + P0
𝑑𝑡
 Proportional Integral Derivative Mode
Controller (P+I+D)
Combining all three modes of control enables a controller to be produced which has no offset error and reduces the
tendency for oscillations

Where P(t) is the output from the controller when there is an error, e which is changing with time t, P0 is the set point
output when there is no error, Kp is the proportionality constant, KI the integral constant and KD is the derivative constant.
One way of considering a three-mode controller is as a proportional controller which has integral control to eliminate the
offset error and derivative control to reduce time lags.

𝑑𝑒
P(t) = P(t)=Kpε + KpKI ‫׬‬ 𝜀 dt + Kp KD + P0
𝑑𝑡
Example 4.1:

The range of measured variable for a certain control system is 2mV to 12mV and a setpoint of 7mV. Find the
error as percent of span when the measured variable is 6.5mV.

Solution:

bmax = 12mV, bmin = 2mV, b = 6.5mV, r = 7mV

𝑏−𝑟 6.5−7
ep = 𝑏𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑏𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑥 100 = x 100 = -5%
12−2
Example 4.2

A proportional controller input range is 0 to 5 V, and the output range of 0 to 10 V. If proportional band is
30% determine the value of:
i. Proportional Gain, Kp
ii. The overall gain of controller

Solution:

i. Kp = 100/PB = 100/30 = 3.33

𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 10−0
ii. Controller gain = = =2
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 5−0

Overall, gain = 3.33 x 2 = 6.66

Example 4.3

A temperature control system has the

following value
Set point = 120 ° C
Maximum temperature = 1000 ° C
Minimum temperature values ​= 0 ° C
Calculate the% error, ε for each
measurement value is recorded
below:

i. 180 ° C
ii. 200 ° C
iii. 100 ° C
Example 4.4

A proportional controller is used to control the

water level in a tank. Level measurement
range is 1 to 6 m. the set point of the system is
4 m and the controller output at zero error is
5%. If proportional band is set at 150%,
specify: -

i. Measurement value when the controller

output reaches 30%
ii. The controller output when the level at 5
m
iii. The controller output when the level
dropped 0.1 m from the set point
Example 4.5

An integral controller is used to control flow

in a pipe. The set point of this system = 16 m³
min ˉ ¹ and the controller output for this value
= 25%. The range of flow control is between
10 to 20 m³ min ˉ ¹ and integral time = 20 s. If
the flow increased to 18 m³ min ˉ ¹, calculate:

i. The controller output after 30 seconds

operates
ii. Operating time when the controller
reaches 100% output.
Example 4.6
A P+I mode controller used to control
the temperature of an oven. The range of
temperature is 25oC to 225oC. The
proportional band is set up to 150%,
where Ti is set to 10 sec. If the value of
error equal to 0.2t, determine the
controller output after 60 sec operation.
Example 4.7
The change of input error to P+I+D controller is shown in figure
8.10. If the controller parameter is set to Kp=1, KI=0.033 and
KD=2, plot the graph of controller output, P(t) versus time. Then
determine the time if the output controller is zero.