NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Lesson 1. INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING ........................................................1

What is a Network ...................................................................................................1
Types of Computer Networks ..................................................................................1
What is Network Topology ...................................................................................10
Review Questions ..................................................................................................17
Lesson 2. THE LAN AND WAN COMMUNICATION WORKS ..............................24
What is Open Systems Interconnection .................................................................24
OSI seven layers ....................................................................................................25
Types of network signals .......................................................................................26
How communication between stacks happens .......................................................30
Review Questions ..................................................................................................32
Lesson 3. THE NETWORK PROTOCOL AND TCP/IP MODEL ............................38
What is Network Protocol ......................................................................................38
LAN supports different types of protocols ............................................................39
What is TCP/IP? ....................................................................................................40
The features of an IP address .................................................................................43
The IPv4 and IPv6 subnetting and addressing rules ..............................................44
Subnet mask and subnetting...................................................................................46
TCP/IP application protocols .................................................................................49
Review Questions ..................................................................................................52
Lesson 4. WIRED LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN) CONNECTION ..................59
Transmission media ...............................................................................................59
Types of transmission media .................................................................................59
Types of cables follow the 10BaseT standard .......................................................65
Two ways of data transmission ..............................................................................74
Review Questions ..................................................................................................82
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................88

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS ii
LESSON I. INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING
At the end of the class, the student should be able to:

1. fully comprehend what is a network and what it does;

2. identify basic concepts and aspects of networking;
3. distinguish between network topologies and network boundaries;
4. determine the general concept of the various network; and
5. conceptualize a basic LAN.

What is a Network?

The most basic “network” is word-of-mouth communication, where ideas

are passed from person to person. It is a practice that people have learned as soon
as they can speak.

Another network that people master at an early age is the cell phone or
telephone technology.

• Cell phone uses radio waves or microwaves signals for

communication
• Telephone uses a wire-based technology. Both of them can link to the
world through vast networks through the use of another
communications equipment.

Three common forms of network communication are the following:

1. Word-of-mouth communication
2. Telephone based technologies
3. Computer Networks (and digital devices)

The following lists the advantages of computer networks

• Computer networks are based from telephone network communication

technology and also make use of specialized equipment to connect
networks.
• Unlike telephones, computer networks can do more, as it can transmit
data from far flung places, can support video streaming and more
• Exchange of information is similar from how a person would
communicate with another person through word of mouth, the only
difference is that it is done digitally.

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A network is classified according to the range of area they can connect
The most common networks are the following:

1. Local area network (LANs)

2. Metropolitan area network (MANs)
3. Wide area network (WANs)
Other types of networks

1. Personal Area Network” (PAN)

2. Campus Area Network (CAN)
3. Enterprise Area Network (EAN)

Local Area Network or LAN – pertains to printing machines, computers, and other
digital electronics that shares a hardware and software resources that are located
close to each other. Its coverage can only connect setups like: small confined space
like a typical household, a single department floor or small firm.

The illustration above shows how workstations in a single department

building communicate through a network.

A Metropolitan area network –can cover a greater range than a LAN with a
distance spanning from about 30 miles (equivalent to 48 kilometers). This type of
network has the capability to link several LANs within municipalities, or cities.

Example: A MAN can link the multiple LANs used by three mall establishments
within Cabanatuan City. The LAN in SM Cabanatuan can be linked with the LAN

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used in SM Mega Cabanatuan and to a huge hardware store of Wilcon Cabanatuan
branch’s LAN. All of the said buildings are a mile apart from each other.

The figure above is another example of a MAN setup

The example above denotes that multiple LANs can be linked by a MAN
even if they are of completely different groups or association or can be owned by a
single corporation or group. High speed network communication can only be
possible if the cable used by the LAN in communicating with a MAN is made up of
fiber optic or through a high-speed wireless technology.

Wide area network (WAN) – is considered to be the largest network that can
connect numerous LANs and even MANs across a distance that can exceed more
than 30 miles (equivalent to 48 kilometers). Example: the Internet. The WAN can
link multiple smaller networks from different parts of the world.

Personal Area Network or (PAN) – falls under the LAN spectrum and can connect
devices from a range of distance of up to about 33 feet (equivalent to 10 meters). A
PAN is smaller than a LAN and has two forms, Cabled PAN and Wireless PAN
(WPAN). Examples of devices a PAN can connect are: Smartphones, Personal
Computer and handheld devices like a Bluetooth speaker.

Campus Area Network (CAN) – falls under the MAN sub-category. It can link
multiple LAN and can cover the same range as a MAN can reach. This network is
owned and managed by a single organization. Ex. Harvard University having its
own servers and network connection equipment’s set up and exclusively managed
by them with little to none help from third party network providers.

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Enterprise Area Network (EAN) – falls under the WAN sub-category. This has
the same features as WAN as it can link different types of networks belonging from
different organizations from different parts of the continent. A network is
considered as an EAN if it is owned and managed by a single corporation or group
that can support a network bigger than MAN.

Example: The example illustration below shows different types of nodes that are
able to connect from each other through EAN.

ACTIVITY Lesson 1. No.1

Instruction: Search for various computer types, network devices and cable
networks commonly used in: LAN networks, WAN networks and Enterprise
networks. You may also type in your answers in this module. Describe each network
type and explain what are the different network equipment’s used in each.

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Example. 1.) PAN or Personal Area Network – this type of network is
the……..Possible network equipment’s/ devices used for this setup are two mobile
device transferring files via Bluetooth.

Name:____________________________ Score : ____________________

Section:___________________________ Date:______________________

1. LAN
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2. EAN
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Use of fundamental network terms

Node (also known as station) — pertains to a network of personal computers,

servers, mainframes (computers used for the extremely complex calculation/s),
printers, DVD / CD-ROM racks, fax machines, disk tapes, network interfaces and
other machines makes up the component of the network. Every one of them is a
node if connected to the network directly.

Nodes linked through communications media - The communications media

provides a way to transmit a signal containing data or information from one network
to another. Nodes are able to form a network through the aid of wire cables and
wireless technologies. A data is then sent and received by the network nodes.

Examples of wired and wireless communications media used by a node to

connect with each other are the following:

• wired cabling (also referred to as wired communications media): fiber-

optic cables, twisted pair cables, coaxial cables
• wireless communications media: infrared waves, microwaves, radio
waves
Some examples of essential nodes that a user access, are the following:

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 1. Servers
2. Hosts
3. Workstations
Workstation (or computer) - a device is considered to be a workstation if it has its
own central processing unit (CPU) and an operating system that can provide support
to common applications, and firm wares. Examples: Computer Desktops, Personal
Laptops that supports networking.

Client: workstation – refers to a computer that request permission to access files

from another network of computer. Host is the computer it wants to access.

Host: computer – refers to a computer the client workstation is trying to access

over a network. Example: “peer to peer networks”

Servers – a server acts as repository software for other workstations. It provides

multi-user access, by allowing simultaneous access of multiple networks of
computers to a server.

Example: all of Facebook user’s files are stored and handled by Facebook own data
farms.

Network Interface Card (NIC) – is a type of network board with sockets mounted
inside a motherboard. The said receptacle is where the network cable will be
plugged in, in order to connect the computer to a network device. An NIC also
supports wireless network communication. It has an antenna (that is usually not
visible) that detects wireless signals.

Protocols – a protocol refers to set of rules or standards one must abide. The internet
has various standard procedures that it follows to ensure a smooth exchange of
communication from different networks. The protocol can also be likened to one’s
native language. It provides a common ground that lets different workstations to
communicate.

Internet Protocol or IP is one of the universally acknowledged protocol of network

technologies. An IP also provides unique numerical addresses to websites which
serves as your pass when you need to connect with another network.

ACTIVITY Lesson 1. No.2 Learning about the History of Networking

Instructions: For this activity, the students should know what the origins of
networking are and how it all began. This will answer the questions, such as who
are people behind this innovation and what are the organizations involved. In this
activity, the students will use web resources to learn about historical events in
networking. Using a browser search for a video presentation on “the history of

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networking”. On your browser typed in “Explore Hobbes’ Internet Timeline and the
Computer Timeline of History, both Web resources”. (VIDEO PRESENTATIONS
ARE AVAILABLE ON YOUTUBE).

Most households nowadays are equipped with appliances that use networking. Most
of us might not be aware of that fact but it gives ease and efficiency with our daily
chores at home. Home networks makes up some of the basic unit of networking.
Most home networks are LAN based. Its goal is to communicate household
appliances and devices using networking.

Examples of home networks are the following:

1. A smart TV that has internet access

2. A “Bluetooth speaker connected to a smartphone”
3. Sharing and printing of files from a computer or smartphone to a printing
machine
• ways on how sharing of files is conducted
o The most common is the “caveat” printer through which a
printing can’t function while a computer device is off.
o This technology is prevalent on newer models of printer. A printer
can be connected to multiple computers nearby through the use of
a built in NIC (wireless connection).

4. A computer connected to a router that serves as a medium for accessing the

internet

5. Use of remote control in controlling temperature settings of an air-conditioner.

The figure above shows an example of how a household network technology works

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ACTIVITY Lesson 1. No. 3 Viewing Where to Configure ICS

• Time Required: 30 minutes

• Objective: The objective for this activity is to learn how to configure Internet
Connection Sharing in Windows XP or Windows Server 2003 or Windows
10.

• Description/Instruction: Search for a video on YouTube that demonstrates

how to configure Internet Connection Sharing in Windows XP or Windows
Server 2003 or Windows 10, so that you’ll learn how to set up ICS and how
to Log on using an account with Administrator privileges. Typed in your
answers on the Google form link provide by your instructor or you may also
use this module to type in your answers. Paste the YouTube link in this
module and type the summarized step by step procedure conducted based on
the video tutorial you have watched.

Sample Answer:

Using Windows 7 and server R2 YouTube video link: Https//enter the link
here.com.ph

1. Click Start and click Control Panel.

2. In Windows 7 and Server 2008 R2 ensure that the View by option in the upper
right portion of the window is set to Large icons or Small icons. In Windows
Server 2008, select Classic View, if it is not already selected.

3. Click (or double-click in Server 2008) Network and Sharing Center.

4. etc.

Name:__________________________ Date : _____________________

Section:_________________________ Score:______________________

You tube Video Link (paste the link here) _____________________________

Type the step-by-step procedure below.

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ACTIVITY Lesson 1. No. 4 Network Ready Appliances

• Time Required: 15 minutes

• Objective: Discover examples of network-compatible home appliances

around your home.

• Description/Instructions: Use the Internet to find examples of home

appliances that can be managed through a network. This seatwork activity
aims to assess the student’s comprehension on effectiveness of networks to
household appliances. Cite some examples and explain.

Example: Bluetooth Microphone – this device can be connected to another

device through Bluetooth it uses Bluetooth as its wireless signal to network or
communicate over another device

Now try to cite some examples (at least 2) and explain how they use
networking.

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ACTIVITY Lesson 1. No. 5 Viewing Network Links in Windows *this activity

is optional

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Instructions: On your browser, look for a video presentation that discuss the steps
on how to configure the “logical links” in your networks in the following Microsoft
windows version:

1. MS Server 2003 and MS Windows XP

2. MS Windows 10

What is Network Topology?

Each type of network is constructed of various combinations of cabling,

network equipment, servers, workstations, and software. You can combine these
elements in various ways to create a network to accommodate the needs and
resources of a particular organization. Some types of networks have low start-up
costs, but are expensive to maintain or upgrade. Others are more expensive to set
up, but are easy to maintain and offer simple upgrade paths. Topology are collective
of logical and physical network components.

The network topology layout may be classified as:

1. Decentralized topology has a cable that runs from one node to another
through a straight line (usually). Example: Bus topology

2. Centralized topology has a “central network device” where workstations

connect. Example Ring topology

The common types of Topologies

• Bus;
• Ring;
• Star;
• Tree; and
• Mesh.

Bus Topology – can be likened to a chain that has a terminator on start and end
points. Adding workstations is less complex and this only requires less use of cables
compared with other topology. The Terminator controls and sends signals up and
down the bus to supply all the nodes connected on this topology.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) - is a world-renowned

organization of experts in the field of science, engineering, technology and academe
that plays a leading role in developing standards for network cabling and data
transmissions.

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The terminator acts as a resistor that absorbs signals. It makes sure that all the
nodes connected to a bus can be supplied with a data.

The only disadvantage of this topology is that when one of its nodes bus fails, the
rest will shut down.

Ring Topology – has a loop like logical path where the nodes were linked by a cable
that forms a ring shape structure. The data in this topology travels from one node to
another in a circumferential path forming a loop. This topology is considered to be
better than Bus topology and is a great choice when you need to transfer signal from
long distance LANs.

This topology is now often used and WAN setups and rarely on LANs. Like Bus
when one of the cables or nodes fail then the whole system shuts down.

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Star Topology – “is the oldest communications design method, with roots in
telephone switching systems.” Because of its compatibility with small networks, star
topology are commonly used in LAN where workstations and servers communicate
through a “central network device”. In this topology when one of the nodes
connecting to a central device is broken, the rest of the nodes can still function. But
when the “central network device” fails the rest of the nodes will not function. Star
topology can support high speed networking and can easily isolate a defective node.
Expansion is also easier with this topology.

ACTIVITY Lesson 1.No. 8 Creating a Network Diagram

Name:____________________________ Score: ______________________

Section:___________________________ Date : _______________________

Instruction: design and put descriptions on each of the parts of a star topology. Try
to create a network design by diagramming a star-based network. Explain each
networking equipment/devices used and how a star-based network topology works.
Kindly expound your answer. You may type in your answer on a Google form
provided by your instructor or type your answers in this module.

Sample answer * draw your own diagram and explain

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 A star topology(insert description)
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Star-Bus Hybrid Topology – is a popular network topology that utilizes the

tangible network layout of a star and logical communication procedure of a bus.
Every end point when combined forms a star like shape in this topology (hence,
hailing its name as star topology) adapts the logical bus line approach but with just
a maximum of two workstations connected. This topology still employs the use of
terminators but they are not visible. The first segment end connects its terminator to
a network device like a router while the other segment end of the terminator is
connected to a workstation. This topology can use multiple network devices, making
way for expansion; this setup works as long as one will follow the networking
standard for this type. It can support high speed internet by using a backbone
technique, by connecting central devices with each other.

Star-Ring Hybrid Topology – this is a popular network layout choice in WANs.

This topology utilizes the tangible network layout of a star and logical
communication procedure of a ring. A device network like hub links all the nodes
connected to it. Terminators are not needed in this type of layout

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Mesh Topology – this topology has a “fault tolerance”, meaning that if one of the
nodes or networks connected to it shuts down it will still be undisrupted as it can be
linked to an alternative logical network this is possible because every network
component is connected with each other in some way or another.

Designing a simple Local Area Network (LAN)

Setting: A small lending office with four office clerks and manager

Four components of an appropriate network to use

Topology: Star Bus

Reasons why this topology is appropriate: It can share printers with

built in NIC adapters; can utilize “peer to peer network”; and can
connect multiple network devices, making way for expansion.

Conclusion why this layout is perfect for this type of setting

• This topology is cheaper and efficient to use in this type of setting

• It supports wireless network sharing within the nodes in the same
space
• It is easy to expand

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ADDITIONAL NOTES:

Private versus Public Network

IP addressing involves many considerations, not least important of which are

public and private networks.

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 A public network is accessible to “anyone” capable of having an internet
connection. Example: the “Internet” itself

Private networks restrict access and are often hidden from search results. It can only
be access by typing the complete link either in the form of numerical IP address or
a web link domain.

Examples: Caces website, student portal/ faculty website portal (in which it
can only be accessed by typing the precise address then you have to log in first
before being allowed full access.

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 REVIEW QUESTIONS

Name:________________________________________Score:_______________
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Section: _____________________________________ Date : _______________

I. Write your answers on the space provide after the number.

_______1. A computer device manufacturer owns four buildings in downtown

Raleigh, North Carolina, and the LAN in each building are connected together for
integrated communications and resource sharing. This type of network is an
example of which of the following?
A. LAN-NET
B. TAN
C. CAN
D. WAN
E. None of the above
_______2. Which of the following are ways to share a printer among computer
users? (Choose all that apply.)
A. Create a joint area network.
B. Connect the printer to a Windows 7 workstation and share it on a network;
C. Purchase a printer that has a built-in NIC
D. Use a printer server device that connects to a network.
_______3. A bus topology must have which of the following at each end of the bus?
(Choose all that apply.)

A. a router junction
B. a terminator
C. a capacitor
D. an amplification connector
_______4. What advice might a new network designer receive when just starting
out? (Choose all that apply.)
A. Learn how networks work in terms of protocols, access methods, and
topology; and d. Understand the physical equipment used in LANs and WANs.
B. Avoid the risks of implementing fault tolerance.
C. Start with the safe mesh design in which information is continuously sent
around the network ensuring that if a computer misses it the first time ere are many
other chances to obtain the same information without data loss.
D. Understand the physical equipment used in LANs and WANs.

_______5. Which of the following are reasons why you might have a network in
your home of two adults and three teenagers? (Choose all that apply.)

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 A. accessing the Internet
B. sharing a printer
C. accessing entertainment resources, such as streaming movies
D. sharing files between computers
_______6. In your new building, the contractor is including secure wiring closets,
cable, and cable pathways installed in the building as well as backbone cabling into
a specialized server room. All of this cabling is part of the __________.
A. network data zone
B. cable plant
C. traffic zone
D. throughput byway
_______7. A large company has many computer resources including computers,
servers, mainframes, network devices, computer development labs, computer
databases, shared disk arrays, and so on. This is an example of which of the
following?
A. an enterprise network
B. an extended client network
C. a radiating network
D. network concentration
_______8. Which of the following are the disadvantages of the traditional bus
topology? (Choose all that apply.)
A. It cannot be connected to the Internet
B. It allows only for a maximum of 16 computers per bus
C. It is subject to network congestion, requiring additional network devices
to control traffic flow;
D. One defective node or cable segment can take down a network.
_______9. Assume you are a network consultant for a company that is designing a
private WAN to communicate between five locations spread throughout a city. You
want to tell the company president that this WAN will use a design for maximum
uptime to all locations. Which of the following designs should you use?
A. bus
B. star-ring hybrid
C. mesh
D. traditional ring
_______10. Assume you have been hired to design a network for a bank. When you
determine the factors that affect the network design, you should look at which of the
following? (Choose all that apply.)

A. software applications to be used

B. work patterns in the bank

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 C. the computers and operating systems to be connected to the network
D. the security required by the bank and bank regulators
_______11. Which network topology is no longer used much in modern LANs?
A. star
B. star-bus hybrid
C. ring
D. all of the above are commonly used in modern LANs.
_______12. Which of the following are examples of network nodes? (Choose all
that apply.)
A. a computer attached to a network; and d. a network switch
B. a DVD/CD-ROM array attached to a server
C. a printer attached to a network computer
D. a network switch
_______13. When you design a network that has a bus or star-bus hybrid design,
what organization’s specifications should you check to make sure you follow the
bus segment length requirements?
A. Microsoft
B. Red Hat
C. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
D. National Electrical Contractors Association
_______14. Your organization has a network that uses the star-bus hybrid topology.
A new network associate is in the process of ordering spare network parts and has
included 20 terminators in the order. Which of the following is your advice?
A. Increase the order terminators burn out quickly on busy star-bus networks
B. Be certain to order terminators that contain LEDs to ensure
communications can go only one way on the network
C. Order200 ohm terminators, because the network contains over 50
connections requiring a high overall resistance.
D. Omit the portion of the order for terminators, because terminators are built
into the devices.
_______15. High-speed WANs that use the ring topology may use which of the
following?
A. two loops for redundant data transmission
B. ring connection that work like terminators
C. baseband optics
D. overflow NICs to regulate the speed of transmission
_______16. You are researching the possible benefits of a LAN for an advertising
firm. Which of the following are the benefits that you might include in your report
to the firm’s partners? (Choose all that apply.)

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 A. A LAN would enable the firm to use a DVD/CD-ROM array for sharing
commonly accessed DVDs and CDs.
B. A LAN would eliminate the need for laptop computers (plus laptop
computers are not compatible with LAN communications)
C. Printer expenditures could be reduced; and d. Centralized backups of
client files would be possible.
D. Centralized backups of client files would be possible.
_______17. Your company in New York City wants to open a branch office in
Richmond, Virginia, and connect the branch office through the Internet. What type
of network should be considered for enhanced security?
A. a closed transmission network
B. a VPN
C. a top-down security network
D. a star-secure network
_______18. Which of the following devices might be used to connect computers in
a star topology? (Choose all that apply.)
A. conjunction box
B. switch
C. terminator
D. router
_______19. You are setting up a network for your small business of four employees,
each of whom has a computer and needs to periodically share files with other
employees. Instead of having a server, the files are shared through each computer’s
operating system. This is an example of a(n) __________ network.
A. equality
B. peer-to-peer
C. jelly-based
D. open
_______20. ICS in Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 can be configured
through which of the following?
A. Network Control icon in the taskbar
B. Network and Sharing Center
C. Wide Network Configuration option form the Start button
D. Office Features menu

II. ACTIVITY ANALYSIS

You are employed as a network consultant at Network Design Consultants.

Your company consists of 15 consultants who assist all types of organizations with

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issues involving network planning, design, installation, and troubleshooting. The
company works on national and international projects, depending on the currently
active pool of clients.

Your present assignment is to help a small advertising firm, Harrison and

Associates, to consider its options for designing a network. There are eight people
in the firm: seven advertising consultants and one office coordinator. Each person
has a computer at her or his desk, and every computer has a printer. Harrison and
Associates represents a classic small-office situation.

Activity Analysis 1-1: A Preliminary Design Step

As a first step in the design process, what information would you gather about
Harrison and Associates?

Answer :
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Activity Analysis 1-2: Creating a Report About Network Topology

To help prepare the way for the design you plan to suggest, discuss with the
firm’s management the concept of network topology and the different types of
topology available. Consider making a slide presentation to illustrate what you
cover in the discussion.

Answer :
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Activity Analysis 1-3: Recommending a Topology for the Network Design

Prepare a report describing the topology you recommend for Harrison and
Associates’ network, and include why you recommend it.

Answer :
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Activity Analysis 1-4: Recommending Devices for Network Connectivity

Add to your report in Case Project 1-3 a discussion of the network device or
devices you would use for the topology you recommend.

Answer :
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Activity Analysis 1-5: Networking Advantages for the Firm

Finally, add to your report a section that discusses the advantages your
proposed network offers to Harrison and Associates.

Answer :
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LESSON 2. The LAN and WAN communication works

At the end of the class, the student should be able to:

1. explain the effect in LAN and WAN networks, of the OSI reference
model;
2. be able to comprehend how the exchange of information of two nodes
happen through the OSI reference model;
3. use the OSI model against practical networking situations;
4. describe main types of transmission to the LAN;
5. explain simple WAN network topologies and modes of transmission
including telephone, cable TV, satellite and wireless; and
6. explain the advantages of allowing use of Ethernet in network
architecture.

What is OSI?

The “OSI Reference Model” – also known as Open Systems

Interconnection is a universal standard for networking formulated.

The OSI model was initially developed around the 1970s. It has set the
standards of network communications between different network types like LANs,
MANs, WANs and others. The OSI also standardizes the quality of network related
hardware devices and soft wares.

The reference model was founded and continuously governed by the

following organizations:

1. “Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)”

2. “American National Standards Institute (ANSI)”
3. “International Telecommunication Union (ITU)”
4. “International Organization for Standardization (ISO)”

Brief Introduction on the organizations who have founded the OSI model.

The ISO “is a non-governmental worldwide federation of national standards

bodies” (techtarget.com). Its goal in relation to computer networking is to ensure
that communication and proper networking standards are being met, it also had
greatly contributed with the development of network protocol standards.

IEEE is a type of international organization of professionals whose focus is

on the advancement of technology that is beneficial to human society (ieee.org)

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 24
 ANSI is a private, non-profit organization that monitors standards for US
enterprises, government agencies and even international groups to ensure a safe and
good quality products or service. It conducts quality checks from various types of
products from bicycle helmets to network related equipment’s. (ansi.org)

ITU is a type of organization classified as a United Nations Agency

exclusively dedicated ensuring safety and quality of information and
communications technology products and services. It sets standards for computer
related hardware and software like routers, e-mail standards, wired and wireless
media and other.

The features of OSI model will greatly help you to assess the following:

– How to choose the proper network equipment suited to your needs

– How to be able to provide effective and proper network designs
– How to choose right design of equipment’s that will be compatible
with other networks
– How to do network related troubleshooting

The layers of “OSI Model” arranged from bottom to top are the following:

Each individual layer is called a “stack”. “The layers can be called by its actual
layer name or by its number stack in the reference model”.

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 25
Example: Layer 7 or Application Layer

The bottom part of the “OSI layer” is in charged with the constructing of frames and
packet transmission of signals. It also handles the physical network equipment such
as network cables and network devices. The middle layer on the other hand is the
one in charge with coordination of and communication between nodes. It ensures
that network communication session will be uninterruptable or without errors. The
Top layers are the ones responsible for direct communication with software
applications and data presentation, like encryption, data management and operating
systems functions. Together, the set of layers is called a stack.

1. Physical Layer – is located at the bottom part of the OSI layer. It is also known
as “Layer 1”. The hardware used within this stack are responsible for initiating,
transmission, and detection of “voltage” crucial with data transfer and receiving
process. Network signals can either be “analog” or “digital” (Jill West, 2018).

The physical layer encompasses the following responsibilities:

1. In charge with management of data through network communication

media (wired and wireless cables like coaxial cable, UTP cable to radio
waves and microwaves)
2. Network connectors are also a part of the physical layer
3. It determines communication between the signal/s and how its transition
from “analog signal” to “digital signal” happens. It is also assigned to detect
signal errors.
4. Network Topology is also under the physical layer
5. Included on the physical layer are the different network devices like
routers, hubs and network Layer purpose: “send and receive signals with
data”

There are two types of network signals, Digital and Analog.

Analog signal – is classified as a continuous signal with varying wave length

patterns. It is measured by a positive and negative voltage levels. Examples:
Natural Human Voice, Light waves, radio and telephone signals.

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 26
Digital signal - also uses a uses voltage levels but the difference is that digital can
only generate binary of ones and zeros. It is basically a preferred method used on
most LANs and high-speed WANs.

There are two types of signal interference namely, electromagnetic interference

and radiofrequency interference.

• An Electromagnetic interference (EMI) – occurs when magnetic force

fields have been accidentally yielded by electrical devices such as fans,
elevator motors, portable heaters, and air-conditioning units.

• Radio frequency interference (RFI) – occurs there is a disturbance with

electrical devices that emits radio waves such as radio, television,
substandard built computers or even TV equipment.

2. Data Link Layer – is the second layer on the OSI and also located at the bottom
part. This layer is also accountable for dealing with data transmission errors. It
ensures a regular flow of data and its movement in and out of the physical layer.
The data link layer is mostly implemented in the network adapters and network
devices like routers.

The Data link layer also checks for data transmission state if it will be
duplicated, incorrect or just partially receive. If an error occurs, the data link will
request for a re transmission of data. It is able to check for errors because of the use
cyclic redundancy check. A cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is type of an error-
detection method.

The “Logical link control (LLC)” and “Media access control (MAC)” are the two
important sublayers of this layer.

The LLC sublayer has the responsibility for monitoring and managing flow
control, error control, frames synchronization and avoiding network traffics

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 27
The MAC sublayer is the one who checks on the “logical address of a network
device”. A MAC address is a unique coded hexadecimal number like
0004AC8428DE usually located into a chip or board on the “network interface” of
the devices. (0004AC8428DE could also be formatted as 00-04-AC-84-28-DE or as
00:04:AC:84:28:DE). MAC addresses are not some randomly arranged
hexadecimal numbers they follow a pattern too. The first half part of the address is
assigned to a specific network vendor, to distinguish who manufactured the network
device or its interface, and while the second half, typically supplied by the vendor,
is unique to the interface or the device.

• Layer purpose: “transforms bits and format into frames”

• Frame: refers to “unit of data on a network”

3. Network Layer – is the third layer or the layer 3 on the OSI. This layer is assigned
with the regulation and monitoring of passage of packets on the routes on a network.

• Layer purpose: “regulates and controls passage of packets along routes

on the network”
– Contains physical routes: cable and wireless pat
– Contains Logical routes: software paths
The Network layer also acts a traffic director. It sets an itinerary for packets
and looks for efficient different paths for packets. The Network layer uses a a
metrics in gathering information about the location of different network and node,
this process is known as discovery.

A packet is a discrete unit of data that is formatted as a signal for transmission

over a network.

4. Transport Layer – is the fourth layer or the layer 4 on the OSI. It is located on
the middle part of the “OSI reference model”. It is a responsible for delivering data
from the sending node to its destination node. It ensures that data is received by the
target node.

• Layer purpose: reliable data transmission

• Fragments messages into smaller units
5. Session Layer- also known as Layer 5 in the OSI layer. Session layer is
considered to be responsible for building and maintaining of proper communication
between nodes. This layer can also identify the duration of transmission and
recovery from transmission errors of the node.

for example, it establishes which node transmits first. The Session layer also
determines how long a node can transmit and how to recover from transmission

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 28
errors. If a transmission session is inadvertently broken at a lower layer, the Session
layer attempts to reestablish the communication.

A session layer has two ways of sending data

• “Two-way alternate mode (TWA)” or also known as half-duplex is the one

who controls the node that is being set up separately to send and receive. In
a half-duplex setting, there is only one lane for the data to send and receive,
meaning the send and receive process cannot be done simultaneously.

– Analogize: use of a Walkie Talkie

• “Two-way simultaneous (TWS)” also known as full duplex, in which nodes

can be configured to transmit data and receive data simultaneously. The data
can simultaneously process the action of sending and receiving at the same
time. This process is more efficient that the TWA.

– Used in full-duplex communications

6. Presentation Layer – this is also known as Layer 6 in the OSI reference model.
This layer manages all the system software applications and operating systems
processes.

• Primary purpose: it’s governs the operating systems and monitors its task
like data formatting, syntax checking, etc.

A computer can only read binary codes of ones and zeros while the operating
system for latest computers can read ASCII codes. Older versions of
computers especially the older models produced by IBM uses EBCDIC code.

Two types of character formats

– “EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)” is

an “8-bit coding method for 256-character set” that is mainly used by
IBM computers and other older computers.

– “ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)” is an

“8-bit character coding method” that supports “128 characters”
mainly used by computers with operating systems running
UNIX/Linux, Windows 7 or Mac OS X

7. Application Layer – is the top layer of the “OSI model”. This layer manages the
computer user’s most direct access to “user applications and network services”. This
layer also manages the process of remote access control of files and printers; it also
manages message handling for emails, file transfer and management.

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 29
 • Layer purpose: “Govern the user’s most direct access to applications and
network services”

How Communication between Stacks happens

• Let’s look up at the sample analogy of two computers.

• The OSI model regulates standards for communicating on a LAN and event
multiple LANs. It also manages the process of internetworking between
different types of networks, example: WANs and LANs afterwards it
constructs a message at the client workstation.

The Message is created at Application layer then travels all the down to the Physical
Layer. The data is being added each time from the top layer down to the physical
layer.

Sample Scenario of how the OSI Model is imposed

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 30
Setting: local server located at the MIS office was being accessed by a workstation
from CICT department

1. “Redirector at Application layer locates shared drive”

2. “Presentation layer ensures data format is ASCII code”
3. “Session layer establishes and maintains link”
4. “Transport layer monitors transmission/reception errors”
5. “Network layer routes packet along shortest path”
6. “Data Link layer formats frames, verifies address”
7. “Physical layer converts data to electrical signal”

ADDITIONAL NOTES:

• The 7-layer OSI model is the “foundation of LAN and WAN

communications”

• Bottom layers: are in charge with data connectivity, frame formation,

encoding, signal transmission and conversion of digital to analog signal and
analog to digital signal

• Middle layers: establish and maintain sessions (network traffic control)

• Upper layers: presentation of data, data encryption (visible applications and

security)

• Information is transported over LANs by using a LAN transmission or access

method.

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 31
 REVIEW QUESTIONS

Name:______________________________ Score:______________________
Section:_____________________________ Date : ______________________

I. Write your answers on the space provide after the number.

_________1. You run a machine shop that houses many electrical machines, fans,
and an air conditioning unit. All of these devices can contribute to which of the
following that must be taken into consideration when designing a LAN? (Choose
all that apply.)
A. electron polarity
B.electromagnetic interference
C. radio frequency interference
D. frame sequencing and timing
_________2. Which of the following have been facilitated by the OSI model?
(Choose all that apply.)
A. The development of network hardware that uses common interfaces
B. Enabling users to retain their investment in network devices by helping to
ensure old equipment communicates with new equipment
C. Protocol stacking so that all network protocols can use 512-bit WEP
encryption
D. Enabling different types of LANs and MANs to communicate
_________3. A wireless 2G network uses which of the following radio transmitted
signals? (Choose all that apply.)
A. pause-based
B. token-enhanced
C. analog
D. digital
_________4. Which of the following fields would you find in a data link frame?
(Choose all that apply.)
A. Address of the transmitting node, b. address of the receiving node, c. data,
and d. end of frame designator
B. Address of the receiving node
C. Data
D. End of frame designator
_________5. Which of the following is an IEEE standard for Ethernet? (Choose all
that apply.)
A. 802.5
B. 803.4

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 32
 C. 802.3
D. 800.12ai
_________6. On your network there is a NIC that is malfunctioning by transmitting
many extra frames each time it communicates. Which of the following might help
you identify which NIC is having problems so that you can replace it?
A. Physical address of the NIC
B. Ethernet SNAP designator
C. IP tag given the NIC
D. Distance from your computer to the suspect computer as measured in
voltage times amperage of the transmitted frames
_________7. When your computer communicates with a server through the
Physical layer (Physical layer to Physical layer), it uses which of the following?
A. A code based on Morse code
B. Peer protocols
C. Physical CRC
D. Module protocol transfer
_________8. When you configure a computer’s operating system to use data
encryption for network communications, this occurs at which of the following OSI
layers?
A. Session
B. Physical
C. Presentation
D. Network
_________9. When you are purchasing a product through the Internet, which of the
following can be used to encrypt your credit card number when you send it to the
vendor?
A. Password plus
B. Ethernet SNAP
C. 802.08 security
D. Secure Sockets Layer
_________10. You have just purchased an Apple iPad tablet so that you can
download books, use mapping software, and access your e-mail through the
Internet. Which of the following standards makes this possible through a wireless
telecommunications network?
A. IMT-2000
B. Telnet
C. TELE400
D. AppleTalk
_________11. An Internet browser works at which of the following OSI layers?
A. Presentation

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 33
 B. Application
C. Network
D. Transport
_________12. What types of devices would you expect to see in a headend?
(Choose all that apply.)
A. Cable connections, b. satellite dishes, c. antennas, and d. trunk lines
B. Satellite dishes
C. Antennas
D. Trunk lines
_________13. Which type of switching uses a store-and-forward communication
method?
A. packet
B. Statistical Multiple Access
C. Message
D. Frequency Division Multiple Access
_________14. How is a collision determined on an Ethernet network?
A. By the size of the frame
B. When the collision bit is set to 1 in the frame
C. When a NIC's collision attribute is set to binary 1111
D. By signal strength
_________15. A 4G network has which of the following advantages over a 3G
network? (Choose all that apply.)
A. High-definition streaming video
B. Better sound quality
C. Faster possible data transmission rate
D. Improved security
_________16. You work in a community college system that consists of 15
community colleges throughout the state and a central administration center at one
of the colleges. The central administration center processes the payroll and student
information and needs to have communications of over 40 Mbps between it and the
colleges. Which of the following would best provide this type of communications?
A. An analog dial-up modem
B. Fractional T-1 communications
C. T-3 or T-3C communications
D. A cable modem
_________17. You are working on security on your company’s vice president’s
computer by closing unused ports for network communications. At what OSI layer
are you working while closing the ports?
A. Physical
B. Data Link

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 34
 C. Transport
D. Network
_________18. Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) as used on 3G
networks employs which of the following?
A. Statistical Multiple Access
B. Circuit switching
C. Packet-message switching
D. Time Division Multiple Access
_________19. Beaconing occurs on which type of network?
A. Wireless
B. Token Ring
C. Ethernet
D. IG
_________20. You are working on an older network that still uses FDDI on the
backbone to connect servers and network devices. What type of cable do you expect
to see on the FDDI backbone?
A. Fiber-optic
B. Twisted-pair
C. Copper tubing
D. TV type case cable

II. ACTIVITY ANALYSIS

In the following assignments, you consult for the newsroom of the Franklin
Daily Herald, a newspaper in a Midwestern U.S. city that is still thriving because of
its close ties to the community and first-rate reporting. All of the news reporters
have laptop computers, and now their management has funded a project to network
the entire newspaper building. Having a network that links all of the departments
and enables company-wide exchange of information and Internet access will help
position this newspaper to stay competitive with other news sources.

Activity Analysis 2-1: Expanding the Network Backbone

There is already a partial network backbone using Ethernet in the

newspaper’s building that joins some of the administrative and advertising offices.
Prepare a report or slide show that explains why Ethernet is still a good choice for
the network backbone.

Answer:

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 35
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Activity Analysis 2-2: Creating a Network That Can Communicate with Other
Networks

The management wants to know if there are any guarantees that the network
you are proposing will communicate with other networks. What is your response?

Answer:

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Activity Analysis 2-3: Questions About the OSI Model

Brett Mason, a new colleague with whom you are working at Network
Design Consultants, is unsure about some aspects of the OSI model. He has a list of
questions for you and asks that you develop a table that he can use as a reference
for the answers. Create a table containing two columns and seven rows. Label the
left column “Network Function,” and label the right column “OSI Layer.” Enter
each of the following functions in its own row under the left column, and then
specify the OSI layer that performs that function under the right column. Brett’s
questions about functions are as follows:

▪ Which layer resizes frames to match the receiving network?

▪ Which layer performs data compression?
▪ Which layer ensures data is received in the order it was sent?
▪ Which layer handles the data-carrying signal?
▪ Which layer provides file transfer services?
▪ Which layer enables routing?
▪ Which layer enables the receiving node to send an acknowledgment?

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 36
 Answer:
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

Activity Analysis 2-4: More Questions About the OSI Reference Model

Brett likes your table and has another question. He would like you to explain
MAC addressing.

Answer:

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 37
LESSON 3. THE NETWORK PROTOCOL AND TCP/IP MODEL

At the end of the class, the student should be able to:

1. address protocols on the network, namely: TCP, UDP and IP;

2. construe how IP address works;
3. comprehend what both IPv4 and IPv6 do;
4. explicate network protocols in the TCP / IP suite;
5. explain how VOIP works;
6. cite comparisons between the TCP / IP suite with the OSI Reference
Model;
7. discuss WAN standards used for remote communication; and
8. demonstrate understanding on how to construct a network by using TCP
/ IP protocols.

What is Network Protocol?

Protocols provides an efficient way to exchange data among connected

nodes. A computer must have protocols or set of guidelines to follow just as how
we humans use a language to communicate with one another.

Example: LAN can have multiple protocols. It can have a separate protocol
for each of its network devices and computers.

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 38
LAN Protocol - enables a secure way of linking networks, and can transfer data at
a relatively high speed. A LAN also has the ability to handle “source and destination
node addressing”. LAN protocols must conform to the safety and quality standards
set by various governing network organizations especially the IEEE 802 standards.
The IEEE 802 standard is specifically in charge with signal quality transmission
checks.

LAN supports different types of Protocols

• IPX/SPX, AppleTalk, NetBEUI, and TCP/IP. All of the latter except

TCP/IP are no longer widely used. TCP/IP is type of protocol that became
the commonly used protocol as it’s highly compatible with most of the
internet networking standards.
• Legacy Protocols – legacy means that software or a specific device can no
longer be updated or the vendor no longer upgrades that specific product.
The following examples are the different legacy protocols before the TCP/IP
become universally used language or protocol of the internet.

1. Internetwork Packet Exchange (also known as IPX) is type of legacy network

protocol developed by the firm Novell for its NetWare operating system. IPX was
often used with Ethernet bus and token ring networks. It is based from a Xerox
Network System (XNS) protocol.

Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX) works hand in hand with IPX protocol; it
supports the use of applications like databases.

IPX/SPX was used for NetWare servers up until version 4. After that, NetWare has
replaced the IPX/SPX protocol with Novell Open Enterprise Server.

2. NetBEUI (also known as NetBIOS Extended User Interface) is a type of

network protocol developed by Microsoft to be compatible to a “LAN Manager”
and “LAN Server”. This protocol is commonly used in the earlier versions of
Windows operating systems up to Windows 2000 and Windows ME.

3. AppleTalk – developed by Apple – is a type of protocol that supports peer to

peer networking between MAC computer devices. It can communicate with other
MACINTOSH computers even with a server.

4. TCP/IP – is currently the universally used protocol suite and is dubbed as the
protocol of the internet. This protocol is supported by most network servers and
different types of operating systems making communication with different networks
and nodes possible. TCP/IP protocols is originally developed and used on UNIX

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 39
systems. Until other vendors and developers have adopted this protocol and applied
it to their software.

The beginning of TCP/IP protocol

The history of TCP/IP can be rooted from the spark of World War II with
people’s deep yearning to find other ways to communicate with others at real-time.

Advanced Research Projects Agency (also known as ARPA) is a type of

organization that have envisioned a networking goal that will enable universities,
research departments and even the military defense to communicate with each other
synchronously. Because of that the ARPANET was developed. ARPANET aspires
to universally able all nodes to connect as its still is not possible during those times
as manufacturers or vendors were very proprietary and exclusive.

Network Control Protocol (also known as NCP) – followed after

ARPANET, this protocol enabled devices from IBM, DEC and other vendors to
exchange interaction, but still ended with a lot of flaws.

After some setbacks with NCP, the TCP/IP combination was developed. It
is composed of two protocols working alongside each other. The TCP stands for
“Transmission Control Protocol” while IP means “Internet Protocol”.

Few important facts about TCP/IP are the following:

• This is recognized worldwide by many networks as the only

protocol that is completely compatible with the Internet standards
• It influenced other manufacturer to adopt its protocol
• This is the protocol that most operating systems supports
• It contains different troubleshooting tools and networking system
soft wares
• Because of efficiency of the “TCP/IP protocol” this became well
known by experts in the field of IT

What is TCP/IP

TCP/IP is a “layered protocol” that is similar to, but not entirely identical to
the “OSI reference model”. There are nearly a hundred of protocols supported by

TCP/IP but its core components are only 3, namely:

• Internet Protocol (IP);

• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP); and

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 40
 • User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

TCP or transmission control protocol was a “hailed as a transport protocol”

(equivalent to the Transport layer in OSI reference model). Its duties include
establishing of sessions between network nodes and sequencing and
acknowledgement of data frames. It also keeps tabs on end to end delivery of data.

• A TCP has a sequence number located in its frame header. This sequence
number indicated the amount of data in frames and also checks on the
performance of data frames.

• A TCP is used to guarantee that all data is received and in order. Without
TCP some data could be missing or out of order. Sample analogy: if you view
a web page without a TCP your web page could be messed up, some
components could be missing from the web page. The images could be
missing or the text could spawn backwards and in chaotic state. This is where
TCP comes into play. TCP is a “connection -oriented protocol” that states
that a protocol must first acknowledge a session between the two nodes that
are communicating. The two computers need to verify first a connection
before any communication would take place and it is possible by using a
three-way handshake.

• Main TCP functions (also similar with OSI Transport layer)

– Checks on session requests and sets a session with other nodes that
compatible with TCP protocol. It can also “send and receive data”. It
has the authority to close transmission sessions when the needs arise

• TCP ports: are used to form a connection between virtual circuits and nodes.
It has the capacity to simultaneously communicate different processors

• TCP segments 11 fields (header) and maximum of 20 bytes (TCP frame)

• The figures shown below is from Cengage Hands on Networking

Fundamentals. This illustrates the TCP frame components and how data
travels within this frame. The last illustration or figure on the other hand
describes the functions and duties of various TCP ports.

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 41
 TCP frame

Sample TCP port

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is also known as a “connection-less protocol”.

The data does not undergo the same process as the TCP for it can’t be controlled,
sequenced or even acknowledge. It operates with Layer 4 like the TCP protocol. If
the TCP is not available UDP can be a substitute.

• A UDP has a frame with four-field header and a data. It heavily relies on the
process of checksum to ensure reliability.

• In UDP protocol setting, when a computer sends their data over a UDP it
does not really care if a data is received at the other end and that’s why UDP
is known as a “fire and forget protocol”. Because of UDP is does not regulate
data flows it’s much faster than a TCP.

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 42
 • Advantages: “it adds a little overhead onto IP and can be used for transaction
processing applications. It can also carries important network status
prompts” – Michael Palmer, 2013

UDP frame

The features of an IP Address

• A “LAN” may be system of Subnet works. A “WAN” usually consists of

“autonomous networks” (means they can run even with minimal human
intervention) like: MPLS, frame relay, SONET, DSL. Internet Protocol also
allows packet transmissions to different network types, if proved to be
complacent with TCP/IP.

• Internet Protocol supports the following network transports: ATM, ISDN,

FDDI, DSL, frame relay, , Ethernet, MPLS, and SONET

• IP’s main functions are: “data transmission, packet addressing, packet

routing, fragmentation, detection of errors”

• Three are two versions of Internet protocol: The IPv4 and IPv6

- IPv4: has a 32-bit node address

- IPv6: has a 128-bit node address

• Like UDP, an IP is also a “connection-less protocol”. It enables network-to-

network addressing and supports routing.

• The illustration below demonstrates the datagram: “TCP segment formatted

with IP header and IP packet header that consists of thirteen fields”

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 43
 The data below illustrates how data travels within the “TCP/IP”

The IPv4 and IPv4 Subnetting and Addressing Rules

An IP address must be unique to enable “accurate packet delivery”. A workgroup

with an identical IP address will not function well and create an error. To avoid such
mistakes its important to have an understanding with IP addressing concepts.

Basic IPv4 Addressing Rules

• An IPv4 supports four fields equivalent to 32 bits. It also uses a dotted

decimal notation for its IP address format. It was developed in the 1970s.
• AN IPv4 has two parts the network ID and the Host ID example: 129.6.17.0
• IPv4 addresses are classified according to their network transfer type and
size, classified as Class A up to Class E.

The types of data transmission process are the following:

1. Unicast: “packet sent to each requesting client”

2. Multicast: “packet sent to group of requesting clients”
3. Broadcast: “communication sent to all network nodes” (M.Palmer,
2013)

1. “Class A addresses”: the IP address under this class type can only have a
beginning value of 1 and maximum of 126 for its first octet. Example: 1.12.100.0 ;
126.201.0.0.

Location of Network ID: first octet

Location of Host ID: last three octets

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 44
2. “Class B addresses”: the IP address under this class type can only have a
beginning value of 128 and maximum of 191 for its first octet.

Location of Network ID: first two octet

Location of Host ID: the last two octets

3. ”Class C addresses”: the IP address under this class type can only have a
beginning value of 192 and maximum of 233 for its first octet.

Location of Network ID: first three octets

Location of Host ID: the last octet

4. “Class D addresses” are exclusively used for multicasting, and the IP address
under this class type can only have a beginning value of 224 and maximum of 239
for its first octet.

5. “Class E addresses” are solely used for experimentation, and the IP address
under this class type can only have a beginning value of 240 and maximum of 254
for its first octet.

“Special purpose IP addresses” is not for use for regular IP addressing:

• “255.255.255.255” – is not a valid address and even if you type it in

any browser it will not yield any results, that’s because this IP address
is a type of broadcast address use for sending messages to all
workstations connected to a specific network.

• “127” is a “loopback address” and is not used for common sub netting
process. There are around 375 possible loopback address
combinations, but 127 is the universally acknowledged loopback
address. Its main purpose is help network expert with testing and
debugging.

The illustration below shows a summary description of each IPv4 class types

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 45
Subnet Mask or Subnetting

TCP/IP request for “configured subnet mask” two purposes: for classification the
type of addressing used and be able to proportion networks into subnet works and
to control traffic

Example: An IP address must first be converted into binary like the example
given below:

The given IP address falls under a Class A IP address type.

11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 (“255.0.0.0”)

The “ones” in the binary represents the network/subnet identification

bits

The “zeroes” represents the host identification bits

Creating Sub networks (this instruction is straight from the book, Hands on
networking fundamentals)

A Subnet mask contains two subnet IDs categorized between Network ID and Host
IDs, which is then determined by a network administrator. Subnet mask often
“overrides” its length limits.

Example:

IP address: 255.255.255.0 , the 3rd octet in this IP address serves as an

indicator of its Subnet ID

Equivalent Binary value: 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

The CIDR method or “Classless Inter domain Routing” addressing – is a method

used in subnetting. It is a slash with numeral and is located after the IP address. The
slash pertains to network ids. Example: 165.100.18.44 /18

the /18 means it needs to have18 bits of the network ID

and

14 (32 bits minus 18 bits = 14 bits) for the host ID and should not exceed
over 32 bits

Some key points to remember in IPv4 Addressing

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 46
The network number “127.0.0.0” and “255.255.255.255” cannot be assigned as they
are special purpose type of IP address. The first IP address is used for “diagnostic”
purposes while the latter is used as “broadcast ID”. There are also certain IP network
numbers that cannot be used by just anyone on the net, as they are tagged or reserved
as “private”. A reserved “private” IP address makes use of a firewall or proxy server
using a “NAT device”.

Using IPv6 - IPv6 was developed through initiative of IETF organization due to
limitations of IPv4, as IPv4 are running out of IP addresses. The good thing about
Ipv6 is that it has provisions for network security and advance routing options that
Ipv4 does not possess. Ipv6 also supports video conferencing and video streams.
Due to its efficiency over Ipv4 large enterprises networks have already transitioned
to IPv6, like AT&T, Verizon Wireless. IPv6 was developed in the year 1994, but up
to now, most networks still use IPv4.

Some key points to remember in IPv6 functions

IPv6 has a “128-bit address capability” and can provide a single address to its
associated multiple interfaces. It supports address auto configuration and CIDR
addressing. The CIDR method of IPv6 enables better subnetting and routing
configurations methods by providing a wide variety of options one can choose from.
An Ipv6 has a 40 bytes header and it uses a “IPsec or IP security”. It is also has 16
bits of hexadecimal fields

Example:

1042:0071:0000:0000:07ac:0522:210c:425b

“Leading zeros can be removed & contiguous fields containing only zeros can be
represented by :: “ (M. Palmer, 2013)

1042:71:0:0:7ac:522:210c:425b

or

1042:71::7ac:522:210c:425b

In IPv6, the main header must appear in the packet before any extension header

Fields in the IPv6 main header may include version, traffic class, flow label,
payload, length, next header, hop limit, source address, and destination address

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 47
 This picture above shows the logical path IPv6 data

IP Security

• IPsec – set of IP-based secure communications and encryption standards

created through the IETF. It also supports authentication certificates and data
encryption for added security.

IPv6 and Routing Tables

• Routing table databases contain the addresses of other routers and networks

• IPv6 enables routers to use global addresses on the Internet

– Enhances the use of route aggregation (a technique for organizing

network routes hierarchically
– Enables routes to be summarized resulting in smaller routing tables
and reduced route advertising (mean less network traffic)
Types of IPv6 Packets

• Three types of IPv6 packets: (Hands On Networking Fundamentals, 2013)

– Unicast – identified by its single address for a single NIC (transmitted

point-to-point)
– Anycast – contains a destination address that is associated with
multiple interfaces (goes only to the closest interface)
– Multicast – has a destination address that is associated with multiple
interfaces (directed to each of the interfaces with that address
Encryption and IPv6 Packet (Hands On Networking Fundamentals, 2013)

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 48
 • IPv6 supports encryption techniques that are compatible with Data
Encryption Standard (DES) security
• DES – network symmetric-key encryption standard developed by the
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and ANSI
• Disadvantage of IPv6 encryption:
– Latency – the time it takes for networked information to travel from
the transmitting device to the receiving device

TCP/IP Application Protocols

• Most common useful protocols and applications in TCP/IP suite

• Telnet
• Secure Shell (SSH)
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP),
and Network File System (NFS)
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
• Domain Name System (DNS)
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
• Neighbor Discovery Protocol (ND)
• Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Secure Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (S-HTTP), HTTP Secure (HTTPS)
• Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
Telnet

• Telnet: is a type of application protocol for terminal emulation. It has

nearly all the implementations of TCP/IP . though it supports TCP/IP telnet
is pretty much an open standard. It also has a lot of options for
communications

Example: IBM 3270 or DEC VT220

SSH

• Secure Shell (SSH) - enables authentication security for TCP/IP applications

and is mostly used on UNIX/LINUS and MAC operating systems. SSH
promotes remote access to a computer and supports the upload and download
of files. SSH can be found in UNIX and LINUX by entering SSH at its
command line.

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 49
FTP, TFTP, and NFS

• FTP: is a type of technology allows transfer of data between remote devices.

It supports binary and ASCII formatted files and ensures a connection-
oriented service. The only limitation of FTP is that it cannot transfer portion
of a file, so if you fail to upload the whole file using FTP you have to start
from scratch. FTP acts like a torrent downloader except thatit uploads and
downloads website files from your computer to a server on web.

• NFS: is Sun Microsystem's alternative to FTP. This is used by default in

UNIX and LINUX OS.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

• Designed for exchange of electronic mail, it also provides as an alternative

to FTP for file transfer.

Domain Name System (DNS)

• Domain: logical grouping of network resources. Domains are given unique

names; e.g., Facebook.com. DNS resolves domain names and makes it easier
to understand rather than having to have an IP address as the only way to
navigate a particular website.

• Internet host domain names have two parts (Wikipedia)

– Top-level domain name (TLD): organization or country

– Optional subdomain name: university/business name
– Host name: name of computer
– Example: [email protected]

• ICANN coordinates and registers root domain names

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)- enables automatic assignment

of IP address and process of assigning address t through DHCP server.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) - ARP allows the sender to obtain MAC
addresses

Neighbor Discovery (ND) Protocol - ND uses messages and other means to

discover the physical addresses and more information about computers and routers
on a network (M. Palmer, 2013)

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) - Provides a secure way to

monitor network activity

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 50
HTTP, S-HTTP, and HTTPS

• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) establishes a Web connection and

provides exchange of resources.
• Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol (S-HTTP) – does the same as HTTP
but with more security
– Used primarily in native HTTP communications
– Does not encrypt data in IP-level communications
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) – another secure version of
HTTP with slight alterations
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) - ICMP – helps IP track error
conditions and supports the Ping utility function to check connectivity. This is
commonly used when you want to test if your peer to peer networking works.

VoIP - Voice over IP (VoIP) – network technology that enables telephony

communications over an IP network (M. Palmer, 2013)

TCP/IP and the OSI Reference Model Compared

TCP/IP and the OSI reference model

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 51
 REVIEW QUESTIONS

Name:_______________________________ Score : ____________________

Section : ____________________________ Date : _____________________

I. Write your answers on the space provided after the number.

_________1.Which of the following are properties of a LAN protocol? (Choose

all that apply.)
A. Handles source and destination node addressing;
B. Follows standards, such as the IEEE 802 standards
C. Has the ability to transport data in 8GB packets or larger for network
efficiency
D. Enables reliable network links
_________2. The workstation used by the marketing director in your company has
been successfully hacked through the open Telnet port, even though she does not
use Telnet. What step should be taken to thwart future attacks?
A. Close all TCP ports
B. Reduce the Telnet port's bandwidth
C. Close TCP and UDP port 23
D. Configure Telnet so that it cannot be used in the background mode
_________3. Since it has lower overhead, why is UDP not used for all
communications along with IP?
A. Unlike TCP, UDP is charity
B. TCP has a higher level of reliability for times when important data is
transmitted
C. UDP is only supported for WAN communications
D. UDP does not work with IPv6
_________4. The subnet mask is used for which of the following? (Choose all that
apply.)
A. To disguise servers so they appear to be workstations
B. To create subnetworks
C. To bridge AppleTalk with TCP/IP
D. To show the class of addressing
_________5. Your company’s network segment that is used by the Research
Department experiences many broadcasts from various devices. What can you, as

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 52
network administrator, do to control the broadcasts so that they are not sent to other
network segments?
A. Configure the router that connects the Research Department segment so
that broadcasts are not forwarded to other network segments.
B. Configure the Research Department devices so that broadcasts are sent
only using the 272.0.0. IPv4 address so that they are ignored by workstations.
C. Configure the devices to send broadcasts to a DNS server and configure a
pointer record at the DNS server to drop the broadcasts.
D. Configure the devices to use only IPv4 instead of IPv6, because IPv4 does
not support broadcasts.
_________6. Your network is very busy and you decide to monitor the network
traffic. Which of the following can be a significant source of extra traffic on a
network?
A. Padding in a IPv4 packet
B. Setting the timing bit for a packet transmission
C. Creating packet flags
D. TCP acknowledgement
_________7. Your company’s network uses DHCP to lease IPv4 addresses. When
an employee gets a new computer and it is necessary to configure the IPv4 network
connectivity, which of the following should you use in Windows 7? (Choose all that
apply.)
A. The VTAM port
B. The routing port
C. Obtain an IP address automatically
D. Disable gateways
_________8. A new office assistant in your company has said that he is experienced
in setting up Windows Server 2008 R2. You discover that he is planning to manually
assign the IPv4 address 127.0.0.100 to the server. What is the problem with this
assignment?
A. Server addresses must have five octets
B. The address 127.0.0.100 is among a group of IPv4 addresses that are
reserved and should not be assigned.
C. The last octet assigned to a server must be between 1 and 10
D. There is no problem; IPv4 address 127.0.0.100 is a perfectly valid
permanent address for a server
_________9. You manage a medium-sized network that is on two floors in a
building. You have a network monitoring station and want to set up a network agent
on each floor. Which of the following devices are candidates for network agents?
(Choose all that apply.)

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 53
 A. Switches
B. Servers
C. Workstations
D. Network cable
_________10. The IPv6 address 0102:07cc:6218:0000:0000:0000:4572:4ebd can
also be rewritten as which of the following? (Choose all that apply.)
A. 0102:07cc:6218:3x00.4572:4ebd
B. 0102:07cc:6218::4572:4ebd
C. 0102:07cc:6218:4572:4ebd
D. 0102:07cc:6218:0:0:0:4572:4ebd
_________11. You are debating with a colleague about whether to use PPTP or
L2TP for remote communications. Which of the following is an advantage of using
L2TP?
A. PPTP uses a compressed packet that takes time to compress and
decompress, whereas L2TP does not.
B. L2TP forces the network to use a special carrier signal, which is faster
than the carrier signal used by PPTP.
C. L2TP can tunnel in more directions, including in reverse.
D. L2TP can take advantage of MAC addresses, but PPTP cannot.
_________12. An online stock brokerage has had reports of hackers obtaining
information about accounts while customers are online. The firm discovers that an
inadvertent programming change in its new software has omitted use of which of
the following security methods?
A. HTTPS
B. Source Security
C. Secure NetBEUI
D. UDP Security
_________13. You are designing a new network for a mail order company of 284
employees. Network reliability is a must for a successful business strategy. When
you set up DNS, which of the following should you do?
A. Use only a reverse lookup zone.
B. Set up three primary DNS servers.
C. Configure a primary and a secondary DNS server.
D. Employ IPv6 host address resource records for lower cot operations.
_________14. When a server crashes and goes offline on a network, which of the
following helps to determine that the server is unavailable?
A. ICMP
B. DNS
C. SNMP
D. NFS

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 54
_________15. In IPv6 the flow label field is used for what service?
A. Directory service
B. Quality of Service
C. Acknowledgment Service
D. Authentication Service
_________16. Your company wants to migrate to IPv6 because of its improved
security features. One important security feature that is required for IPv6 and that is
not required for IPv4 is which of the following?
A. Source routing
B. CIDR
C. ICMP
D. IPsec
_________17. What protocol does IPv6 use to discover the physical addresses of
nodes on a network?
A. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
B. Neighbor Discovery (ND) Protocol
C. Secure Shell (SSH) Protocol
D. Network File System (NFS) Protocol
_________18. You are consulting for a business for which the beginning IPv4 octet
used on its network is 222, which makes this a Class C network. What is the
maximum number of addressable nodes that this business can have using traditional
IPv4 addressing?
A. 512
B. 392
C. 254
D. 124
_________19. You are in a management meeting for your company in which the
current topic is the TCP/IPv4 network. One of the managers is concerned that when
someone turns off a workstation, information keeps circulating around the network,
making communications slower and slower. What is your answer?
A. This is a problem, but Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008/Server 2008
R2 have programs that automatically delete lost packets at regular intervals.
B. NICs on servers can periodically reset a network to clear the bandwidth
of circulating packets.
C. Packets that are on the network for over a minute are automatically
fragmented so they take up virtually no bandwidth.
D. An IPv4 packet contains a Time to Live field that enables these kinds of
packets to be discarded.

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 55
_________20. Your university has decided to migrate to IPv6 and in the process
enable its CAN to use both IPv4 and IPv6. In a meeting, one of the application
programmers in the IT department states a concern about there being network
confusion in differentiating between IPv4 and IPv6 packets. What is your comment
to address this concern?
A. Both IPv4 and IPv6 contain a version number at the beginning of each
packet so that it is clear which is an IPv6 packet and which is an IPv4 packet.
B. There is no problem because routers can be configured to place an IP
identifier at the end of each packet.
C. An easy solution is to configure a dedicated IP server to properly router
IPv4 and IPv6 packets according to the IP version.
D. The application programmer is correct in that there is a flaw in the plan
because the CAN must use only IPv4 or IPv6, but cannot use both
_________21. Your network needs 28 host identifiers for 256 nodes. Which of the
following formulas help you calculate the number of bits needed for the network
identifier?
A. 64 - 8 = 56
B. 8 + 24 = 32
C. 32 − 8 = 24
D. 8 / 2 = 4

II. ACTIVITY ANALYSIS

Nishida Kitchens is a medium-sized company that makes packaged Japanese

foods including noodle and sauce combinations. Their foods are distributed to
grocery stores and specialty food stores throughout Canada, Europe, and the United
States. The company is moving into a new building and has hired Network Design
Consultants to help them create a new network. Before the move, their head network
administrator accepted a job with another company and his inexperienced assistant
has been promoted as the head network administrator.

Nishida Kitchens has a business and sales unit of 42 computer users. The plant in
which the foods are produced, packaged, and shipped has 45 computer users. The
company has both Windows Server 2008 R2 and Red Hat Enterprise Linux servers.
The business and sales unit uses Windows 7 workstations. The plant users have a
combination of Windows 7 and Red Hat Enterprise Linux computers on user’s
desktops. The company plans to have Internet connectivity available to all network
users. Nishida Kitchens has an outlet store across town, which provides the public
with direct sales of its products. The outlet store also has Internet connectivity on a
small network of 12 computers that are running Windows 7.

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 56
Activity Analysis 3-1: Choosing a Network Protocol

What protocol do you recommend for this network, and what are its
advantages?

Answer:

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Activity Analysis 3-2: IPv6 Advantages

Nishida Kitchens wants to explore the value of converting to IPv6 over the
next two years. Prepare a report or slide presentation that outlines the advantages of
IPv6.

Answer:

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Activity Analysis 3-3: Monitoring the Network

Nishida Kitchens wants the ability to monitor its network to keep the network
stable and to troubleshoot problems. What should Nishida Kitchens implement to
accomplish network monitoring at the main location and the outlet store? How can
network monitoring be made secure?

Answer:

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 57
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Activity Analysis 3-4: Establishing an E-Mail Server

Nishida Kitchens is considering the implementation of its own e-mail server

so that employees can exchange e-mail with one another and with others over the
Internet. What element is important to implement in the e-mail server so that
messages can be transported over the Internet? How does this element work?

Answer:

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Activity Analysis 3-5: Choosing a WAN Communications Protocol

For WAN communications, such as over the Internet connection, what

protocol should be used by the Windows XP Professional and Red Hat Enterprise
Linux workstations? What are the advantages of this protocol?

Answer:

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 58
LESSON 4. WIRED LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN) CONNECTION

At the end of the class, the student should be able to:

1. explain various network access technologies, including coaxial cables,

twisted pairs and fiber optic cables, and what can be achieved on a particular
network;
2. address high-speed cable network networking systems such as 100 Mbps; 1
Gbps up to 10 Gbps;
3. explain how the NIC is used to link devices to cable networks; and
4. explain how to build a UTP wired network.
__________________________________________________________________

Transmission Media

A path that transports data from sender to recipient is known as transmission

media. To transport data, we use different type of cable or waves. Electrical or
electromagnetic signals are used to transmit data.

Current is the form of an electrical signal. A series of electromagnetic energy

pulses at different frequencies produces an electromagnetic signal. Copper wires,
optical fibers, the atmosphere, water, and vacuum can all be used to carry these
signals. Bandwidth, delay, cost, and ease of installation and maintenance are all
characteristics of different media.

Types of Transmission Media

Communications Media Types – Fundamental communication takes place at the

OSI Physical layer (also known as Layer 1), which manages communication media
and network interfaces.

• OSI Layer 1: Media and interface communication

Five basic forms of contact media

1. Coaxial cable: its core is made up of copper

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 59
 2. Twisted-pair cables (UTP and STP): made up of eight insulated coppers
3. Fiber optic cable: can be Composed of plastic or fiber glass
4. Hybrid fiber optic cable/ coaxial cable: made up of both copper and fiber
glass cable
5. Wireless technologies: can pertain to a radio wave or a microwave

**** The suitability of wired media varies with different networks

and it’s different needs.

Example: uses of Fiber Optics

• Newer LANs
• Commonly used by business enterprises
• It’s fast but expensive to install and maintain

Factors that influence the options of media networks to be used LAN or WAN

✓ Speed of data transfer

✓ Using in specific network topologies
✓ Specifications for distance
✓ Prices of cable and network modules
✓ if an additional network equipment may be needed
✓ Flexible and easy installation;
✓ Prevention to EMI/RFI signal problems coming from outside sources
✓ Options to update
✓ Security

Backbone cable: refers to a particular form of cable that is mounted between

network equipment rooms, building floors and is mostly used to connect network
devices.

• Plenum cable: Teflon-coated refers to a cable type which is not

poisonous when heated or burnt. A plenum cable is usually installed in office
buildings and in households.

• Impedance: total volume of resistance to current flow and is

expressed in ohms.

Coaxial cable

- was the first form of media identified by network standards (early 1980s

The two types of coaxial cable (or coax cable)

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 60
 – Thick coaxial cable: Found in early networks, primarily as a used a
backbone cable
– Thin coaxial cable: used to link desktops to LANs. Generally, thinner than
the latter mentioned cable.
*** The demand for coaxial cables has been reduced, due to surge of
newer cables like twisted pair cables and fiber optic cable

Thick coaxial cable (thick wire, thick net, RG-8) – sized 4 inches diameter. It has
a diameter-core consisting of a conductor made of copper. The said main conductor
is shielded by insulation, wrapped by an aluminum sleeve that is enclosed with a
PVC or Teflon jacket for proper grounding.

• The cable jacket is marked every 2.5 m to show where a network-connecting

device can be attached

If devices are attached more closely than 2.5 meters, the signal can be impaired and
errors may occur.

Thick coax (RG-8) cable

• A media access unit or (MAU) transceiver is a connecting device driven by

a small current of 5 amperes. It connects to an AUI cable through its 15-pin
contact device.

• The AUI cable acts as an intermediary cable that connects the node to the
MAU transceiver. An AUI cable can have a maximum of 50 meters length
and has an allowable overall cable section length of about 500 meters. The
impedance of an AUI is around 50 ohms.

• This type of coaxial cable complies with a 10Base5 standard.

• 10 = 10 Mbps is the allowed transmission rate

• Base = refers to baseband transmissions

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 61
 • 5 = is equivalent to a hundred so it is read as 500, this indicates that
we can have a maximum of 500 meters long cable for this type of
coaxial.

The illustration above shows what a proper thick coaxial cable network
should look like

The figures above are showing the specifications of a latter mentioned type of
coaxial cable

An RG-58A/U Coaxial Cable (also known as Thin coaxial cable; Thin net;
Radio Grade 58) is another type of a coaxial cable that can bear an impedance of
50 ohms. A thinnet cable follows the 10Base2 network standard.

The 10Base2 standard has the following specifications stated below:

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 62
 • 10 = refers to the ideal transmission rate in mbps, which is 10
mbps
• Base = means it uses a baseband for data transmission
• 2 = is equivalent to a hundred meter, making it 200 meters
(latest was now reduced to just 185 meters) of allowed
maximum wire length
• Thin net coaxial cable is around 2 inches smaller than its predecessor.

A Bayonet nut connector (BNC) links to a cable while its other end is
attached to a T-connector. A T-connector’s middle is used for attaching to
Network Interface cards while its end has a Terminator.

The illustration above shows a Thin Coaxial cable setup

Reasons why Thin Coaxial cable is better than Thick coaxial cables

– Thin coaxial cables are less complicated to install and use than its
predecessor

– Despite of reduced in demand, coaxial cables still proved to be more

effective in blocking interferences (EMI/RFI) than twisted pair cables.

• Coaxial cables are still in used and dominantly found in legacy networks.

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 63
The tabulated information above shows the summarized characteristics of the
said coaxial type

Twisted Pair Cables

- contains a set of eight color coded insulators covering the wires inside. The
color-coded wires are then coated by another insulating PVC or Teflon jacket.

Features of a twisted pair cable are stated below:

• It contorts internal wires to reduce signal interferences

• 100 m long cable can be supported
• This is much faster than coaxial cables, as twisted pairs can provide up to
10 Gbps of speed.
A Registered Jack 45 or RJ-45 is a type of a connector mounted to your devices
like routers, modems, etc while the other end of it is linked to your computer's NIC
port. It is also cheaper than T-connectors used in coaxial cables.

The picture above shows what a configured twisted pair network media looks
like

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 64
A twisted pair cable can be divided into two groups, specifically: Shielded
Twisted Pair Cable and Unshielded Twisted Pair cable

1. Shielded Twisted Pair Cable (STP) – commonly has a woven or corrugated

shield that functions a shield for signal interferences (EMI/RFI). An STP
cable has a double coating insulation.

STP and UTP cables

2. Twisted-pair (UTP), has also eight color coded wires with insulation, like
any other twisted pair cable type. It’s only difference with shield twisted pair
cables, is that it does not have an additional shielding like STP cables. This
UTP cable is the most widely used twisted pair cable on LAN networks,
which also reduces signal interference and features a variety of network cable
models that demonstrates how much UTP has evolved over the years since it
was launched.

This type of cable follows the 10BaseT standard for network with

• Cat3 (or Category #3): the initial model of UTP cable and can level up
to 16 Mbps transfer speed
• Cat4 (or Category #4): levels up to 20 Mbps transfer speed

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 65
 • Cat5 (or Category #5) has a huge gap of transmission speed from its
previous models as it can support up to100 Mbps.

• Cat5e (or Category #5 enhanced) is another version of category #5 but

with added features. Unlike the Cat5 cables, it can now support 1Gbps
transfer speed and upgraded its copper wires to achieve a higher
percentage of interference shield.

• Cat6 (or Category #6) its wire pairs are bundled into separated insulation
foils and features a plastic coating immune to fire. It also supports 1 Gbps
transfer rate.

• Cat7 (Category #7) is complex to install and use but proved to be very
effective with signal interferences.

Reasons why UTP cable is better than an STP despite the added insulation are
stated below:

• It is subjected to minimal network failure

• UTP cables have no sheath coatings in its models from cat3 up to
cat5e cables, cause if a sheath covers tears up then the whole cable
malfunctions.
• Connectors and wall outlets do not need additional shielding

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 66
Horizontal cabling refers to network wires linking workstations and servers in a
specific work area. This method mostly supports UTP network media’s starting
from cat5e up to the latest version.

This table above shows the 10BaseT (UTP cable specifications)

This table above shows the 10BaseT (UTP cable specifications)

Illustration that shows how the UTP cable wires should be connected to an
RJ45

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 67
 Straight thru UTP cable and Crossover UTP cable color coding

Lesson 4. Activity No. 1

Name:__________________________________ Score:__________________

Section:_________________________________ Date:__________________

Instructions: The following questions will be based from what you have learned
from the tackled types of network cables so far. The aim of this activity is to assess
what you have comprehended from the different cables and what are their functions
and specifications. Do not copy and paste the answer from your lecture or any
sources on the internet (at least paraphrase the wordings and cite the references of
your sources) Write your answers on the space provided after the question/s.

1. What is a Coaxial cable? And what are the different types of coaxial cables and
describe each of its functions/features and which is better. Expound your answers.

Answer:

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 68
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

2. What is a Twisted pair cable?

Answer:

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

3. Between UTP cables and STP cables, which is better to use and why?

Answer:

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

4. What are the two distinct types of UTP communication media? And what is the
most preferred version?

Answer:

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 69
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

5. Research Activity. What is a straight thru and crossover UTP wire network?

Answer:

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

6. What are the different network cable standards and what organization/s that sets
or implemented those standards?

Answer:

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber-optic (wired cable) is a kind of cable that can be made up of a either

fiber glass/ or plastic cores enclosed inside a glass cladding. Each of these fiber
cores has a PVC cover and the same goes for its glass cladding, as it also has a PVC
cover. Its data transmissions are measured by light or also known as infrared.

There are three common variations of fiber cable are the following:

– 50/125 fiber optic(μm)

•Micrometer (μm): refers to a million of a meters. A nanometer

(nm) a thousand times minuscule than a micrometer (um).
• 50 – refers to the size of the core diameter
• 125- suggested diameter for cladding
– 62.5/125 fiber optic(μm)

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 70
 – 100/140 fiber optic(μm)

Fiber-optic cable

Features of Fiber optic cables

• A fiber optic is utilized as cable plant backbones, which pertains to a part of

a computer network that interconnects distinct components of a network. Can
link communication technologies together in the same building, in different
locations usually in a campus environment. Overall it can join multiple
LANs and connect them to MAN or WAN.
• A fiber optic cable also has a multimode data transmission capacity and
transfer speed can be anywhere from around a hundred Mbps to 100 Gbps.
This type of media is also not susceptible to interferences as this travel
through light pulse. It is also more secure than any other network media
types.

Light transmissions of a fiber optic cable – a light that travels from one node to
another is called a “light wavelength” and can be measured by the smallest unit of
measurement called nano (nm) meters. It’s travel range can be from around seven
hundred up to one thousand six hundred nanometers. Its speed wavelength range are
from 850; 1300 and 1500 nanometers.

• Fiber-optic cables can be classified between:

1. Single Mode – usually used for Communication over great distances and
it also used for 1/125 fiber optic for transmission of data one at a time. The
signal is through a form of “laser light”.

Light waves pass in a straight line in single mode

2. Multimode: from the word itself multi, supports various waves

(broadband). There are two ways to categorize a multimode: step index fiber

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 71
 optic and graded index fiber optic. Its suggested diameter size for cable is
around 50 to 115 um. It also uses a light emitting diode (LED) tom achieve
a high-speed data transmission.

Light waves pass in a refracted manner in multi-mode

• Fiber optic cables have three common types of connectors to support the
varying network needs.

– Subscriber fiber optic connector (SC)

– Straight tip fiber optic connector (ST)
– MTRJ fiber optic connector

The Tabular data above shows the indicators for single mode in a cable
backbone

The Tabular records above shows the indicators for multimode in a cable
backbone

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 72
Hybrid Fiber Optic cables/Coaxial Cables also known as HFC – these cables
has both fibers and coppers inside its core, which can be arranged in distinct
variation to sustain different network needs. HFC’s are commonly used in cable
networks to maximize its bandwidth allowance and lessen the amount of noise
interruption. A promising as it is, HFC deemed to be costly and cannot be fully
installed. Examples of networks that uses HFC cables are the following: POTS
technology also known as Plain old telephone service, Digital television networks,
phone companies, etc

High-speed Technologies used on the internet

Three types of high-speed standards

– Fast Ethernet (IEEE 802.3u)

– Gigabit (Gbps) Ethernet

IEEE 802.3u or fast ethernet - is a 100-megabit internet data rate transfer usually
connected to a UTP. It holds the record as the fastest type of Ethernet standard for
years until the release of gigabit Ethernet. A wide array of fast Ethernet IEEE
802.3u standard versions can be found on the table below along with their
descriptions.

Sample scenario of a 100BaseVG standard

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 73
Two ways of data transmission

Half-duplex: Do not simultaneously allow the sending and receiving of data.

Full-duplex: Has two logical pathways or bi-directional network path that made the
send and receiving of data to simultaneously pass through.

Buses and NICs

Bus refers to logical data pathway inside the computer.

• Common bus types (standards) are stated below:

1. SPARC Bus (also known as SBUS)

2. Microchannel Architecture (also known as MCA)
3. Extended Industry Standard Architecture (also known as EISA)
4. Peripheral Computer Interface (also known as PCI)
5. Industry Standard Architecture (also known as ISA)
6. Universal Serial Bus (also known as USB)

Questions to ponder in choosing a perfect NIC adapter for your network are
stated in below.

All NIC hardware is critical for effective communication as it plays an important

role in communication between two nodes

• Questions to consider when purchasing an NIC

✓ Is will NIC for host computer, server, or workstation?

✓ What kind of throughput does the computer require?
✓ What network media and transport methods are in use?
✓ Who manufactures the NIC?
✓ What is the computer or network equipment type?
✓ What operating system is used by the computer?
✓ Are half-duplex or full-duplex communications used?
✓ If NIC is for a special application, how does it attach?

ACTIVITY Lesson 4. No. 2 Peer to Peer Networking

Instructions: (Group work) study how peer to peer networking in a windows 10

works, then research on how peer to peer networking is configured on other versions
of windows operating system and other operating systems. Create a step by step
instruction about it. Do not forget to give credit to the original content author. Link

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 74
the video instruction. Use your own words or paraphrase your answers. Do not copy
& paste. Rubrics for scoring will be announced by your instructors.

Write your answers on a Microsoft word docx and use times new roman size 14 for
your font.

This is a guide to help you make a folder / file / document that everybody can access
on your computer.

Step 1: Navigate to your desktop

Open the command line or CMD, and then typed in the < cd Desktop > command
to change to the desktop catalog.

You can run the command prompt by clicking the windows button at the bottom left
and typing < cmd >.

Step 2: Create a folder

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 75
Using the < md * folder name*> command. Make sure it's available on your screen.
The md command helps you to create a new folder. Click the space bar after tying
md and set any name for your folder. Put a quotation mark if your folder has two
names.

Step 3: Go to the Folder you just created earlier and right click and open the
Properties

Find the folder that you just created and hover your mouse over it and right-click on
the folder icon. You’ll see the options menu. On the option menu, press the
properties tab. Find the File sharing.

Step 4: Choose the device or node you want to share with.

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 76
Inside the file sharing option find or type < Everyone > and press the Add button
located on upper right side. After you've done this press share, and then switch to
advanced sharing.

The default folder configuration setting is “read-only”. This means that a person can
only access your files/folder but can’t do much anything than to just view it.

Step 5: Sharing your configured folder using peer to peer

Inside the “Advanced Sharing” prompt. Click on the box to share the folder or file,
then go to the permissions section.

Step 6: Changing permissions

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 77
Ensure strict supervision of those with access to the shared folder. Click the
"Apply", then click "Ok" afterwards. After you have clicked OK, you are back to
the advanced share tab.

Step 7: Find the Control Panel

Inside the “Control Panel” look for the “Network and Internet” option and click it.

Step 8: Choosing a network setup and File sharing

On the Network and Internet tab choose “Network and Sharing Center”.

Step 9: Advanced Sharing

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 78
Inside the Network Sharing Center hover your mouse on the top left part of the
screen and click the “Change advanced sharing settings”

Step 10: Choose Home and Work / Public Network for your network type

Inside the “Advanced Sharing settings” choose “Home or Work”

Step 11: Select All Options

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 79
Step 12: Go into Network

Go to your client computer and look for the file explorer. On the left part of your
screen, look for the “Network” tab and click it.

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 80
Step 13: Finding your shared device

Go to the Server PC and check for your shared folder

Step 14: Find the folder that's been shared

Find the Network and click it, once done choose “Shared Folder” and you can find
the folder you have made before in this folder. If you see a green dash underneath
the folder icon, it means that your folder is properly configured.

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 81
 REVIEW QUESTIONS

Name : _________________________________ Score :__________________

Section: _________________________________ Date : __________________

I. Write your answers on the space provided after the number.

_________1. There is a portion of an old network in your building that has backbone
cable marked as RG-8. When you measure the impedance of the cable, what should
be the result showing that the cable is in a good working condition?
A. 50 ohms
B. 35 ohms
C. 22.5 ohms
D. 18 ohms
_________2. Which of the following transmissions uses several transmission
channels on a single communications medium?
A. Bursty
B. Baseband
C. Multicapacity
D. Broadband
_________3. You are installing UTP cable in a building to ensure up to 1Gbps to
the desktop. Which of the following cable types provide assured handling of 1
Gbps? (Choose all that apply.)
A. Category 3
B. Category 5
C. Category 5e
D. Category 6a
_________4. Gigabit Ethernet uses which of the following? (Choose all that apply.)

A. Headend termination
B. Fiber-optic, twisted-pair, and coax cable options
C. CSMA/CD
D. Application Layer padding
_________5. What type of communications cable is used by 10GBaseF?
A. fiber-optic
B. thick coax
C. twisted pair
D. thin coax

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 82
_________6. You have a new computer and a newly released NIC, but when you
try to connect to your school’s network, your computer frequently loses the network
connection. Which of the following might be the problem? (Choose all that apply.)
A. You NIC in the PCI slot, which does not offer fast enough
communications with the computer.
B. Your school uses a ring network, and this is a common problem with these
networks.
C. You forgot to disable the firmware chip for the PCI slot, which interferes
with the firmware chip in the NIC.
D. The driver for the new NIC has some software bugs and you should
download a more recent driver in which the bugs are fixed.
_________7. Hybrid fiber/coax cables are typically used for which type of
installation?
A. Cable to the desktop
B. The NIC's cable connection to a computer's motherboard
C. Networks that use token timing
D. Cable TV infrastructure
_________8. You are consulting for a real estate holding company that is
considering the purchase of an office building in which there is 100BaseT cable and
network equipment installed to each of the offices. You report to the real estate
holding company that the speed of transmissions to the network sockets in each
office is which of the following?
A. 100 Kbps
B. 100 Mbps
C. 100 Gbps
D. 100 Tbps
_________9. Which type of fiber-optic cable is best for long-distance
communications of up to 40 miles or even more?
A. Single-mode
B. Multimode
C. Thicknet
D. Distance-modulated
_________10. Which of the following are the roles played by the MAC controller
unit combined with the firmware of a NIC? (Choose all that apply.)
A. Correctly encapsulating the source and destination address information in
packets and d. setting CRC error control information
B. Detecting whether communications are duplex or nonduplex
C. Adjusting the signal tone of packets
D. Setting CRC error control information

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 83
_________11. You work as a security consultant for federal government agencies,
such as the FBI, and you need to make sure that your work computer running
Windows 7 is secured. One step that you can take is to do which of the following in
relation to your computer’s NIC driver?
A. Make sure you use a 32-bit driver.
B. Use a fast-wireless connection so that it is harder for intruders to capture
data from your computer.
C. Confirm proper driver signing for the NIC driver.
D. Use only a NIC integrated on the motherboard because this type of NIC
is from a secure manufacturer.
_________12. When you install a 100BaseX twisted-pair cable segment, what
should be the length of cable in order to allow for wiring in network devices and
also ensure you are within the wiring specifications?
A. 330 meters
B. 225 meters
C. 124 meters
D. 90 meters
_________13. Step index applies to which type of cable?
A. Graded serial single-mode fiber-optic cable
B. Multimode fiber-optic cable
C. Thicknet
D. Thinner
_________14. One of the users that you support in your company has purchased a
new laptop. He purchased the computer at a computer outlet store, and a salesperson
manually configured the NIC for half-duplex communications. When he attaches
the laptop to the network, and it does not properly communicate. What might you
do first to fix the problem?
A. Set the NIC for 805.ab communications, which is required to use half
duplex.
B. Purchase a transceiver to use between the NIC and the network cable.
C. Reset the computer to use full-duplex communications, because that is
used by connecting devices on the network.
D. Recommend that he take the laptop back to the store, because modern
networks no longer use duplex communications.
_________15. of the following are the types of connectors you might find used with
fiber-optic cable? (Choose all that apply.)
A. Fiber-tip BNC
B. Subscriber connector (SC)
C. Lucent Connector (LC)
D. Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack (MT-RJ)
_________16. Which of the following versions of Fast Ethernet use CSMA/CD?
(Choose all that apply.)
A. 100BaseFX
B. 100BaseT4

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 84
 C. 100BaseT2
D. 100BaseTX
_________17. 10 Gigabit Ethernet operates only at which of the following?
A. full duplex
B. 142 MHz
C. singleplex
D. 10,5482 Gbps
_________18. Which of the following cable types are used with 100GBaseSR4?
(Choose all that apply.)
A. OM3
B. OM4
C. UTP Cat 7r
D. UTP Cat 9SC
_________19. The president of your company has replaced her two-year-old
Microsoft computer with a newer one and wants you, as the network consultant, to
set up her old computer for her administrative assistant. You realize that the NIC in
the president’s old computer, which is in the EISA slot, is damaged, and so you
decide to replace the NIC. What type of slot for a NIC in the computer should you
look for before ordering a new NIC?
A. VL-bus
B. NuBus
C. SBus
D. PCI
_________20. The IT manager in your company wants you to be able to build
twisted-pair cable so there is an alternative if the company unexpectedly runs out of
prebuilt cable. Plus the IT manager believes this will be good knowledge for cable
troubleshooting. What cable connectors should you order to go with the twisted-pair
cable?
A. RG-58
B. RJ-11
C. RJ-45
D. RG-58 A/U

II. ACTIVITY ANALYSIS

Prairie Press is a publishing company that produces books of fiction. The

company employs 32 people and has offices on three floors in a downtown building.
Each employee uses Windows 7 Professional on a desktop or laptop computer.
Prairie Press has two servers running Windows Server 2008 plus a Linux Web
server. Currently, each floor in its building is wired using Category 5e UTP cable.

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 85
The company’s communications devices are outmoded half-duplex hubs and
switches employing 10BaseT throughout the building—on each floor and between
floors. The building is scheduled for renovations, and Prairie Press hires you
through Network Design Consultants to assist in a new network design for a cabled
network. Prairie Press wants to have a cabled network because it has already been
determined that wireless communications would be unreliable due to nearby
interference from radio and microwave broadcast devices.

Activity Analysis 4-1: Desktop Cabling

What speed of communications to the desktop and laptop computers on each

floor do you recommend? What cable medium can be used?

Answer:

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Activity Analysis 4-2: Fat Pipe Cabling

What cabling do you recommend for linking the networks on each floor of
the building? What are the advantages of the cabling that you recommend?

Answer:

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 86
Activity Analysis 4-3: Connecting the Servers to the Network

What cabling options do you recommend for connecting the three servers to
the network? Are there any recommendations you have in terms of the server
hardware?

Answer:

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Activity Analysis 4-4: Workstation NICs

Many of the workstations were purchased a few years ago and have older
NICs. Do you have any recommendations to assure good workstation connectivity
when the new network is in place?

Answer:

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Activity Analysis 4-5: Solving a NIC Communications Problem

During one of your visits to Prairie Press, a managing editor is having

problems connecting her laptop computer to the 10BaseT network already in use.
She is using Windows 7. Outline the steps you would take to troubleshoot this
problem.

Answer:

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 87
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[0]quizlet.com/305991354/hands-on-networking-fundamentals-solution-flash-
cards/

[1]testbankuniv.eu/sample/Hands-On-Networking-Fundamentals-2nd-Edition-
Michael-Palmer-Solutions-Manual.pdf

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Fundamentals-2nd-edition-by-Palmer-Solution-Manual.pdf

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NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 88
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NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 89
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NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 90
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NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 91
[79]course.lib.hku.hk/docs/itc540/Hands-On Networking Fundamentals (1-4188-
3554-4)/ch01.ppt

[80]www.chegg.com/homework-help/hands-on-networking-fundamentals-2nd-
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[81] www.coursehero.com/file/19444573/Chapter-1-Review/

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[83]www.coursehero.com/file/p5284tt/Which-layer-enables-routing-Which-layer-
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[84] from a PlagScan document dated 2019-01-22 20:05

[85]studylib.net/doc/6853390/file

[86] www.termpaperchampions.net/2019/04/18/unit-5-case-study-assignment-1-
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[87]www.coursehero.com/file/38569911/11-1078-Palmer-c04-Solutions-
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[88]ar.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20100508185856AAtBDuf

[89]www.transtutors.com/questions/biscast-cooperation-produces-edible-products-
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[95] www.jblearning.com/samples/0763726761/CH02_Barrett.pdf

NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 92
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[102] quizlet.com/328291669/cti120-midterm-flash-cards/

[103] from a PlagScan document dated 2019-01-22 20:05

[104] from a PlagScan document dated 2019-01-22 20:05

[105] www.slideshare.net/NAkechek/ite-pc-v40chapter8-for-student

[106] www.chegg.com/homework-help/advice-might-new-network-designer-
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[108] answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20090121185248AAaLnEz

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[111]www.coursehero.com/file/39757388/Case-Study-Questions-Page-86-87docx/

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[114] quizplus.com/quiz/33390-quiz-1-networking-an-overview

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NETWORK 1, FUNDAMENTALS 93