ENGINEERING PHYSICS ee BebeEngineering Physics HITENDRA K MALIK Associate Professor Department of Physics Indian Institute of Technolagy Deihi AJAY KUMAR SINGH Assistant Professor Department of Applied Sciences and Humanities Dronacharya College of Engineering Haryana Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited NEW DELHI McGraw-Hill Offices New Delhi NewYork St Louls San Francisco Auckland Bogoté Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon’ Lendon Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal San Juan Santiago Singspore Sydney Tokyo Toronto=) tata McGraw Hill Published by Tita MeGraww Hill Education Private Limited, 7 West Pate] Nagar, New Delhi 110.008 Engineering Physies Copyright © 2010 hy the Tass MeCiraw Hill Education Private Limited No part of this publican may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by amy means, electronic, mechaaical, photocopying, rrding, ox otherwise ar stored ina database or retrieval system without the prior writen permission of the publishes. 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Cover Design: Pixel View Cover Printer: SDR Printers Print Code: ROXLCRQFDDRDRco TE Foreword Prefece Waatkthrowgh Roadmap to the Model Syllabus 1, INTERFERENCE Lt Introduction 1.2 Young’s Double Slit Experiment 1.3 Concept of Waves and Huygens’ Principle 14 Phase Difference and Path Difference LS Coherence 16 Cohetent Sources LT Analytical Treamnen of Interference L8 Conditions for Sustained Interference 1.9 Multiple Beam Superpos 1.10 Taterferenice by Division of Wavefront 111 Interference by Division of Amplitude 1.12 Applications of Interference in the Field of E 1.18 Scientific Applications of Interference 1.14 Homodyne and Heterodyne Detection LAS Suitiary Solved Examples Objectivestype questions Shortanswer questions Practice Problems 2. DIFFRACTION 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Young’s Double Slit Experiment Diffraction or Interference? 2.3 Difference between Diffraction and Interference 24 ‘Typesof Diffraction 2.5. Fresnel’s Half Period Zones ait Al Li Li 12 13 14 16 47 19 Lio Lit La 137 137 139 140 139 160) 1.60. 2 24 21 22 22 24 2.6 Zane Plate 26 2.7 Peesnel’s Diffraction by a Circular Aperture 2.10 2.8 Fraunhofer Diffraction by a Single SI 214 2.9 Fraunhofer Difftaction by Double Slits 219 2.10 Fraunhofer Diffraction by N sts: Diffraction Grating 22 2.11 Application of Diffraction Grating, 229 2.12 Resolving Power of an Optical Instrument 2.30 2.13 Resolving Power ofa Plane Difftaction Grating 232 2.14 Dispersive Power of a Plane Diffraction Grating 233 218 Resolving Powerofa'Telescope 2.34 2.16 Resolving Power of a Microscope 235 217 Summary 237 Solved Examples 2.38 Objectiventype questions 255 Shart-auswer questions 2.56 Practice Problems 237 POLARISATION a1 3.1 Introduction Bul 3.2 Mechanical Experiment Showing Polarisation of Transverse Wave 3.2 3.3 Difference between Unpolarised Light and Polarised Light 32 34 Means of Production of Plane Polarised Light 33 3.5. Theory of Production of Plane, Cineularly and Elliptically Polarised Light as 3.6 Optical Activity 3.18 3.7 Specific Rotation 38 3.8 Laurents Hatf-shade Polarimeter 3.19 3.9 Biquartz Polarimeter 319 3.10 Saccharimeter 3.20 3.11 Photoclasticity 321vii 3.12 Contents Summary Solved Exauiples Objectivetypre questions Short-answer questions Practice Problems LASERS AND HOLOGRAPHY 41 42 43 44 45 46 4a 48 49 4.10 4 42 43 Introduetion Absorption and Emission of Radiation Charactetistic of Laser Light Main Components of Laser ‘Types of Laser Applications of Lasers Laser Cooling Holography Holography Versus Conventional Photography Recording and Reconstruction of Image on Holograph ‘Types of Holograms Applications af Holography Summary Solved Exauples Objective-type questions Practice Problems FIBRE OPTICS. 5.1 52 53 54 38 56 BT 58 89 5.10 Intraduetion Fundamental Ideas about Optical Fibre ‘Types of Optical Fibres Aeceptance Angle and Numerical Apertur Fibre Optics € Optical Fibre Sensors Optical Fibre Connector Optical Fibre Couplers Applications af Optical Fibre Couplers Summary Solved Exaneples Objective-type questtons Short-answer questions Practice Problems 3.22 3.23 331 332 3.33 4a 4t 42 48 46 47 413 aad as Aas 4.16 418 4at 423 423 428 429 Sa st 32 33 33 58 SL 5az 513 53 5.4 Sas 520 5.22 522 6. h ELECTRON OPTICS 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Spocifie Charge ofan Electron 63. Determination of Specific Charge of an Electron: ‘Thomsan’s Method 64 Motion of an Electron in Uniform Elecitie and Magnetic Fields 6.5 Electrostatic and Magnetostatie Focusing 6.6 Scanning Electron Mictoscoyne (SEM) 6.7 Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) 68 Summary Solved Examples Objectivestype questions Practice Problems WAVES AND OSCILLATIONS 7.1 Intmduction 7.2 Translational Motion 7.3. Vibrational or Oscillatory Motion 74 Simple Harmonie Motion (SHIM) 7.5 _ Differential Equation of S.H.M, and its Solution 7.6 Simple Pendulum 7.7 Mass-String System 7.8 Damped Harmonic Oseillator 7.9 Attenuation Coefficients of a Vibrating System 7.10. Forced Vibrations 7.11 Resonance 7.12 Summary Safved Examples Objective-type questions Short-answer questions Practice Problems 61 6 6 6 63 612 64 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.25 6.26 MW TW TM 72 73 18 79 7a 74 7.16 719 7.20 722 na? 728 729 SOUND WAVES AND ACOUSTICS OF BUILDINGS 8.1 Introduction 82 Types of Acoustics gL 8283 Ra &S 86 87 BE 89 8.0 Audible, Ultrasonic and Infrasonie waves Piezoelectric Effeet Principle of Ultrasonic ‘Transducers Production and Aj ‘of Ultrasonic Waves Recording and Reproduction ‘of Sound Acoustics of Buildings Factors Affecting the Architectural Acoustics Summary Solved Examples Objective-type questions Tiwe or Falve Practice Problems ications 9. DIELECTRICS OL 92 93 o4 os 26 OT Os 99 910 Introduction Dieleetrie Constant ‘Types of Dieleetries Polarisation of Dielectrics ‘Types of Polarisation ‘Gauss’s Law in Diclects Encrgy Stored in an Electrostatic Field Dieleetric Lass ‘Clausius-Mosotti Equation Summary Solved Examptes Objecrive-type questions Shoriarnswer questions Practice Problems ELECTROMAGNETISM 101 w2 103 104 tos 106 107 108 Introduction ‘Charge Density Del Operator Gradient Divergence Curl Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Fund: Gradient rntal Theorea for 85 86 87 8.10, a4 8.16. 8.17 822 8.26 8.27 9 oA O41 92 92 94 98 96 98 99 9.10 on 913. cary a4 10.1 14 104 102 103, tod 105 1o6 106 10.9 1.10 toy 12 HA 114 10s WAG Wi7 Has may 10.20 1021 10.22 10.23 1024 1025 10.26 1027 10.28 10.29 1030 131 132 1033 Contents Gause’s or Green's Theorem Stokes’ Theorem Electric Field and Electic Potential Poisson's and Laplace's Equations Capacitor Gauss’s Theorem Magneti¢ Flux Density (B) Magnetic Field Strength (Hl) Ampere’s Citeuital Law Fleetrostatie Boundary Conditions Sealat and Vector Patentials Continuity Equation Maxwell's Equations Differential Form Maxwell's Bquati Integral Form Significance of Maxwell's Equations Maxwell's Displacement Current and Correction in Ampere's Law Bletromagnetic Wave Propagation Transverse Nature of Blectromegnetic Waves, Maxwell's Equations Isotropic Dielectric Medium Maxwell's Equations in Conducting Medium Flectromagnetic Energy Density Poynting Weetor and Poynting “theorem Wave Propagatio System: Waveguide Coaxial Cable Summary Solved Examples Objeetive-type questions. Shortanswer questions Bounded Practice Problems 1. THEORY OF RELATIVITY 1d Introduction 106 10.7 10.7 10.8 109 10.10 1.1L Ww.l wl 10.12 Wold 10.14 10.15 118 10.20 wrt 10.22 10.25 10.25 10.27 10.29 10.29 1.31 10.33 134 10.37 w.49 1031 1st 11 Lt7 18 19 1.0 uu nz Contents Frame of Reference Galilean Transformat Michelson-Morley Experiment Postulates of Special ‘Theory of Relativity Lorentz Transformation Length Contraction ‘Time Dilation Addition of Velocities Variation of Mass with Velocity Einstein's Mass Energy Relation Summary Solved Examples Objective-type questions Skort-answer questions Practice Problems 12, APPLIED NUCLEAR PHYSICS 4 122 123 na 14s 126 12,7 128 129 Inteaduetion Radioactivity Discovery af Neutron Nuclear Reactions Conservation Laws Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion Controlled Fusion Particle Accelerators Summary Solved Examples Objecsive.type qnesiions Short-answer questions Practice Problems 13, CRYSTAL STRUCTURE. Bd 2 133 BA ins 13.6 wa 138 Ba Intraduetion Types of Solids Unit Cell ‘Types af Crystals Translation Vectors Lattice Planes Miller Tadices Simple Crystal Structures Coordination Nuriber ut 2 ut ut ug 110 110 a2 13.10 nn 13.12 B13 1314 13.15 13.16 1317 Interplanar Spacing Nearest Neighbour Distance and Atomic Radius Packing Frac Potential Energy Curve and ‘Nature of Interatomie Fonces Different Types of Bonding Fores Crystal Struct Point Defee Summary Solved Examples Objective-type questions Shortanswee questions Pruetice Problems e Analysis ids 14, DEVELOPMENT OF QUANTUM MECHANICS Md 142 143 4 4s 146 Wa 148 49 14.10, Intaduction Blackbody Radiation Spectral Distribution Planck's Quantum Hypathesis Simple Concept of Quantum Theary Wave Particle Duality Photoelectric Effect deBroglie Waves Matter Waves Compton Effect Compton Scattering Phase and Group Velocities deBroglie Waves Summary Solved Examples Objecrive-type questions Shortanswer questions Practice Proftems 1S, QUANTUM MECHANICS isa 152 133 134 Introduction Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Wave Function and its Physical Significance Time Independent Schroedinger Equation 15 157 15816. bs 156 15.7 16g 159 ‘Timesdependent Sehroedinger Equation ‘Operators Applications of Schrocdinger Equation ‘Quantum Siatisties. Summary Solved Examples Objective-type questions Shorivernswer questions Practice Problems FREE ELECTRON THEORY 16.1 162 16S 166 167 Introduction Lorentz ~ Drude Theory ‘Classical Free Electron Theory of Metals Applications of Lorents ~ Drude Theory Limitations of Lorentz ~ Drude ‘or Free Electron Theory ‘Quantum Theory oF Free Electrons ‘Thermionie Emission Summary Solved Examptes Objcesive-type questions Shorterswer questions Practice Prablems BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS ml m2 m3 m4 ms 16 7 178 m9 Introduction Kronig — Penney Mo ‘One- and Two-Dimes Brillouin Zones Effective Mass of an Ek Distinction between Insulators, Semi conductors and ‘Conductors (Metals) Inteinsie Semiconductor Exerinsic Semiconductor Half Effect Summary Solved Examptes Objectivestype questions Practice Pribleiies 159 15.10 15.11 1521 15.23 Is.24 1.4 15.35 15.36 16.1 let 162. 162 165 les 16.10 1613 16.14 16,19 1620 1620 11 Ww 2 ns 76 8 1710 3 ITS 107 17s 1721 17.22 Contents 18. MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 18.1 182 183 184 18S 18.6 18.7 18 18.9 11 18.11 18.12 13 14 Introduction Magnetic Moment of an Fleetron Classification of Magnetic, Materials Comparison of Propertics of Paramagnetie, Diamagnetic and Femmomagnetie Materials Classical Theory of 2 (Langevin’s Theory) Classical Theory of Paramagnetism (Langevin's Theory) Classical Theory of Ferrotagnetisin Hysteresis: Nonlinear _ Relationship between Band Ti Energy Loss Due to Hysteresis Importance of Hysteresis Curve Magnetic Cireuits Forces an Magnetic Materials Magnetic Materials aid theit Applications summary Solved Examyrtes Objective-bype questions Short-answer quesitons Practice Problems 19. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY 19.1 192 193 194 19.5 19.6 197 19.8 19.9 Introduction Flectrical Resistivity of Solids and Phonons Properties of Superconductors Classification of Superconductors Landon Equation Isotope Effect Effect of Magnetic Field Penetration Depth Cooper Pais 18.1 181 184 18.5 18.8 18.12 18.13 11d 18.15 18,15 18.16 18.16, 18,18, 18.21 18.29 18.30 18.30, 19.1 19d 191 192 193 194 19.5 196 196 198aii Contents 19:10 Bose Einsicin Condensation 19,11 BCS Theory: Qualitative Explanation 19.12 Coherence Length 19.13 High Temperature (H-Te) Superconductivit 19.14 Application of Supreteonductivity 19.18 Summary Solved Exampler Objeetive-type questions Shortanswer questions Practice Problems 20, X-RAYS 20.1 Intraduetion 20.2 Origin of X-rays 20.3 Properties of X-rays 204° X-ray Speetra 20.5 Moseley's Law 20.6 Practical Applications of X-rays 20.7 Summary Solved Examples Objective-type questions 198 198 199 19.10 19.10 1901 19.13, 19.17 19.18, 19.18 20.1 20.1 20.1 m2 202 204 20.6 20.6 20.7 20.13 Shortanswer questions 20.14 Practice Problems 20.18 21, PHOTOCONDUCTIVITY AND PHOTOVOLTAICS md 211 Intraduction a4 21.2 Simple Model of Photoconductor 21.1 21.3. Effect of Traps Applications of Photacond Photoelectric Cell Summary Objectivetype questions Practice Problems 22. NANOPHYSICS 2d 22.1 Tntreduction 22.1 22.2 Properties of Nanoparticles 22.2 22.3) Carbon Nanotubes, 226 22.4 Synthesis of Nanoparticles 227 22.5 Applicationsef Nanotechnology = 22.11 22.6 Summary 2213 Solved Examples 22.13 Objective-nype questions 24 Practice Problems 25 INDEX IP FOREWORD It gives me immense pleasure to see the present texthook on “Enginecring Physics” which covers almost the entire syllabus taught at undergraduate Ievel at different engineering, book written ita very simple language. The text is comprehensive and the explanation of topies is commendable, I understand that this book carties all the elements required fora good presentation Thave been a student of IIT Kharagpur and later on taught at IIT Delhi. Being. part of the IIT system, I rceognise that the rigorous and enriching teaching experience at INTs originating from the interaction with the best engineering students and their strong feedback results in continvous evolution and sefinement of the teachers. This spirit is reflected in the comprehensive and depth handling of important topics in a very sitiple manier in this book. Lam happy to fote that this textbook has been penned down by Lian and hope that it would serve to be a good texthook on the subject. ince this hook also covers advanced to :portant learning resource far the teachers, and those students who wish to develop research ue higher studies. T hope that the honk is well received in the academic world. Besa ora Professor Prem Vrat ice-Chancellor, U.P. Technical University, Lucknow Pounder Director, IIT RoorkeeP REFACE Physics is a mandatory subject for all enginecring students, where almost all the important clements of the subject are covered, Finally, these evolve as different branches of the engineering course. The book eutitled Engineering Physics has heen written keeping in mind the need of undergraduate students. from various engineering and science colleges of all Indian universities. It caters to the complete syllabus for both_Physies-1 and Physies-Il papers in the first year Engineering Physies course. The aim of writing this book has been to present the material in a concise and very simple way so that even weak students can grasp the fundamentals, In view of this, every chapter starts with a simple introduction and then related topics are covered with a detailed description along with the help of figures. Particularly the solved problems (eompiled trom University Question Papers) are atthe end of each chapter, These problems are not merely numerical; many af them focus on reasoning and require thoughtful analysis, Finally, the chapter catty unsalved questions based of c students would be able to test their kiniwledge as to: what they have acquired after going through various chapters, A chapter-end summary ancl list of important formulae will be helpful to students for a quick review during examinations, The rich pedagogy consists of solved examples (450), objective-type questions (230), short-answer questions (224) and practice problems (617). The manuscript has been formulated in such a way that students shall grasp the subject easily and save their ime as well. Since the complete syllabus is covered in a single books, it would be highly convenient to both. The manuscri s which have been prepared as per the syllabus taught in various and inst inusctip discusses optics, lasers, holography, fibre optics, waves, ss of buildings, eleetromagnetism, theory of relativity, nuclear physies, solid state physics, quantum physics, magnetic properties of solids, superconductivity, photaconduetivity and photovoltaic, X-rays and hnanaphy sics in a systematic manner, We have discussed advanced topics such as laser cooling, Bose-Einstein condensation, scanning electron microscope (SEM), scanning tunnelling microscope (STM), cantralled fusion including plasma, Lawson criterion, inertial confinement fusion (ICF), plasma based accelerators, namely, plasma wake field accelerator, plasma beat wave aecelerator, laser wake field accelerator and self modulated Laser wake field accelerator, and nanophysies with special emphasis on properties of nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, synthesis of nanoparticles and applications of nanotechnology, These will be of interest to the teachers who are involved in teaching postgraduate courses at the universities and the students who opt for higher studies and research as their career. Moreover, a serics af review questions and probletts at the end of each chapter together with the solved questions would serve as a question bank for the students preparing for various competitive examinations, They will get an opportunity to learn the subject and test their knowledge om the same platform The structuring of the baok provides in-depth coverage of all topics. Chapter 1 discusses Interference. Chapter 2 is on Diffiaction, Chapter 3 is devoted to Polarization, Coherence and Lasers are described in Chapter 4, Chapter $ discusses Fibre Optics and its Applications, while Electron Optics is dealt with in Chapter 6 Chapter 7 describes Waves and Oscillations. Chapter 8 is on Sound Waves and Acoustics. Chapter 9 is on Dislectries, Electromagnetic Wave Propagation is deseribed in Chapter 10. Chapter 11 discusses the Theory of Relativity. Chapter 12 is devoted to Nuclear Physics. Crystal Structure is described in Chapter 13. Chapter 14 deals with the Development of Quantum Physies, while Chapter 15 is on Quantum Mechanics. Chapter 16 discusses Free Electron Theory, Band Theory of Solids is explained in Chapter 17, Chapter 18 describesxi Preface the Magnetic Properties of Solids. Chapter 19 is on Superconductivity. Chapter 20 explains X-rays in detail while Chapter 21 is on Photoconductivity and Photovoltaics, Finally, Chapter 22 discusses Nanophysies in great detail, The manuscript has been organised such that it provides a link besween different topics oF a chapter. In order to make it simpler, all the necessary mathematical steps have been given and the phys feature of the mathematical expressions is discussed as and when required. The exhaustive OLC supplements of the book can be ac contain the following: For Instructors «+ Solution Manual + Chapter-wise PowerPoint slides with diagrams and nows for effective lecture presentations, For Students + A sample chapter «+ Link to reference material + Solved Model Question Paper + Answers fo objective type questions given in the book, ‘We would like to thank the entire team of Tata MeGraw Hill Edueation specifically Vibha Mahajan, Shalini Jha, Tina Jajoriya, Dipika Dey, Sohini Mukherji, Priyanka Negi and Baldev Raj for bringing out this book in fa Very shirt tthe span. The reviewers of the book also deserve a special mention fox taking Out lime to review the book. Their names are given below. AK Jain HT Roorkee Dhirendra Kumar Mevrat Institute of Engineering and Technology, Uttar Pradesh Vinay Kum: SRMS CET, Bareilly Preraa Garg Meerut Insittute of Technology, Uttar Pradesh Amit Kumar Srivastava dnieurat lnsiinite of Technology ane Management, Lucknow Shyam Singh Arvavart Instinute of Technology and Management, Lucknow RS Tiwari Apotia Institute of Engineering, Kanpur Kamlesh Pathak SVNIT, Surat, Gujarat Kanti Jotani MS Universit Baroda, Gujarat Vijayalakshmi Sanyal Sharaihivar College of Engineering and Technology, Karaikal, Faneit Nadu AK Meikap NET, Durgapur West Bengal K Sivakumar Anna University, Chennai HK Malik Ajay K Singh Publisher's Note: rata MeGraw Hill Education looks forward to receiving from teachers and stuclents theit valuable views, comments and suggestions for improvement, all af which may be sent to tmh.corefecdthackii gmail.com, mentioning the file and author's name ta the subject Hine. Any piracy related issues can alsa be reported 10 this emailWALKTHROUGH Each chapter begins with an Introduction that gives a brief summary of the background and contents of the chapter. [fF Sections and Sub-sections Each chapter has been nally divided into retevant seetions and sub-scetions so that the text material ‘is presented in g logical progression of concepts and ideas,dilustrations Illustrations are an important tool in the presentation of text material The reader of the text would come across ample number of diageams/illustrations provided in each chapter to effectively discuss the concepts of engineering. physics Solved Examples (450) are provided in sufficient number in each chapterand at appropriate locations, to aid in understanding of the text material.WF kiana Advanced Topics like Nanophysies, an essential part of the sy Applied Nuclear Pphes physics “Applic Applications like Controlled Fusion Reaction, Particle Accelerators (Basics af Plasma) are ‘explained in detail with relevant (opies. A bulleted summary gives the essence of each important topic discussed in the chapter for a ‘quick recap.PP Objective-type questions ; nt Objective-type questions enable the user to have a & clear comprehension of the subject matter, Answers 10 all the objective questions are provided inthe online learning centre of the book. A sot off (850) questions are given 5 exercise to, the students. Further divided imo. Short-answer ‘Questions and Long-Answer Questions and are: very helpfil to teachers in setting class work, assignments, quizzes. and examinations. tn some chapters, numerical problems with answers, under the heading “Unsolved Questions’, are also given. ‘Readers can assess their knowledge by answering the objective-type questions and shor-ansieer ‘questions given at the end of the book. r Practice Problems Practice problems, in the eategery of general and unsolved questions provide an opportunity to students to reinforce his or her leaming and gain confidence,Roadmap to the Model Syllabus Chapter 15 Interference Chapter 2 Diffraction Chapter Polarisation Chapter 20 X-Rays 9 Suparconductivity : and Photevaltaics Chapter 11: Theory of Relativity Chapter 17! Band theory of Solids Chapter 18° Magnetic Properties af Solids Chapter T! Waves and Oscillations lectromagnetie Wave Propagation Chapter 9 Dielectricswail Roadmap to the Model Syllabus Chapter 10: Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Chapter 14° Development of Quantum Mechanics ‘Chapter 15° Quantum Mechanics ypter 16° Free Electron Theory ‘Chapter 5: Fibro Opties and its Applications Chapter 22: Nano PhysicsInterference (14 INTRODUCTION — You would have seen beautiful colours in soap films or patel of oil foating on the surface of water. Moreover, the colour gets changed when you watch it from different angles, Did you ever try to find out the reason? In scientific language, this takes place due to the phenamenon of interference. The phenomenon of interference of light tells us about the wave nature of the Tight. In optics, the interference means the superposition of bwo or more waves which resulisin anew wave pattern, Here, awe are talking about the interaction of waves emenging from the same source or when the frequencies ‘af these waves are the same. In the context of light, which is an electromagnetic wave, we say that ‘when the Light érom two different sources moves in the same direction, then these light wave tains superimpose upon each other. This results in the modification of distribution of intensity of light According to the principle of superposition, this is called the interference of light, More precisely the interference can be defined as the interaction between two or more waves of the same or very. close frequencies emitted from coherent sources (defined later), where the wavefzonts are combined according to the principle of superposition. The resulting variation in the disturbances produced ‘by the waves is called the interference pattern, Thomas Young, in 1802, explained the interference successfully in his double slit experiment [12 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT ‘The phenomenon of interference may be better understood by taking two point light saurees S, and S, ‘which proxhuce similar waves (Fig, 1.1). Let the sources 8, and S, be at equal distances from the main source § whilebeing close toeach other, Since the sources emit waves inal] the directions, the spherical ‘waves first pass through S and then S, and S.. Finally these waves expand inta the space. The crests of ‘the waves are represented by complete ares and the troughs by dotted ares. It is seen that constructive interference takes place at the points where the erests duc to one souree meet the crests due to another Souree or where their troughs meet exch other. In this ease, the resultant amplitude will he the sunt of ‘the amplitudes of the separate waves and hence the intensity of the fight will be maximum at these points, Similarly, at those paints where crests dhe to one source meet the troaghs due to another source ‘or vice-versa, the resultant amplitude will be the difference of the amplitudes of the separate waves. At ‘these points the intensity of the waves ¢or light) will be minimum, Therefore, due to the intersection ‘of these lines, alternate bright and dark fringes are observed on the sereen placed at the right side ‘of the sources S, and S,, These fringes are obtained due ta the phentomenon of interference of light,12 Engineering Physies , 1.3 CONCEPT OF WAVES AND HUYGENS’ PRINCIPLE Awave is a disturbance that propagates through space and time, usually with the transference of energy from one point to another without any particle of the medium being permanently displaced. Under this situation, the particles only oscillate about their equilibrium positions, If the oscillations of the particles are in the direction of wave propagation, then the wave is called longitudinal wave. However, if these oseillations ke place in perpendicular direction with the direction of wave propagation, the wave is said to be transverse in nature, In electromagnetic waves, such as light waves, it is the changes in electric and magnetic fields which represemt the wave disturbance. The progress of the wave is described by the passage of a waveform through the medium with a certain velocity called the phase velocity or wave velocity. However, the energy is transfered at the group velocity of the waves making the waveform. ‘The wave theory of the light was proposed in 1678 by Hig.gens, a Dutch scientist. On the basis of his wave theory, he explained satisfactorily the phenomena of reflections, refraction ete, In the beginning, Huygens’ supposed that these waves are longitudinal waves but later he came:to know that these waves are transverse in nature. Huygens” gave a hypothesis for geometrical construction of the position of a common waveftont at any instant when the propagation of waves takes place in medium, The waveftont isan imaginary surface joining the points ofeonstant phase in a wave propagated through the medium. The way in which the wavefnont is propagated further in the medium is given by Huygens’ principle. This principle is based on the following assumptions: (i) Each point on the given wavefront acts as a source of secondary wavelets (ii) The secondary wavelets from cack point travel through space in all the directions with velocity of light. (iii) A surface touching the secondary wavelets tangentially in the forward direction at any given time constructs the new wavefront at that instant, This is known as secondary wavefront, In order to demonstrate the Huygens’ principle, we consider the propagation of a spherical wavefront(Fig, 1.2a) or plane wavefront (Fig. 1.2b) in an isotropic (uniform) medium (for example, ether) emerging from a source of light 8, At any time, suppose PQ is a section of the primary wavefront drawn from the source 8. To find the position of the wavefront after an interval = 4, we take points 1, 2, 3, ... on the primary wavefrontInterfo 13 PQ. As per Huygens’ principle, these points act as the source of secondary wavelets. Taking each point as the centre, we draw spheres of radii ct, where ¢ is the speed of light. These spherical surfaces represent the position of secondary wavelets at time t, Further, we draw a surface P,Q, that touches tangentially all these secondary wavelets in the forward direction. This surface P,Q, is the secondary wavefront Another surface P,Q, in the backward direction is not called the secondary wavetrent as there is ne backward flow of the energy during the propagation af the light waves. )P 14 PHASE DIFFERENCE AND PATH DIFFERENCE As mentioned, the interference pattem is obtained when the two or more waves superimpose each other. In onder to understand this pattern it is very important to know about the path and phase differences between the interfering waves. 1.4.1 Phase Difference ‘Two waves that have the same frequencies and different phases are known to have a phase difference and are said to be out of phase with each other. If the phase difference is 180’, them the two waves are said to be in antiphase and if itis 0°, then they are in phase as shown in Fig. 1.3. If the two interfering waves meet at a point where they ate in antiphase, then the desteuctive interference occurs. However, if these two waves meet at a point where they are in the same phase, then the constructive interference takes place. Figure 1314 Engineering Physies 1.4.2 Path Difference In Fig. 1.4, while the two wave crests are traveling a different distance from their sources, they meet ata point P in such a way that a crest meets a crest. For this particular location on the pattern, the difference in distance traveled is known as path difference. 1.4.3 Relation between Path Difference and Phase Difference tis clear from the positions of crests or troughs of the waves that if the path difference between the two waves is equal to the wavelength A, the corresponding phase difference is 2a (180%), Suppose for a path difference of 8 the corresponding phase difference is . Then it is clear that 2n == 5 ¢ h batt (Path difference) Phase difference = 2 x Path difference (i) d ‘The above can be made clearer with the help of Fig. 14, where two sources of waves S, and S, are shown. The wavelength af these sources is 4 and the sources are in phase at S, and S,. The frequencies of both the waves are taken to be the same as f. Therefore, the angular frequency @ = 27f. They travel at the same speed and the propagation constant far them is «= 2 We can write the wave equations far both the waves at point Pas 1, =a €08((ot — ky; ) for the wave emerging from source S, and 45 = acos(ot — kr, ) for the wave emerging from source §, Here (or — 4; )is the phase @, and (ot — 4%, is the phase 4, Therefore, the phase difference between them ish, — by given by 6, —, set —ky, —@rt kr, = k(y — Using Eq.i) and & Ud ihe path difference is abtained as Path difference 8 = 75 —7, P 5 COHERENCE Coherence is a property of waves that helps getting stationary interference, i.e. the interference which is temporally and spatially constant. During interference the waves add constructively or subtract destructively. depending on their relative phase. Two waves are said to be coherent if they have a constant relative phase.Interfo 15 that exists between the phases of the wave measured at different points. The coherence of a wave depends ‘on the characteristics of its source, 1.5.1 Temporal Coherence ‘Temporal coherence is a measure of the correlation between the phases of a wave (light) at different points along the direction of wave propagation, If the phase difference of the wave crossing the two points lying along the direction of wave propagation is independent of time, then the wave is said to have temporal coherence. Temporal coherence is also known as longitudinal coherence. This tells us how monochromatic a source is, In Fig. 1.5a, a wave traveling along the positive x-direction is shown, where two points A and B are lying on the x-axis. Let the phases of the wave at these points at any instant 1 be 6, and , respectively, and ata later time ¢ they be g,’ and @,'. Under this situation, if the phase difference }, ~ , = 4," ~ 6,’ then the wave is said to have temporal coherence, axis 15.2 Spatial Coherence Spatial coherence is a measure of the correlation between the phases of a wave (light) at different points transverse to the direction of propagation. If the phase difference of the waves crossing the two points ly ‘ona plane perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation is independent of time, then the wave is said fo have spatial coherence. This tells us how uniform the phase of the waveftont is. In Fig. 1.5b, a wave traveling along the positive x-direction is shown, where PQRS is a transverse plane and A and B are the two points situated on this plane within the waveforms, Let the waves crossing these points at any time t have the same phase and at a later time t’ the phases of the waves are again the same but equal to". Under this situation, the waves are said to have spatial coherence. Figure 1.5b- 1.5.3 Coherence Time and Coherence Length A monochromatic source of light emits radiation of a single frequency (or wavelength). In practice, however,1.6 Engineering Physies the time interval over which the phase remains constant is called the coherence time, The coherence time is generally represented by At. In a monochromatic sinusoidal wave the coherence time is infinity because the phase remains constant throughout, However, practially the coherence time exists and the distance traveled by the light pulses during this coherence time is known as coherence length AL. The coherence length is also called the spatial interval, which is the length over which the phase of the wave remains constant. The coherence length and coherence time are related to each other according to the following formula =cAt fF 1.6 COHERENT SOURCE! Two sources of light are said to be coherent, if they emit waves of the same frequency (or wavelength), nearly the same amplitude and maintain a constant phase difference between them. Laser is a good example of coherent source. In actual practice it is not possible to have two independent sources which are coherent. This can be explained as follows. A source of light consists of large number of atoms, According to the atomic theory, each atom consists of a central nucleus and the electrons revolve around the nucleus in different orbits, When an atom gets sufficient energy by any means, its electrons jump from lower energy level 10 higher energy level. This state of an atom is called an exeited state. The electron lives in this state only for about 10° seconds, Afier this interval of time the electrons fall back to the inner orbits. During this process, the atoms radiate energy in the formof light. Out of the large number of atoms some of them emit light at any instant of time and at the next instant other atoms do so and so on. This results in the emission of light waves with different phases, So this is clear that it is difficult to get coherent light from different parts of the same source (Fig. 1.6). Therefore, two independent sources of light can never act as coherent sources, Many Source Points Many Wavelengths Figure 1.6 1.6.1 Production of Coherent Light from Incoherent Sources An ordinary light bulb is an example of an incoherent source. We ean produce coherent light from such incoherent source, though we will have to throw away a lot of the light, If'we spatially fier the light coming from such source, we cam increase the spatial coherence (Fig. 1.7). Further, spectrally filtering of the lightInterference 17 increases the temporal coherence. This way we can produce the coherent light from the incoherent source. Spatial iter Spectral Fitter Figure 1.7 r 1.7 ANALYTICAL TREATMENT OF INTERFERENCE us consider the superposition of two waves of same frequency «@ and a constant phase difference in the same direction, Their amplitudes are taken as a, and a,, respectively. The displacement due to one wave at any instant is given by Li vy, =a, sin ot @ and the displacement due to another wave at the same instant is given by y, =a, sin (ot + 6) (ii) According to the principle of superposition, the resultant displacement (y,) is given by We EY iy =a, sin wt +a, sin (mt +o) sin ot +a, sin wt cos }+ a, eos ant sin =(a, +a, cos 6) sin ot + a, sin } cos wt (ivy Assuming a, +a,008 6= A cos @ w a,sing= Asin @ vi) ‘We obtain using Eq, (iv) ~ (vi) in (ot + 0) (vii) ‘On squaring and adding Eqs. (v) and (vi), we have A? (sin’® + cos" 8) a,2sin' } +42 + 2a," cas b+ a2 cast AP=a2+2aa,cos (viii) ‘The resultant intensity is therefore given by . ae A ay18 Engineering Physies The angle 6 can be calculated from Eqs, (v) and (vi) as pe asind fan +a, cos &) 1.7.1 Condition for Constructive Interference. It is clear from Eq. (ix) that the intensity, I will be maximum at points where the values of cos are +1, i.e, phase difference 6 be 2m, with n= 0, 1, 2, 3, Then the maximum intensity is ablained from Eq. (ix) as Tay = (a, +4, (xi) le of 2x. In this In other words, the intensity will be maximum when the phase difference is an integral mu! case, I fafta Thus, the resultant intensity will be greater than the sum of the individual intensities of the waves. Ita, . then mn = 4 1,7.2 Condition for Destructive Interference: It is clear from Eq, (ix) that the intensity | will be minimum at points where cos 4 = —L. ie., where phase difference 6 = (2+ Li, with m= 0, 1,2, 3,.... Then Eq. tix) gives Jug = (@,- a) (xii ‘Therefore, it is clear that in destructive interference the intensity will be minimum when the phase difference is an odd multiple of x, Ifa, =a, then |, Ifa, #ay then le Tyg S02 ba? Thus, in the ease of destructive interference the resultant intensity will be less than the sum of the individual intensities of the waves. Fig. 1.8 represents the intensity variation with phase differences graphically (for a, = 0, =a) RA atx bx Sx de x Bn“ Figure 13 |Interference 19 1.7.3 Conservation of Energy ‘The resultant intensity due tothe interference of wo waves, a, = sin (cat +) is given by Eq, (ix), repraduced below I= a2+a2+ 2a, cos} + 2aya,= (a, a, (a,- 4, Ifa, L., = da? and I, = 0 ‘Therefore, average intensity (I,,) will be obtained as L=20 For unequal amplitudes a, and a, the average intensity would be (a,7+ a). Thus, in interference only same part of energy is transferred from the position of minima to the position of maxima, and the average intensity ‘or energy remains constant. This shows that the phenomenon of interference is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy. )F 18 CONDITIONS FOR SUSTAINED INTERFERENCE ‘Sustained interference means a constant interference of light waves. In onder to obtain such interference, the following conditions must be satisfied (i) The two sources should emit waves of the same frequency (wavelength). If it is not so, then the positions of maxima and minima will change with time, The waves from the two sources should propagate along the same direction with cqual specds, he phase difference between the two interfering waves should be zero or it should remain constant, Ic means the sources emitting these waves must be coherent Civ) The two coherent sources should be very close to each other, otherwise the interference fringes will be very close to each other due to the large path difference between the interfering waves, For the large Separation of the sources, the fringes may even overlap and the maxima and minima will not appear distinctly, (v) Areasonable distance between the sources and screen should be kept, as the maxima and minima appear quite close if this distance is smaller, On the other hand, the large distance of the screen reduces the intensity. (vi) In onder to obtain distinet and clear maxima and minima, the amplitudes of the two interfering waves must be equal of nearly equal. (vii) If the source is not narrow, it may act as a multi source. This will lead to a number of interference patterns. Therefore, the coherent sources must be narrow. (viii) In order to obtain the pattern with constant fringe width and good intensity fringes, the sources should be monochromatic and the background should be dark. 1,8.1 Condition of Relative Phase Shift This is regarding the introduction of additional phase change between the interfering waves when they emerge after reflecting from two different surfaces. In most of the situations. the reflection takes place when the beam1.10 Engineering Physies When the reflection occurs with light going from a lower index toward a higher index, the condition is called internal reflection, However, when the reflection occurs for light going from a higher index toward a lower index, the condition is referred to as external reflection, A relative phase shift of x takes place between the externally and internally reflected beams so that an additional path difference of 3/2 is introduced between the two beams, If both the interfering beams get either internally or extemally reflected, no phase shift takes place between them, y MULTIPLE BEAM SUPERPOSITION In Section 1.7, we have given theoretical analysis of the interference due to the superposition of twa waves of the same frequency and the constant phase difference. The intensity of the interference pattern showed its dependence on the amplitudes of the interfering waves. However, now we consider a large number of waves of the same frequency and amplitude, which propagate in the same direction. The amount by which each wave train is ahead or lags behind the other is a matter of chance, Based on the amplitude and intensity of the resultant wave, we can examine the interference. We assume » number of wave trains whose individual amplitudes are equal (= a, say). The amplitude of the resultant wave can be understood as the amplitude of motion of a particle undergoing m simple harmonic motions (each of amplitude a) at once. In this ease, if all these motions are in the same phase, the resultant wave will have an amplitude equal to a and the intensity would be n°, ic. 1° times that of one wave. However, in our ease, the phases are distributed purely at random, as shown in Fig. 1.9 as per graphical method of compounding amplitudes, Here, the phases 4,» $,.... take arbitrary values between 0 and 2x, The intensity due to the superposition of such waves can be calculated by the square of the resultant amplitude 4. In order to find 4%, we should square the sum of the projections of all vectors a along the x-direction and add it te the square of the corresponding sum along the y-direction, The summation of projections along x-direction are given by the expression below a(cas®, + cosp,+ cos, +. + C086, ). The square of quantity in the parentheses gives the terms of the form cas? 4,,2cas 4, cos 6 the sum of these eross product terms increases approximately in proportion to number #. So we do not obtain te. It is seen thatInterfer att find their average effect in computing the intensity in any physical problem, Under this situation, it is safe to conelude that these cross product terms will average te zero, So we consider only the cos* terms. Similarly, for the » projections of the veetors we obtain sin?é terms, With this we have Tad aeons? b, + cos? 4, + cos? hy +. + eos? }) + a? (sin’g, + sin’, + sin?p, +... + sin’). ‘Using the identity sin’), + cos", = 1, the above expression re Since a*is the intensity due to a single wave, the above relation shows that the average intensity resulting from the superposition of r waves with arbitrary phases is # times of a single wave. It means the resultant amplitude 4 inereases in proportion with Vi in length as » gets increased. ces to = a | A 1.10 INTERFERENCE BY DIVISION OF WAVEFRONT This method uses multiple slits, lenses, prisms or mirrors for dividing a single wavettont laterally to form two smallersegments that ean interfere with each other. In thedivision of a wavettont, the interfering beamsof radiation that left the source in different directions and some optical means is used to bring the heams back together, This method is useful with small sources. Double slit experiment is an excellent example of interference by division af wavettont. Fresnel’s biprism is also used for getting imerference pattern based on this method, 1.10.1 Fresnel’s Biprism Fresnel’s Biprism isa device by which we can obtain two virtual coherent sources of light to produce sustained imterference. It is the combination of two acute angled prisms which are joined with their bases in sueh a way ‘that one angle becomes obtuse angle of about 179° and remaining two angles are acute angles 6 each of about ‘4°, as shown in Fig. 1.10.1.12 Engineering Physies Let monochromatic light from slit $ fall on the biprism, placed at a small distance from $, When the light falls on upper part of the biprism, it bends downward and appears to come from souree S,. Similarly, the other part of the light when falls on the lower part of the biprism, bends upward and appears to come from source S,. Here, the images S, and S, act as two virtual coherent sources of light (Fig. 1.10). Coherent sources are the ones that have a constant or zero phase difference throughout, In the situation, on placing the screen XY on right side of the biprism, we obtain alternate bright and dark fringes in the overlapping region BC. 1.10.11 Theory of Fringes x — Let A and B be twa virtual coherent sources of light separated by a distance 2, The sereen XY, on which the fringes are obtained, isseparated by a distance D from the two coherent sources, as shown in Fig. 1.1. The point C on the screen is equidistant from A and B. Therefore, the path difference between the two waves from sources A and B at point C is zero. Thus the point C will be the centre of a bright fringe. On both Pp ——*#—— 7A Iu | sides of , alternately bright and dark fringes are produced, a i+ Draw perpendiculars AN and BM from A and B on the sereen, Let the te iy stance ofa point P on the screen fram the central bight finge at C be x, ——_p——— From geometry, we have Y NP=x,-d) MP=x,+d Figure tai In right angled ANP, AP? = AN? + NP? a = ° +(,-d? op es | wnat" =pir+ ap= pir ap=p|l tye festa <<] ap=p+4 LL. ee ay (i) [By using Binomial Theorem] Similarly, in ABMP, _ (x tah BP=Dt+yD (iii) Hence, the path difference between the waves reaching via AP and BP paths at the point P on the screen ty. sanp-are[oL22| [podInterference 1.13 wv) ‘Condition for Bright Fringes: In order to interfere constructively and produce bright fringes, the two rays should arrive at points P in phase, This is possible if the path difference is an integral multiple of 2. Therefore nd where n= 0, 1,2... * gp (vy Here it may be recalled that x, is the distance of the n"*order bright fringe from the central maxima. The distance of the next (+ 1)" maximum from the point C can be calculated by replacing» by r+ 1 in equation (w). So n+ 13h ‘The separation between two consecutive maxima gives the fringe width Bi, as Fallows, Be wrx. = AD_,2D = 2D (n+ Dap nay = ae or fringe width B= AD (vi) Condition for Dark Fringes: In order to interfere destructively and produce dark fringe at point P, the two rays should arrive at this point in out of phase (phase difference of x). This is possible, if the pa difference is an odd multiple ok Therefore A =(n +A)h where = OT, Que From Eq. (iv) 2s snd wid + AD ad Eq, (vili) gives the distance of order dark fringe from the point C. The distance of the next (r+1)" minimum from the point C will be x (ily [a(n + 1) + aD Xy ad — (an +3)aD — (ix)114 Engineering Physies Henee, the fringe width benween two consecutive minima would be (2n+3)AD _ (2n+ 1D 4d 4d oy It is clear from Eqs, (iv) and (x) that the bright and dark fringes are of equal width 1.10.1.2 Experimental Method for Determination of Wavelength of Light The experimental setup used for the determination of wavelength of light consists of a good quality heavy optical bench of about 1.5 meter length fitted with seale, It has four uprights that carry an adjustable slit S, a biprism, a convex lens and a micrometer eyepiece, respectively. These components are shown in Fig, 1.12. Each upright can be moved along the length of the eptical bench and screws are provided to rotate the slit and biprism in their wn planes and the eyepiece can also move at right angle to the length of the optical bench, To obtain well defined and sharp interference fringes, the following adjustments are necessary (i) Optical bench must be labeled by using sprit level and leveling screws. i) Adjust all uprights to the same height. (ii) Hluminate the vertical slit by monochromatic source of light. Make the slit narrow (iv) Now place the biprism on the second upright and try to adjust its edge parallel to the stit until two equally bright virtual sources A and B are observed. (v) Shift the micrometer eyepiece on the bench away from the slit and also move it at right angle to the length of optical bench until the fringes are observed in the field of view. (vi) In order to get fine fringes, change the position of the biprism slowly in its own plane such that its edge remains parallel to the slit. Lateral shift and its removal: On moving the micrometer eye piece on the bench towards the biptism, if the fringes appear to shift at right angle to the optical bench then it is known as lateral shift (Fig. 1.13(a)). However, if the princple axis and axix of optical bench become parallel, then no lateral shift remains, as shown in Fig. 1.13(b)115 Axis of Optical Principle Axis a) Lateral shift (©) No lateral shift of hinges Figure 1.13 1.10,1,3 Determination of Distance between Two Virtual Coherent Sources For measuring 2d, a convex lens of short focal length is placed between the biprism and the micrometer eye piece. This distance between the bipeism and the micrometer eye piece is more than 4 times of the focal length of the convex lens, By moving the lens we obtain two positions L, and L, of the convex lens such that two separated images d, and ¢, of the two coherent sources respectively can be observed, as showin Fig. 114 For the first position of lens, L,, the magnification is given as 4, “2d and for second position of the lens, the magnification is a Figure 1.14 ‘Therefore, the measurement of positions of images d, and a, will determine the distance 2d between the cece “Pha carauin|amowh 1 afmpameanlorsaanein lhe ame hon wnboomletmel vibe vos enberienma tina omlme aif1.16 Engineering Physies 1.10.14 Determination of Thickness of Thin Transparent Sheet (Displacement of Fringes) Let A and B be two virtual coherent sources of light. The point C, on the screen is equidistant from both the sources (Fig. 1.15). When a transparent material plate G of thickness ¢ and having refiaetive index it is placed in the path of one of the light wave, we observe that the fringe which was originally at C, shifis to another position P, as shown in Fig. 1.15. Figure 1.15 The time taken by the light wave from A to P partly through air and partly through the plate is the same as the time taken by the other light wave from B to P in air, If ¢ and v be the velocity of light in air and in the plate, respectively, then BP APoty ft ee fw or BP AP=r, wt [ones ¢.€ ¢ v or BP=(AP-1) + pr or BP-AP=(u-1¥" a Here BP — AP is the pail difference between the two interfering waves. IF the point P is originally occupied by the w"* order bright fringe, then the path difference between the two interfering waves will be BP-AP= nh, ener (ii) ‘The distance x, through which the fringe is shifted to point P from the central maximum C, is given by xe ap (iy where, ap = B = fringe width. From EQ, (iii), we get eld iw D From Eqs. (ii) and (iv), we get1a7 weld eat v (uD a Therefore, by knowing x, 2d, D and 1, we can calculate thickness / af the glass plate by using Eq. (v) or r 1.11 INTERFERENCE BY DIVISION OF AMPLITUDE ‘The method, which is used to produce two coherent sources from a common source, is called division of amplitude that maintains the same width but reduced amplitude. After following different paths the two waves of reduced amplitudes are combined to produce an interference pattern. In this method, the interfering beams consist of radiation that has left the source in the same direction. This radiation is divided after leaving the source and later combined to produce interference. This method can be used with extended sources. Michelson interferometer is an example of interference by division of amplitude. Thin films are also used for getting interference pattern based on this method. 1.11.1 Interference due to Thin Films This is clear that the interference takes place when the two waves superimpose each other after traveling some distance, i.e. when there is a path difference between them, Since the thin film has its two surfaces, the ‘waves reflected from these surfaces can attain a path difference and can interfere. The same may be applied ‘on the waves that transmit through the film. 4111.1 Thin Film of Uniform Thickness ‘Consider a uniform transparent film having thickness ¢ and a refractive index w. A ray of light AB incident at an angle # on the upper surface of the film is partly reflected along BC and partly refracted along BF at an angle r. At point F the way BF is again partly reflected from the second surface along FD and partly emerges out along FK and so on. In uation, the interference occurs between reflected waves BC and DE and also between the transmitted waves FK and GL (Fig, 1.16). Figure 1.16 ‘The path difference between the reflected rays1.18 Engineering Physies A= (BF +FD)- BM < BF = FD 1 A= 2UBF ~ BM a In the right angled ABFH, te L Gi) cost yp er BF = Shy and tone BA oy BH = rtanr BD=2* BH * BD =2htanr (itty In the A BMD, Bi or BM = BD sin © BM = 2rtanr sin tivt (ii) and (iv), we get From Eqs. (1 Asm tanr sis wr 4 = SIME or sin i= psi wi) Que sine, Que 2 A cose 2 cos 5 #80 cos rll a'r] A= 2Mrcos (vii) Equation (vii) represents only the apparent path difference and does not represent the effective total path difference. When the light is reflected from the surface of an optically denser medium in case of BC a phase change of @ equivalent to path difference of }/2 is introduced. Therefore, the total path difference between BC and DE will be A= 2s cos e+ M2 (viii) Condition for Maxima: To have a maximum at a particular point, the two rays should arrive there in phase. So the path difference must contain a whole number of wavelength, ie., Aq Mm n=0, 1 2. tix From Eq. (viii) and (ix), we get 2p cose + M2 = aid 2yir cose + mh - 2 2p cose = (2a — 12 a) Condition for Minima: To have a minimum at a particular point, the two rays should arrive there in out of phase (odd multiple of x} for which the path difference must contain a half odd integral number of wavelength, i.c, = 1 " A=(n+ ahh txi} |. (viii), we obtain.119 Interfo It should be noted that the interference pattern will not be perfect because the intensities of the rays BC and DE are not the same and their amplitudes are different, In order to obtain the interference between the transmitted waves, we calculate the path difference between the waves, FK and GL as under A= (FD + DG), 5. - (FD), A= [FD + DG] —FI “FD =DG c A= 2uED - FI (xiii) In AFDI, cos = Pl = or FD = (xiv) and tan r= El = Flor Ft = tan x FG =2¢tanr (v) In right angled AFIG, i= ELorpl= sin i= fg or FY= FG sini PY = 2rtan r sin i (xvi) Eg. (xiii), (xiv) and (xvi), we get ut — 2 tan e sind cos F 275i ysis 2S sine 20 fy yr] = 2 cos Since these two waves are emerging from the same medium, the additional phase difference will not be introduced. Therefore, the total path difference A= 2pe cose (xviiy ‘Condition for Maxima: As discussed, it is possible when A=mn (wviiiy From Eqs. (xvii) and (xviii), we get 2s eosr =a. where, w= 0, 123 (xin) Condition for Minimax For obtaining minimum imensity, we showld have = 1 A=(n+ 3h L which gives 2nreosr=(+5)4 where, m= 0,162, 8 tx) ‘Thus, the conditions for interference with transmitted light are abviously opposite to those obtained w reflected light. Hence, if the film appears dark in the reflected light, it will appear bright in the trans light and vice-versa. This shows that the interference pattern in the reflected and transmitted lights are1.20 Engineering Physies Oe Extended Source Shor ev (e) (i) Interference using White Light Whena thin transparent film is exposed to white light and scen in the reflected light, different colours are seen in the film. These colours arise due to the interference of the light waves reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of the film, The path difference between the reflected rays depends upon the thickness f, refractive index p. of the film and the angle 0 of inclination of the incident rays. The light which cames from any point from the surface of the film will include the colour whose wavelength satislies the equation 2ur eos = (2 #— 1) 2/2 and only this colour will be present with the maximum intensity in the reflected light. When the transparent film of a large thickness as compared to the wavelength of the light, is illuminated by white light, the path difference at any point of the film will be zero. In the ease of such a thick film, at a given point, the condition of constructive interference is satisfied by a large number of wavelengths, as << 4, The condition of destructive interference is also satisfied at the same point for the large number of wavelengths. Therefore, consequently that point receives an average imensity due to the light of all wavelengths and no colours are observed In the context af realization of above phenomena it is always needed to use a broad power of light that will enable the eye to see whole of the film simultaneously, If we use a point source, then we observe that different parts of reflected light cannot reach the eye due to small size of the pupil, as shown in Fig. 1.17(a). The reflected rays only froma small portian of the film can enter the eye. Hence, the whole of the film cannot be scen by the eye placed in a fixed position. However, if broad source of light is used to illuminate a thin film, the light reflected from each part of the film reaches the eye placed in a fixed position, as shown in Fig. 1.17(b). Hence, one can seen the entire film simultaneously by employing an extended source of light. 1.11.1.2 Non-uniform Thickness Film (Wedge Shaped Film) Consider two plane surfaces OM and OM’ inclined at an angle 6 enclosing a wedge shaped air film of inereasing thickness, as shown in Fig 1.18.4 beam of monochromatic light is incident on the upper surface of the film and the interference occurs between the rays reflected at its upper and lower surfaces, The interference occurs between the reflected rays BK and DL, both of which are obtained from the same ‘ident ray of light AB.Interference ua Figure 1.18 The path difference between the two reflected rays A= [BC +CD],,,,.— [BE] A= p(BC + CD) - BE “CD=CL A= piBC + Cl) BE = uBI- BE = W(BN + NI) BE @ In right angled ABED, sini= BE - BE BD In right angled ABND, sine iD Dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (ii), we get sing — BE. sini sind = BE ,, sini sine BN sins or BE = wBN tiv)1.22 Engineering Physies From Eqs. (i) and (iv), we get A= (BN +NI)— BN a A=uNI w) In right angled ADNI, cos (r+) =F Ds DH +HIss+r=2r cvs (r +0) =B1 or NI= 2reas(r + 8) ow From Eqs. (v) and (vi), we get A= 2prcos (r+ 8) (vii) Eq. (vii), im the case of reflected light, does not represent the effective total path difference, as a phase difference of x (Stoke's phase change}has been introduced through the reflection of wave BK, Therefore, the total path difference between the reflected rays, A= 2p cos(r + 0) + M2 «wiii) ‘This equation shows that the path difference A depends on the thickness f. However, is not uniform and it is different at different positions, Atr=9, Eq. (viii), reads A=N2 which is the condition for darkness. Therefore, the edge of the film appears to be dark. This is called zero onder band. For normal incidence, i= 0 and r= 0, Then the path difference A= 2ys cos 42/2 fix) Condition for Maxima: As explained earlier, the constructive interference takes place when Asn w From Eq, (ix) and (x), we get Dy cos 0+ N2= nh 2yy eos 0 =(2n— 1) 2 where, w=0, 1,23 Gir Condition for Minima: In order to get destructive interference, the path difference 1 d=(aebja et (sii) or aureoso+na=(at-4ya ures 0 = nh where, #=0, 1,2, 3... (xiii) (@ Nature of Fringes For normal incidence of the incident waves or a parallel incident beam, the incident angle remains constant and hence the angle of refraction, Ifthe light is monochromatic, then 3 is also fixed, Therefore, the change in path difference will take place due to yf or thickness / of the film only. As we move outwards from the point ofInterference 1.33 has one and only one value. Since the locii of the points of constant thickness of the film are straight lines parallel to the edge, straight bright and dark fringes parallel to the edge will be obtained in the reflected light. Af we use the white light in place of monochromatic light, colored fringes will be observed (ii) Derivation for Fringe Width For a wedge shaped film the conditions of maxima and minima are reproduced below. pt eos (r+ 0) = (29 — D2 2yt eos (r+ For normal incidence and small values of 8 the above conditions read Quan «ivy and 2 (xv) If points A and C (Fig. 1.19) represent pasitions of two consecutive dark fringes corresponding to film thicknesses AB =, and CD = ¢, respectively, then the fringe width (w) will be equal to BE, Now from Eq. (ev), we get the following condition corresponding to the points A and C. al F 2pi, — nh and 2pi,= (n+ 1) or Qt, = 1) = or 24 (CD—AB)=% or 2(DE) =) (xvi} But tan 6 = DE/BE or DE= BE tan @ (xvii) From Eqs. (xvi) and (xvii). we get 2p(BE tan 8)=4 a “ BE satan" For smaller values of 0, an 0~ 0 and we get kh wa dxviti) Iiis clear from (xviii) that the fringe width w is independent of thickness t for smaller angle 8. Therefore the fringes are equally spaced and of same width for fixed 4, u and 6, 1.11.2 Newton’s Rings Ifa plano-convex lens is placed such that its curved surface lies on a glass plate, then an ai ‘inereasing thickness is formed between the twa surfaces. Whena beam of monochromatic (single wavelength)1.24 Engineering Physies circular fringes are observed. These circular fringes are formed because of the interference between the reflected waves from the top and the bottom surfaces of the air film. These fringes are circular since the air film has a circular symmetry and the thickness of the film corresponding to each fringe is same throughout the cirele. The interference fringes so formed were first investigated by Newton and hence known as Newton's rings, ‘The path difference between the two reflected rays, can be obtained as done in the case of wedge shaped film. Itis reproduced below as A= 2pe cos (r+ Oh + 2 a Where (312) is duc to Stoke’s phase change. a Plano-Convex: # Lens PT air Film cs Glass Fiala P Figure 1.20 For normal incidence and an air film, #= 0, r= 0, = L, In addition, if 0 is also very small, then cos 6 Under this situation, the path differences becomes = A Bamty (iid Here ris the thickness of the air film at « particular point At the point of contact, r= 0 a ask 2 which is the condition of minimum intensity and hence, the central spot of the ring will be dark. Condition for Maxima: For constructive interference Aw nk (ii) or athens or a= 0n-04 where = 0, 1,2,3. owInterference 1.35 Condition for Minima: For destructive interference = 1 &=(n+5)h AL Uk or Wea Mrs or 21= nk where n= 0,1, 2.3.. (vy Diameter of Dark and Bright Rings: Let us consider the thickness of the air film at point Q as sand ¥, as the radius of the fringe at that point together with R as the radius of curvature of the lens (Fig, 1.21) lt Figure 1.21 Hence, OC=CQ=R,HQ HO=R-1 In right angled ACHQ co? or In actual practice, R is quite large and ¢ is very small. Therefore, ® may be neglected in comparison with 2Rr wip For Bright Rings: From Eq. (iii), we get 2¢=(2n-1 4 ‘When we put this value of 21 in Eg. (vi we get RX Qn) }=Rx@n-p41.26 Engineering Physies a 7 ARQn — 1) 5 (vii) or D, The above equation gives the diameter D, of 1! onder bright fringe as D, =, 2AR (20-1) Dey (Qn 1 (vill) Thus the diameter of the bright citcular fringe(s) is proportional to the square root(s) of the odd natural numbers. For Dark Rings: Applying the condition 2¢ = ni. for the dark rings, Eq. (vi) reads 2 = mR. or Di = 4naR oD, vn tixy Thus the diameter D, of dark circular fringe(s) is proportional to the square rootfs) of the natural numbers 11.2.1 Determination of Wavelength of Light We have seen that the diameter of order dark fringe in Newton's rings method is D.=4naR i) From the above relation, the diameter of (n+ p" order dark fringe can be written as Dien =4(nt+ pRAR (xi) Therefore, the measurement of diameters of the n® and (n + p)" dark fringes together with the radius of curvature of the lens gives us the wavelength of sodium light with the help of above formula, 1.11.2.2 Determination of Radius of Curvature of Plano Convex Lens This is clear from the theory of Newton's rings that the measurement of diameters of n order and (1 + p)" order dark fringes play an importantrole in the determination of wavelength of manachromatic light. For this purpose, the following relation is used — Poon) ~ Pr 4pR ‘Therefore, if we use the monochromatic source of light of known wavelength, it would be possible to determine the radius of curvature of the plano convex lens with the help of following formula pe _ Dinsyy~ DE dpa xInterfer 127 1.11.23 Determination of Refractive Index of a Liquid ‘The liquid whose refractive index is to be determined is placed between the lens and the glass plate and then we evaluate the diameters of the dark fringes. The diameter of r® order dark fringe aie film is given by De = 4naR Similarly, the diameter of» order dark fringe in liquid film would be [DS Jugs = SAR where pis the refractive index of the liquid and Dy, < D,, Therefore, the refractive index of the liquid can be calculated from the fallowing formula once we are able to determine the diameters of dark fringes. 1,11,2.4 Newton's Rings in Transmitted Light ‘Newton's rings can be observed in reflected as well as in transmitted light. Figure 1. 22 shows that the rays QA and HRB are the transmitted rays, which interfere, From the figure itis also clear that the ray QA suffers no reflection at a medium of higher index, so its phase does not change, However, the ray HRB encounters two reflections at the denser medium at Q and H. Since a phase change of x avcurs at each reflection, the total phase change due to both reflections would be 21. Therefore, there will not be any phase shift. In view of this, the path difference between the two transmitted rays QA and HRB would be iS HP ° ° Rr Transmitted Rays1.28 Engincering Physics A= 2ut caste +8) ( For air (i= 1), normal incidence (+= 0) and smaller angle @ (cos @ = 1), the path difference becomes A=2t ii “The above equations shows that at /= 0, the path difference between the two transmitted rays A= 0. Therefore, at the centre, the bright fringe will appear. From Eq. (i), the conditions for maxima and minima can respectively be obtained as below 2= wh n=O, 2 cit) = (4+ 12), w= OL, 2... ww) Beeause of the same reason as discussed earlier, the fringes in the transmitted light will also be circular. The diameter of bright circular fringes can be obtained as D, =2VniR ‘Thus the diameter of the bright fringes is proportional ta the square root of natural numbers. Whea we calculate the diameter of dark circular fringes, it comes out to be D.=y2m+aRr ‘This relation shows that the diameter of the dark fringes is proportional fo the square root of odd natural numbers. From the above relation, itis elear that the fringes observed in the transmitted light are exactly complementary ‘to that of the reflected light. These fringes are much poorer in contrast as the transmitted rays emerge with lower intensity in comparison with the reflected rays, The Newton's rings obtained in the reflected as well as in the transmitted light are shown in Fig. 1.23a and b, respectively.1.29 1.11.2.5 Newton's Rings formed between Two Curved Surfaces “Let us consider two curved surfaces of radii of curvature R, and R, in contact at the point Q. A thin air film is enclosed between the two surfaces (Fig. 1.24). In this arrangement also, dark and bright rings are formed and ean be scen with a traveling microscope. Figure 1.24 ‘The thickness of the air film at P is PQ=PT-QTr Ifthe radius of a dark ring be r., then from geometry, ORs ‘Now this is clear from Fig. 1.24 that this type of film is similar to the wedge shaped film. Therefore, the path difference between the wave reflected from the upper and lower surfaces of the film would be a 2ut cos (r+ +5 For air(q1 = 1), normal incidence (r= 0) and the smaller angle 0, the path differenee takes the form a +4 utd ‘Therefore, in case of reflected light, for m® dark fringes athe (ne dja z or or LL if - -4 nik wheve a © 0,1, 2,3 wo Similarly, for n® bright fringe the path difference should satisfy the following condi a4 nk1.30 Engineering Physies or 2 =(n- 5h nit ae Grea where =0,1,2,3... (iid Thus, bright and dark fringes ate obtained according to Eqs. (i) and (ii). The diameter of the fringes can also be calculated, Figure 1.25 Now we invert the lower surface of the film. Under this situation, the film would appear thicker than the previous ease (Fig. 1.25). The film thickness PQ in this case would be PQ = PT+QT te re 2R; For the reasons explained in wedge shape film, the following condition should be satisfied in order to obtain 1 onder dark fringe of radius r, 2s nh for aie) +k] [ake takc]= = nAwhere w= 0, 1,2.3. iy or or 2f1 4 1] aes = . i elE+d| (ana) where =A, 1,2, 06 tiv) Acomparison of Eg, (i with Eq. (iii) reveals that the diameter of dark fringes in the second case, where below curved surface looks like convex when viewed from above, would be smaller than the one in first case. This effect is similar to the situation as if we increase the width or thickness of the film. The same is the case for bright fringes.Lat 1.11.3 Michelson’s Interferometer consists of two highly polished mirrors M, and M, and two plane glass plates Pand Q parallel to each ether, as shown in Fig, 1.26. The glass plate P is half-silvered am its back sueface and inclined at an angle of 48° ta the beam of incident light, Another glass plate Q is such that P and Q are of equal thickness and of the same material, Two plane mirrors M, and M, are silvered on their front surfaces and mounted on two arms at right angle to each other. The position of the mirror M, can be changed with the help af a fine screw. Light from a monochromatic source S, rendered parallel by a lens L, falls on the glass plate P. The semi- silvered plate P divides the incident light beam into two parts of nearly equal intensities, namely refleeted and transmitted beams. The reflected beam moves towards mirror M, and falls normally on it and hence it js reflected back to P and enters the telescope T. The transmitted beam moves towards mirror M, and falls normally on it after passing through the plate Q. Therefor: reflected by the mirror M, and follows the same path. At P it is reflected to enter the telescope T. Since the beams entering the telescope have been derived from the same incident beam, these two rays are capable of giving the phenomenon of interference; thereby producing interference fringes. Figure 1.26 Function of Plate Q: The beam going towards the mirror M, and reflected. back, erosses the plate P twice, while the other beam in the absence of Q would travel wholly in air. Therefore, t9 compensate the additional path, the plate Q is used between the mirror M, and plate P; The light beam going towards the mirror M, and reffected back towards P also passes twice through the compensation plate Q. Therefore, the ‘optical paths of the two rays in glass are the same. Types of Fringes: The fringes in Michclson interferometer depend upon the inclination of M, and M,. ‘Let M’, be the image of M, formed by the reflection at the half-silvered surface of the plate P so that OM, = OM',, The interference fringes may be regarded as formed by the light reflected from the surfaces of M, and ‘M’,. Thus, the arrangement is equivalent to an air-film enclosed between the reflecting surfaces M, and M’,, It is obvious that the path difference between the two beams praduced by the reflecting surfaces M, and M‘, is equal to the twice of the thickness of the film M, Mt. This path difference can be varied by moving M, backwards or forward parallel to itself. IF we use monochromatic light, the pattern of bright and dark fringes will be formed. Here the shape of the fringes will depend upon the inclination of M, and M,. JfM, and M, are exactly at right angles to each other, the reflecting surfaces M, and M’, are parallel and hence1.32 Engineering Physies These fringes are called as Haidinger’s fringes that can be seen in the field view of a telescope, When the distance between the mirrors M, and M, or between M, and M’, is decreased, the circular fringes shrink and vanish at the centre. A ring. disappears each time when the path 2r decreases by h. Since the vertical ray first gets reflected from the inner surface of P (internal reflection), and then from the front surface of the mirror M, (external reflection) a phase change of z takes place. The horizontal ray first gets reflected from the front surfaces of M, (external reflection) and then from the inner surface of glass plate P (external reflection), so there is no phase change. Thetefore, the total path difference for normal incidence would be A= 2800504 A For bright fringes, the following condition should be satisfied A2t cos a= n-a) [s A= nly For dark fringes, the condition reads A2tcosa= th [vA 25) Jay When ¢ is further decreased, a limit is attained where M, and M’, coincide and the path difference between the two rays becomes zero, Now the field of view is perfectly dark. When M, is further moved, the fringes appear again, IfM, and M, are not perfectly perpendicular, a wedge shaped film will be formed between M, and M’, then we get almast straight line fringes of equal thickness in the field of view of telescope, as the radius af fringes is very large. All the above discussed films are shown below in Fig. 1.27 DDD1 DICK fa) (oh te) cl Figure 1.27 ncept of interference that takes place with the help of two mirrors. The distance between one mirror and the image of another plays an important role in the formation of fringes. Michelson’s interferometer has diverse applications, some of which are listed below. EA | 1.11.3.1 Applications Michelson’s interferometer uses thi (i) Determination of Wavelength of Light First of all the Michelson’s interferometer i is set foreircular fringes with central bright spot, which is possibleInterfo 1.33 (M, and M‘)) and 17 be the order of the spot obtained, then for normal incidence cos r=1, we have ashen or ar=(n-5)a If M, is moved 4 away from M’,, then an additional path difference of 4 will be introduced and hence (a-+1)" bright spot appears at the centre of the field. Thus each time M, moves through a distance 3 anew > bright fringe appears, Therefore, if M, moves by a distance x (x, to x,) and N new fringes appear at the cent of the field, then we have A =xenone N3 Bena) _ 2x dake N N N The difference (x, —x,) is measured with the help of micrometer screw and N is actually counted. The experiment is repeated for number of times and the mean value of 2. is obtained. or (di) Determination of Difference in Wavelengths Michelson’s interferometer is adjusted in order to obtain the circular fringes, Let the source be not monochromatic and have two wavelengths #, and , (A, > A) which are very close to each other (as Sodium Dlines). The two wavelengths form their separate fringe patterns butas 3, and %, are very close to each other and thickness of air film is small, the two patterns practivally coincide with each other, As the mirror M, is moved slowly, the owo patterns separate slowly and when the thickness of air film is such that the dark fringe of}, falls on bright fringe of .,. the result is maximum indistinctness. Now the mirrer M, is further moved, say through a distance x, so that the next indistinct position is reached. In this position, if m fringes of appear at the centre, then (7 +1) fringes of 2, should appear at the centre-of the field of view. Hence anh xewSands=(u +1 ai i or == (iy and (nee 2,2 is the square of mean of A, andi, ‘Thus measuring the distance x moved by mirror M, between the two consecutive positions of maximum indistinetness, the difference between two wavelengths of the source can be determined, if, is kno1.34 Engineering Physies on the central bright fringe. Now insert thin transparent plate in the path of one af the interfering waves. On the inclusion of a plate of thickness é and refractive index j, the path difference is increased by a factor of 2(u-1)¢. The fringes are therefore shifted. The mirror M, is now moved till the central fringe is again brought back to its initial position. The dlistance.x traveled by the mirror M, is measured by micrometer, Therefore 2e=2(H— Nore =F Gi) 241 iv) t Thus, by knowing the thickness of the transparent sheet and the distance x, we can calculate the refractive index of the shect with the help of a Michclson’s interferometer. | .12 APPLICATIONS OF INTERFERENCE IN THE FIELD OF ENGINEERING The phenomenon of interference arises in many situations and the scientists and engineers have taken advantage of interference in designing and developing various instruments. 1.12.1 Testing of Optical Flatness of Surfaces An example of the application of interference method is the testing of optical components for surface quality. The most important example is that of optical Mats. However, the methods used for flat surfaces can be adapted simply to test spherical surfaces. 1,121.1 Flatness Interferometers With these interferometers we ean compare the flatness of two surfaces by placing them in contact with slight wedge of air between them. This gives a tilt and thus the fringes start originating like that af Newton's ring between the two surfaces, To get half wavelength cantours of the space between the surfaces, they should be viewed from infinity. Further, to avoid the risk of scratching, a desirable distance should be there between the two surfaces. Mast common examples of flatness interferometers are Fizeau and Theyman interferometers. (i) Fizeau Interferometer = In this type of interferometer, the sources and viewing point are kept at infinity (Fig. 1,28), This interferometer generates interference between ‘the surface of a test sample and a reference surface that is brought close 40 the test sample. The interference images are recorded and analysed by an imaging optic system. However, the contrast and the shape of the interference signals depend on the reflectivity of the test samples. ‘Twyman-Green Interferometer ‘This is an important instrument used to measure defects in optical components such as lenses, prisms, plane parallel windows, laser tods and plane mirrors. Twyman-Green interferometer, shown in Fig, 1.29 resembles Michelson interferometer in the beam splitter and mirror arrangement. However, the difference lies in the way of theirInterference 1.38 a monochromatic point source which is located at the principal focus of a well-corrected lens whereas in Michelson interferometer an extended source is used. If the mirrors M, and M, are perpendicular to each other and the beam-splitter BS makes an angle of 45° with the normal of each mirror, then the imerference is exactly analogous to thin film interference at nermal incidence. Therefore, completely constructive interference is obtained when c = mWJ2, where d is the path difference between the two arms adjusted by translating the mirror M,, The complete destructive interference is obtained when d= (we+1/2) 2. With the help of rotation of mirrar M, we can see fringes of equal thickness on the sereen, as the angle of incidence is constant, This situation is analogous to interference pattem observed with collimated light and a thin film with varying thickness. In order to test the optical components, one of the mirors is imtentionally tilted to create fringes. Then the quality of the component can be determined fram the change in the fringe pattern when the component is placed in the interferometer. Lens testing is specifically important ‘for quantifying aberrations and measuring the focal length. rot m Bs M, Lens Transiate 1.12.2 Nonreflecting or Antireflecting (AR) Coatings Interference-based coatings were invented in November 1935 by Alexander Smakirla, wha was working for the Car! Zeiss optics company. Antireflecting coatings are a type of optical coatings. These are applied to the surface of lenses and other optical devices for reducing reflection. This way the efficiency of the system gets ‘improved since less light is Lost. For example, in a telescope the reduction in reflections improves the contrast ‘of the image by climination of stray light. In another applications a coating on eyeglass lenses makes the cyes ‘of the wearer more visible, The anti-reflecting coatings can be mainly divided into three groups. 1.12.2.1 Single-layer Interference Coatings The simplest interference non-reflecting coating consists ofa single quarter-wave layer of transparent material. ‘The refractive index of this material is taken to be equal to the square root of the substrate’s refractive index. This theoretically gives zero reflectance at the center wavelength and decreased reflectance for wavelengths1.36 Engineering Physies thought of as analogous to the technique of impedance matching of electrical signals. A similar method is used in fibre optic research where an index matching eil is sometimes used to temporarily defeat total internal reflection so that light may be coupled into or out of a fiber. ‘The antireflection coatings rely on an intermediate layer not only for its direct reduction of reflection coefficient, but also use the interference effect of a thin layer. If the layer thickness is controlled precisely and it is made exactly one quarter of the light’s wavelength (2/4), then it is called a quarter-wave coating (Fig. 1.30), In this case, the incident beam I, when reflected from the second interface, will travel exactly half its own wavelength further than the beam reflected from the first surface. The two reflected beams R, and R, will destructively interfere as they are exactly out of phase and cancel each other if their intensities are equal. ‘Therefore, the reflection from the surface is suppressed and all the energy of the beam is propagated through the transmitted beam T. In the calculation of the reflection from a stack of layers, the transfer-matrix method can be used. Figure 1.30, 1.12.2.2 Multilayer Coatings ar Multicoating Multiple coating layers ean also be used for reflection seduetion. It is possible if we design them such that the reflections from the surfaces undergo maximum destructive interference. This can be done if we add a second quarter-wave thick higher-index layer between the low-index layer (Far example, silica) and the substrate, Under this situation, the reflection from all three interfaces produces destructive interference and antireflection, Optical coatings can also be made with near-sero reflectance at multiple wavelengths or optimum performance at angles of incidence other than 0. 1.12.23 Absorbing Antireflecting Coatings Absorbing antireflecting coatings are an additional category of antireflection coatings. These coatings are usefll in situations where fow reflectance is required and high transmission through a surface is unimportantInterfer 1.37 sheaply or at greater seale than standard non-absorbing anti-reffecting coatings. In sputter deposition system for such films, titanium nitride and niobium nitride are frequently used 1,12.2.4 Practical Problems with AR Coatings Real coatings do not reach perfeet performance, though they are capable of reducing a surfaee’s reflection coefivient to less than 0.1%. Practical details include correct calculation of the layer thickness. This is because the wavelength of the light is reduced inside a medium and this thickness will be 4,/4,, where 2, is the vacuum wavelength and 1, is the refractive index of the film. Finding suitable materials for use ‘on ordinary glass is also another difficulty, since few useful substances have the required refractive index {a 1.23) which will make both refleeted rays exactly equal in intensity. Since magnesium fluoride (MgF,) is hard-wearing and can be easily applied to substrates using physical vapour deposition, itis often used for this purpose even though its index is higher than desirable (n= 1.38). 1.13 SCIENTIFIC APPLICATIONS OF INTERFERENCE In interferometry, we use the principle af superposition to cambine different waves in a way that will cause the result of their combination to have some meaningful property, that is indicative of the original state af the waves. The phenomenon of interference is employed under various situations for its scientific applications. For a better understanding of the applications, we first nced to know about the homodyne and heterodyne detections. vy 4 HOMODYNE AND HETERODYNE DETECTION In standard interferometry, the interference ovcurs between the two beams at the same wavelength (or carrier frequency). The phase difference between the two beams results in a change in the intensity ofthe light on the detector, Measuring the resulting intensity of the light after the mixing af these 1wo light beams is known as homodyne detection, In heterodyne detection, we modulate one of the two beams prior to detection, usually bya frequency shift. A special case of heterodyne detection is optical heterodyne detection, which detects the ‘interference at the beat frequency. 1.14.1 Imaging Interferometry In this interferometry, the pattern of radiation across a region can be represented as a function of position i(vy), Le. an image and the pattern of incoming radiation i(xy) can be transfarmed inte the Fourier domain flu,y). A single detector measures information from a single point in (x,r) space. An interferometer measures the difference in phase between two points in the (1,7) domain. This corresponds to a single point in the (1) domain, An interferometer builds up # full picture by measuring multiple points in (v,v) space. The image ‘i(c,y) ean then be-restored by performing an inverse Fourier transform on the measured f{w,v) data. 1,14,2 Holographic Interferometry (HI) Holographic interferometry (HI) is a technique that enables static and dynamic displacements of objects with ‘optically cough surfaces to be measured to optical interferometric precision, i.c. to fractions of a wavelength af light. These measurements can be applied to stress, strain and vibration analysis, as well as to nondestructive testing, It ean also be used to detect optical path length variations in transparent media, which enables, for1.38 Engineering Physies example, fluid flow to be visualised and analysed, Ti can also be used to generate contours representing the form of the surface. Holography interferometry is of two types. (i) Live Holography Interferometry Holography enables the light field scattered from an abject to be reeorded and replayed. If this recorded field is superimposed on the “live field” scattered from the object, then the two fields will be identical. However, if a small deformation is applied to the object, the relative phases of the two light fields will alter and it possible to observe interference. This technique is known as live holographic interferometry. (ii) Frozen-Fringe Holography In this holography, it is also possible to obtain fringes by making two recordings of the light field seattered from the object on the same recording medium. The reconstructed light fields may then interfere to give fringes, which map out the displacement of the surface. 1.14.3 Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry (ESPI), alse known as TV Holography, is technique that uses laser light together with video detection, recordingand processing to visualize static and dynamic displacements of components with optically rough surfaces. The visualisation is in the form of fringes on the image where cach fringe normally represents a displacement of half'a wavelength of the light used, i.e. quarter of a micrometre oF 80, 1.14.4 Angle Resolved Low Coherence Interferometry Angle resolved low coherence interferometry is an emerging biomedical imaging technology that uses the properties of scattered light to measure the average size of cell structures, including the cell nuclei, The technology shows promise as a clinical teol for in-situ detection of dysplatic or precancerous tissue. 1.14.5 Optical Coherence Tomography Thisis medical imaging technique based on low-coherence interferometry, where subsurface light reflections are resolved to give tomographic visualisation, Recent advances have struggled to combine the nanometre phase retrieval with the ranging capability of low-coherence interferometry. 1.14.6 Geodetic Standard Baseline Measurements A famous use of white light interferometry is the precise measurement of geodetic standard baselines. Elere the light path is split in two, and one leg is folded between a mirror pair | m apart. The other leg bounces ence off 8 mitror 6m away. The ftinges will be seen only if the second path is precisely 6 times the first. Starting from a standard quartz, gauge of 1 m length, itis possible 9 measure distances up to 864 m by repeated multiplication. Baselines thus established are used to calibrate geodetic distance measurement equipments. This leads to a metrologically traceable seale for geodetic networks measured by these instruments, More madem geodetic applications of laser interferometry are in calibrating the divisions on levelling staffs and in monitoring the free fall of a reflective prism within a ballistic or absolute gravimeter, This allows determination of gravity, i, the acceleration of free fall, directly from the physical definition ata few parts in a billion accuracy. 1.14.7 Interference Lithography This is.a technique for patterning regular arrays of fine features, without the use af complex optical systems