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FCE 201 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 1(4 UNITS) PRE-REQUISITE:

MTH 105 & MTH 106 C

COURSE OUTLINE
General engineering systems, Rate systems and their relationships
General principles of optimization., Use of functions of several variables,
partial derivatives, total differentials in component design and
optimization. Taylor’s formula and its extension of several variables,
maxima and minima, LaGrange multipliers and their engineering
applications. Functions of a complex variables analytic functions,
integration in the complex plane and phase systems, infinite series in the
complex plane and mapping. Taylor’s and Laurent’s expansions, the
theory of residues, conformal mappings and application of Fourier series
integrals, Laplace transform. Method of solving linear differential
equations with coefficients with structural illustrations. Convolution and
Duhamel formulae and applications

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Engineering system
The definition of engineering system will be crystal clear, if certain terms are defined. These terms are:
system, state of system, variables (independent and dependent variables), process, components,
disturbance, parameter, input and output etc.
System: system is the identifiable part of the universe the people are interested on.
State of system: it describe the condition of the system of a given point in time.
Variables: this can be independent or depended;
Dependent variable: these variable give the characteristic that usually reflects the behaviour or state of the
system.
Independent variable: the system behaviour is determine base on these variables i.e system behaviour
depend on these variables. They are dimensions such as time and space
Parameter: these are constants reflective of the system’s composition or pre-set controlled inputs to the
system.
Forcing functions: these are external influence acting upon the system.
Processes: these are series of steps that changes the state of a system.
Components: is the smallest unit in a system that can be individually studied.
Disturbance: these are uncontrolled input to system.
State variable: these variable uniquely describe the state of a system.
Environment: the surrounding of the system.
Input: what we feed into the system.
Output: what came out from the system after processing.
Below is a schematic diagram of the system.

Parameter Disturbanc
e

Input Output
System

Figure 1

The essential physical feature of a system is described with mathematical formulation or equation in other
to aid prediction and to control the system behaviour in realistic and extreme conditions. This process is
known as mathematical modelling. Every mathematical model represent functional relationship between
the dependent variables, independent variables, parameters and forcing functions. With the aid of
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mathematical modelling the best choice of system parameters are made. The process of selecting the best
choice of system parameters is known as “design”
Dependent Variable  f independen t var iable , Parameters, forcing function 

System is described by an equation of the form.

y  Ax 

x is scalar or vector values that feed into the system while y is the scalar or vector values that came out
from the system. A is a mapping function or operator that maps x and y

The steps for mathematical modelling:

 Draw a diagram of the system.
 Make assumptions (e.g symmetry, non-symmetry, steady, unsteady state etc).
 Choose symbols for the variables.
 Apply secondary relations such as empirically obtain constitutive relations as needed.
 Choose sign conventions (upwards +ve, downward –ve etc).
 Simplify the equations as much as possible while still describing the physical features of the system.
 At the initial stage non-dimensionalize the governing equations (for rough approximate solution).
 Obtain solutions either analytically or numerically
 Study the solution.
Apart from the application of all the mathematical skills acquired from the basic level of studies of
mathematics to this level to describe engineering system mathematically ( mathematical modelling) and
solution process or methods, it’s still important to have fundamental knowledge of some physical and
chemical processes that take place in every engineering system and the principles guiding those processes.
Understanding of these principles will enable engineers to describe more accurately any engineering system
mathematically. The basics of them are principle of conservation and thermodynamic laws or principles.
To refresh our memory, see some of the definitions of these principles or laws below.

Principles of Conservation
Principle of conservation of energy

Mechanical energy is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies in a system. The principle of
the conservation of mechanical energy states that the total mechanical energy in a system (i.e.,
the sum of the potential plus kinetic energies) remains constant as long as the only forces acting
are conservative forces. If you have non-conservative forces such as friction, some mechanical
energy goes into heat that is mechanical motion at a molecular level. If you were to add in this
extra energy, you'd see that energy is still conserved. The total energy, is always conserved.

Principle of conservation of charge

The principle of conservation of charge states that the net charge of an isolated system
remains constant during any physical process, e.g. two charge objects making contacting
and separating. Charge conservation is the principle that electric charge can neither be created
nor destroyed. The net quantity of electric charge, the amount of positive charge minus the
amount of negative charge in the universe, is always conserved.

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Principle of conservation of mass

The law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation states that for any system
closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system must remain constant over
time, as system mass cannot change quantity if it is not added or removed. Hence, the quantity
of mass is "conserved" over time. Conservation of mass. Atoms are the smallest particles of an
element that can take part in a chemical reaction. During any chemical reaction no particles are
created or destroyed: the atoms are simply rearranged from the reactants to the products.

Principle of conservation of momentum

The law of momentum conservation can be stated as follows. For a collision occurring between
object 1 and object 2 in an isolated system, the total momentum of the two objects before the
collision is equal to the total momentum of the two objects after the collision. Conservation of
momentum. So long as no external forces are acting on the objects involved, the total
momentum stays the same in explosions and collisions. We say that momentum is conserved.
You can use this idea to work out the mass, velocity or momentum of an object in an explosion
or collision

Laws of Thermodynamics
The First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics, also known as Law of Conservation of Energy, states that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed; energy can only be transferred or changed from
one form to another. For example, turning on a light would seem to produce energy; however, it
is electrical energy that is converted. A way of expressing the first law of thermodynamics is that
any change in the internal energy (∆E) of a system is given by the sum of the heat (q) that flows
across its boundaries and the work (w) done on the system by the surroundings. This law says
that there are two kinds of processes, heat and work, that can lead to a change in the internal
energy of a system.

E  q  w , W  P.V S  Q / T

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics says that the entropy of any isolated system always
increases. Isolated systems spontaneously evolve towards thermal equilibrium—the state of
maximum entropy of the system. More simply put: the entropy of the universe (the ultimate
isolated system) only increases and never decreases.

The Third Law of Thermodynamics

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The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system approaches a constant
value as the temperature approaches absolute zero. The entropy of a system at absolute zero is
typically zero, and in all cases is determined only by the number of different ground states it
has. Specifically, the entropy of a pure crystalline substance (perfect order) at absolute zero
temperature is zero. This statement holds true if the perfect crystal has only one state with
minimum energy.

Optimization
Optimization is simply an efficient way to carry out a task, where “efficient” could be least expensive, most
profitable, least time consuming, high production, high strength etc. as can see so many other measures.
In other to throw light to the concept of optimization, think of nonnegative numbers u and v between 1
and 25 with the property that, their sum is 26 and all possible pairs, which ha highest product?

i.e u  v  26. Let the result of the product be X , Therefore X  uv , so what will be the highest value
of X . In any optimization problem or system there are constraints and objective. The limiting property of
th system is constraint, mathematically is constraints equation. The quantity that we wish to maximize or
minimize is called objective or objective function. In the above problem.
u  v  26 Constraint equation

X  uv Objective function
The table below show the computed values of the constraint equation and objective function.
u v uv X  uv
1 25 26 25
5 21 26 105
10 16 26 160
12 14 26 168
13 13 26 169
15 11 26 165
17 9 26 153
Table 1
The values in the table shows that, the highest values of the product u & v are when u & v near the middle
of the interval 1 to 25.
Optimization problem in the form: what is the maximum or minimum value of an objective function
subjected to the given constraint(s)?
The first step is to use the constraint equation to express the object function X  uv in terms of a single
variable i.e
u  v  26
v  26  u but X  uv

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X  u(26  u)

 26u  u 2

To maximum or minimize the objective function X : differentiate the function w.r.t. u and equate it to zero
dX
 0  X1
du
X 1  26  2u  0  u  13 Substitute into the constraint equation

13  v  26
v  26  13  13

(0, 26)

(26, 0)

Figure 2

Example: suppose an airline policy state that all baggage must be box-shaped with a sum of the length,
width and height not exceeding 84m. What are the dimension and volume of a square-based box with the
greatest volume under these conditions?

Solution

The airline policy is the constraint equation i.e

2w  h  84m
h
objective function volume (V )  w2 h
2w  h  84

w
h  84  2w substitute V  w2 (84  2w)
Figure 3

v(w)  84w2  2w3

The objective function has now been expressed in terms of a single variable. Notice that w nonnegative
and cannot exceed 42, so the domain of v is 0  w  42 . The critical point that satisfy the objective
function v(w)  84w  2w is
2 3 dv
0
w
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dv
 168w  6w 2  0
w
 2w(84  3w)  0, 2w  0 or 84  3w  0  w  0 or w  28

w  28 Corresponding to local maximum by first and second derivative test.

The endpoint V (0)  V (42)  0

The maximum volume function is V (28)  282 (84  2(28)  21,952m 2

V (w)  84w2  2w3 V

w
30000
0 0
5 1850 20000
10 6400 10000
20 17600
0
25 21250
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
28 21952 -10000
30 21600
-20000
35 17150
40 6400 -30000

42 0 -40000
45 -12150
-50000
50 -40000

Table 2 Graph of V verse w

Figure 4

Guidelines for optimization problem

1) Read the problem carefully identify the variables and organize the given information with a picture
2) Identify the objective function to be optimized write it n term of the variables of the problem.
3) Identify the constraints write them in terms of the variables of the problem.
4) Use the constraints to eliminate all but one independent variable of the objective function.
5) With the objective function expressed in terms of a single variable. find the interval of interest for
that variables
6) Use methods of calculus to find the absolute maximum or minimum value of he objective function
on the interval of interest if necessary check the endpoint.

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LANGRANGE MULTIPLIER
Langrage multipliers is applied frequently in engineering, science and economics in optimization problem
with constraints. Optimization can be constraints or unconstraint depend on the type of problem to be solve.
If a given function u  f ( x, y) and a constraint equation  x, y   0

f f
df ( x, y)  dx  dy
x y
df ( x, y)  0

f f f f
dx  dy  0 dx   dy
x y x y
f

 x
dy
Apply this the same steps to constraints equation
dx f
y

 f  f 
    
 x  x  x x  x
dy dy
i.e
dx  dx f  f 
y y y y y

The two numerators and denominators each different by the similar multiplication and let the factor to
be k equate the numerators and denominators.

f  f 
k and k
x x y y

f  f 
k 0 k 0 Let   k
x x y y
f 
  0 ------------------------------------------------ (a)
x x

f 
  0 ----------------------------------------------- (b)
y y
Where   Lagrange multiplier. The unknowns are x, y and  and they will be determine with the
help of constrain equation  ( x, y)  0 and equation (a) and (b).

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Example: find the stationary points of the function f ( x, y)  x 2  y 2 under constrain condition of
 ( x, y)  x 2  y 2  3x  3 y  2  0
Solution

f ( x, y)  x 2  y 2

 ( x, y)  x 2  y 2  3x  3 y  2
f 
 2x ,  2x  3
x x

f 
 2y ,  2y  3
y y
f   
 0 2 x   (2 x  3)  0 2 x   (2 x  3)
x x

f 
 0  2 y   (2 y  3)  0  2 y   (2 y  3)
y y
2 x   (2 x  3) ………………….. (i)

2 y   (2 y  3) ………………….. (ii)

Divide equation (i) by (ii)

2 x   (2 x  3 x (2 x  3
  
2 y   (2 y  3) y (2 y  3)
y(2 x  3)  x(2 y  3)

2 xy  3 y  2 xy  3x

2 xy  3 y  2 xy  3x  0

y  x
Substitute y   x into constraint equation

 ( x, y)  0 ; x 2  y 2  3x  3 y  2  0

x 2  ( x) 2  3x  3( x)  2  0
x 2  x 2  3x  3 x  2  0

2x 2  6x  2  0

x 2  3x  1  0 Solve the quadratic equation, using the formula method

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a  1, b  3 & c 1

 b  b 2  4ac  3  32  4  1  1  3  9  4  3  5  3  2.24
x    
2a 2 1 2 2 2
x  0.38 or x  2.62

y  x Therefore y  0.38 or y  2.62

Now we can determine the Lagrange multiplier, though it’s not necessary.

2 x   (2 x  3)  0 Substitute the first value of x i.e. x  0.38

2(0.38)   (2(0.38)  3)  0   0.76  0.76  3  0  2.24  0.76

0.76
  0.3393 , Therefore   0.3393 for x  0.38
2.24

x  2.62 , 2(2.62)   (2(2.62)  3)  0

 5.24   (2.24)  0   5.24

 2.32
 2.32

Therefore stationary points are (0.36, 0.36) and (2.62, 2.62) . Note that the  values need not to
compute.

We can extend this to three independent variables

To determine the stationary points of a function u  f ( x, y, z ) under constraint equation  ( x, y, z )  0

. The procedure is the same as two independent variables.

u u u
x  y  z  0 ……………………… (a)
x y z

  
x  y  z  0 ………………………... (b)
x y z
Multiply equation (b) by  and add the result to equation (a)
u  u  u 
x   x  y   y  z   z  0
x x y y z z

 u    u    u  
  x      y     z  0
 x x   y y   z z 

Equate the individual terms to zero

u  u  u 
  0,   0,  0
x x y y z z

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Example: Find the turning points of f ( x, y, z)  x 2  y 2  2 z under constraint

 ( x, z)  x 2  z 2  4  0
Solution

f ( x, y, z)  x 2  y 2  2 z

 ( x, z)  x 2  z 2  4  0

f f f
 2x ,  2y 2
x y z

 f f
 2x 0  2 z
x x z

u  u  u 
  0,   0,  0
x x y y z z

2 x   ( 2 x)  0    1
2 y   (0)  0  y0

2 z   (2 z )  0  z 1
Substitute into constraint equation

x2  z 2  4  0

x 2  (1) 2  4  0

x 5 Therefore, the turning points  5, 0, 1,  5, 0, 1

Example: A crude oil reservoir tank is vertical cylinder with hemispherical cap on top of equal diameter.
The tank is design to store 3,145 barrel of crude oil. Find the total height of tank and its diameter for
minimum surface area. Where 1m2 =6.29bbl (bbl = barrel).

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Solution

Total surface area (s)

 Area of hemisphere  Area of circle  Area of cylinderic al body
Area of hemisphere  2r 2
Area of botom circle  r 2
h Area of cylindrica l body  2rh
r
S  2r 2  r 2  2rh
S  3r 2  2rh
D 2 3
Here the constraint ( ) is volume V  r 2 h  r  3145bbl
Figure 5 3

Convert barrel to m3

6.29bbl  1m 3

1m 3  3145bbl
3145bbl   500m 3
6.29bbl

V  r 2 h 
2 3
r  500  0    r 2 h  2 r 3  500  0
3 3
S S
 6r  2h ,  2r
r h
 
 2rh  2r 2  r 2
r h
S  S 
  0,  0
r r h h

(6r  2h)   (2rh  2r 2 )  0

2 (3r  h)  2 (rh  r 2 )  0

(3r  h)   (rh  r 2 )  0 …………………. (i)

S 
From  0 ,
h h

2r  r 2  0 ……………………. (ii)

2
 ………………………………….iii
r
2
Substitute    into equation (i)
r

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2
3r  h  (rh  r 2 )  0
r

3r  h  2h  2r  0  r h 0  hr
Substitute into constraint equation h  r

2
  r 2 h  r 3  500  0  r 3  2 r 3  500  0
3 3

5 3  500  3 
r  500 r3  r 3  95.5
3 5

r  4.57m
But h  r  4.57m Therefore the total height of the tank (H) = height of cylinder plus the height of
hemisphere.

The height of cylinder h = 4.57m and height of hemisphere is radius of cylinder or hemisphere radius r =
4.57m.

H  h  r  4.57  4.57  9.14m

Diameter  2r  2  4.57  9.14m

Check

2 3 2
volume  r 2 h  r    4.57 2  4.57     4.57 3  499.74m 3
3 3

TOTAL DIFFERENTIAL
Total differential (dz ) of a given function f (u, v, w,...)  z is given by

z z z
dz  du  dv  dw  ...
u v w

Example: what is the total differential of a function Z  2u 2  4v 2  2w2 ?

Solution

z z z
Total differential, dz  du  dv  dw
u v w

Z  2u 2  4v 2  2w2

z
 4u Keep v & w constant
u
z
 8v Keep u & w constant
v

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z
 4w Keep u & v constant
w
z z z
Z du  dv  dw
u v w
 4udu  (8v)dv  4wdw

 4udu  8vdv  4wdw

Example: if z  2u 2 v 3  v 2  2w2 v , what is the total differential?

Solution

Given that z  2u 2 v 3  v 2  2w2 v

z z z
The total differential dz  du  dv  dw
u v w
z
 4uv 3 Keep v & w constant
u
z
 6u 2 v 2  2v  2w 2 Keep u & w constant Substitute all these result to the
v total differential equation
z z z z
 4wv Keep u & v constant dz  du  dv  dw
w u v w

dz  4uv 3 du  (6u 2 v 2  2v  2w2 )dv  4wvdw

 2uv 3 du  (3u 2 v 2  v  w2 )dv  2wvdw

Example: if z  u 2 v 4 w , determine the total differential dz

Solution

Given that z  u 2 v 4 w

z z z
dz  du  dv  dw
u v w
z
 2uv 4 w Keep v & w constant
u
z
 4u 2 v 3 w Keep u & w constant Substitute all these result to the
v total differential equation
z z z z
 u 2v 4 Keep u & v constant dz  du  dv  dw
w u v w

dz  2uv 4 wdu  4u 2 v 3 wdv  u 2 v 4 dw

FEC 201 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 1 NOTE BANJE GEOFREY

 15

RATES OF CHANGE USING PARTIAL DIFFERENTION

Rate of change or rate is when a given variable change with respect to time. Suppose a given variable z,
depend on some other variables u, v and w … ( u, v an w .. are independent variables). The rate change
du dv dw
of the independent variables are denoted as , and , therefore the rate of change of
dt dt dt
dz
dependent variable is given as;
dt
dz z du z dv z dw
     
dt u dt v dt w dt

Example: find the rate of change of a cylindrical tank in m3 s when the height is 9.2m and the radius is

13.4m. if the height increase by 5 m s and its radius decrease by 1.8 m s.

Solution

Volume of cylinder, V  r 2 h

dV V dr V dh
Rate of change of volume    
dt r dt h dt

V dr
 2rh (m 2 )  1.8 m s
r dt
V dh
 r 2 (m 2 )  5m s
h dt
dV
 2rh m 2  (1.8 m s)  r 2 m 2  (5 m s)
dt

 3.6rh m3 s  5r 2 m3 s
But r  13.4m and h  9.2m
 r (5r  3.6h) m s3

  13.4(5 13.4  3.6  9.2) m3 s

 1426.26 m 3 s Therefore the rate of change of volume is 1426.26 m

3
s increasing.

SMALL CHANGES USING PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION

If a given function z  f (u, v, w,...), the small change in the variables u, v, w … & z is denoted as
u, v, w, ... & z respectively. Therefore z is given by

z z z
z  u  v  w  ...
u v w

FEC 201 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 1 NOTE BANJE GEOFREY

 16

u 3 w2
Example: if a given function z  , find the approximate error of z when u is decreases by 1%, v
v2
increases by 1.5% and w increases by 2%.

Solution

u 3 w2
Given that: z 
v2

z 3u 2 w 2
 Keep v & w constant 1
u v2 u    0.01u Decreasing
100
z  2u 3 w 2 1.5
 Keep u & w constant v   0.015v Increasing
v v3 100
2
z 2u 3 w w   0.02w Increasing
 2 Keep u & v constant 100
w v
z z z Substitute all these result to the
z  u  v  w small change differential equation
u v w
z z z
z  u  v  w
3u w2 2
 2u w 3
2u w 2 3
u v w
z  2
(0.01u)  3
(0.015v)  2 (0.02w)
v v v

 0.03u 3 w 2 0.03u 3 w 2 0.04u 3 w 2 u 3 w 2 u 3 w2

     0.03  0.03  0.04   0.02
v2 v2 v2 v2 v2
u 3 w2
But z 
v2
z  0.02z
z  2%z Therefore, the approximate error in z is -2% decreases

R
Example: if young modulus is given by E  , find the approximate error in computed value of E, i
y

R,  and y measured as 100mm, 600N/mm2 and 75mm respectively and the error measured are R

is -2mm,  is -5N/mm and2 y is 7mm.

Solution

R
Given that E 
y

FEC 201 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 1 NOTE BANJE GEOFREY

 17

E 
 R  2mm Decreasing
  Keep &y constant
  5N / mm2
R Decreasing
y 
 y  7mm Increasing

E R
 Keep R & y constant R  100mm   600 N / mm2
  
y  75mm
E R


2
Keep  & R constant
y y
Substitute all these result to the
E E E  small change differential equation
E  R      y
R  y E E E 
E  R      y
R  y
 R R 
E  
R  
  
y
2
y y y

600 N / mm 2 100mm (100mm  600 N / mm 2 )

E  (2mm)  (5 N / mm ) 
2
 (7mm)
75mm 75mm (75mm) 2
E  16 N / mm2  6.67 N / mm2  74.67 N / mm2 E  97.34 N / mm2
Therefore computed approximate error for E is  97.34 N / mm is decreases.
2

MAXIMA AND MINIMA POINT OF FUNCTION OF TWO

VARIABLES
In any given function there are points of interest along given range of the function. These points are called
stationary or turning or critical points. The three major points of interest are maximum point, minimum
point and inflection point. These points play major roles by explaining the system behaviour in studying
those functions that described that system.
The steps to determine these points are as follows;

If a given function z  f ( x, y)
z z
1) Determine and
x y
z z
2) For stationary points, 0 and 0
x y

FEC 201 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 1 NOTE BANJE GEOFREY

 18

3) Solve the simultaneous equation of step (2) to determine x and y which are the co-ordinates of
the stationary points.

2z 2z 2z

4) Determine , and
x 2 y 2 xy
2z 2z 2z
5) Substitute the values for x and y into , and and solve each of the co-
x 2 y 2 xy
ordinates of the stationary points
2
 2z 
6) Compute   for each stationary point.
 xy 
2z 2z 2z 2
  2 z    2 z   2 z 
7) Substitute the values of , and into       2    and
x 2 y 2 xy  x y   x   y 
evaluate to get a result for  .
a. If   0 , then the stationary point is a saddle point.
2z 2z
b. If   0 , and  0 and  0 , then the stationary point is a maximum point.
x 2 y 2
2z 2z
c. If   0 , and  0 and  0 , then the stationary point is minimum point.
x 2 y 2
d. If   0 , then the test is inconclusive.
2
  2 z    2 z   2 z 
The expression for       2    can be written in the following way
 xy   x   y 
2
  2 z   2 z    2 z 
   2      , then the sign of the inequalities will change or reverse i.e.
 x   y   xy 
a. If   0 , then the stationary point is a saddle point.
2z 2z
b. If   0 , and  0 and  0 , then the stationary point is a maximum point.
x 2 y 2
2z 2z
c. If   0 , and  0 and  0 , then the stationary point is minimum point.
x 2 y 2
d. If   0 , then the test is inconclusive.

Example: find the critical values of z  x 3  2 x  xy 2 and their conditions.

Solution

Given that: z  x 3  2 x  xy 2

FEC 201 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 1 NOTE BANJE GEOFREY

 19

z 2z
 3x 2  2  y 2 ……………….. (i)  6x 2 ………………… (iii)
x x 2

z 2z
 2 xy ……………………………..(ii)  2 x …………………..(iv)
y y 2

2z
 2 y ……………………………. (v)
xy
The coordinate points of this function are;
0, 2 , 0, 2 ,
From equation (ii) x = 0 and y = 0,

If x = 0 with equation (i) y 2

 2 , 0    2 , 0 
2  3   3 
If y = 0 with equation (i) x  
3

0, 2 ,  
2
  2 z   2 z    2 z 
  6 x2 x  2 y   00  2 2  0  8  8  0
2
   2    
2

 x   y   xy 
saddle point for x  0 and y  2

0, 2 ,  
2
  2 z   2 z    2 z 
  6 x2 x  2 y   00  2( 2 )  0  8  8  0
2
   2    
2

 x   y   xy 

Saddle point for x  0 and y   2

 2 
2
  2 z   2 z    2 z   2  2 
 , 0 ,    2       6 x2 x  2 y   6 3  2 3   0  8  0  8  0
2 2
 3 
   x   y   xy 

2z 2z
Minimum point for x  2 and y  0 and as  0 and  0 according to the rule NO. c
3 y 2 y 2

 2 
  , 0
 3 
 
2
  2 z   2 z    2 z   2  2 
   2       6 x2 x  2 y   6( 3 ) 2( 3 )  0  8  0  8  0
2 2

 x   y   xy 

FEC 201 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 1 NOTE BANJE GEOFREY

 20

2z 2z
Maximum point for x   2 and y  0 and as  0 and  0 according to the rule
3 y 2 y 2
NO.b

Example: an open rectangular water tank is to store 250m3 of water when filled. Determine the least surface
area of the tank. Calculate the total weight of the tank in kg, if the density of material the tank made up is
7850 kg/m3 and uniform thickness of plate is 0.03 and also calculate the least cost of tank material if 1kg
weight = N250.

Solution

Given that:

Volume (V) = 250 m2 z

Density of material = 7850 kg/m2
x
Thickness of the material = 0.03
y
Figure 6

The volume V  xyz  250 ………………………. (i)

Surface area S  xy  2 zx  2 yz ………………………….(ii)

250
From eqn (i) z substitute this result into eqn (ii)
xy

2  250 2  250
S  xy  x y
xy xy

500 500
S  xy  
y x
For stationary point or turning point;

S 500  yx 2  500
 y 2 0 ………………… (iii)
x x

S 500
 x 2 0  y 2 x  500 …………………. (iv)
y y
Divide equation (iii) by (iv)

yx 2 500 x
  1  x y
xy 2 500 y

From equation (iii) yx 2  500

FEC 201 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 1 NOTE BANJE GEOFREY

 21

x 3  500  x  3 500  7.94m (7.937m)

As x  y  y  7.94m

xyz  250  (7.94)(7.94) z  250  z

250
 3.969m  3.97m
62.996

 2 S 1000
 3
x 2 x
 2 S 1000
 3
y 2 y

2S
1 x  7.94m, y  7.94m and z  3.97m
xy
( x, y, z )  (7.94, 7.94, 3.97)
2
  2 S    2 S    2 S  1000  1000   1000   1000 
   2  2       3   3   1    1  2.991
2 2
3  3
 x   y   xy   x   y   7.94   7.94 

 2 S 1000  2 S 1000
  0 Also   1.998  0 and   1.998  0
x 2 7.94 3 y 2 7.94 3

Therefore is minimum point, hence minimum dimension of the water tank of 250m2 are
x  y  z  7.94  7.94  3.97  250.28  250 so is ok

Surface area S  xy  2 xz  2 yz  7.94  7.94  2  7.94  3.97  2  7.94  3.97  189.1308m 2

Volume of material the tank is made of is

V  surface area  thickness  S  t  189.1308  0.03  5.674m3

Density 
mass  mass  Density  Volume  7850kg / m3  5.674m3  44,540.3kg
volume
Cost of 1kg = N250

N 250  44540.3kg
Cost of 44540.3kg   N11,135,075.85
1kg
Therefore the least cost of the material the tank is made of is N 11,135,075.85.

FEC 201 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 1 NOTE BANJE GEOFREY

 22

TALOR’S SERIES
f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c
The geometry interpretation of derivative of a function is
important in approximate solution of a given function when
using Taylor’s series expansion. Taylor’s series expansion help
to evaluate almost all functions approximately with the help of
some (e.g. initial values and boundary values conditions)
conditions, though it have some limitation for some function
x
which have very sharp edge curve or very straight curve in the
geometry representation of the function.

Figure 7a

df
f 1 ( x)   ax  b
dx The differential of quadratic equation will
generate linear equation as shown in the figure7b.
f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c
df
x f 1 ( x)   ax  b
dx

Fi
g 11 d2 f
f
ur ( x )   a
dx 2
e The value of second derivative of a function evaluated
7 at point x described a local curvature. The differential
b of linear equation will generate a constant as shown
in the figure7c.
df
f 1 ( x)   ax  b
dx
x f 11
( x) 
d2 f
a
dx 2

Fi
g
Geometry interpretation of a derivative, second derivative and higher derivation can be combine to power
ur
series representation of a function convenient for arithmetic. Consider a generic function of a plot look like
e
the plot below. If a cubic function is plot as shown below and a point on the curve correspond to x E on
7
the x-axis is to evaluate. Someone can start evaluating that point approximately with a constant function
c
like f ( x)  a 0 (it indicated with blue horizontal dotted line), but the result will not close to the actual result.
FEC 201 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 1 NOTE BANJE GEOFREY
 23

If extend the function to linear function like f ( x)  a0  a1 ( x  x E ) (it indicated with slant green dotted
line) to evaluate the point, the result will be better than constant function and if further extend the function
to quadratic function f ( x)  a0  a1 ( x  x E )  a2 ( x  x E ) 2 (it indicated with a red dotted line on the curve)
solution will be closer to the actual solution than the forma function. So it will be, if we increase the power
of the function and this will form a series, from which we can derive Taylor’s series.

f ( x)  a0  a1 ( x  x E )
f (x)
f ( x)  a0  a1 ( x  x E )  a2 ( x  x E ) 2  a3 ( x  x E ) 3

f ( x)  a0  a1 ( x  x E )  a2 ( x  x E ) 2
f ( x)  a 0

0 xE x

Figure 8 f ( x)  a0  a1 ( x  xE )  a2 ( x  xE ) 2  a3 ( x  xE ) 3  ...
f ( x)  a 0 Last function will correspond to the function on the curve excluding
the higher order terms
f ( x)  a0  a1 ( x  x E )

f ( x)  a0  a1 ( x  x E )  a2 ( x  x E ) 2
The value of x E is the reference point for expansion which commonly called expansion point. The
question is what are the values of coefficients? To determine the coefficient is to evaluate the function
at the expansion point ( x E ).

f ( x)  a0  a1 ( x  xE )  a2 ( x  xE ) 2  a3 ( x  xE ) 3  ...

f ( xE )  a0  a1 ( xE  xE )  a2 ( xE  xE ) 2  a3 ( xE  xE ) 3  ...

 a0
With the essential rule

f ( x)
 a1  2a2 ( x  xE )  3a3 ( x  xE ) 2  4a4 ( x  xE ) 3  ...
x
xE

 a1

FEC 201 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 1 NOTE BANJE GEOFREY

 24

 2 f ( x)
 2a2  3  2a3 ( x  xE )  4  3a4 ( x  x E ) 2  ...
x 2
xE

1  2 f ( x)
 2a2  a2  
2 x 2

 3 f ( x)
 3  2a3  4  3  2a4 ( x  xE )  ...
x 3
xE

1  3 f ( x)
 3  2a3  a3  
3  2 1 x 3

 4 f ( x)
 4  3  2a4  ...
x 4
xE

1  4 f ( x)
 4  3  2a4  a4  
4  3  2 1 x 4
With this we can summarize that
Now substitute all these coefficients to the original
 k f ( x) 1  k f ( x)
 k !a  a  function to obtain Taylor’s series
x k k! x k
k k

f ( xE ) 1 f 1 2 f 1 3 f
f ( x)    xE ( x  x E )   xE ( x  x E ) 
2
 3 ( x  xE ) 3  ...
0! 1! x 2! x 2 3! x

1 dk f
f ( x)    k x  xE ( x  xE ) k
k 0 k! dx

Example: Taylor series expansion of f ( )  sin( )

k df d expression Values at k! d k f 
E  0  k 
 dx 
   E k
k!
0 f ( ) sin( ) 0 0! 0

1 df d cos( ) 1 1! 1

1!
2 d 2 f dx 2  sin( ) 0 2! 0

3 d 3 f dx 3  cos( ) -1 3! 1 3

3!
4 d 4 f dx 4 sin( ) 0 4! 0

Table 3
FEC 201 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 1 NOTE BANJE GEOFREY
 25

3 5 7
f ( )  sin( )       ...
3! 5! 7!

Example: Taylor series expansion of f ( )  cos( )

k df d expression Values at k! d k f 
E  0  k 
 dx 
   E k
k!
0 f ( ) cos( ) 1 0! 1

1 df d  sin( ) 0 1! 0

2 d 2 f dx 2  cos( ) -1 2! 1 2

2!
3 d 3 f dx 3 sin( ) 0 3! 0

4 d 4 f dx 4 cos( ) 1 4! 1 4

4!

Table 4

2 4 6
f ( )  cos( )  1     ...
2! 4! 6!

The approximate value of  is computed usually by lengthy geometry method. But let us use the power
series to calculate the approximate value of  .

3 5 7
1
2
f ( )  sin( )       ...
1
2 3! 5! 7!

6
3
2
     
f ( )  sin     6  6  6  ...

3 5 7

6 6 3! 5! 7!

Pretend or assume that all the value of ellipses are zero

FEC 201 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 1 NOTE BANJE GEOFREY

 26

     
sin      6  6  6  ...
1 
3 5 7

But 6 2 6 3! 5! 7!
1  3 5
    ...
2 6 1296 933120
Multiply through by 6 and rearrange we have

3 5
  3   ... truncate higher powers
216 155520
The table below show the approximate value of  with a given guess of  in the above expression.
Guess for  RHS Calculation Output
3.0000 3.1234
33 35
  
216 155520
3.1234 3.1392
3.12343 3.12345
  
216 155520
3.1392 3.1413
3.13923 3.13925
  
216 155520
3.1413 3.1415
3.14133 3.14135
  
216 155520
3.1415 4.1416 stable
3.14153 3.14155
  
216 155520
Table 5

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With the power series available abstract and geometry proof can often replace with simple arithmetic
and unfortunately not all plot or functions can be successfully approximated using Taylor’s series
expansions such as the plot shown below.

f (x)
Short Conner
Too jagged point is difficult to
approximate because of difficult to
hog.

0 xE x

Figure 9a
f (x)

Figure 9b Too straight point cannot be easily

approximate with Taylor’s series

0 xE x

The difference between the actual value of the function and the value of the Taylor polynomial is equal
to remainder R x, x  should be approximately zero. From Taylor-Lagrange remainder
n
f E


f ( k ) ( xE )
If the lim it R ( x, xE )  0 . Then f ( x)  
n
f
 ( x  xE )
n0 k!
k 0

Taylor’s series for several variables

f  f ( x, y), We want to approximate, near (a, b) and if f is of class c 2 i.e. it has continue
partial derivative of order  2 . Then what should this be in second order Taylor’s polynomial.

T  T f2 ( x, y; a, b)  c  p( x  a)  q( y  b)  r ( x  a) 2  s( x  a)( y  b)  t ( y  b) 2

FEC 201 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 1 NOTE BANJE GEOFREY

 28

So we require the values of f &T and all of their partial derivatives up to order  2 , to be equal at
( a, b)

We need f (a, b)  T (a, b) , if you plug in x  a & y  b

T (a, b)  c
f T
   p  s( y  b)  2r ( x  a) ( a ,b )  p
x x
( a ,b ) ( a ,b )

f T
  q  s( x  a)  2t ( y  b) ( a ,b )  q
y y
( a ,b ) ( a ,b )

2 f  2T 1 2 f
 2  2r  r   2
x 2 x 2 x
( a ,b ) ( a ,b ) ( a ,b )

2 f  2T
Mix-derivatives  s
xy xy
( a ,b ) ( a ,b )

2 f  2T 1 2 f
 2  2t  t  2
y 2 y 2 y
( a ,b ) ( a ,b ) ( a ,b )

f f 1 2 f
T  T ( x , y; a , b )  f ( a , b ) 
2
( a ,b ) ( x  a )  ( a ,b ) ( y  b)  ( x  a) 2
x y 2 x 2
f ( a ,b )

2 f 1 2 f
 ( a ,b ) ( x  a )( y  b)  ( y  b) 2
xy 2 x 2

Example: Find the 2nd order Taylor polynomial of f ( x, y)  sin( x  y)  x  y centered at (0,0).

Solution

f ( x, y)  sin( x  y)  x  y

f ( x, y)  sin(0  0)  0 0  0

f
x
( 0, 0 ) 
 cos( x  y)    y  ( 0, 0 ) 2

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f
y
( 0, 0 ) 
 cos( x  y)  x  y  ( 0, 0 ) 1

2 f
  sin( x  y)  0 ( 0,0)  0
x 2
( 0, 0 )

2 f
xy
( 0, 0 ) 
  sin( x  y)    y  ( 0, 0 )  1

2 f
y 2
( 0, 0 ) 
  sin( x  y)  x  y  ( 0, 0 ) 0

Substitute into the Taylor series

1
T 2 ( x, y;0,0)  0  2( x  0)  1( y  0)  (2(1)( x  0)( y  0))
2
 2 x  y  xy Other terms will be zero.

From the Taylor polynomial

f f 1 2 f
T  T ( x , y; a , b )  f ( a , b ) 
2
( a ,b ) ( x  a )  ( a ,b ) ( y  b)  ( x  a) 2
x y 2 x 2
f ( a ,b )

2 f 1 2 f
 ( a ,b ) ( x  a )( y  b)  ( y  b) 2
xy 2 x 2

f f
df ( a ,b ) ( x  a, y  b)  ( a ,b ) ( x  a)  ( a ,b ) ( y  b)
x y
1 2 f 2 f 2 f 
d (2a ,b ) f ( x  a, y  b)   ( a ,b ) ( x  a )  2
2
( a ,b ) ( x  a )( y  b)  ( y  b) 2 
2  x 2 xy x 2


We define second order total derivative of f at ( a, b ) to be

2 f 2 2 f 2 f
d ( 2)
f (v, w)  2 ( a ,b ) v 
2
( a ,b ) vw  w2
x xy y 2
( a ,b ) ( a ,b )

T  T 2  df ( a ,b ) ( x  a, y  b) 
1 2
2

d ( a ,b ) f ( x  a, y  b) 
n d ((ar,)b ) f ( x  a, y  b)
T ( x, y; a, b)  
f
n

r 0 r!
FEC 201 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 1 NOTE BANJE GEOFREY
 30

1 ( 2) 1 1
 f (a, b)  d ( a ,b ) f ( x  a, y  b)  d ( a ,b ) f ( x  a. y  b)  d ((a3,)b ) f ( x  a, y  b)  ...  d (na ,b ) f ( x  a. y  b)
2! 3! n!

The remainder Rtn ( x, y; a, b)  f ( x, y)  T fn ( x, y; a, b)

f  Taylor series if and only if lim it R nf ( x, y; a, b)  0

n

f  sin( x  y)  xe  y (a, b)  (0,0) . Find T f ( x, y;0,0)  T

3
Example

From the first example above we had computed T

2
( x, y;0,0)  2 x  y  xy , so we have to only
compute third order terms.

f f
 cos( x  y)  e  y  cos( x  y)  xe  y
x y

2 f 2 f
  sin( x  y )   sin( x  y )  e  y
x 2 xy

2 f 3 f
  sin( x  y )  xe  y   cos( x  y)  1
y x 3
2 ( 0, 0 )

3 f 3 f
  cos( x  y)  1   cos( x  y)  0
x 2 y xy 2
( 0, 0 ) ( 0, 0 )

3 f
  cos( x  y)  xe  y  1
y 3
( 0, 0 )

3 f
  cos( x  y)  1
x 3
( 0, 0 )

3 f 3 2 f 3 2 f 3 f
d ( 3)
f (v, w)  3 ( 0, 0 ) v 
3
( 0, 0 ) v w 
2
( 0, 0 ) vw 
2
w3
x x 2 y xy 2 y 3
( a ,b ) ( 0, 0 )

 v 3  3v 2 w  w3
1 3
T 3 ( x, y;0,0)  T 2 ( x, y;0,0)  d ( 0,0) f ( x, y)
3!

 2 x  y  xy 
1
6

 x 3  3x 2 y  y 3 
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 31

Example: compute the 1st and 2nd degree Taylor polynomial approximations, L( x, y) & Q( x, y)

f ( x, y)  xe y  1 for ( x, y) near the point (1,0).

Solution

f ( x, y)  xe y  1 f (1,0)  1 e 0  1  2

f x ( x, y)  e y f x (1,0)  e 0  1

f y ( x, y)  xe y f y (1,0)  1 e 0  1

f xx ( x, y)  0 f xx (1,0)  0  0

f yy ( x, y)  xe y f yy (1,0)  1 e 0  1

f xy ( x, y)  e y f xy (1,0)  e 0  1

Linear term L( x, y)

L( x, y)  f (1,0)  f x (1,0)( x  1)  f y (1,0)( y  0)

 2  1 ( x  1)  1 y

 2  x 1 y

 1 x  y

Quadratic term Q( x, y)

f xx f yy
Q( x, y )  L( x, y)  (1,0)( x  1) 2  f xy (1,0)( x  1)( y  0)  (1,0)( y  0) 2
2! 2!
0 1
 1  x  y  ( x  1) 2  1  ( x  1)( y)  ( y) 2
2 2

y2
 1  x  y  xy  y 
2

y2
Q( x, y )  1  x  xy 
2
Example: Find the 4th degree Taylor polynomial centered at x=0 for f ( x)  x sin( x)

Solution

When Taylor polynomial is centered at x = 0 is called McLaurin series

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 32

N f ( n ) ( x) f (n ) (0)
0 x sin(x) 0
1 sin( x)  x cos( x) 0
2 2 cos( x)  x sin( x) 2
3  3 sin( x)  x cos( x) 0
4  4 cos( x)  x sin( x) -4

Table 6

f ( 0) ( x  0) 0 f (1) ( x  0)1 f ( 2) ( x  0) 2 f (3) ( x  0) 3 f ( 4) ( x  0) 4

T ( x)     
0! 1! 2! 3! 4!

(0)( x  0) 0 (0)( x  0)1 (2)( x  0) 2 (0)( x  0) 3 (4)( x  0) 4

T ( x)     
0! 1! 2! 3! 4!
1 4
 x2  x
6
1
Example: Find the 3rd degree Taylor polynomial at x = 3 for f ( x) 
x2
Solution

N f ( n ) ( x) f (n ) (3)
0 ( x  2) 1 15
1  1( x  2) 2  1 25
2 2( x  2) 3 2 125
3  6( x  2) 3  6 625

Table 7

T ( x)  5  25

1 ( x  3) 0  1 ( x  3)1 2
 125

( x  3) 2  6

625

( x  3) 3  
0! 1! 2! 3!
1 1 1 1
  ( x  3)  ( x  3) 2  ( x  3) 3
5 25 125 625
Please memorize the Taylor series expansion formula
n
f n (a)  ( x  a) n
f n (a)  
n 0 n!

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 33

Complex analysis
Complex Number
Realness in the eyes of the beholder, assuming someone ask you to divide three human being into two, it
is not possible, but if it is possible you will not like to see the answer. This lead to the complexity of
number system. Complex number have a great deal in pure mathematics and the other hand they
contribute a great deal to our physical understanding of reality.
System of integers

2x  3
Decimal number
3
x?  x   1.5
2 Fraction of rational number
But if the answer should be integer, then there will be no answer to the above expression. So the answer
should be in fraction or decimal number so that at least we have a result to the expression.

If x is a real number, then x 2 is greater than or equal to zero.


i.e. “Real” Nos.  x : x 2  0 
x 2  1
x? if we want answer to this what should we call this result?

The question is Should x 2  1  0 ; have solution?

Example:

Use x 2  1  0 to solve y 11  y  0

Two solution to this problem are y  sin  or y  cos 

y11  y  0 y  e rx

y 1  re rx y11  r 2 e rx

Substitute into the problem

r 2 e rx  e rx  0

e rx (r 2  1)  0

e rx  0 or r 2 1  0

r 2  1  r    1  i

 y  e ix or y  e ix we know from the solution to the above equation

y  cos x and y  sin x “somehow related to each other”. And if the solution i should exist,
intuitively e ix should be related sin x and cos x . As we are lucky enough to even the trigonometric

FEC 201 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 1 NOTE BANJE GEOFREY

 34

and we want to solve the problem y 11  y  0 and wind up with y  e ix ,then the feeling is that, we
must find real physical interpretation to e ix , because we sense the problem has a solution. So as long as
you want the problem to have a solution you must extend the number system, which we called complex
number system.

Complex number is defined as set of all symbols ( x + iy ) where x and y are real numbers.

C  x  iy; x and y are real number  i  1

Remember the structure. What mean real is that the square of a number is not negative.

That any mathematical system, the things we are dealing with is more than a set of numbers but a set of
numbers or objects together with a structure and certain rules that tell us how to work with these
element that make up the sets. Remember; the different between a set and a system is a set is just a
collection of objects and the system is the collection of objects together with how we combine these
objects to form similar objects etc. What is the structure in this case? Given two complex numbers
z1  x1  iy1 and z 2  x2  iy 2 :

(1) z1  z 2  x1  iy1  x2  iy 2 when x1  x2 and y1  y2

i.e. two complex numbers are equal if the real parts are equal and the imaginary part are equal.

(2). z1  z 2  ( x1  iy1 )  ( x2  iy 2 )  ( x1  x2 )  i( y1  y 2 )

i.e. when adding two complex number add real parts and imaginary part separately. That is add them
component by component.

(3) xx  iy   rx  iry where r is real number . These and many others are the structure we are
referring. We will see some later.

Complex number are vector space by definition. This make complex numbers to be in two dimensional
vector space. That is we can visualize complex number geometrically, the same way we visualize real
number geometrically.

r   x2  y2

 x  iy

 y
  arg z  tan 1  
r  x

arg  arg uiment



Figure 10:
Argan
Diagram
Note that don’t use imaginary strongly because there is no imaginary in the geometry interpretation.
Maybe it imaginary because you don’t have place to use this number system.
FEC 201 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 1 NOTE BANJE GEOFREY
 35

Additional structure of complex Numbers

(a) (a  bi)(c  di)  (ac  bd )  i(bc  ad )

Real Imaginary
part
(a  bi )(a  bi )  a 2  b 2part
 0 real number
(b) Special case:
 a  bi
2

Definition
 
The complex conjugate of z  x  iy  z is z  x  iy

y
a


 x

r
Figure 11


c  id  c  id  a  ib  ac  bd   iad  bc 
   Where a and b  0
a  ib  a  ib  a  ib  a2  b2

3  2i
Example: evaluate
4i
Solution

3  2i  3  2i  4  i  3  4  2  1  4  2  1  3i 14  5i 14 5
      i
4  i  4  i  4  i  4 2  12 17 17 17

For quick check use the answer to multiply the denominator by 4  i , should be equal to the
numerator 3  2i

 14 5 
  i 4  i 
 17 17 
complex
 complex (Except for division by 0)
complex

Multiplication in polar coordinates

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 36

(r1 ,1 )(r2 , 2 )  (r1 cos 1  ir1 sin  )(r2 cos  2  ir2 sin  )

 r1r2 (cos 1 cos  2  sin 1 sin  2 )  ir1r2 (sin 1 cos  2  sin  2 cos 1 )

r 1r2 cos(1   2 )  ir1r2 sin(1   2 )

 (r1 r2 ,1   2 )

By induction (r11 ) ... (rn n )  (r1  r2  r3  ...  rn , 1   2   3  ...   n )

Special case
y
(r , ) n  (r n , n )
(1,  )
 r  1  (1, ) n  (1, n )
1
sin 


cos  x

Figure 12
This above explanation take us to a theorem known as De Moivre’s theorem.

De Moivre’s theorem.

 (cos   i sin  ) n  cos n  i sin n

 sin 2  2 sin  cos 
Example: (cos   i sin  ) 2  cos 2  i sin 2
cos 2  cos 2   sin 2 
cos 2   sin 2   i 2 sin  cos 

6
Extracting roots find i
6
i  x  iy  i  ( x  iy ) 6  0  1i

Note: even powers of i s are real but odd power of i s give back to i s . By using Binomial
theorem.

x 6  15 x 4 (iy ) 2  15 x 2 (iy ) 4  (iy ) 6  0

 6 x 5 (iy )  20 x 3 (iy ) 3  6 x(iy ) 5  1

It somehow involving to solve the complicated system.

x 6  15 x 4 y 2  15 x 2 y 4  y 6  0
 i6 x 5 y  i 20 x 3 y 3  i6 xy 5  1
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But in polar coordinates

 
i  1,   6 i  (r ,  )
 2

 
i  1,   r ,    r 6 ,6 
6

 2

 r  1, 6  , 2k
2
 5 9 13 17 21 25
r  1,   , , , , , ,
12 12 12 12 12 12 12

 3   
1,  1, 
 4   2

3 3 1
 cos  i cos  (1  i)
4 4 2
Figure 13

Complex number are closed with respect to extracting roots.

FUNCTION OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE

z  f ( x, y) f function or w  f (z )
machine
( x, y) (u, v)

Figure 14

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Graphically we look at the complex number from one plane to another plane.

y
v
w  f (z )

z  ( x, y)
w  (u, v)

x
u

Domain of function Range of function

Figure 15
f ( z )  z 2  ( x  iy ) 2

z 2  x 2  i 2 xy  y 2  z 2  x 2  y 2  i 2 xy

f ( x, y)  ( x 2  y 2 ,2 xy ) u  x 2  y 2 , v  2 xy

 f ( z )  z 2 is equivalent to the real system of equation

u  x2  y2 
 real system equation
v  2 xy 
Limits

C  complex number

f :C  c a c

lim it f ( z )  L

z  a Means given  0 there exists   0 such that;

0  z  a    f ( z )  L  f ( z )  L  real

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Pictorially

w  f (z )
y v

a

a

x
z in here  u
 f ( z ) in here

Figure 16

Usually limit the hold if particular if f ( z)  u( x, y)  iv ( x, y)

L  L1  iL2

a  a1  ia 2

Then lim of f ( z)  L  z  a

Limit u( x, y)  L and lim v( x, y)  L2

( x, y)  (a1 , a2 ) ( x, y)  (a1 , a2 )

There is nothing new theoretical here, the same hold in the study of real values function hold for
complex value function but in particular when we map complex number into complex numbers there
are many real interpretation identified with pair of real mapping u( x, y) and v( x, y)

Introduction to derivatives

lim it
 f ( z0  z )  f ( z0 ) 
f 1 ( z1 )  z  0 
This limit must exist no matter
 z  the direction  0
If w  f (z )

 u( x, y)  iv ( x, y)

dw w
f 1 (z0 )   lim
dz z  0 z

 u  iv 
 lim 
z 0 x  iy 
 

x, y  0
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The crucial thing to know here is not only this limit exit, but it must exist independently on the direction
in which z  0 . This is must stronger than the corresponding notion that the directional derivative
when we talk about real value function of several real variable. For directional derivative to axis
direction, all you require is, that in each direction the limit exist but the limit could be difference in two
different direction.

v
y
w1
z1

z w
z0 f 1 ( z0 )
w0

x u

Figure 17

The directed length from z0 to z1  (z ) is the vector of the complex number z and the directed length
from to w1  (w) is the vector of the complex number w .

If the function is differentiable that the ratio does not change and always equal to f 1 ( z 0 )

 u  iv 
Now that lim  exist every direction but the same all direction is possible that this impose
z 0 x  iy 
 
some strong condition on u and v . If this limit is the same in all direction let pick two attractive
direction to look at.

Case 1: y  0 ( z 0 )

 u v 
f 1 ( z0 )  lim  i
z 0 x
 y 
u v
 i z  ( x0 , y 0 )
x y

Case 2: x  0   
 z0 
  

 u v 
f 1 ( z 0 )  lim  
y 0 iy
 y 

v 1 u
  z 0  ( x0 , y 0 )
y i y

v u
 i z 0  ( x0 , y 0 )
y y

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u v v u For two complex numbers are equal when their real

If f 1 ( z 0 )  i  i
x x y y parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal
u v v u
i.e.  and 
We equate component by component. x y x y
If f  u  iv to be differentiable (analytical) then u x  v y and u y  v x , converse is true.

u x  v y or u y  v x then f  u  iv is not analytical 

Examples
Cauchy 
u x  2 x, v x  2 y  u x  v y 
(1) f ( z )  z 2  ( x  iy ) 2  Re iman
u y  2 y v y  22  u y  v x 
condition
 ( x  y )  i (2 xy )
2 2
  
u v

By direct computation;

f ( z 0  z )  f ( z 0 ) ( z 0  z ) 2  z 0 2 z z  z 2
2

f ( z)  z 2    0  2 z 0  z
z z z
z  0

 f 1 ( z0 )  2z0

1 1 1 x  iy x  iy x  y 
(2) f ( z )   by rationalizing   2  2  i  2 
z x  iy x  iy x  iy x  y 2
x y 2
x  y
2


x y
u , v
x  y2
2
x  y2
2

x( 2 x)  ( x 2  y 2 )  1 2 x 2  x 2  y 2 x2  y2
ux   
(x 2  y 2 )2 (x 2  y 2 )2 (x 2  y 2 )

 y (2 y )  (1)( x 2  y 2 )  2 y 2  x 2  y 2 x2  y2
vy   
(x 2  y 2 )2 (x 2  y 2 )2 (x 2  y 2 )

ux  vy u y  v x Therefore Cauchy-Riemann condition is satisfied.

Concept when x  y  0  z  0

(3) f ( z )  z  x  iy

u  x, v  y ux  vy

w x  iy
 Divide top and bottom of the RHS by x
z x  iy

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y dy
1 i 1 i This is a simple one, the reasons for this simple one are;
x  dx
y dy (1) computation are easy (2) the result is easy to
1 i 1 i interpret geometrically. (3) it is not easy for a complex
x dx
value function to have derivative, if the direction of
derivative must exist very direction and be the same,
that is a very stringent condition. So this example is
one have no derivative.

dy
y v m
dx
z1 dv w1
dy
a  a1
dx du

z0 w0

x u

Figure 18

w 1  i m
  g ( m)
z 1  i m

The derivative exist in each direction but not equal in each direction. What we want to show here is the
connection of complex variable to real problem in the physical world.

 2u  2u
u ( x, y) is said to satisfy Laplace’s equation i.e.   0 . This equation denote Temperature
x 2 y 2
distribution in x-y plane and it is a steady state equation.

If u  i v is analytic

ux  vy  u xx  v yx ……………. (a)

u y  v x u yy  v xy ……………... (b)

Add equation (a) and (b)

u xx  u yyy  0 as v yx  v xy

Example;

u  x 2  y 2
f ( z)  z  
2

v  2 xy

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u xx  u yy  0

v xx  v yy  0 
 Solving Laplace’s equation is very important in real world problem.
The interesting point is the solution of Laplace’s equation have to be
real and imaginary part of an analytic function.
If f  u  i v is differentiable then the Cauchy-Riemann equation hold and derivative are continues

u v u v
 &  these are denoted by u x  v y or u y  v x
x y y x

Define f :  by

Example: f ( z)  x 3  3x 2 y  y 3  x 2  2 y 2  i( x 3  3xy 2  y 3  4 xy  3 y where is f is

differentiable and given its derivative where it exists.

Solution

First, write out real and imaginary parts i.e.

f ( z)  x 3  3x 2 y  y 3  x 2  2 y 2  i( x 3  3xy 2  y 3  4 xy  3 y

u  x 3  3x 2 y  y 2  x 2  2 y 2

v   x 3  3xy 2  y 3  4 xy  3 y

u v
So,  3x 2  6 xy  2 x,  6 xy  3 y 2  4 x  3
x y

u v
 3 x 2  3 y 2  4 y,  3x  3 y 2  4 y
y x

u v
Note:  for all complex number z 
y x

u v
Then 
x y

3x 2  6 xy  2 x  6 xy  3 y 2  4 x  3

3x 2  3 y 2  6 x  3 Divide through by 3

x 2  y 2  2x  1 Add 1 to both side of the equation

x 2  y 2  2x  1  1  1

x 2  2x  1  y 2  2

( x  1) 2  y 2  2 This result is a circle centered at 1 and radius is 2

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The only place the function can be differentiable is on the circle but that does not means that is
differentiable. The fact that the Cauchy-Riemann equation is satisfied on the circle is differentiable only
the circle.

That last thing is where the derivative exists if is

u v
f 1 ( x)   i  3x 2  6 xy  2 x  i (3x 2  3 y  4 y)
x x
Note that: where is the given function is analytical? In this case the function is analytic nowhere. Would
have suspect that from the beginning because the function is written in term of x & y but that is not a
guarantee. Analytic means not differentiable only but differentiable at a point and everywhere around
that point some sort of open neighborhood. But in this case the function is only differentiable on the
circle does not have any neighborhood so can’t be analytic anywhere at all. So this is function analytic
nowhere.

Harmonic functions

 2u  2u
U : R 2  R is harmonic if   0 (Laplace equation ) and these derivatives are continuous for a
x 2 y 2
given region.

(1) If f  u  i v is analytic, u is harmonic.

(2) If u is harmonic, there is a v such that f  u  i v is analytic.

Because we are concentrating on the real value of u and v is the harmonic conjugate of u

Example: given u  xy is harmonic. Find a harmonic conjugate v, write u  i v as a function of z .

Solution

u v u v
v Must satisfy y ; x
x y y x

Choose any of the equation depend on convenient.

1 2
Then v  y   ( x) where  is some function of x
2
v 1
  1 ( x)   x So we can take    x by integrating and letting the integration constant to zero.
x 2
1 2 1 1
And so v  ( y  x 2 ) and u  i v  xy  i ( y 2  x 2 )   i z 2 with the use analytic continuation.
2 2 2
1
u  xy And v  (y2  x2 )
2
2
u x  y and v y  y  y Therefore u x  y  v y
2

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2
uy  x and v x   x   x . Therefore u y  v x
2

 2u  2u  2u  2u
 0,  0,  000
x 2 x 2 x 2 y 2

1
Therefore the harmonic conjugate v  ( y 2  x 2 )
2
x
Example: find a harmonic conjugate for u  , if f  u  i v analytic.
x  y2
2

Then f 1  u x  i v x  u x  i u y

1 (x 2  y 2 )  2x 2 2 xy
f 
1
i 2
(x  y )
2 2 2
(x  y 2 )2

y2  x2 2 xy
 i 2
(x  y )
2 2 2
(x  y 2 )

z2 1
 4
 2
z z
x 1 y
So, the real part u  , f  and the imaginary part v  2
x  y2
2
z x  y2

Inequalities
The two major common inequalities in complex analysis are:

Triangle: z  w  z  w  triangular inequality is the mother of inequaliti es

z1  z 2  ...  z n  z1  z 2  z 3  ...  z z

Circle: z  w  z  w

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These expressions are followed when dealing with the complex analysis that involve such inequalities

zw
w zw w
zw z

Figure 20

You can remember when you add complex number, you are really adding vector problem,

Show that of z  3 then 8  z 3  5iz  4  46

Solution

z 3  5iz  4  z 3  5iz  4  27  5  1  3  4  46

i.e. z  3
z 3  z  3 3  27
3

i 1
5iz  5  i  z  5  1  3  15
4 4

Therefore; z 3  5iz  4  z 3  5iz  4  27  5  1  3  4  46

z 3  5iz  4  z 3  5iz  4

As z 3  5iz  z 3  5iz  27  15  12

Then z 3  5iz  4  12  4  8

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Mappings
How do we picture f : ?

Let z  x  iy , w  u  iv, w  f ( z)

y v
f  function

x u

w  plane
z  plane
Figure 21

How the shape altered in the w  plane picture how the function belove

2
Example: find and sketch the image of z  2  1 under w 
z 1
z( x, y)  w(u, v)
y v

2 x u

z  plane
w  plane
Figure 22

2
We have z  1
w

2
So z  2  1 maps to 1 1
w

2
1 1
w

2w
1
w

2  w 1

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2w  w

Square both side but w  u  iv

2w  w
2 2

(u  2) 2  v 2  u 2  v 2

i.e.  4u  4  0
u 1
And other problem is to parametize z as edge of the region is:

z  2  e i  For      
2
This mapped to
z 1
2
w
1  ei

i
2 e 2
w 
1  ei i

e 2

    
i 2(cos  i sin 2 cos 2 sin
2  1  i tan 
2
2e 2 2 2 i
w 
i



   2
e 2
e 2 2 cos 2 cos 2 cos
2 2 2

tan Will varies from infinity to infinity
2

Conformal Mappings
Mapping is said to be conformal if its preserve angle.
f ( z)
  f ( w)

f ( x, y )  f (u, v)

u  u ( x, y ) 
 is (locally means neighborhood of a given point) invertible.
v  v ( x, y ) 
The determinant of Jacobean matrix is
 (u, v)  u u 
If 0 not equal to zero.
 x
 ( x, y ) y 
J  
i.e. if u x v y  u y v x  0  v v  ; J  0 , where J is Jacobean
 x y 


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Supposes u  iv  f (z ) is analytical function i.e. f 1 ( z ) exist.

 f 1 ( z)  u x  i v x

u x  v y and u y  v x

u x v y  u y v x  0

2
u x  v x  f 1 (z )
2 2

u  u ( x, y ) 
 is invertible if f  u  iv is analytical and f ( z )  0 .
1
For any
v  v ( x, y ) 

Some invertible mappings are “nicer” than others. But there are a lot of invertible function not obey the
stringent conditions.

Definition
An invertible mapping is called conformal if it preserves angles. What its mean by preserve angle is;
suppose we have two curves and have certain angle in xy-plane when you map the xy-plane to the uv-
plane in one to one and onto fashion the two curves in the xy-plane have images in the uv-plane. The
question that will come up is will the two curves intercept in the same angle in xy-plane and images
intercept in the uv-plane well, maybe is easier to explain with figures. Though, the “usual” linear
mappings are not conformal.

y v
B
R
B1
 A 
S

0 x 01 A1 u

Figure 23

 

The image of the angle of xy-plane not the same as the image of angle in uv-plane

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Key point

If f  u  iv is analytic and f 1 ( z )  0 , then

u  u ( x, y ) 
 is conformal. Why?
v  v ( x, y ) 

z1
y v w2
z2
z 2
z 2
 z1 w0 
z1
z0
w1 w1
x u

Figure 24

z 2 w2
  arg ,   arg
z1 w1

For small z1

w w2 w1
 y1 ( z0 )    f 1 (z0 )
z z 2 z1

z 2 w2  0  z 2 w2
  if f 1  0    Because  their argument must be equal for
z1 w1  0  z1 w1
conformal mapping.

Conformal maps and Laplace’s equation

C

T  T0 ( x, y) an c (c  boundary)
R
Txx  Tyy  0 in R( R  region)

To determine T in R, where T is Temperature

Figure 25

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Key point

If f : R  S where f  u  iv is analytic and f 1 ( z )  0 . Then Txx  Tyy  0  Tuu  Tvv  0

u
y v
C C

R S

x u

Figure 26

T  T0 ( x, y ) on C  T  T0 ( x(u, v), y (u, v))

 T1 (u, v)

Solve for T (u, v) in S then T (u( x, y), v( x, y)) is a solution in R.

Conformal mapping preserve the solution of Laplace equation and this is one of important application of
conformal mapping in the study of the real world.

Proof

u  u( x, y)

v  v( x, y)

TX  Tu u x  Tv v x Txx  Tu u x  Tv v x x  Tu u x x  Tv v x x

(Tu ) x  (Tu ) u u x  (Tu ) v v x

(Tv ) x  (Tv ) u u x  (Tv ) v v x

Txx  Tu u xx  Tuu u x  Tuvu x v x  Tv v xx  Tvu u x v x  Tvv v x

2 2

By symmetry

Tyy  Tu u yy  Tuu u y  Tuvu y v y  Tv v yy  Tvu u y v y  Tvv v y

2 2

Txx  Tyy  Tu u xx  Tuu u x  Tuvu x v x  Tv v xx  Tvu u x v x  Tvv v x  Tu u xx  Tuu u x  Tuvu x v x  Tv v xx  Tvu u x v x  Tvv v x
2 2 2 2

Txx  Tyy  Tuu (u x  u y )  Tvv (v x  v y )  2Tuv (u x v x  u y v y )  Tu (u xx  u yy )  Tv (u xx  v yy )

2 2 2 2

f  u  i v Analytic  f 1  u x  iv x ; u x  v y , and u y  v x
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2
 f 1  u x  vx  u x  u y  v y  vx
2 2 2 2 2 2

u xx  u yy  v xx  v yy  0

u x v y  u y v y  v y vx  vx v y  0

 Txx  T yy  Tuu  Tvv  f 1 (z )

2
Therefore, f 1 ( z )  0

Txx  Tyy  0  Tuu  Tvv  0

Sequence and Series

ez  ? sin z  ?
 
xn zn
ex   , ez   ?
n 0 n! n 0 n!

Definition

lim a n  L Means, given  0, there exist N; n  N  a n  L 

n 

Pictorially

y a1
a4
n  N  an is in here
a5 here
x
a2 a3

Figure 27

In similar way we may define C
n 1
n  lim (C1  C 2  ...  C n )
n 

By structure, the usual theorems is apply. The difference is the interval of convergent is replace by disc
of convergent.
power series

In particular, if S  Z :  a n Z n convergent then, either

(i) S   0 

(ii) S  C (all complex Nos)

Or

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(iii) There exists R  0 such that S  Z : Z  R and convergence is absolute and uniform for
Z rR Any Point outside the
circle or region is
Zn
We then define e z   convergent
n!
Any Point Inside the
(1) n Z 2 n 1

Sin Z   circle or region is
n  0 ( 2n  1)! convergent

(1) n x 2 n 1
Sin x  
n  0 ( 2n  1)!

If you want to compute sine to any Nos of decimal places either hand or by computer notice that the
power series that you use, you chop that off after certain number of terms as you which, you can leave
Sinx in first instance and define Sinx by compute the right hand side only this will be not efficient so
what could do is start with Sinx is the real case develop convergent power series take that power series
and replace x by z and you find that new complex power series to be Sinz and that get the job done.

Can then prove e i z  cos z  i sin z or e i x  cos x  i sin x

(r,  )  r cos   i r sin   r e i 

e   1

(1) z  r e i   r e i (  2k )

log z  log r  log e i (  2k )

 log r  i (  2k )

 log z  is multiply-valued, principal valued is (     )

e i x  e i x
(2) cosh i x   (cos x  i sin x)  cos( x)  i sin( x)  cos x
2

x 2  y 2  1 circle function

x 2  y 2  1 hyperbolic function

x 2  (i y) 2  1 hyperbolic function

(3) e z  e x i y  e x e iy  e x (cos y  i sin y)  e x cos y  ie x sin y

    
u v

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 54

u  e x cos y 

is a real conformal mapping
v  e sin y 
x


u 2  v 2  e2x because sin 2 y  cos 2 y  1

v
 tan y
u
You know what this tells? This say what are the basic lines in xy-plane when x  cons tan t &
y  cons tan t u 2  v 2  e 2 x as x is constant show that a circle centered at the origin in other word the
v
line x  cons tan t mapping to concentric circle on other if y is cons tan t is cons tan t in uv-plane
u
v
is cons tan t is a straight line that goes through the origin lies v  u  cons tant , Now what that mean
u
pictorially
f
mapping
y v

x u

Figure 28

Application to “Real” series

1
 1  u  u 2  ...
1 u

 un
n 0

Convergent for u  1

1
 1  x 2  x 4  x 6  ...
1 x 2


  (1) n x 2 n
n 0

Convergent fn x 1

What goes wrong when x  1?

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
1 
 (1)
n 0
n
z 2n   z 1
1 z2 

1 1
 . Therefore z   i is “trouble”.
1 z 2
( z  i) ( z  i)

Pictorially

y
z 1
i
good spot

x
Bad spot i
Figure 29

Bad spots are on z  1, but not at z  1 and z  1

This is enough to make points. By studying of complex series we do two things e.g. (1) we get a larger
whole of such analytic function which help us in thing like conformal mapping and some other things. (2)
it give us a new prospective at series involving real power series.

Integrating Complex Function

The things that we will be stretching in this study is a complex function of a complex variable. The idea
been if you have a complex function of real variable.
n

 f (C
x1
 )x k  F ( x1 )  F ( x0 ) Where F  f

f ( x)dx  lim
1
k
x0 max .
xk  0 k  0

Range of F y  f (x)
y The area of the region R is the
answer to the definite integral

x0 x1 x Domainof F

Figure 30

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 f (C
z1


Replace x by z to f ( z ) dz  lim k )z k
z0 max
z k  0 k  0

zk
z k

z k 1

y Range of F

f (z ) is define in everywhere in the xy-plane

c z1

z0

x domain of F

Figure 31


  

C  x  x(t ) R  x(t ) i  y (t ) j  vector


 y  y (t ) Z  x(t )  i y (t )  complex number

t 0  t  t1 (t 0  z 0 & t1  z1 )

Note: z is a complex value function of t and t is a real variable.

n
 z k 
  f (C
z1
z0
f ( z ) dz  lim
max .

k (t k )
t k
t k

z k 0 k 1

z1 t1
z0
f ( z ) dz   f ( z (t )) z 1 (t )dt
t0
real var iable
Now in terms of u and v

f ( z)  u  iv, t  x  iy . This lead to:

zc (x ,y )
C
z0
f ( z ) dz  (C
( x0 , y0 )
(u  iv ) (dx  idy )

(x ,y ) (x ,y )
 (udx  vdy)  i  (vdx  udy)
( x0 , y 0 ) ( x0 , y 0 )

N/B both integral are ordinary line integral.

 x  x(t 0 We can integrate this in term of t because x is a function of t and y too a

C function of t nut why use u and v system, is because to show that,
 y  y (t )
whether the sys is analytic or not.

u  iv is analytic f 

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 57

u x  v y , u y  v x
Are exact. If a differential exact means that the line integral depend only
udx  vdy on the end points but not on the path that connected the end points or

vdx  udy  when the integral is exact means that line integral around the close curve
is zero
If f  u  iv is analytic then
z1 Is independent of c(curve), and but it depend on only z 0 & z1 . In this
 z0
f ( z )dz
case we have not to specify the curve joining z 0 & z1
f (ck ) is exact then

 f ( z)dz  0
c
for all curve C

z1
If f analytical   f ( z )dz  F ( z1 )  F ( z 0 )
z0

N/B  f ( z)dz need

c
not be zero if f is not analytic

The easiest way to explain this is by example.

dz 1
Example compute 
c
z
note that the int egrand is
z

Where;
y
You can pick a point in and outside the curve
C but what we are interested in this case is the
Where
R 1
integral along the curve C i.e. the is not
x z
analytic in every place inside the circle but
1
analytic on the circle. The bad spot is
z
Figure 32

Method 1

dz dx  idy ( x  iy )(dx  idy ) xdx  ydy  ydy  xdy

c

z c x  iy

c x y
2 2
 2
c x  y
2
 i
x2  y2

x  R cos  , y  R sin  
On C  substitute these in to above equation .
dx   R sin d , dy  R cos d 

x2  y2  R2 0    2

dz xdx  ydy  ydx  xdy ( R cos  )( R sin d )  ( R sin  )( R cos d )
  2 i  
c
z c x y 2
c x y
2 2
c R 2 (cos 2   sin 2  )

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( R sin  )( R sin d )  ( xR cos  )( R cos d )

i
c R 2 cos 2   R 2 sin 2 

0    2

R 2 ( cos  sin   sin  cos  ) R 2 (sin 2   cos 2  ) 2 R

2
2
 2
 i  2
 i  2
d  i  d  2 i
c R c R 0 R 0

dz
  2 i
c
z

where sin 2   cos 2   1

Method 2

C : z  Re i 0    2

dz
 i Re i
d
i
dz 2 1 dz 2 Re
c z 0 z( ) d
  d  0 Re i d  2 i
i

Rubber Sheet Geometry (TOPOLOGY)

Suppose lets integral along the curve C1and suppose C2 is another curve enclose C1 and C2 and the region
between them and our computing, we want to compute f (z ) is analytic on and between C1 and C2.
c
The amazing the result is  f ( z)dz   f ( z) . This amazing
c c1 c2

result give rise to the name Rubber sheet geometry. This

means there is no bad spot between the two curve if is
visualize the curve is Rubber band and stretch along point in
the curve is analytic.
Figure 33

If f is analytic on and between C1 and 2 then.  f ( z)dz   f ( z)dz

c1 c1

c
 f ( z)dz   f ( z)dz   f ( z)dz
c1 c2
with 0 SF
cut

Figure 34

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 59

dz
Example compute 
c
z
where.

y Integral around the c

dz dz
 z  c z  2 i is not zero
1
x

Figure 35

Linear fractional transformation

Modeling and solving boundary value problem is enhanced by conformal mapping, first mapping regions
conformally onto another.

az  b
(i) w  (ad  bc  0)
cz  d
Where a, b, c, and d are complex or real numbers. By differentiating:

a (cz  d )  c (az  b) ad  bc
(ii) w1  
(cz  d ) 2 (cz  d ) 2

(iii) Special case for (i):

w z b ( translatio n )

w  az with a  1 ( Rotations )

w  az  b ( Linear transformations )

w 1 (inversion in the unit circle )

z

Laurent expansion
If C1 and C 2 are concentric circle centered at z 0 shown below f (z ) is analytic between C1 and C 2
and singular at z  z 0. if another concentric circle lying between C1 and C 2 then f (z ) can be expand
using Laurent series expansion. Laurent series expansion is valid within C1 and C 2 region and centered
on the singular point.

a 2 a 1
f ( z )  ...    a 0  a1 ( z  z 0 )  a 2 ( z  z 0 ) 2  ...
(z  z0 ) 2
( z  z 0 )

 a
n  
n (z  z0 ) n

1 f ( z)
Where, a n 
2  (z  z 0)
n 1
dz

FEC 201 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 1 NOTE BANJE GEOFREY

y
 60

This series have two parts, one part contained

c1
negative power which known as principal part of the
c series while the other part of the series is known as
c2
analytic part. The function have pole of order n when
z0
the highest power of principal part of 1 z is n. The
function have an essential singularity when the
principal part of the series contain infinite terms.

Figure 36 x

e5z
Example: expand is a Laurent series about the point z  3 and determine the nature of the
( z  3) 4
singularity at z  3 .

Solution

e5z
f ( z) 
( z  3) 4

 u  udv  vdu
f 1 ( z)  ? f 1  
v v2

u  e5z v  ( z  3) 4

du  5e 5 z let w  z  3 dw
dz 1

v  w4 dv
dw  4w3

dv dv dw
   4w 3  1  4w 3
dz dw dz

e 5 z  4( z  3) 3  5e 5 z ( z  3) 4
f ( z) 
1

(( z  3) 4 ) 2

e 5 z ( z  3) 3 (4  5( z  3))

( z  3) 8

e 5 z (5 z  19)

( z  3) 5

So f (z ) is analytic everywhere except at z  2

Let x  z  3 , z  x3

e5z e 5 ( x  3) 15 e
5z
  e
( z  3) 4 x4 x4

By using McLaurin series expansion.

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 61

e 5 x e15  (5 x) 2 (5 x) 3 (5 x) 4 
e15 4
 
4 
1  5 x     ...
x x  2! 3! 4! 

 1 5 x (5 x) 2 (5 x) 3 (5 x) 4 
 e  4  4 
15
4
 4
 4
 ...
x x 2! x 3! x 4! x 

 1 5 25 125 625 3125 x 

 e15  4  3  2
    ...
x x 2x 6x 24 120 

 1 5 25 125 625 3125( z  3) 

 e15        ...
 ( z  3)
4
( z  3) 3
2( z  3) 2
6( z  3) 24 120 

This series converge for all finite z except z  3 at which point there is a pole of order 4.

Residues
Residues is the coefficient a 1 in Laurent series expansion for f (z ) .

a 2 a 1
f ( z )  ...    a 0  a1 ( z  z 0 )  a 2 ( z  z 0 ) 2  ...
(z  z0 ) 2
(z  z0 )

If is a close contour c has interior point as z 0 , then.

dz
 (z  z 0 )n
 2 j  n1

1 if n  1
Where  n1   
0 if n  1

If we apply this concept to Laurent series and integrating term by term as

 a 2 a 1 
 f ( z)dz   ...  ( z  z
 0 ) 2

(z  z0 )
 a 0  a1 ( z  z 0 )  a 2 ( z  z 0 ) 2  ...


 a 2 a 1 
 f ( z)dz   ...  ( z  z
 c 0 ) 2

(z  z0 )
 a 0  a1 ( z  z 0 )  a 2 ( z  z 0 ) 2  ...


 a2 a 1 
 ...   dz   dz   a 0 dz   a1 ( z  z 0 )dz   a 2 ( z  z 0 ) 2 dz  ...
 c (z  z0 )
2
c
(z  z0 ) c c c 

1 if n  1
 ...  0  2  j a1  0  0  0  ... When  n1   
0 if n  1

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 f ( z)dz  2 

j a 1 Provided f (z ) is analytic inside and on the close contour c , except its isolated

singularity at z 0 inside the contour. a 1 is called residue because it is the only item remain after
integrating Laurent series term by term. This standard is called the Residue theorem.

Residue a 1 is given by a simpler expression to evaluate it, if and only if f (z ) is analytic in the close
contour, which there is a pole of order n, then;

 1 d n 1 
a 1  lim   n 1 (( z  z 0 ) n f ( z ))
z  z 0 ( n  1)! dz
 

FEC 201 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 1 NOTE BANJE GEOFREY