Automatic

Control
ELTL 442

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY

Madinah College of Technology | Electrical Engineering Department
Lecture contents:
WEEKS CHAPTERS SUBJECTS NOTES

01/02/1444
1 REGISTRATION
05/02/1444

• Review Laplace Transforms.

08/02/1444
2 1 • Introduction.
12/02/1444
• Feedback.
• Review Inverse Laplace Transforms.
15/02/1444 • Review Inverse Laplace Transforms
3 2
19/02/1444 (partial fractions).
• Mathematical Models.
• Block Diagrams.
22/02/1444
4 • Block Diagram Algebra.
26/02/1444
3 • Block Diagram Reduction.
29/02/1444 • Signal Flow Graphs.
5 LEC # 2
03/03/1444 • EXAMINATION 1 (13 points).
06/03/1444 • Time Response Analysis.
6
10/03/1444 • Response of the First Order System.
4
13/03/1444 • Time Response Analysis.
7
17/03/1444 • Response of Second Order System.
• EXAMINATION 2 (13 points).
20/03/1444
8 5 • Controllers. LEC # 3
24/03/1444
• Steady State Errors.
27/03/1444 • Stability.
9
02/04/1444 • Stability Analysis.
6
05/04/1444 • State Space Model.
10
09/04/1444 • State Space Analysis.
12/04/1444 REVIEW THE COURSE
11 LEC # 1
16/04/1444 Attendance and Participation (13 points).
19/04/1444 FINAL EXAMINATION
12 LEC # 4
23/04/1444 (27 points)
Notes:
Lecture
LEC # 1: 13 points, Attendance and Participation.
LEC # 2: 13 points, Examination 1
LEC # 3: 13 points, Examination 2
LEC # 4: 27 points, Final Examination.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 1

 CHAPTER
1
3 Hours

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 2

 Introduction
A control system is a system, which provides the desired response by controlling the
output. The following figure shows the simple block diagram of a control system.

Here, the control system is represented by a single block. Since, the output is
controlled by varying input, the control system got this name. We will vary this input with
some mechanism. In the next section on open loop and closed loop control systems, we will
study in detail about the blocks inside the control system and how to vary this input in order
to get the desired response.

Examples − Traffic lights control system, washing machine

Traffic lights control system is an example of control system. Here, a sequence of input
signal is applied to this control system and the output is one of the three lights that will be on
for some duration of time. During this time, the other two lights will be off. Based on the
traffic study at a particular junction, the on and off times of the lights can be determined.
Accordingly, the input signal controls the output. So, the traffic lights control system
operates on time basis.

Classification of Control Systems:

Based on some parameters, we can classify the control systems into the following ways.

1- Continuous time and Discrete-time Control Systems:

• Control Systems can be classified as continuous time control systems and discrete time
control systems based on the type of the signal used.
• In continuous time control systems, all the signals are continuous in time. But,
in discrete time control systems, there exists one or more discrete time signals.
2- 𝑺𝑰𝑺𝑶 and 𝑴𝑰𝑴𝑶 Control Systems:
• Control Systems can be classified as 𝑺𝑰𝑺𝑶 control systems and 𝑴𝑰𝑴𝑶 control systems
based on the number of inputs and outputs present.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 3

• 𝑺𝑰𝑺𝑶 (Single Input and Single Output) control systems have one input and one output.
Whereas, 𝑴𝑰𝑴𝑶 (Multiple Inputs and Multiple Outputs) control systems have more than
one input and more than one output.
3- Open Loop and Closed Loop Control Systems:
• Control Systems can be classified as open loop control systems and closed loop
control systems based on the feedback path.
• In open loop control systems, output is not fed-back to the input. So, the control
action is independent of the desired output.

The following figure shows the block diagram of the open loop control system.

Here, an input is applied to a controller, and it produces an actuating signal or

controlling signal. This signal is given as an input to a plant or process which is to be
controlled. So, the plant produces an output, which is controlled. The traffic lights control
system which we discussed earlier is an example of an open loop control system.

In closed loop control systems, output is fed back to the input. So, the control action
is dependent on the desired output.

The following figure shows the block diagram of negative feedback closed loop
control system.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 4

 The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the input
and the feedback signal. This feedback signal is obtained from the block (feedback elements)
by considering the output of the overall system as an input to this block. Instead of the direct
input, the error signal is applied as an input to a controller.

So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant. In this
combination, the output of the control system is adjusted automatically till we get the desired
response. Hence, the closed loop control systems are also called the automatic control
systems. Traffic lights control system having sensor at the input is an example of a closed
loop control system.

The differences between the open loop and the closed loop control systems are
mentioned in the following table.

Open Loop Control Systems Closed Loop Control Systems

Control action is independent of the desired output. Control action is dependent of the
desired output.

Feedback path is not present. Feedback path is present.

These are also called as non-feedback control These are also called as feedback
systems. control systems.

Easy to design. Difficult to design.

These are economical. These are costlier.

Inaccurate. Accurate.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 5

 Feedback
If either the output or some part of the output is returned to the input side and utilized
as part of the system input, then it is known as feedback. Feedback plays an important role
in order to improve the performance of the control systems. In this chapter, let us discuss the
types of feedback & effects of feedback.AD

Types of Feedback:

There are two types of feedback:

1- Positive Feedback

The positive feedback adds the reference input, 𝑹(𝒔) and feedback output. The
following figure shows the block diagram of positive feedback control system.

The concept of transfer function will be discussed in later chapters. For the time being,
consider the transfer function of positive feedback control system is,
𝑮
𝑻= (Equation 1)
𝟏−𝑮𝑯

Where,

• 𝑻 is the transfer function or overall gain of positive feedback control system.

• 𝑮 is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
• 𝑯 is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.
2- Negative Feedback
Negative feedback reduces the error between the reference input, 𝑹(𝒔) and system
output. The following figure shows the block diagram of the negative feedback control
system.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 6

 Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,
𝑮
𝑻= (Equation 2)
𝟏+𝑮𝑯

Where,

• 𝑻 is the transfer function or overall gain of negative feedback control system.

• 𝑮 is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
• 𝑯 is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.

NOTE: The derivation of the above transfer function is present in later chapters.

Effects of Feedback:

Let us now understand the effects of feedback.

1- Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain:

• From Equation 2, we can say that the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop
control system is the ratio of 'G' and (𝟏 + 𝑮𝑯). So, the overall gain may increase or
decrease depending on the value of (𝟏 + 𝑮𝑯).
• If the value of (𝟏 + 𝑮𝑯) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this case,
'GH' value is negative because the gain of the feedback path is negative.
• If the value of (𝟏 + 𝑮𝑯) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In this
case, 'GH' value is positive because the gain of the feedback path is positive.

In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, the feedback will increase the
overall gain of the system in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency range.

2- Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity:

Sensitivity of the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system (T) to the
variation in open loop gain (G) is defined as
𝝏𝑻
𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐓
𝑺𝑻𝑮 = 𝑻
𝝏𝑮 = (Equation 3)
𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐆
𝑻

Where, ∂T is the incremental change in T due to incremental change in G.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 7

 We can rewrite Equation 3 as
𝝏𝑻 𝑮
𝑺𝑻𝑮 = (Equation 4)
𝝏𝑮 𝑻

Do partial differentiation with respect to G on both sides of Equation 2.

𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝑮 (𝟏+𝑮𝑯)⋅𝟏−𝑮(𝑯) 𝟏
= ( )= (𝟏+𝑮𝑯)𝟐
= (𝟏+𝑮𝑯)𝟐 (Equation 5)
𝝏𝑮 𝝏𝑮 𝟏+𝑮𝑯

From Equation 2, you will get

𝑮
= 𝟏 + 𝑮𝑯 (Equation 6)
𝑻

Substitute Equation 5 and Equation 6 in Equation 4.

𝟏 𝟏
𝑺𝑻𝑮 = (𝟏 + 𝑮𝑯) =
(𝟏 + 𝑮𝑯)𝟐 𝟏 + 𝑮𝑯

So, we got the sensitivity of the overall gain of closed loop control system as the
reciprocal of (𝟏 + 𝑮𝑯). So, Sensitivity may increase or decrease depending on the value of
(𝟏 + 𝑮𝑯).

• If the value of (𝟏 + 𝑮𝑯) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases. In this case, 'GH'
value is negative because the gain of feedback path is negative.
• If the value of (𝟏 + 𝑮𝑯) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases. In this case,
'GH' value is positive because the gain of feedback path is positive.

In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, feedback will increase the
sensitivity of the system gain in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency
range. Therefore, we have to choose the values of 'GH' in such a way that the system is
insensitive or less sensitive to parameter variations.

3- Effect of Feedback on Stability:

• A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to be
unstable.
• In Equation 2, if the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the output of the
control system will be infinite. So, the control system becomes unstable.

Therefore, we have to properly choose the feedback in order to make the control
system stable.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 8

4- Effect of Feedback on Noise:

To know the effect of feedback on noise, let us compare the transfer function relations
with and without feedback due to noise signal alone.

Consider an open loop control system with noise signal as shown below.

The open loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

𝑪(𝒔)
= 𝑮𝒃 (Equation 7)
𝑵(𝒔)

It is obtained by making the other input 𝑹(𝒔) equal to zero.

Consider a closed loop control system with noise signal as shown below.

The closed loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

𝑪(𝒔) 𝑮𝒃
= (Equation 8)
𝑵(𝒔) 𝟏+𝑮𝒂 𝑮𝒃 𝑯

It is obtained by making the other input 𝑹(𝒔) equal to zero.

Compare Equation 7 and Equation 8,

In the closed loop control system, the gain due to noise signal is decreased by a factor
of (𝟏 + 𝑮𝒂 𝑮𝒃 𝑯) provided that the term (𝟏 + 𝑮𝒂 𝑮𝒃 𝑯) is greater than one.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 9

 CHAPTER
2
3 Hours

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 10

 Mathematical Models
The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known
as mathematical model. These models are useful for analysis and design of control systems.
Analysis of control system means finding the output when we know the input and
mathematical model. Design of control system means finding the mathematical model when
we know the input and the output.

The following mathematical models are mostly used.

• Differential equation model

• Transfer function model
• State space model

Let us discuss the first two models in this chapter.

Differential Equation Model:

Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of control systems.

Follow these steps for differential equation model.

• Apply basic laws to the given control system.

• Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by eliminating the
intermediate variable(s).
Example: Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This
circuit consists of resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected
in series. The input voltage applied to this circuit is 𝒗𝒊 and the voltage across the capacitor is
the output voltage 𝒗𝒐 .

Mesh equation for this circuit is

𝒅𝒊
𝒗𝒊 = 𝑹𝒊 + 𝑳 + 𝒗𝒐
𝒅𝒕

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 11

 𝒅𝒗𝒐
Substitute, the current passing through capacitor 𝒊 = 𝒄 in the above equation.
𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝒗𝒐 𝒅𝟐 𝒗𝒐
⇒ 𝒗𝒊 = 𝑹𝑪 + 𝑳𝑪 𝟐 + 𝒗𝒐
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝟐 𝒗𝒐 𝑹 𝒅𝒗 𝟏 𝟏
⇒ + ( ) 𝒐 + ( ) 𝒗𝒐 = ( ) 𝒗𝒊
𝒅𝒕 𝟐 𝑳 𝒅𝒕 𝑳𝑪 𝑳𝑪

The above equation is a second order differential equation.

Transfer Function Model:

Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of control systems.

The Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as the ratio of
Laplace transform of output and Laplace transform of input by assuming all the initial
conditions are zero.

If 𝒙(𝒕) and 𝒚(𝒕) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the corresponding Laplace
transforms are 𝑿(𝒔) and 𝒀(𝒔).
Therefore, the transfer function of LTI system is equal to the ratio of 𝒀(𝒔) and 𝑿(𝒔).
𝒀(𝒔)
𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒆𝒓 𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝑿(𝒔)

The transfer function model of an LTI system is shown in the following figure.

Here, we represented an LTI system with a block having transfer function inside it.
And this block has an input 𝑿(𝒔) & output 𝒀(𝒔).

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 12

Example:

Previously, we got the differential equation of an electrical system as

𝒅𝟐 𝒗𝒐 𝑹 𝒅𝒗 𝟏 𝟏
+ ( ) 𝒐 + ( ) 𝒗𝒐 = ( ) 𝒗𝒊
𝒅𝒕 𝟐 𝑳 𝒅𝒕 𝑳𝑪 𝑳𝑪

Apply Laplace transform on both sides.

𝒔𝑹 𝟏 𝟏
𝒔𝟐 𝑽𝒐 (𝒔) + ( ) 𝑽𝒐 (𝒔) + ( ) 𝑽𝒐 (𝒔) = ( ) 𝑽𝒊 (𝒔)
𝑳 𝑳𝑪 𝑳𝑪

𝑹 𝟏 𝟏
⇒ {𝒔𝟐 + ( ) 𝒔 + } 𝑽𝒐 (𝒔) = ( ) 𝑽𝒊 (𝒔)
𝑳 𝑳𝑪 𝑳𝑪

𝟏
𝑽𝒐 (𝒔) 𝑳𝑪
⇒ =
𝑽𝒊 (𝒔) 𝒔𝟐 + ( ) 𝒔 + 𝟏
𝑹
𝑳 𝑳𝑪

Where,

• 𝒗𝒊 (𝒔) is the Laplace transform of the input voltage 𝒗𝒊

• 𝒗𝒐 (𝒔) is the Laplace transform of the output voltage 𝒗𝒐 (𝒔)

The above equation is a transfer function of the second order electrical system. The
transfer function model of this system is shown below.

Here, we show a second order electrical system with a block having the transfer
function inside it. And this block has an input 𝑽𝒊 (𝒔) & an output 𝑽𝒐 (𝒔).

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 13

First Order Differential Equation:

1- Finding the Differential Equation for an electric circuit:

𝒆(𝒕) = 𝒗𝒓 (𝒕) + 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)

𝒗𝒓 (𝒕) = 𝑹𝒊(𝒕)

𝒅 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑪
𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)
𝒗𝒓 (𝒕) = 𝑹𝑪
𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)
𝒆(𝒕) = 𝑹𝑪 + 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)
𝒅𝒕

𝒆(𝒕) = 𝑹𝑪 𝒗′𝒄 (𝒕) + 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)

We note that the differential equation of the system is from the first derivative,
because the system is first order.

2- Finding the Transfer Function of an electric circuit:

𝓛[𝒆(𝒕)] = 𝓛[𝑹𝑪 𝒗′𝒄 (𝒕) + 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)]

𝑬(𝒔) = 𝑹𝑪𝑺 𝑽𝑪 (𝒔) + 𝑽𝑪 (𝒔)

𝑬(𝒔) = (𝑹𝑪𝑺 + 𝟏)𝑽𝑪 (𝒔)

𝑬(𝒔) 𝑹𝑪𝑺 + 𝟏
=
𝑽𝑪 (𝒔) 𝟏

𝑽𝑪 (𝒔) 𝟏
𝑮(𝒔) = =
𝑬(𝒔) 𝑹𝑪𝑺 + 𝟏

We note that the largest exponent in the denominator of the transfer function is equal
to one, because the system is first order.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 14

Example:

1- Differential Equation:

𝒆(𝒕) = 𝑹𝑪 𝒗′𝒄 (𝒕) + 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)

𝒆(𝒕) = (𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 )(𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )𝒗𝒄̀ (𝒕) + 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)

𝒆(𝒕) = (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎)(𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏)𝒗𝒄̀ (𝒕) + 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)

𝒆(𝒕) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝒗𝒄̀ (𝒕) + 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)

2- Transfer Function:
𝑽𝑪 (𝒔) 𝟏
𝑮(𝒔) = =
𝑬(𝒔) 𝑹. 𝑪. 𝑺 + 𝟏

𝑽𝒄 (𝒔) 𝟏 𝟏
𝑮(𝒔) = = =
𝑬(𝒔) (𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 )(𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 ). 𝑺 + 𝟏 𝟎. 𝟏𝑺 + 𝟏

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 15

Second Order Differential Equation:

1- Finding the Differential Equation for an electric circuit:

𝒆(𝒕) = 𝒗𝒓 (𝒕) + 𝒗𝒍 (𝒕) + 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)

𝒗𝒓 (𝒕) = 𝑹𝒊(𝒕)

𝒅𝒊(𝒕)
𝒗𝒍 (𝒕) = 𝑳
𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑪
𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)
𝒗𝒓 (𝒕) = 𝑹𝑪
𝒅𝒕

𝒅 𝒊(𝒕) 𝒅 𝒅𝒗𝒄 (𝒕) 𝒅𝟐 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)

𝒗𝒍 (𝒕) = 𝑳 . =𝑳 .𝑪 = 𝑳. 𝑪
𝒅𝒕 𝟏 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝟐

𝒅 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕) 𝒅𝟐 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)
𝒆(𝒕) = 𝑹𝑪 + 𝑳𝑪 + 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝟐

𝒅𝟐 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕) 𝒅 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)
𝒆(𝒕) = 𝑳𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪 + 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕

𝒆(𝒕) = 𝑳𝑪 𝒗′′ ′
𝒄 (𝒕) + 𝑹𝑪 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕) + 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)

We note that the differential equation of the system is from the second derivative,
because the system is second order.

2- Finding the Transfer Function of an electric circuit:

𝓛[𝒆(𝒕)] = 𝓛[𝑳𝑪 𝒗′′ ′
𝒄 (𝒕) + 𝑹𝑪 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕) + 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)]

𝑬(𝒔) = 𝑳𝑪𝑺𝟐 𝑽𝑪 (𝒔) + 𝑹𝑪𝑺 𝑽𝑪 (𝒔) + 𝑽𝑪 (𝒔)

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 16

 𝑬(𝒔) = (𝑳𝑪𝑺𝟐 + 𝑹𝑪𝑺 + 𝟏)𝑽𝑪 (𝒔)

𝑬(𝒔) 𝑳𝑪𝑺𝟐 + 𝑹𝑪𝑺 + 𝟏

=
𝑽𝑪 (𝒔) 𝟏

𝑽𝑪 (𝒔) 𝟏
𝑮(𝒔) = =
𝑬(𝒔) 𝑳𝑪𝑺𝟐 + 𝑹𝑪𝑺 + 𝟏

We note that the largest exponent in the denominator of the transfer function is equal
to two, because the system is second order.

Example:

1- Differential Equation:
𝒆(𝒕) = 𝑳𝑪 𝒗′′ ′
𝒄 (𝒕) + 𝑹. 𝑪 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕) + 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)

𝒆(𝒕) = (𝟐𝟎)(𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 )𝒗′′ −𝟑

𝒄 (𝒕) + (𝟒𝟎)(𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 )𝒗𝒄̀ (𝒕) + 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)

𝒆(𝒕) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝒗′′
𝒄 (𝒕) + 𝟎. 𝟐𝒗𝒄̀ (𝒕) + 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)

2- Transfer Function:
𝑽𝑪 (𝒔) 𝟏
𝑮(𝒔) = =
𝑬(𝒔) 𝑳𝑪𝑺𝟐 + 𝑹𝑪𝑺 + 𝟏

𝑽𝑪 (𝒔) 𝟏 𝟏
𝑮(𝒔) = = =
𝑬(𝒔) (𝟐𝟎)(𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ). 𝑺𝟐 + (𝟒𝟎)(𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ). 𝑺 + 𝟏 𝟎. 𝟏𝑺𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝑺 + 𝟏

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 17

 CHAPTER
3
6 Hours

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 18

 Block Diagrams
Block diagrams consist of a single block or a combination of blocks. These are used to
represent the control systems in pictorial form.

Basic Elements of Block Diagram:

The basic elements of a block diagram are a block, the summing point and the take-off
point. Let us consider the block diagram of a closed loop control system as shown in the
following figure to identify these elements.

The above block diagram consists of two blocks having transfer functions 𝑮(𝒔) and
𝑯(𝒔). It is also having one summing point and one take-off point. Arrows indicate the
direction of the flow of signals. Let us now discuss these elements one by one.

• Block:

The transfer function of a component is represented by a block. Block has single input
and single output.

The following figure shows a block having input 𝑿(𝒔), output 𝒀(𝒔) and the transfer
function 𝑮(𝒔).

𝒀(𝒔)
Transfer Function, 𝑮(𝒔) =
𝑿(𝒔)

⇒ 𝒀(𝒔) = 𝑮(𝒔)𝑿(𝒔)

Output of the block is obtained by multiplying transfer function of the block with input.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 19

• Summing Point:

The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (𝑿) inside it. It has two or
more inputs and single output. It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also performs
the summation or subtraction or combination of summation and subtraction of the inputs
based on the polarity of the inputs. Let us see these three operations one by one.

The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output
(Y). Here, the inputs A and B have a positive sign. So, the summing point produces the
output, Y as sum of A and B.

𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝒀 = 𝑨 + 𝑩.

The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output
(Y). Here, the inputs A and B are having opposite signs, i.e., A is having positive sign and B
is having negative sign. So, the summing point produces the output Y as the difference of A
and B.

𝒀 = 𝑨 + (−𝑩) = 𝑨 − 𝑩.

The following figure shows the summing point with three inputs (A, B, C) and one
output (Y). Here, the inputs A and B are having positive signs and C is having a negative
sign. So, the summing point produces the output Y as

𝒀 = 𝑨 + 𝑩 + (−𝑪) = 𝑨 + 𝑩 − 𝑪.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 20

• Take-off Point:

The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed through
more than one branch. That means with the help of take-off point, we can apply the same
input to one or more blocks, summing points.

In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the same input, 𝑹(𝒔) to two
more blocks.

In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the output 𝑪(𝒔), as one of
the inputs to the summing point.

Block Diagram Representation of Electrical Systems:

In this section, let us represent an electrical system with a block diagram. Electrical
systems contain mainly three basic elements — resistor, inductor and capacitor.

Consider a series of RLC circuit as shown in the following figure. Where, 𝑽𝒊 (𝒕) and
𝑽𝒐 (𝒕) are the input and output voltages. Let 𝒊(𝒕) be the current passing through the circuit.
This circuit is in time domain.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 21

 By applying the Laplace transform to this circuit, will get the circuit in s-domain. The
circuit is as shown in the following figure.

From the above circuit, we can write

𝑽𝒊 (𝒔) − 𝑽𝒐 (𝒔)
𝑰(𝒔) =
𝑹 + 𝒔𝑳
𝟏
⇒ 𝑰(𝒔) = { } {𝑽𝒊 (𝒔) − 𝑽𝒐 (𝒔)} (Equation 1)
𝑹+𝒔𝑳
𝟏
𝑽𝒐 (𝒔)= ( ) 𝑰(𝒔) (Equation 2)
𝒔𝑪

Let us now draw the block diagrams for these two equations individually. And then
combine those block diagrams properly in order to get the overall block diagram of series of
RLC Circuit (s-domain).
𝟏
Equation 1 can be implemented with a block having the transfer function, . The
𝑹+𝒔𝑳

input and output of this block are {𝑽𝒊 (𝒔) − 𝑽𝒐 (𝒔)} and 𝑰(𝒔). We require a summing point to
get {𝑽𝒊 (𝒔) − 𝑽𝒐 (𝒔)}. The block diagram of Equation 1 is shown in the following figure.

𝟏
Equation 2 can be implemented with a block having transfer function, . The input
𝒔𝑪

and output of this block are 𝑰(𝒔) and 𝑽𝒐 (𝒔). The block diagram of Equation 2 is shown in
the following figure.

The overall block diagram of the series of RLC Circuit (s-domain) is shown in the
following figure.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 22

 Similarly, you can draw the block diagram of any electrical circuit or system just by
following this simple procedure.

• Convert the time domain electrical circuit into an s-domain electrical circuit by applying
Laplace transform.
• Write down the equations for the current passing through all series branch elements and
voltage across all shunt branches.
• Draw the block diagrams for all the above equations individually.
• Combine all these block diagrams properly in order to get the overall block diagram of
the electrical circuit (s-domain).

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 23

 Block Diagram Algebra
Block diagram algebra is nothing but the algebra involved with the basic elements of
the block diagram. This algebra deals with the pictorial representation of algebraic equations.

Basic Connections for Blocks:

There are three basic types of connections between two blocks.

1- Series Connection:
Series connection is also called cascade connection. In the following figure, two blocks
having transfer functions 𝑮𝟏 (𝒔). and 𝑮𝟐 (𝒔). are connected in series.

For this combination, we will get the output 𝒀(𝒔) as

𝒀(𝒔) = 𝑮𝟐 (𝒔)𝒁(𝒔)

Where, 𝒁(𝒔) = 𝑮𝟏 (𝒔)𝑿(𝒔)

⇒ 𝒀(𝒔) = 𝑮𝟐 (𝒔)[𝑮𝟏 (𝒔)𝑿(𝒔)] = 𝑮𝟏 (𝒔)𝑮𝟐 (𝒔)𝑿(𝒔) = {𝑮𝟏 (𝒔)𝑮𝟐 (𝒔)}𝑿(𝒔)

Compare this equation with the standard form of the output equation, 𝒀(𝒔) = 𝑮(𝒔)𝑿(𝒔).
Where, 𝑮(𝒔) = 𝑮𝟏 (𝒔)𝑮𝟐 (𝒔).

That means we can represent the series connection of two blocks with a single block.
The transfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of those
two blocks. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, you can represent series connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of all those ‘n’
blocks.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 24

2- Parallel Connection:
The blocks which are connected in parallel will have the same input. In the following
figure, two blocks having transfer functions 𝑮𝟏 (𝒔) and 𝑮𝟐 (𝒔) are connected in parallel. The
outputs of these two blocks are connected to the summing point.

For this combination, we will get the output 𝒀(𝒔) as

𝒀(𝒔) = 𝒀𝟏 (𝒔) + 𝒀𝟐 (𝒔)

Where, 𝒀𝟏 (𝒔)=𝑮𝟏 (𝒔)𝑿(𝒔) and 𝒀𝟐 (𝒔)=𝑮𝟐 (𝒔)𝑿(𝒔)

⇒ 𝒀(𝒔) = 𝑮𝟏 (𝒔)𝑿(𝒔) + 𝑮𝟐 (𝒔)𝑿(𝒔) = {𝑮𝟏 (𝒔) + 𝑮𝟐 (𝒔)}𝑿(𝒔)

Compare this equation with the standard form of the output equation, 𝒀(𝒔) = 𝑮(𝒔)𝑿(𝒔).
Where, 𝑮(𝒔) = 𝑮𝟏 (𝒔) + 𝑮𝟐 (𝒔).

That means we can represent the parallel connection of two blocks with a single
block. The transfer function of this single block is the sum of the transfer functions of
those two blocks. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, you can represent parallel connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the algebraic sum of the transfer functions of all those
‘n’ blocks.

3- Feedback Connection:
As we discussed in previous chapters, there are two types of feedback — positive
feedback and negative feedback. The following figure shows negative feedback control
system. Here, two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and H(s) form a closed loop.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 25

The output of the summing point is

𝑬(𝒔) = 𝑿(𝒔) − 𝑯(𝒔)𝒀(𝒔)

The output 𝒀(𝒔) is -

𝒀(𝒔) = 𝑬(𝒔)𝑮(𝒔)

Substitute 𝑬(𝒔) value in the above equation.

𝒀(𝒔) = {𝑿(𝒔) − 𝑯(𝒔)𝒀(𝒔)}𝑮(𝒔)}

𝒀(𝒔){𝟏 + 𝑮(𝒔)𝑯(𝒔)} = 𝑿(𝒔)𝑮(𝒔)}

𝒀(𝒔) 𝑮(𝒔)
⇒ = 𝟏 + 𝑮(𝒔)𝑯(𝒔)
𝑿(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑮(𝒔)𝑯(𝒔)

𝑮(𝒔)
Therefore, the negative feedback closed loop transfer function is
𝟏+𝑮(𝒔)𝑯(𝒔)

This means we can represent the negative feedback connection of two blocks with a
single block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of
the negative feedback. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, you can represent the positive feedback connection of two blocks with a
single block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of
𝑮(𝒔)
the positive feedback, i.e.,
𝟏−𝑮(𝒔)𝑯(𝒔)

Block Diagram Algebra for Summing Points:

There are two possibilities of shifting summing points with respect to blocks:

• Shifting summing point after the block.

• Shifting summing point before the block.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 26

Let us now see what kind of arrangements need to be done in the above two cases one by
one.

1- Shifting Summing Point After the Block:

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is
present before the block.

Summing point has two inputs 𝑹(𝒔) and 𝑿(𝒔). The output of it is {𝑹(𝒔) + 𝑿(𝒔)}.
So, the input to the block 𝑮(𝒔) is {𝑹(𝒔) + 𝑿(𝒔)} and the output of it is
𝒀(𝒔) = 𝑮(𝒔){𝑹(𝒔) + 𝑿(𝒔)}

⇒ 𝒀(𝒔) = 𝑮(𝒔)𝑹(𝒔) + 𝑮(𝒔)𝑿(𝒔) (Equation 1)

Now, shift the summing point after the block. This block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

Output of the block 𝑮(𝒔) is 𝑮(𝒔)𝑹(𝒔).

The output of the summing point is

𝒀(𝒔) = 𝑮(𝒔)𝑹(𝒔) + 𝑿(𝒔) (Equation 2)

Compare Equation 1 and Equation 2.

The first term ‘𝑮(𝒔)𝑹(𝒔)’ is same in both the equations. But, there is difference in the
second term. In order to get the second term also same, we require one more block 𝑮(𝒔). It is
having the input 𝑿(𝒔) and the output of this block is given as input to summing point instead
of 𝑿(𝒔). This block diagram is shown in the following figure.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 27

2- Shifting Summing Point Before the Block:

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is
present after the block.

Output of this block diagram is

𝒀(𝒔) = 𝑮(𝒔)𝑹(𝒔) + 𝑿(𝒔) (Equation 3)

Now, shift the summing point before the block. This block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

Output of this block diagram is

𝒀(𝑺) = 𝑮(𝒔)𝑹(𝒔) + 𝑮(𝒔)𝑿(𝒔) (Equation 4)

Compare Equation 3 and Equation 4,

The first term ‘𝑮(𝒔)𝑹(𝒔)′ is same in both equations. But, there is difference in the
𝟏
second term. In order to get the second term also same, we require one more block . It is
G(s)

having the input 𝑿(𝒔) and the output of this block is given as input to summing point instead
of 𝑿(𝒔). This block diagram is shown in the following figure.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 28

Block Diagram Algebra for Take-off Points:

There are two possibilities of shifting the take-off points with respect to blocks:

• Shifting take-off point after the block.

• Shifting take-off point before the block.

Let us now see what kind of arrangements are to be done in the above two cases, one by one.

1- Shifting Take-off Point After the Block:

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. In this case, the take-off point
is present before the block.

Here, 𝑿(𝒔) = 𝑹(𝒔) and 𝒀(𝒔) = 𝑮(𝒔)𝑹(𝒔)

When you shift the take-off point after the block, the output 𝒀(𝒔) will be same. But,
there is difference in 𝑿(𝒔) value. So, in order to get the same 𝑿(𝒔) value, we require one
𝟏
more block . It is having the input 𝒀(𝒔) and the output is 𝑿(𝒔). This block diagram is
G(s)

shown in the following figure.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 29

2- Shifting Take-off Point Before the Block:

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the take-off point is
present after the block.

Here, 𝑿(𝒔) = 𝒀(𝒔) = 𝑮(𝒔)𝑹(𝒔)

When you shift the take-off point before the block, the output 𝒀(𝒔) will be same. But,
there is difference in 𝑿(𝒔) value. So, in order to get same 𝑿(𝒔)value, we require one more
block 𝑮(𝒔). It is having the input 𝑹(𝒔) and the output is 𝑿(𝒔). This block diagram is shown
in the following figure.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 30

 Block Diagram Reduction
The concepts discussed in the previous chapter are helpful for reducing (simplifying) the
block diagrams.

Block Diagram Reduction Rules:

Follow these rules for simplifying (reducing) the block diagram, which is having many
blocks, summing points and take-off points.

• Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.

• Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.
• Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.
• Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it towards
right.
• Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it towards
left.
• Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., single block.

Note − The transfer function present in this single block is the transfer function of the overall
block diagram.

Example:

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Let us simplify (reduce)
this block diagram using the block diagram reduction rules.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 31

Step 1 − Use Rule 1 for blocks 𝑮𝟏 and 𝑮𝟐 . Use Rule 2 for blocks 𝑮𝟑 and 𝑮𝟒 . The modified
block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Step 2 − Use Rule 3 for blocks 𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐 and 𝑯𝟏 . Use Rule 4 for shifting take-off point after the
block 𝑮𝟓 . The modified block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Step 3 − Use Rule 1 for blocks (𝑮𝟑 + 𝑮𝟒 ) and 𝑮𝟓 . The modified block diagram is shown in
the following figure.

Step 4 − Use Rule 3 for blocks (𝑮𝟑 + 𝑮𝟒 )𝑮𝟓 and 𝑯𝟑 . The modified block diagram is shown
in the following figure.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 32

Step 5 − Use Rule 1 for blocks connected in series. The modified block diagram is shown in
the following figure.

Step 6 − Use Rule 3 for blocks connected in feedback loop. The modified block diagram is
shown in the following figure. This is the simplified block diagram.

Therefore, the transfer function of the system is

𝒀(𝒔) 𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐 𝑮𝟓 𝟐 (𝑮𝟑 + 𝑮𝟒 )
=
𝑹(𝒔) (𝟏 + 𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐 𝑯𝟏 ){𝟏 + (𝑮𝟑 + 𝑮𝟒 )𝑮𝟓 𝑯𝟑 }𝑮𝟓 − 𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐 𝑮𝟓 (𝑮𝟑 + 𝑮𝟒 )𝑯𝟐

Note − Follow these steps in order to calculate the transfer function of the block diagram
having multiple inputs.

• Step 1 − Find the transfer function of block diagram by considering one input at a
time and make the remaining inputs as zero.
• Step 2 − Repeat step 1 for remaining inputs.
• Step 3 − Get the overall transfer function by adding all those transfer functions.

The block diagram reduction process takes more time for complicated systems.
Because, we have to draw the (partially simplified) block diagram after each step. So, to
overcome this drawback, use signal flow graphs (representation).

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 33

Homework:

Example1.

Example2.

Example3.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 34

Example4.

Example5.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 35

 Signal Flow Graphs
Signal flow graph is a graphical representation of algebraic equations. In this chapter,
let us discuss the basic concepts related signal flow graph and also learn how to draw signal
flow graphs.

Basic Elements of Signal Flow Graph:

Nodes and branches are the basic elements of signal flow graph.

Node is a point which represents either a variable or a signal. There are three types of nodes:

• Input Node − It is a node, which has only outgoing branches.

• Output Node − It is a node, which has only incoming branches.
• Mixed Node − It is a node, which has both incoming and outgoing branches.
Example:

Let us consider the following signal flow graph to identify these nodes.

• The nodes present in this signal flow graph are 𝒚𝟏 , 𝒚𝟐 , 𝒚𝟑 and 𝒚𝟒 .

• 𝒚𝟏 and 𝒚𝟒 are the input node and output node respectively.
• 𝒚𝟐 and 𝒚𝟑 are mixed nodes.

Branch is a line segment which joins two nodes. It has both gain and direction. For
example, there are four branches in the above signal flow graph. These branches
have gains of a, b, c and -d.

Construction of Signal Flow Graph:

Let us construct a signal flow graph by considering the following algebraic equations:

𝒚𝟐 = 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒂𝟒𝟐 𝒚𝟒

𝒚𝟑 = 𝒂𝟐𝟑 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒂𝟓𝟑 𝒚𝟓

𝒚𝟒 = 𝒂𝟑𝟒 𝒚𝟑

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 36

𝒚𝟓 = 𝒂𝟒𝟓 𝒚𝟒 + 𝒂𝟑𝟓 𝒚𝟑

𝒚𝟔 = 𝒂𝟓𝟔 𝒚𝟓

There will be six nodes (𝒚𝟏 , 𝒚𝟐 , 𝒚𝟑 , 𝒚𝟒 , 𝒚𝟓 and 𝒚𝟔 ) and eight branches in this signal
flow graph. The gains of the branches are 𝒂𝟏𝟐 , 𝒂𝟐𝟑 , 𝒂𝟑𝟒 , 𝒂𝟒𝟓 , 𝒂𝟓𝟔 , 𝒂𝟒𝟐 , 𝒂𝟓𝟑 and 𝒂𝟑𝟓 .

To get the overall signal flow graph, draw the signal flow graph for each equation,
then combine all these signal flow graphs and then follow the steps given below:

Step 1 − Signal flow graph for 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒂𝟒𝟐 𝒚𝟒 is shown in the following figure.

Step 2 − Signal flow graph for 𝒚𝟑 = 𝒂𝟐𝟑 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒂𝟓𝟑 𝒚𝟓 is shown in the following figure.

Step 3 − Signal flow graph for 𝒚𝟒 = 𝒂𝟑𝟒 𝒚𝟑 is shown in the following figure.

Step 4 − Signal flow graph for 𝒚𝟓 = 𝒂𝟒𝟓 𝒚𝟒 + 𝒂𝟑𝟓 𝒚𝟑 is shown in the following figure.

Step 5 − Signal flow graph for 𝒚𝟔 = 𝒂𝟓𝟔 𝒚𝟓 is shown in the following figure.

Step 6 − Signal flow graph of overall system is shown in the following figure.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 37

Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal Flow Graphs:

Follow these steps for converting a block diagram into its equivalent signal flow graph.

• Represent all the signals, variables, summing points and take-off points of block
diagram as nodes in signal flow graph.
• Represent the blocks of block diagram as branches in signal flow graph.
• Represent the transfer functions inside the blocks of block diagram as gains of the
branches in signal flow graph.
• Connect the nodes as per the block diagram. If there is connection between two nodes
(but there is no block in between), then represent the gain of the branch as one. For
example, between summing points, between summing point and takeoff point,
between input and summing point, between take-off point and output.
Example:

Let us convert the following block diagram into its equivalent signal flow graph.

Represent the input signal 𝑹(𝒔) and output signal 𝑪(𝒔) of block diagram as input
node 𝑹(𝒔) and output node 𝑪(𝒔) of signal flow graph.
Just for reference, the remaining nodes (𝒚𝟏 to 𝒚𝟗 ) are labelled in the block diagram.
There are nine nodes other than input and output nodes. That is four nodes for four summing
points, four nodes for four take-off points and one node for the variable between
blocks 𝑮𝟏 and 𝑮𝟐 .

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 38

The following figure shows the equivalent signal flow graph.

With the help of Mason’s gain formula (discussed in the next chapter), you can
calculate the transfer function of this signal flow graph. This is the advantage of signal flow
graphs. Here, we no need to simplify (reduce) the signal flow graphs for calculating the
transfer function.

Mason's Gain Formula:

Let us now discuss the Mason’s Gain Formula. Suppose there are ‘N’ forward paths in
a signal flow graph. The gain between the input and the output nodes of a signal flow graph
is nothing but the transfer function of the system. It can be calculated by using Mason’s
gain formula.

Mason’s gain formula is:

𝑪(𝒔) ∑𝑵𝒊=𝟏 𝑷𝒊 ∆𝒊
𝑻= =
𝑹(𝒔) ∆

Where,

• 𝑪(𝒔) is the output node.

• 𝑹(𝒔) is the input node.
• 𝑻 is the transfer function or gain between 𝑹(𝒔) and 𝑪(𝒔).
• 𝑷𝒊 is the 𝒊𝒕𝒉 forward path gain.
𝜟
= 𝟏 − (𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔)
+ (𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒏𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒖𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑𝒔)
− (𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒏𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒖𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑𝒔)+. ..

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 39

∆𝒊 is obtained from Δ by removing the loops which are touching the 𝒊𝒕𝒉 forward path.

Consider the following signal flow graph in order to understand the basic terminology
involved here.

• Path:
It is a traversal of branches from one node to any other node in the direction of branch
arrows. It should not traverse any node more than once.

Examples: 𝒚𝟐 →𝒚𝟑 →𝒚𝟒 →𝒚𝟓 and 𝒚𝟓 →𝒚𝟑 →𝒚𝟐

• Forward Path:

The path that exists from the input node to the output node is known as forward path.

Examples: 𝒚𝟏 →𝒚𝟐 →𝒚𝟑 →𝒚𝟒 →𝒚𝟓 →𝒚𝟔 and 𝒚𝟏 →𝒚𝟐 →𝒚𝟑 →𝒚𝟓 →𝒚𝟔 .
• Forward Path Gain:

It is obtained by calculating the product of all branch gains of the forward path.

Examples: 𝒂𝒃𝒄𝒅𝒆 is the forward path gain of 𝒚𝟏 →𝒚𝟐 →𝒚𝟑 →𝒚𝟒 →𝒚𝟓 →𝒚𝟔 and 𝒂𝒃𝒈𝒆 is the
forward path gain of 𝒚𝟏 →𝒚𝟐 →𝒚𝟑 →𝒚𝟓 →𝒚𝟔 .
• Loop:

The path that starts from one node and ends at the same node is known as loop. Hence, it is a
closed path.

Examples: 𝒚𝟐 →𝒚𝟑 →𝒚𝟐 and 𝒚𝟑 →𝒚𝟓 →𝒚𝟑 .

• Loop Gain:

It is obtained by calculating the product of all branch gains of a loop.

Examples: 𝒃𝒋 is the loop gain of 𝒚𝟐 →𝒚𝟑 →𝒚𝟐 and 𝒈𝒉 is the loop gain of 𝒚𝟑 →𝒚𝟓 →𝒚𝟑 .

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 40

• Non-touching Loops:

These are the loops, which should not have any common node.

Examples: The loops, 𝒚𝟐 →𝒚𝟑 →𝒚𝟐 and 𝒚𝟒 →𝒚𝟓 →𝒚𝟒 are non-touching.

Calculation of Transfer Function using Mason’s Gain Formula:

Let us consider the same signal flow graph for finding transfer function.

• Number of forward paths, 𝑵 = 𝟐.

• First forward path is: 𝒚𝟏 →𝒚𝟐 →𝒚𝟑 →𝒚𝟒 →𝒚𝟓 →𝒚𝟔.
• First forward path gain, 𝒑𝟏 = 𝒂𝒃𝒄𝒅𝒆.
• Second forward path is: 𝒚𝟏 →𝒚𝟐 →𝒚𝟑 →𝒚𝟓 →𝒚𝟔.
• Second forward path gain, 𝒑𝟐 = 𝒂𝒃𝒈𝒆.
• Number of individual loops, 𝑳 = 𝟓.
• Loops are: 𝒚𝟐 →𝒚𝟑 →𝒚𝟐 , 𝒚𝟑 →𝒚𝟓 →𝒚𝟑 , 𝒚𝟑 →𝒚𝟒 →𝒚𝟓 →𝒚𝟑 , 𝒚𝟒 →𝒚𝟓 →𝒚𝟒 and 𝒚𝟓 →𝒚𝟓 .
• Loop gains are: 𝒍𝟏 = 𝒃𝒋, 𝒍𝟐 = 𝒈𝒉, 𝒍𝟑 = 𝒄𝒅𝒉, 𝒍𝟒 = 𝒅𝒊 and 𝒍𝟓 = 𝒇.
• Number of two non-touching loops = 𝟐.
• First non-touching loops pair is: 𝒚𝟐 →𝒚𝟑 →𝒚𝟐 , 𝒚𝟒 →𝒚𝟓 →𝒚𝟒 .
• Gain product of first non-touching loops pair, 𝒍𝟏 𝒍𝟒 = 𝒃𝒋𝒅𝒊.
• Second non-touching loops pair is: 𝒚𝟐 →𝒚𝟑 →𝒚𝟐 , 𝒚𝟓 →𝒚𝟓 .
• Gain product of second non-touching loops pair is: 𝒍𝟏 𝒍𝟓 = 𝒃𝒋𝒇

Higher number of (more than two) non-touching loops are not present in this signal flow
graph. We know,

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 41

 𝜟
= 𝟏 − (𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔)
+ (𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒏𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒖𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑𝒔)
− (𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒏𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒖𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑𝒔)+. ..

Substitute the values in the above equation,

𝜟 = 𝟏 − (𝒃𝒋 + 𝒈𝒉 + 𝒄𝒅𝒉 + 𝒅𝒊 + 𝒇) + (𝒃𝒋𝒅𝒊 + 𝒃𝒋𝒇) − (𝟎)

⇒ 𝜟 = 𝟏 − (𝒃𝒋 + 𝒈𝒉 + 𝒄𝒅𝒉 + 𝒅𝒊 + 𝒇) + 𝒃𝒋𝒅𝒊 + 𝒃𝒋𝒇

There is no loop which is non-touching to the first forward path. So, 𝜟𝟏 = 𝟏.

Similarly, 𝜟𝟐 = 𝟏. Since, no loop which is non-touching to the second forward path.

Substitute, 𝑵 = 𝟐 in Mason’s gain formula:

𝑪(𝒔) ∑𝟐𝒊=𝟏 𝑷𝒊 ∆𝒊 𝑷𝟏 ∆𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 ∆𝟐
𝑻= = =
𝑹(𝒔) ∆ ∆

Substitute all the necessary values in the above equation.

𝑪(𝒔) (𝒂𝒃𝒄𝒅𝒆)𝟏 + (𝒂𝒃𝒈𝒆)𝟏

𝑻= =
𝑹(𝒔) 𝟏 − (𝒃𝒋 + 𝒈𝒉 + 𝒄𝒅𝒉 + 𝒅𝒊 + 𝒇) + 𝒃𝒋𝒅𝒊 + 𝒃𝒋𝒇

𝑪(𝒔) (𝒂𝒃𝒄𝒅𝒆) + (𝒂𝒃𝒈𝒆)

⇒𝑻= =
𝑹(𝒔) 𝟏 − (𝒃𝒋 + 𝒈𝒉 + 𝒄𝒅𝒉 + 𝒅𝒊 + 𝒇) + 𝒃𝒋𝒅𝒊 + 𝒃𝒋𝒇

Therefore, the transfer function is:

𝑪(𝒔) (𝒂𝒃𝒄𝒅𝒆) + (𝒂𝒃𝒈𝒆)

𝑻= =
𝑹(𝒔) 𝟏 − (𝒃𝒋 + 𝒈𝒉 + 𝒄𝒅𝒉 + 𝒅𝒊 + 𝒇) + 𝒃𝒋𝒅𝒊 + 𝒃𝒋𝒇

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 42

 CHAPTER
4
6 Hours

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 43

 Time Response Analysis
We can analyze the response of the control systems in both the time domain and the
frequency domain. We will discuss frequency response analysis of control systems in later
chapters. Let us now discuss about the time response analysis of control systems.

What is Time Response?

If the output of control system for an input varies with respect to time, then it is called
the time response of the control system. The time response consists of two parts.

• Transient response.
• Steady state response.

The response of control system in time domain is shown in the following figure.

Here, both the transient and the steady states are indicated in the figure. The responses
corresponding to these states are known as transient and steady state responses.

Mathematically, we can write the time response 𝒄(𝒕) as

𝒄(𝒕) = 𝒄𝒕𝒓 (𝒕) + 𝒄𝒔𝒔 (𝒕)

Where,

• 𝒄𝒕𝒓 (𝒕) is the transient response.

• 𝒄𝒔𝒔 (𝒕) is the steady state response.
1- Transient Response:

After applying input to the control system, output takes certain time to reach steady state.
So, the output will be in transient state till it goes to a steady state. Therefore, the response of
the control system during the transient state is known as transient response.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 44

 The transient response will be zero for large values of ‘t’. Ideally, this value of ‘t’ is
infinity and practically, it is five times constant.

Mathematically, we can write it as

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒕𝒓 (𝒕) = 𝟎

𝒕→∞

2- Steady state Response:

The part of the time response that remains even after the transient response has zero value
for large values of ‘t’ is known as steady state response. This means, the transient response
will be zero even during the steady state.

Example:

Let us find the transient and steady state terms of the time response of the control
system 𝒄(𝒕) = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟓𝒆−𝒕
Here, the second term 𝟓𝒆−𝒕 will be zero as t denotes infinity. So, this is the transient
term. And the first term 10 remains even as t approaches infinity. So, this is the steady state
term.

Standard Test Signals:

The standard test signals are impulse, step, ramp and parabolic. These signals are used to
know the performance of the control systems using time response of the output.

• Unit Impulse (delta) Signal:

A unit impulse signal, 𝜹(𝒕) is defined as

𝜹(𝒕) = 𝟎 for 𝒕 ≠ 𝟎
𝟎+
and ∫𝟎− 𝜹(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟏

The following figure shows unit impulse signal.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 45

 So, the unit impulse signal exists only at ‘t’ is equal to zero. The area of this signal
under small interval of time around ‘t’ is equal to zero is one. The value of unit impulse
signal is zero for all other values of ‘t’.

• Unit Step Signal:

A unit step signal, 𝒖(𝒕) is defined as

𝒖(𝒕) = 𝟏; 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎

𝒖(𝒕) = 𝟎; 𝒕 < 𝟎

Following figure shows unit step signal.

So, the unit step signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its
value is one during this interval. The value of the unit step signal is zero for all negative
values of ‘t’.

• Unit Ramp Signal:

A unit ramp signal, 𝒓(𝒕) is defined as

𝒓(𝒕) = 𝒕; 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎

𝒓(𝒕) = 𝟎; 𝒕 < 𝟎

We can write unit ramp signal, 𝒓(𝒕) in terms of unit step signal, 𝒖(𝒕) as
𝒓(𝒕) = 𝒕𝒖(𝒕)

Following figure shows unit ramp signal.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 46

 So, the unit ramp signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its
value increases linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval. The value of unit ramp signal
is zero for all negative values of ‘t’.

• Unit Parabolic Signal:

A unit parabolic signal, 𝒑(𝒕) is defined as,

𝒕𝟐
𝒑(𝒕) = ;𝒕 ≥ 𝟎
𝟐

𝒑(𝒕) = 𝟎 ; 𝒕 < 𝟎

We can write unit parabolic signal, 𝒑(𝒕) in terms of the unit step signal, 𝒖(𝒕) as,
𝒕𝟐
𝒑(𝒕) = 𝒖(𝒕)
𝟐

The following figure shows the unit parabolic signal.

So, the unit parabolic signal exists for all the positive values of ‘t’ including zero.
And its value increases non-linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval. The value of the
unit parabolic signal is zero for all the negative values of ‘t’.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 47

Response of the First Order System:
In this chapter, let us discuss the time response of the first order system. Consider the
following block diagram of the closed loop control system. Here, an open loop transfer
𝟏
function, is connected with a unity negative feedback.
𝝉𝑺

We know that the transfer function of the closed loop control system has unity
negative feedback as,

𝑪(𝒔) 𝑮(𝒔)
=
𝑹(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑮(𝒔)

𝟏
Substitute, 𝑮(𝒔) = in the above equation.
𝝉𝑺
𝟏
𝑪(𝒔) 𝟏
= 𝑺𝝉 =
𝑹(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝟏 𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏
𝝉𝑺

The power of s is one in the denominator term. Hence, the above transfer function is
of the first order and the system is said to be the first order system.

We can re-write the above equation as

𝟏
𝑪(𝒔) = ( ) 𝑹(𝒔)
𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏

Where,

• 𝑪(𝒔) is the Laplace transform of the output signal 𝒄(𝒕),

• 𝑹(𝒔) is the Laplace transform of the input signal 𝒓(𝒕), and
• 𝝉 is the time constant.

Follow these steps to get the response (output) of the first order system in the time domain.

1- Take the Laplace transform of the input signal 𝒓(𝒕).

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 48

 𝟏
2- Consider the equation, 𝑪(𝒔) = ( ) 𝑹(𝒔).
𝝉𝑺+𝟏

3- Substitute 𝑹(𝒔) value in the above equation.

4- Do partial fractions of 𝑪(𝒔) if required.
5- Apply inverse Laplace transform to 𝑪(𝒔).

In the previous chapter, we have seen the standard test signals like impulse, step, ramp
and parabolic. Let us now find out the responses of the first order system for each input, one
by one. The name of the response is given as per the name of the input signal. For example,
the response of the system for an impulse input is called as impulse response.

• Impulse Response of First Order System:

Consider the unit impulse signal as an input to the first order system. So, 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝜹(𝒕)

Apply Laplace transform on both the sides. 𝑹(𝒔) = 𝟏

𝟏
Consider the equation, 𝑪(𝒔) = ( ) 𝑹(𝒔)
𝝉𝑺+𝟏

Substitute, 𝑹(𝒔) = 𝟏 in the above equation.

𝟏 𝟏
𝑪(𝒔) = ( ) (𝟏) =
𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏 𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏

Rearrange the above equation in one of the standard forms of Laplace transforms.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑪(𝒔) = ⇒ 𝑪(𝒔) = ( )
𝟏 𝝉 𝑺+𝟏
𝝉 (𝑺 + )
𝝉 𝝉

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both sides.

𝟏 (− 𝒕 )
𝒄(𝒕) = 𝒆 𝝉 𝒖(𝒕)
𝝉

The unit impulse response is shown in the following figure (Exponential Function).

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 49

The unit impulse response, 𝒄(𝒕) is an exponential decaying signal for positive values of ‘t’
and it is zero for negative values of ‘t’.

• Step Response of First Order System:

Consider the unit step signal as an input to first order system. So, 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝒖(𝒕)

Apply Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝟏
𝑹(𝒔) =
𝑺
𝟏
Consider the equation, 𝑪(𝒔) = ( ) 𝑹(𝒔)
𝝉𝑺+𝟏
𝟏
Substitute, 𝑹(𝒔) = in the above equation.
𝑺
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑪(𝒔) = ( )( ) =
𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏 𝑺 𝑺(𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏)

Do partial fractions of 𝑪(𝒔).

𝟏 𝑨 𝑩 𝑨(𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏) + 𝑩𝑺
𝑪(𝒔) = = + =
𝑺(𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏) 𝑺 𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏 𝑺(𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏)

On both the sides, the denominator term is the same. So, they will get cancelled by
each other. Hence, equate the numerator terms.

𝟏 = 𝑨(𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏) + 𝑩𝑺

By equating the constant terms on both the sides, you will get 𝑨 = 𝟏.

Substitute, 𝑨 = 𝟏 and equate the coefficient of the S terms on both the sides.

𝟎 = 𝝉 + 𝑩 ⇒ 𝑩 = −𝝉

Substitute, 𝑨 = 𝟏 and 𝑩 = −𝝉 in partial fraction expansion of 𝑪(𝒔).

𝟏 𝝉 𝟏 𝝉 𝟏 𝟏
𝑪(𝒔) = − = − = −
𝑺 𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏 𝑺 𝝉 (𝑺 + 𝟏) 𝑺 𝑺 + 𝟏
𝝉 𝝉

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝒕
−( )
𝒄(𝒕) = (𝟏 − 𝒆 𝝉 ) 𝒖(𝒕)

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 50

The unit step response, 𝒄(𝒕) has both the transient and the steady state terms.

The transient term in the unit step response is:

𝒕
−( )
𝒄𝒕𝒓 (𝒕) = −𝒆 𝝉 𝒖(𝒕)

The steady state term in the unit step response is:

𝒄𝒔𝒔 (𝒕) = 𝒖(𝒕)

The following figure shows the unit step response.

The value of the unit step response, c(t) is zero at 𝒕 = 𝟎 and for all negative values
of t. It is gradually increasing from zero value and finally reaches to one in steady state. So,
the steady state value depends on the magnitude of the input.

• Ramp Response of First Order System:

Consider the unit ramp signal as an input to the first order system. So, 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝒕𝒖(𝒕)

Apply Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝟏
𝑹(𝒔) =
𝑺𝟐
𝟏
Consider the equation, 𝑪(𝒔) = ( ) 𝑹(𝒔)
𝝉𝑺+𝟏
𝟏
Substitute, 𝑹(𝒔) = in the above equation.
𝑺𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑪(𝒔) = ( ) ( 𝟐) = 𝟐
𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏 𝑺 𝑺 (𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏)

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 51

Do partial fractions of 𝑪(𝒔).
𝟏 𝑨 𝑩 𝑪 𝑨(𝑺𝝉 + 𝟏) + 𝑩𝑺(𝑺𝝉 + 𝟏) + 𝑪𝑺𝟐
𝑪(𝒔) = 𝟐 = + + =
𝑺 (𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏) 𝑺𝟐 𝑺 𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏 𝑺𝟐 (𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏)

On both the sides, the denominator term is the same. So, they will get cancelled by
each other. Hence, equate the numerator terms.

𝟏 = 𝑨(𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏) + 𝑩𝑺(𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏) + 𝑪𝑺𝟐

By equating the constant terms on both the sides, you will get 𝑨 = 𝟏.

Substitute, 𝑨 = 𝟏 and equate the coefficient of the S terms on both the sides.

𝟎 = 𝝉 + 𝑩 ⇒ 𝑩 = −𝝉

Similarly, substitute 𝑩 = −𝝉 and equate the coefficient of 𝑺𝟐 terms on both the sides. You
will get 𝑪 = 𝝉𝟐.
Substitute 𝑨 = 𝟏, 𝑩 = −𝝉 and 𝑪 = 𝝉𝟐 in the partial fraction expansion of 𝑪(𝒔).
𝟏 𝝉 𝝉𝟐 𝟏 𝝉 𝝉𝟐 𝟏 𝝉 𝝉
𝑪(𝒔) = 𝟐 − + = 𝟐− + = 𝟐− +
𝑺 𝑺 𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏 𝑺 𝑺 𝝉 (𝑺 + 𝟏) 𝑺 𝑺 𝑺+𝟏
𝝉 𝝉

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝒕
−( )
𝒄(𝒕) = (𝒕 − 𝝉 + 𝝉𝒆 𝝉 ) 𝒖(𝒕)

The unit ramp response, 𝒄(𝒕) has both the transient and the steady state terms.

The transient term in the unit ramp response is:

𝒕
−( )
𝒄𝒕𝒓 (𝒕) = 𝝉𝒆 𝝉 𝒖(𝒕)

The steady state term in the unit ramp response is:

𝒄𝒔𝒔 (𝒕) = (𝒕 − 𝝉)𝒖(𝒕)

The following figure shows the unit ramp response.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 52

 The unit ramp response, 𝒄(𝒕) follows the unit ramp input signal for all positive
values of t. But, there is a deviation of 𝝉 units from the input signal.

• Parabolic Response of First Order System:

𝒕𝟐
Consider the unit parabolic signal as an input to the first order system. So, 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝒖(𝒕)
𝟐

Apply Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝟏
𝑹(𝒔) =
𝑺𝟑
𝟏
Consider the equation, 𝑪(𝒔) = ( ) 𝑹(𝒔)
𝝉𝑺+𝟏
𝟏
Substitute 𝑹(𝒔) = in the above equation.
𝑺𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑪(𝒔) = ( ) ( 𝟑) = 𝟑
𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏 𝑺 𝑺 (𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏)

Do partial fractions of 𝑪(𝒔).

𝟏 𝑨 𝑩 𝑪 𝑫
𝑪(𝒔) = = + + +
𝑺𝟑 (𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏) 𝑺𝟑 𝑺𝟐 𝑺 𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏

After simplifying, you will get the values of 𝑨, 𝑩, 𝑪 and 𝑫 as 1, −𝝉, 𝝉𝟐 and
−𝝉𝟑 respectively. Substitute these values in the above partial fraction expansion of 𝑪(𝒔).
𝟏 𝝉 𝝉𝟐 𝝉𝟑 𝟏 𝝉 𝝉𝟐 𝝉𝟐
𝑪(𝒔) = 𝟑 − 𝟐 + − = − + −
𝑺 𝑺 𝑺 𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏 𝑺𝟑 𝑺𝟐 𝑺 𝑺 + 𝟏
𝝉
Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝒕𝟐 𝒕
−( )
𝒄(𝒕) = ( − 𝝉𝒕 + 𝝉𝟐 − 𝝉𝟐 𝒆 𝝉 ) 𝒖(𝒕)
𝟐

The unit parabolic response, 𝒄(𝒕) has both the transient and the steady state terms.

The transient term in the unit parabolic response is:

𝒕
−( )
𝒄𝒕𝒓 (𝒕) = −𝝉𝟐 𝒆 𝝉 𝒖(𝒕)

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 53

The steady state term in the unit parabolic response is:

𝒕𝟐
𝒄𝒔𝒔 (𝒕) = ( − 𝝉𝒕 + 𝝉𝟐 ) 𝒖(𝒕)
𝟐

From these responses, we can conclude that the first order control systems are not
stable with the ramp and parabolic inputs because these responses go on increasing even at
infinite amount of time. The first order control systems are stable with impulse and step
inputs because these responses have bounded output. But, the impulse response doesn’t have
steady state term. So, the step signal is widely used in the time domain for analyzing the
control systems from their responses.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 54

Example:

𝟓 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝑹𝑪𝒄̀ (𝒕) + 𝒄(𝒕)

𝟓 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒄̀ (𝒕) + 𝒄(𝒕)

𝑲=𝟓

𝑽𝒊𝒏 = 𝒓 = 𝟐 𝑽

𝑹𝑪 = 𝝉 = (𝟓𝟎)(𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ) = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒔

𝒄(𝒕)𝒆−𝒕⁄𝝉 = 𝟎

• Transfer Function:
𝑪(𝒔) 𝑽𝒐 (𝒔) 𝑲 𝑲 5×2 10
𝑮(𝒔) = = = = = =
𝑹(𝒔) 𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝒔) 𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏 𝑹𝑪𝑺 + 𝟏 (50)(10 × 10−3 )𝑆 + 1 0.5𝑆 + 1

• Differential Equation:
𝑲 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝝉𝒄̀ (𝒕) + 𝒄(𝒕)

𝐾 𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑅𝐶𝑐̀(𝑡) + 𝑐(𝑡)

𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) = 𝜏𝑉̀𝑜 (𝑡) + 𝑉𝑜 (𝑡)

10(𝑡) = 0.5𝑉̀𝑜 (𝑡) + 1 𝑉𝑜 (𝑡)

• Transient Response & Steady State Response:

𝒄(𝒕) = 𝒄(𝟎)𝒆−𝒕⁄𝝉 + 𝑲𝒓(𝟏 − 𝒆−𝒕⁄𝝉 )

𝑐(𝑡) = 0 + (5 × 2)(1 − 𝑒 −𝑡⁄0.5 )

𝑐(𝑡) = 0 + (10)(1 − 𝑒 −𝑡⁄0.5 )

𝑐(𝑡) = 10 − 10𝑒 −𝑡⁄0.5

• Steady State Response Value (𝑪𝒔𝒔 ):

𝑪𝒔𝒔 = 𝑲𝒓 = 5 × 2 = 10 𝑉

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 55

• Transient Response Value (𝑪𝒕𝒓 ):
𝑪𝒕𝒓 (𝒕) = 𝒄(𝟎)𝒆−𝒕⁄𝝉 − 𝑲𝒓𝒆−𝒕⁄𝝉

𝐶𝑡𝑟 (𝑡) = 0 − (5 × 2)𝑒 −𝑡⁄0.5 = −10𝑒 −𝑡⁄0.5

• Response time Value at Time Constant 𝑪(𝝉):

𝑪(𝝉) = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑 𝑪𝒔𝒔 = 0.63 × 10 = 6.3 𝑉

• Time Constant (𝝉):

𝝉 = 0.497 𝑠 ≅ 0.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐

• Response time Value at Settling Time 𝑪(𝒕𝒔 ):

𝑪(𝒕𝒔 ) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖 𝑪𝒔𝒔 = 0.98 × 10 = 9.8 𝑉

• Settling Time (𝒕𝒔 ):

𝒕𝒔 = 1.96 𝑠 ≅ 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝒕𝒔 ≅ 𝟒𝝉 = 4 × 0.5 = 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐
• Response time Value at Rise Time 𝑪(𝒕𝒓 ):
𝑪(𝒕𝒓 ) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎 𝑪𝒔𝒔 = 0.90 × 10 = 9 𝑉
• Rise Time (𝒕𝒓 ):
𝒕𝒓 = 1.15 𝑠𝑒𝑐

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 56

Response of Second Order System:
In this chapter, let us discuss the time response of second order system. Consider the
following block diagram of closed loop control system. Here, an open loop transfer
𝝎𝟐𝒏
function, is connected with a unity negative feedback. 𝜶 = 𝜻𝝎𝒏
𝑺(𝑺+𝟐𝜻𝝎𝒏 )

We know that the transfer function of the closed loop control system having unity negative
feedback as

𝑪(𝒔) 𝑮(𝒔)
=
𝑹(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑮(𝒔)

𝝎𝟐𝒏
Substitute, 𝑮(𝒔) = in the above equation.
𝑺(𝑺+𝟐𝜹𝝎𝒏 )

𝝎𝟐𝒏
𝑪(𝒔) ( ) 𝝎𝟐𝒏
𝑺(𝑺 + 𝟐𝜻𝝎𝒏 )
= = 𝟐
𝑹(𝒔) 𝝎𝟐𝒏 𝑺 + 𝟐𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝑺 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏
𝟏+( )
𝑺(𝑺 + 𝟐𝜻𝝎𝒏 )

The power of ‘s’ is two in the denominator term. Hence, the above transfer function is
of the second order and the system is said to be the second order system.

The characteristic equation is:

𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝑺 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 = 𝟎

The roots of characteristic equation are:

−𝟐𝜻𝝎𝒏 ± √(𝟐𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 − 𝟒𝝎𝟐𝒏 −𝟐(𝜻𝝎𝒏 ± 𝝎𝒏 √𝜹𝟐 − 𝟏)

𝑺= = = −𝜻𝝎𝒏 ± 𝝎𝒏 √𝜹𝟐 − 𝟏
𝟐 𝟐

• The two roots are imaginary when 𝜻 = 𝟎.

• The two roots are real and equal when 𝜻 = 𝟏. (Critically Damped)
• The two roots are real but not equal when 𝜻 > 𝟏. (Overdamped)
• The two roots are complex conjugate when 𝟎 < 𝜻 < 𝟏. (Underdamped)

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 57

We can write 𝑪(𝒔) equation as,
𝝎𝟐𝒏 𝝎𝟐𝒏
𝑪(𝒔) = ( 𝟐 ) 𝑹(𝒔) = ( 𝟐 ) 𝑹(𝒔)
𝑺 + 𝟐𝜶𝑺 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 𝑺 + 𝟐𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝑺 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏

Where,

• 𝑪(𝒔) is the Laplace transform of the output signal, c(t)

• 𝑹(𝒔) is the Laplace transform of the input signal, r(t)
• 𝝎𝒏 is the natural frequency
• 𝜻 is the damping ratio.

Follow these steps to get the response (output) of the second order system in the time
domain.

1- Take Laplace transform of the input signal, 𝒓(𝒕).

𝝎𝟐𝒏
2- Consider the equation, 𝑪(𝒔) = ( ) 𝑹(𝒔)
𝑺𝟐 +𝟐𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝑺+𝝎𝟐𝒏

3- Substitute 𝑹(𝒔) value in the above equation.

4- Do partial fractions of 𝑪(𝒔) if required.
5- Apply inverse Laplace transform to 𝑪(𝒔).

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 58

➢ Step Response of Second Order System:

Consider the unit step signal as an input to the second order system.

Laplace transform of the unit step signal is,

𝟏
𝑹(𝒔) =
𝑺

We know the transfer function of the second order closed loop control system is,

𝑪(𝒔) 𝝎𝟐𝒏
=
𝑹(𝒔) 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝑺 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏

• Case 1: 𝜻 = 𝟎
Substitute, 𝜻 = 𝟎 in the transfer function.
𝑪(𝒔) 𝝎𝟐𝒏 𝝎𝟐𝒏
= ⇒ 𝑪(𝒔) = ( 𝟐 ) 𝑹(𝒔)
𝑹(𝒔) 𝑺𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 𝑺 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏

𝟏
Substitute, 𝑹(𝒔) = in the above equation.
𝑺

𝝎𝟐𝒏 𝟏 𝝎𝟐𝒏
𝑪(𝒔) = ( 𝟐 )( ) =
𝑺 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 𝑺 𝑺(𝑺𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 )

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝒄(𝒕) = (𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒏 𝒕))𝒖(𝒕)

So, the unit step response of the second order system when 𝜻= 𝟎 will be a continuous
time signal with constant amplitude and frequency.
• Case 2: 𝜻 = 𝟏
Substitute, 𝜻= 𝟏 in the transfer function.
𝑪(𝒔) 𝝎𝟐𝒏 𝝎𝟐𝒏
= ⇒ 𝑪(𝒔) = ( ) 𝑹(𝒔)
𝑹(𝒔) 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝝎𝒏 𝑺 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 (𝑺 + 𝝎𝒏 )𝟐

𝟏
Substitute, 𝑹(𝒔) = in the above equation.
𝑺

𝝎𝟐𝒏 𝟏 𝝎𝟐𝒏
𝑪(𝒔) = ( )( ) =
(𝑺 + 𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 𝑺 𝑺(𝑺 + 𝝎𝒏 )𝟐

Do partial fractions of 𝑪(𝒔).

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 59
 𝝎𝟐𝒏 𝑨 𝑩 𝑪
𝑪(𝒔) = = + +
𝑺(𝑺 + 𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 𝑺 𝑺 + 𝝎𝒏 (𝑺 + 𝝎𝒏 )𝟐

After simplifying, you will get the values of 𝑨, 𝑩 and 𝑪 as 𝟏, −𝟏 and −𝝎𝒏 respectively.
Substitute these values in the above partial fraction expansion of 𝑪(𝒔).
𝟏 𝟏 𝝎𝒏
𝑪(𝒔) = − −
𝑺 𝑺 + 𝝎𝒏 (𝑺 + 𝝎𝒏 )𝟐

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝒄(𝒕) = (𝟏 − 𝒆−𝝎𝒏 𝒕 − 𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝒆−𝝎𝒏 𝒕 )𝒖(𝒕)

So, the unit step response of the second order system will try to reach the step input in
steady state.

• Case 3: 𝟎 < 𝜻 < 𝟏

We can modify the denominator term of the transfer function as follows:

𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝑺 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 = {𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐(𝑺)(𝜻𝝎𝒏 ) + (𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 } + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 − (𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐

= (𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 (𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 )

The transfer function becomes,

𝑪(𝒔) 𝝎𝟐𝒏 𝝎𝟐𝒏

= ⇒ 𝑪(𝒔) = ( ) 𝑹(𝒔)
𝑹(𝒔) (𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 (𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 ) (𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 (𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 )

𝟏
Substitute, 𝑹(𝒔) = in the above equation.
𝑺

𝝎𝟐𝒏 𝟏 𝝎𝟐𝒏
𝑪(𝒔) = ( )( ) =
(𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 (𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 ) 𝑺 𝑺((𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 (𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 ))

Do partial fractions of 𝑪(𝒔).

𝝎𝟐𝒏 𝑨 𝑩𝑺 + 𝑪
𝑪(𝒔) = = +
𝑺((𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 (𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 )) 𝑺 (𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 (𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 )

After simplifying, you will get the values of 𝑨, 𝑩 and 𝑪 as 𝟏, −𝟏 and −𝟐𝜻𝝎𝒏 respectively.
Substitute these values in the above partial fraction expansion of 𝑪(𝒔).
𝟏 𝑺 + 𝟐𝜻𝝎𝒏
𝑪(𝒔) = −
𝑺 (𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 (𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 )

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 60

 𝟏 𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝜻𝝎𝒏
𝑪(𝒔) = − −
𝑺 (𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 (𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 ) (𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 (𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 )

𝟏 (𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 ) 𝜻 𝝎𝒏 √(𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 )
𝑪(𝒔) = − 𝟐− ( 𝟐)
𝑺 √(𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 ) (𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎 )𝟐 + (𝝎 √(𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 ))
(𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 + (𝝎𝒏 √(𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 )) 𝒏 𝒏

Substitute, 𝝎𝒏 √(𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 ) as 𝝎𝒅 in the above equation.

𝟏 (𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 ) 𝜻 𝝎𝒅
𝑪(𝒔) = − − ( )
𝑺 (𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 + (𝝎𝒅 )𝟐 √(𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 ) (𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 + (𝝎𝒅 )𝟐

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝜻
𝒄(𝒕) = (𝟏 − 𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒅 𝒕) − 𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕)) 𝒖(𝒕)
√(𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 )

𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕
𝒄(𝒕) = (𝟏 − ((√(𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 )) 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒅 𝒕) + 𝜻𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕))) 𝒖(𝒕)
√(𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 )

If √(𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 ) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽), then ‘𝜻’ will be 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽). Substitute these values in the above equation.

𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕
𝒄(𝒕) = (𝟏 − (𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽) 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒅 𝒕) + 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕))) 𝒖(𝒕)
√(𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 )

𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕
= (𝟏 − ( ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕 + 𝜽)) 𝒖(𝒕)
√(𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 )

So, the unit step response of the second order system is having damped oscillations
(decreasing amplitude) when ‘𝜻’ lies between zero and one.

• Case 4: 𝜻 > 𝟏

We can modify the denominator term of the transfer function as follows:

𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝑺 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 = {𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐(𝑺)(𝜻𝝎𝒏 ) + (𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 } + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 − (𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐

= (𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 − 𝝎𝟐𝒏 (𝜻𝟐 − 𝟏)

The transfer function becomes,

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 61

 𝑪(𝒔) 𝝎𝟐𝒏 𝝎𝟐𝒏
= ⇒ 𝑪(𝒔) = ( ) 𝑹(𝒔)
𝑹(𝒔) (𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 − 𝝎𝟐𝒏 (𝜻𝟐 − 𝟏) (𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 − 𝝎𝟐𝒏 (𝜻𝟐 − 𝟏)

𝟏
Substitute, 𝑹(𝒔) = in the above equation.
𝑺

𝝎𝟐𝒏 𝟏
𝑪(𝒔) = ( 𝟐 ) ( )
𝟐 𝟐 𝑺
(𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 ) − (𝝎𝒏 √(𝜻 − 𝟏))

𝝎𝟐𝒏
=
𝑺 (𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 + 𝝎𝒏 √(𝜻𝟐 − 𝟏)) (𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 − 𝝎𝒏 √(𝜻𝟐 − 𝟏))

Do partial fractions of 𝑪(𝒔).

𝝎𝟐𝒏
𝑪(𝒔) =
𝑺 (𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 + 𝝎𝒏 √(𝜻𝟐 − 𝟏)) (𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 − 𝝎𝒏 √(𝜻𝟐 − 𝟏))
𝑨 𝑩 𝑪
= + +
𝑺 𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 + 𝝎𝒏 √(𝜻𝟐 − 𝟏) 𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 − 𝝎𝒏 √(𝜻𝟐 − 𝟏)

After simplifying, you will get the values of 𝑨, 𝑩 and 𝑪 as

𝟏 −𝟏
𝟏, and respectively. Substitute these values in
𝟐(𝜻+√(𝜻𝟐 −𝟏))(√(𝜻𝟐 −𝟏)) 𝟐(𝜻−√(𝜻𝟐 −𝟏))(√(𝜻𝟐 −𝟏))

above partial fraction expansion of 𝑪(𝒔).

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑪(𝒔) = +( )( )
𝑺 𝟐 (𝜻 + √(𝜻𝟐 − 𝟏)) (√(𝜻𝟐 − 𝟏)) 𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 + 𝝎𝒏 √(𝜻𝟐 − 𝟏)

−𝟏 𝟏
−( )( )
𝟐 (𝜻 − √(𝜻𝟐 − 𝟏)) (√(𝜻𝟐 − 𝟏)) 𝑺 + 𝜻𝝎𝒏 − 𝝎𝒏 √(𝜻𝟐 − 𝟏)

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝟏 −(𝜻𝝎𝒏 +𝝎𝒏√(𝜻𝟐 −𝟏)𝒕)

𝒄(𝒕) = (𝟏 + ( )𝒆
𝟐 (𝜻 + √(𝜻𝟐 − 𝟏)) (√(𝜻𝟐 − 𝟏))

𝟏 −(𝜻𝝎𝒏 −𝝎𝒏√(𝜻𝟐 −𝟏)𝒕)

−( )𝒆 ) 𝒖(𝒕)
𝟐 (𝜻 − √(𝜻𝟐 − 𝟏)) (√(𝜻𝟐 − 𝟏))

Since it is over damped, the unit step response of the second order system when 𝜻 > 𝟏
will never reach step input in the steady state.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 62

➢ Impulse Response of Second Order System:

The impulse response of the second order system can be obtained by using any one of
these two methods.

• Follow the procedure involved while deriving step response by considering the value
𝟏
of 𝑹(𝒔) as 1 instead of 𝑺.

• Do the differentiation of the step response.

The following table shows the impulse response of the second order system for 4 cases of the
damping ratio.

Condition of Damping ratio Impulse response for 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎

𝜻=𝟎 𝝎𝒏 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒏 𝒕)

𝜻=𝟏 𝝎𝟐𝒏 𝒕𝒆−𝝎𝒏 𝒕

𝝎𝒏 𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕
𝟎<𝜻<𝟏 ( ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕)
√(𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 )

𝟐 𝟐
𝝎𝒏 −(𝜻𝝎𝒏 −𝝎𝒏 √(𝜻 −𝟏)𝒕) −(𝜻𝝎𝒏 +𝝎𝒏√(𝜻 −𝟏)𝒕)
𝜻>𝟏 (𝒆 −𝒆 )
𝟐
𝟐√(𝜻 − 𝟏)
( )

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 63

Time Domain Specifications:
In this chapter, let us discuss the time domain specifications of the second order
system. The step response of the second order system for the underdamped case is shown in
the following figure.

All the time domain specifications are represented in this figure. The response up to
the settling time is known as transient response and the response after the settling time is
known as steady state response.

• Delay Time:

It is the time required for the response to reach half of its final value from the zero
instant. It is denoted by 𝒕𝒅 .

Consider the step response of the second order system for 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎, when ‘𝜻’ lies between
zero and one.

𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕
𝒄(𝒕) = 𝟏 − ( ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕 + 𝜽)
√𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐

The final value of the step response is one.

Therefore, at 𝒕 = 𝒕𝒅 , the value of the step response will be 0.5. Substitute, these values
in the above equation.
𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝒅 𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝒅
𝒄(𝒕𝒅 ) = 𝟎. 𝟓 = 𝟏 − ( ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒅 + 𝜽) ⇒ ( ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒅 + 𝜽) = 𝟎. 𝟓
√𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 √𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐

By using linear approximation, you will get the delay time 𝒕𝒅 as

𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝜻
𝒕𝒅 =
𝝎𝒏

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 64

 • Rise Time:

It is the time required for the response to rise from 0% to 100% of its final value. This is
applicable for the under-damped systems. For the over-damped systems, consider the
duration from 10% to 90% of the final value. Rise time is denoted by 𝒕𝒓 .

At 𝒕 = 𝒕𝟏 = 𝟎, 𝒄(𝒕) = 𝟎.

We know that the final value of the step response is one.

Therefore, at 𝒕 = 𝒕𝟐 , the value of step response is one. Substitute, these values in the
following equation.
𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕
𝒄(𝒕) = 𝟏 − ( ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕 + 𝜽)
√𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐

𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝟐
𝒄(𝒕𝟐 ) = 𝟏 = 𝟏 − ( ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝟐 + 𝜽)
√𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐

𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝟐
⇒ ( ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝟐 + 𝜽) = 𝟎
√𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐

⇒ 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝟐 + 𝜽) = 𝟎

⇒ 𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝟐 + 𝜽 = 𝝅

𝝅−𝜽
⇒ 𝒕𝟐 =
𝝎𝒅

Substitute 𝒕𝟏 and 𝒕𝟐 values in the following equation of rise time,

𝒕𝒓 = 𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏

𝝅−𝜽
∴ 𝒕𝒓 = −𝟎
𝝎𝒅

−𝟏 𝝅 −𝟏 𝝅
𝝅 − 𝜽 𝝅 − [(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜻) (𝟏𝟖𝟎∘ )] 𝝅 − [(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜻) (𝟏𝟖𝟎∘ )]
𝒕𝒓 = = =
𝝎𝒅 √𝝎𝟐𝒏 − 𝜶𝟐 𝝎𝒏 √𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐

From above equation, we can conclude that the rise time 𝒕𝒓 and the damped
frequency 𝝎𝒅 are inversely proportional to each other.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 65

 • Peak Time:

It is the time required for the response to reach the peak value for the first time. It is
denoted by 𝒕𝒑 . At 𝒕 = 𝒕𝒑 , the first derivate of the response is zero.

We know the step response of second order system for under-damped case is:

𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕
𝒄(𝒕) = 𝟏 − ( ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕 + 𝜽)
√𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐

Differentiate 𝒄(𝒕) with respect to ‘𝒕’.

𝒅𝒄(𝒕) 𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕 −𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕
= −( ) 𝝎𝒅 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒅 𝒕 + 𝜽) − ( ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕 + 𝜽)
𝒅𝒕 √𝟏 − 𝜻 𝟐 √𝟏 − 𝜻 𝟐

𝒅𝒄(𝒕)
Substitute, 𝒕 = 𝒕𝒑 and = 𝟎 in the above equation.
𝒅𝒕

𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝒑
𝟎 = −( ) [𝝎𝒅 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 + 𝜽) − 𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝒑 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 + 𝜽)]
√𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐

⇒ 𝝎𝒏 √𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 + 𝜽) −𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 + 𝜽) = 𝟎

⇒ √𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 + 𝜽) −𝜻𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 + 𝜽) = 𝟎

⇒ 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽) 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 + 𝜽) − 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 + 𝜽) = 𝟎

⇒ 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽 − 𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 − 𝜽) = 𝟎

⇒ 𝐬𝐢𝐧(−𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 ) = 𝟎 ⇒ − 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 ) = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 ) = 𝟎

⇒ 𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 = 𝝅

𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
𝒕𝒑 = = =
𝝎𝒅 √𝝎𝟐𝒏 − 𝜶𝟐 𝝎𝒏 √𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐

From the above equation, we can conclude that the peak time 𝒕𝒑 and the damped
frequency 𝝎𝒅 are inversely proportional to each other.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 66

 • Peak Overshoot:

Peak overshoot 𝑴𝒑 is defined as the deviation of the response at peak time from the final
value of response. It is also called the maximum overshoot.

Mathematically, we can write it as:

𝑴𝒑 = 𝒄(𝒕𝒑 ) − 𝒄(∞)

Where,

• 𝒄(𝒕𝒑 ) is the peak value of the response.

• 𝒄(∞) is the final (steady state) value of the response.

At 𝒕 = 𝒕𝒑 , the response 𝒄(𝒕) is:

𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝒑
𝒄(𝒕𝒑 ) = 𝟏 − ( ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 + 𝜽)
√𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐

𝝅
Substitute, 𝒕𝒑 = in the right hand side of the above equation.
𝝎𝒅

𝝅 𝜻𝝅
−𝜻𝝎𝒏 ( ) −( )
𝒆 𝝎𝒅 𝝅 𝒆 √𝟏−𝜻𝟐
𝒄(𝒕𝒑 ) = 𝟏 − ( ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝝎𝒅 ( ) + 𝜽) = 𝟏 − (− 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽))
√𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 𝝎𝒅 √𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐
( )

We know that

𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽) = √𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐

So, we will get 𝒄(𝒕𝒑 ) as

𝜻𝝅
−( )
𝒄(𝒕𝒑 ) = 𝟏 + 𝒆 √𝟏−𝜻𝟐

Substitute the values of 𝒄(𝒕𝒑 ) and 𝒄(∞) in the peak overshoot equation.
𝜻𝝅 𝜻𝝅
−( ) −( )
𝑴𝒑 = 𝟏 + 𝒆 √𝟏−𝜻𝟐 −𝟏=𝒆 √𝟏−𝜻𝟐

Percentage of peak overshoot % 𝑴𝒑 can be calculated by using this formula.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 67

 𝑴𝒑
%𝑴𝒑 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒄(∞)

By substituting the values of 𝑴𝒑 and 𝒄(∞) in above formula, we will get the Percentage of
the peak overshoot %𝑴𝒑 as
𝜻𝝅
−( )
%𝑴𝒑 = (𝒆 √𝟏−𝜻𝟐 ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = (𝒆−𝜶𝒕𝒑 ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = (𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝒑 ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%

∴ 𝑴𝒑 = %𝑴𝒑 ⋅ 𝑪𝒔𝒔

From the above equation, we can conclude that the percentage of peak
overshoot %𝑴𝒑 will decrease if the damping ratio 𝜻 increases.

• Settling time:

It is the time required for the response to reach the steady state and stay within the
specified tolerance bands around the final value. In general, the tolerance bands are 𝟐% and
𝟓%. The settling time is denoted by 𝒕𝒔 .

The settling time for 𝟓% tolerance band is:

𝟑
𝒕𝒔 = = 𝟑𝝉
𝜻𝝎𝒏

The settling time for 𝟐% tolerance band is:

𝟒
𝒕𝒔 = = 𝟒𝝉
𝜻𝝎𝒏

𝟏
Where, 𝝉 is the time constant and is equal to .
𝜻𝝎𝒏

• Both the settling time 𝒕𝒔 and the time constant 𝝉 are inversely proportional to the
damping ratio 𝜻.
• Both the settling time 𝒕𝒔 and the time constant 𝝉 are independent of the system gain.
That means even the system gain changes, the settling time 𝒕𝒔 and time constant 𝝉 will
never change.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 68

Example:
Let us now find the time domain specifications of a control system having the closed
𝟒
loop transfer function when the unit step signal is applied as an input to this control
𝑺𝟐 +𝟐𝑺+𝟒

system.

We know that the standard form of the transfer function of the second order closed
loop control system as:

𝝎𝟐𝒏
𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝑺 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏

By equating these two transfer functions, we will get the un-damped natural
frequency 𝝎𝒏 as 𝟐 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄 and the damping ratio 𝜻 as 𝟎. 𝟓.
We know the formula for damped frequency 𝝎𝒅 as

𝝎𝒅 = 𝝎𝒏 √𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐

Substitute, 𝝎𝒏 and 𝜹 values in the above formula.

𝝎𝒅 = 𝟐√𝟏 − (𝟎. 𝟓)𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟐 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄

Substitute, 𝜹 value in following relation

𝝅
𝜽 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬−𝟏 𝜻 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟓) = 𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝟑

Substitute the above necessary values in the formula of each time domain specification
and simplify in order to get the values of time domain specifications for given transfer
function.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 69

 The following table shows the formulae of time domain specifications, substitution of
necessary values and the final values.

Time
domain Formula Substitution of values in Formula Final value
specification

𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝛅 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟕(𝟎. 𝟓)
Delay time 𝒕𝒅 = 𝒕𝒅 = 𝒕𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟓 𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝝎𝒏 𝟐

𝝅−𝜽 𝝅
𝝅 − (𝟑)
Rise time 𝒕𝒓 = 𝒕𝒓 = 𝒕𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟎𝟕 𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝝎𝒅 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟐

𝝅 𝝅
Peak time 𝒕𝒑 = 𝒕𝒑 = 𝒕𝒑 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟏𝟑 𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝝎𝒅 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟐

𝜻𝝅 𝟎.𝟓𝝅
% Peak −( ) −( )
%𝑴𝒑 = (𝒆 √𝟏−𝜻𝟐 ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% %𝑴𝒑 = (𝒆 √𝟏−(𝟎.𝟓)𝟐 ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% %𝑴𝒑 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟑𝟐%
overshoot

Settling time
for 2% 𝟒 𝟒
𝒕𝒔 = 𝒕𝒔 = 𝒕𝒔 = 𝟒 𝒔𝒆𝒄
tolerance 𝜻𝝎𝒏 (𝟎. 𝟓)(𝟐)
band

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 70

Example:

𝟒𝟓 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝟏𝒄′′ (𝒕) + 𝟐𝒄′ (𝒕) + 𝟗𝒄(𝒕)

𝒄(𝒕) = 𝒄′ (𝒕) = 𝟎
𝟎, 𝒕<0
𝒓(𝒕) = {
𝟏, 𝒕≥𝟎
• Differential Equation:
𝑲. 𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝒄′′ (𝒕) + 𝟐𝜶𝒄′ (𝒕) + 𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝒄(𝒕)

45 𝑟(𝑡) = 1𝑐 ′′ (𝑡) + 2𝑐 ′ (𝑡) + 9𝑐(𝑡)

• Transfer Function:
𝑪(𝒔) 𝑽𝒐 (𝒔) 𝑲𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝑲𝝎𝒏 𝟐 5×9 45
𝑮(𝒔) = = = 𝟐 = = =
𝑹(𝒔) 𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝒔) 𝑺 + 𝟐𝜶 𝑺 + 𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝑺 + 𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝑆 2 + 2 𝑆 + 9 𝑆 2 + 2 𝑆 + 9
• Damping Coefficient (𝜶):
𝟐𝜶 = 𝟐

2
𝜶= =1
2

• Natural Frequency (𝝎𝒏 ):

𝝎𝒏 𝟐 = 𝟗

𝝎𝒏 = √9 = 3 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

• Damping Ratio (𝜻):

𝜶 = 𝝃𝝎𝒏
𝜶 1
𝜻= = = 0.333 < 1
𝝎𝒏 3
• System Gain (𝑲𝒔 ):
𝑲𝝎𝒏 𝟐 = 𝟒𝟓

45 45
𝑲𝒔 = 2
= =5
𝜔𝑛 9

• Steady State Response Value (𝑪𝒔𝒔 ):

𝑪𝒔𝒔 = 𝑲𝒓 = 5 × 1 = 5 𝑉

• Response time Value at Delay Time 𝑪(𝒕𝒅 ):

𝑪(𝒕𝒅 ) = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 𝑪𝒔𝒔 = 0.50 × 5 = 2.5 𝑉

• Delay Time (𝒕𝒅 ):

1
𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝜻 1 + (0.7) (3)
𝒕𝒅 = = = 0.411 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝝎𝒏 3

• Response time Value at Settling Time 𝑪(𝒕𝒔 ):

𝑪(𝒕𝒔 ) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖 𝑪𝒔𝒔 = 0.98 × 5 = 4.9 𝑉

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 71

• Settling Time (𝒕𝒔 ) 𝟓%:
𝟑 𝟑 3
𝒕𝒔 ≅ 𝟑𝝉 = = = = 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜶 𝝃𝝎𝒏 1
𝒕𝒔 ≅ 3.7 𝑠𝑒𝑐
• Settling Time (𝒕𝒔 ) 𝟐%:
𝟒 𝟒 4
𝒕𝒔 ≅ 𝟒𝝉 = = = = 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜶 𝝃𝝎𝒏 1
• Response time Value at Rise Time 𝑪(𝒕𝒓 ):
𝑪(𝒕𝒓 ) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎 𝑪𝒔𝒔 = 0.90 × 5 = 4.5 𝑉
• Rise Time (𝒕𝒓 ):
−𝟏 𝝅 −1 1 𝜋
𝝅 − 𝜽 𝝅 − [(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜻) (𝟏𝟖𝟎∘ )] 𝜋 − [(cos (3)) (180∘ )]
𝒕𝒓 = = = = 0.675 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝝎𝒅 √𝝎𝟐𝒏 − 𝜶𝟐 √(3)2 − (1)2
−𝟏 𝝅 −1 1 𝜋
𝝅 − 𝜽 𝝅 − [(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜻) (𝟏𝟖𝟎∘ )] 𝜋 − [(cos (3)) (180∘ )]
𝒕𝒓 = = = = 0.675 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝝎𝒅 𝝎𝒏 √𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 1 2
3√1 − (3)
• Peak Time (𝒕𝑷 ):
𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
𝒕𝑷 = = = = 1.111 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝝎𝒅 √𝝎𝟐𝒏 − 𝜶𝟐 √(3)2 − (1)2

𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
𝒕𝑷 = = = = 1.111 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝝎𝒅 𝝎𝒏 √𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐 1 2
3√1 − (3)

• Peak Overshoot (%𝑴𝑷 ):

𝜻𝝅
−( )
%𝑴𝒑 = (𝒆 √𝟏−𝜻𝟐 ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = (𝒆−𝜶𝒕𝒑 ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = (𝑒 −(1)(1.111) ) × 100% = 32.9%

• Response time Value at Peak Time (𝑴𝑷 ):

𝑴𝒑 =%𝑴𝒑 ⋅ 𝑪𝒔𝒔

𝟑𝟐. 𝟗
𝑴𝒑 = × 5 =1.645 𝑉
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝑷 = 𝑪𝑷 − 𝑪𝒔𝒔 = 6.65 − 5 = 1.65 𝑉

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 72

 CHAPTER
5
3 Hours
ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 73
 Controllers
The various types of controllers are used to improve the performance of control
systems. In this chapter, we will discuss the basic controllers such as the proportional, the
derivative and the integral controllers.

Proportional (P) Controller:

The proportional controller produces an output, which is proportional to error signal.

𝒖(𝒕) ∝ 𝒆(𝒕)

⇒ 𝒖(𝒕) = 𝑲𝑷 𝒆(𝒕)

Apply Laplace transform on both the sides:

𝑼(𝒔) = 𝑲𝑷 𝑬(𝒔)

𝑼(𝒔)
= 𝑲𝑷
𝑬(𝒔)

Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional controller is 𝑲𝑷 .

Where,

• 𝑼(𝒔) is the Laplace transform of the actuating signal 𝒖(𝒕).

• 𝑬(𝒔) is the Laplace transform of the error signal 𝒆(𝒕).
• 𝑲𝑷 is the proportionality constant.

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along
with the proportional controller is shown in the following figure.

The proportional controller is used to change the transient response as per the requirement.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 74

Derivative (D) Controller:

The derivative controller produces an output, which is derivative of the error signal.

𝒅𝒆(𝒕)
𝒖(𝒕) = 𝑲𝑫
𝒅𝒕

Apply Laplace transform on both sides.

𝑼(𝒔) = 𝑲𝑫 𝑺 𝑬(𝒔)

𝑼(𝒔)
= 𝑲𝑫 𝑺
𝑬(𝒔)

Therefore, the transfer function of the derivative controller is 𝑲𝑫 𝑺.

Where, 𝑲𝑫 is the derivative constant.

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along
with the derivative controller is shown in the following figure.

The derivative controller is used to make the unstable control system into a stable one.

Integral (I) Controller:

The integral controller produces an output, which is integral of the error signal.

𝒖(𝒕) = 𝑲𝑰 ∫ 𝒆(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕

Apply Laplace transform on both the sides:

𝑲𝑰 𝑬(𝒔)
𝑼(𝒔) =
𝑺

𝑼(𝒔) 𝑲𝑰
=
𝑬(𝒔) 𝑺

𝑲𝑰
Therefore, the transfer function of the integral controller is .
𝑺

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 75

Where, 𝑲𝑰 is the integral constant.

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along
with the integral controller is shown in the following figure.

The integral controller is used to decrease the steady state error.

Let us now discuss about the combination of basic controllers.

Proportional Derivative (PD) Controller:

The proportional derivative controller produces an output, which is the combination of

the outputs of proportional and derivative controllers.

𝒅𝒆(𝒕)
𝒖(𝒕) = 𝑲𝑷 𝒆(𝒕) + 𝑲𝑫
𝒅𝒕

Apply Laplace transform on both sides -

𝑼(𝒔) = (𝑲𝑷 + 𝑲𝑫 𝑺)𝑬(𝒔)

𝑼(𝒔)
= 𝑲𝑷 + 𝑲𝑫 𝑺
𝑬(𝒔)

Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional derivative controller is 𝑲𝑷 + 𝑲𝑫 𝑺.

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along
with the proportional derivative controller is shown in the following figure.

The proportional derivative controller is used to improve the stability of control

system without affecting the steady state error.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 76

Proportional Integral (PI) Controller:

The proportional integral controller produces an output, which is the combination of

outputs of the proportional and integral controllers.

𝒖(𝒕) = 𝑲𝑷 𝒆(𝒕) + 𝑲𝑰 ∫ 𝒆(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕

Apply Laplace transform on both sides -

𝑲𝑰
𝑼(𝒔) = (𝑲𝑷 + ) 𝑬(𝒔)
𝑺

𝑼(𝒔) 𝑲𝑰
= 𝑲𝑷 +
𝑬(𝒔) 𝑺

𝑲𝑰
Therefore, the transfer function of proportional integral controller is 𝑲𝑷 + .
𝑺

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along
with the proportional integral controller is shown in the following figure.

The proportional integral controller is used to decrease the steady state error without
affecting the stability of the control system.

Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) Controller:

The proportional integral derivative controller produces an output, which is the

combination of the outputs of proportional, integral and derivative controllers.

𝒅𝒆(𝒕)
𝒖(𝒕) = 𝑲𝑷 𝒆(𝒕) + 𝑲𝑰 ∫ 𝒆(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕 + 𝑲𝑫
𝒅𝒕

Apply Laplace transform on both sides:

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 77

 𝑲𝑰
𝑼(𝒔) = (𝑲𝑷 + + 𝑲𝑫 𝑺) 𝑬(𝒔)
𝑺

𝑼(𝒔) 𝑲𝑰
= 𝑲𝑷 + + 𝑲𝑫 𝑺
𝑬(𝒔) 𝑺

Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional integral derivative controller

𝑲𝑰
is 𝑲𝑷 + + 𝑲𝑫 𝑺.
𝑺

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along
with the proportional integral derivative controller is shown in the following figure.

The proportional integral derivative controller is used to improve the stability of the
control system and to decrease steady state error.

Example:
• Block Diagram:

• Differential Equation:
𝒅𝒆(𝒕)
𝒖(𝒕) = 𝑲𝑷 𝒆(𝒕) + 𝑲𝑰 ∫ 𝒆(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕 + 𝑲𝑫
𝒅𝒕
𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
⇒ 10 𝑒(𝑡) + 0.5 ∫ 𝑒(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + 0.01
𝑑𝑡
• Transfer Function:
𝑼(𝒔) 𝑲𝑰
= 𝑲𝑷 + + 𝑲𝑫 𝑺
𝑬(𝒔) 𝑺
0.5
⇒ 10 + + 0.01 𝑆
𝑆
• Input and Output Signal:

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 78

 Steady State Errors
The deviation of the output of control system from desired response during steady
state is known as steady state error. It is represented as 𝒆𝒔𝒔 . We can find steady state error
using the final value theorem as follows.
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒕 𝒆(𝒕) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑺 𝑬(𝒔)
𝒕→∞ 𝒔→𝟎

Where, 𝑬(𝒔) is the Laplace transform of the error signal, 𝒆(𝒕)

Let us discuss how to find steady state errors for unity feedback and non-unity
feedback control systems one by one.

Steady State Errors for Unity Feedback Systems:

Consider the following block diagram of closed loop control system, which is having
unity negative feedback.

Where,

• 𝑹(𝒔) is the Laplace transform of the reference Input signal 𝒓(𝒕)

• 𝑪(𝒔) is the Laplace transform of the output signal 𝒄(𝒕)

We know the transfer function of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system as

𝑪(𝒔) 𝑮(𝒔) 𝑹(𝒔)𝑮(𝒔)

𝑻(𝒔) = = ⇒ 𝑪(𝒔) =
𝑹(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑮(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑮(𝒔)

The output of the summing point is:

𝑬(𝒔) = 𝑹(𝒔) − 𝑪(𝒔)

Substitute 𝑪(𝒔) value in the above equation.

𝑹(𝒔)𝑮(𝒔) 𝑹(𝒔) + 𝑹(𝒔)𝑮(𝒔) − 𝑹(𝒔)𝑮(𝒔) 𝑹(𝒔)
𝑬(𝒔) = 𝑹(𝒔) − = = = 𝑹(𝒔)(𝟏 − 𝑻(𝒔))
𝟏 + 𝑮(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑮(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑮(𝒔)

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 79

Substitute 𝑬(𝒔) value in the steady state error formula
𝑹(𝒔)
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑺 𝑬(𝒔) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑺
𝒔→𝟎 𝒔→𝟎 𝟏 + 𝑮(𝒔)

The following table shows the steady state errors and the error constants for standard
input signals like unit step, unit ramp & unit parabolic signals.

Input signal Steady state error 𝒆𝒔𝒔 Error constant

𝟏 𝑲𝒑 =𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑮(𝒔)
unit step signal 𝒔→𝟎
𝟏 + 𝑲𝒑

𝟏 𝑲𝒗 =𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑺𝑮(𝒔)
unit ramp signal 𝒔→𝟎
𝑲𝒗

𝟏 𝑲𝒂 =𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑺𝟐 𝑮(𝒔)
unit parabolic signal 𝒔→𝟎
𝑲𝒂

Where, 𝑲𝒑 , 𝑲𝒗 and 𝑲𝒂 are position error constant, velocity error constant and
acceleration error constant respectively.

Note − If any of the above input signals has the amplitude other than unity, then multiply
corresponding steady state error with that amplitude.

Note − We can’t define the steady state error for the unit impulse signal because, it exists
only at origin. So, we can’t compare the impulse response with the unit impulse input
as t denotes infinity.

Example:
𝒕𝟐
Let us find the steady state error for an input signal 𝒓(𝒕) = (𝟓 + 𝟐𝒕 + ) 𝒖(𝒕) of
𝟐
𝟓(𝑺+𝟒)
unity negative feedback control system with 𝑮(𝒔) =
𝑺𝟐 (𝑺+𝟏)(𝑺+𝟐𝟎)

The given input signal is a combination of three signals step, ramp and parabolic. The
following table shows the error constants and steady state error values for these three signals.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 80

 Input signal Error constant Steady state error

𝒓𝟏 (𝒕) = 𝟓𝒖(𝒕) 𝑲𝒑 =𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑮(𝒔) = ∞ 𝟓

𝒔→𝟎 𝒆𝒔𝒔𝟏 = =𝟎
𝟏 + 𝑲𝒑

𝒓𝟐 (𝒕) = 𝟐𝒕𝒖(𝒕) 𝑲𝒗 =𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑺𝑮(𝒔) = ∞ 𝟐

𝒔→𝟎 𝒆𝒔𝒔𝟐 = =𝟎
𝑲𝒗

𝒕𝟐 𝑲𝒂 =𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑺𝟐 𝑮(𝒔) = 𝟏 𝟏
𝒓𝟑 (𝒕) = 𝒖(𝒕) 𝒔→𝟎 𝒆𝒔𝒔𝟑 = =𝟏
𝟐 𝑲𝒂

We will get the overall steady state error, by adding the above three steady state errors.

𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝒆𝒔𝒔𝟏 + 𝒆𝒔𝒔𝟐 + 𝒆𝒔𝒔𝟑

⇒ 𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝟎 + 𝟎 + 𝟏 = 𝟏

Therefore, we got the steady state error 𝒆𝒔𝒔 as 1 for this example.

Steady State Errors for Non-Unity Feedback Systems:

Consider the following block diagram of closed loop control system, which is having
non-unity negative feedback.

We can find the steady state errors only for the unity feedback systems. So, we have to
convert the non-unity feedback system into unity feedback system. For this, include one
unity positive feedback path and one unity negative feedback path in the above block
diagram. The new block diagram looks like as shown below.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 81

 Simplify the above block diagram by keeping the unity negative feedback as it is. The
following is the simplified block diagram.

This block diagram resembles the block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed
loop control system. Here, the single block is having the transfer
𝑮(𝒔)
function instead of 𝑮(𝒔). You can now calculate the steady state errors by
𝟏+𝑮(𝒔)𝑯(𝒔)−𝑮(𝒔)

using steady state error formula given for the unity negative feedback systems.

Note − It is meaningless to find the steady state errors for unstable closed loop systems. So,
we have to calculate the steady state errors only for closed loop stable systems. This means
we need to check whether the control system is stable or not before finding the steady state
errors. In the next chapter, we will discuss the concepts-related stability.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 82

Example- Steady State Errors for Unity Feedback Systems:

• Input signal:

1
𝑹(𝒔) =
𝑆

• First Order Transfer Function:

1
𝑮(𝒔) =
𝑆+1

• Transfer Function:
1 1 1
𝑪(𝒔) 𝑮(𝒔) 𝑆 + 1 𝑆 + 1 𝑆 + 1
𝑻(𝒔) = = = = =
𝑹(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑮(𝒔) 1 + ( 1 ) . (1) (𝑆 + 1 + 1) . (1) 𝑆 + 2
𝑆+1 𝑆+1 𝑆+1
1 𝑆+1 1 1 1
= × = × =
𝑆+1 𝑆+2 1 𝑆+2 𝑆+2

• The Laplace transform of the error signal:

𝑬(𝒔) = 𝑹(𝒔)(𝟏 − 𝑻(𝒔))

1 1
⇒= (1 − )
𝑆 𝑆+2

• The final value of the error signal at steady state:

1 1 1 1
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑺 𝑬(𝒔) = lim (𝑆 (1 − )) = lim (1 − )=1− = 0.5
𝒔→𝟎 𝑆→0 𝑆 𝑆+2 𝑆→0 𝑆+2 0+2

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 83

Example- Steady State Errors for Unity Feedback Systems:

• Input signal:

1
𝑹(𝒔) =
𝑆

• Proportional (P) Controller:

𝑲𝑷 (𝒔) = 10

• First Order Transfer Function:

1
𝑮(𝒔) =
𝑆+1

• Transfer Function:
1 10
𝑪(𝒔) 𝑮(𝒔) 𝑲𝑷 (𝒔)𝑮(𝒔) (10). ( )
𝑻(𝒔) = = = = 𝑆 + 1 = 𝑆 +1
𝑹(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑮(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑲𝑷 (𝒔)𝑮(𝒔) 1 + (10). ( 1 ) . (1) 1 + ( 10 ) . (1)
𝑆+1 𝑆+1
10 10
𝑆+1 10 𝑆+1 10
= = 𝑆+1 = × =
𝑆 + 1 + 10 𝑆 + 11 𝑆 + 1 𝑆 + 11 𝑆 + 11
𝑆+1 𝑆+1

• The Laplace transform of the error signal:

𝑬(𝒔) = 𝑹(𝒔)(𝟏 − 𝑻(𝒔))

1 10
⇒= (1 − )
𝑆 𝑆 + 11

• The final value of the error signal at steady state:

1 10 10 10
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑺 𝑬(𝒔) = lim (𝑆 (1 − )) = lim (1 − )=1− = 0.0.091
𝒔→𝟎 𝑆→0 𝑆 𝑆 + 11 𝑆→0 𝑆 + 11 0 + 11

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 84

Example- Steady State Errors for Unity Feedback Systems:

• Input signal:

1
𝑹(𝒔) =
𝑆

• Integral (I) Controller:

2
𝑲𝑰 (𝒔) =
𝑆

• First Order Transfer Function:

1
𝑮(𝒔) =
𝑆+1

• Transfer Function:
2 1 2
𝑪(𝒔) 𝑮(𝒔) 𝑲𝑰 (𝒔)𝑮(𝒔) ( ).( ) 𝑆 (𝑆 + 1)
𝑻(𝒔) = = = = 𝑆 𝑆+1 =
𝑹(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑮(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑲𝑰 (𝒔)𝑲𝑭𝑶 (𝒔) 1 + (2) . ( 1 ) . (1) 1 + 2
𝑆 𝑆+1 𝑆 (𝑆 + 1)
2
𝑆 (𝑆 + 1) 2 𝑆 (𝑆 + 1) 2 2
= = × = = 2
𝑆 (𝑆 + 1) + 2 𝑆 (𝑆 + 1) 𝑆 (𝑆 + 1 ) + 2 𝑆 (𝑆 + 1) + 2 𝑆 + 𝑆 + 2
𝑆 (𝑆 + 1)

• The Laplace transform of the error signal:

𝑬(𝒔) = 𝑹(𝒔)(𝟏 − 𝑻(𝒔))

1 2
⇒= (1 − 2 )
𝑆 𝑆 +𝑆+2

• The final value of the error signal at steady state:

1 2 2 2
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑺 𝑬(𝒔) = lim (𝑆 (1 − 2 )) = lim (1 − 2 )=1− =0
𝒔→𝟎 𝑆→0 𝑆 𝑆 +𝑆+2 𝑆→0 𝑆 +𝑆+2 0+0+2

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 85

Example- Steady State Errors for Unity Feedback Systems:

• Input signal:

1
𝑹(𝒔) =
𝑆

• Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) Controller:

10 𝑆 2 + 3 𝑆 + 10
𝑲(𝒔) = 3 + +1𝑆 =
𝑆 𝑆

• First Order Transfer Function:

1
𝑮(𝒔) =
𝑆+1

• Transfer Function:

𝑆 2 + 3 𝑆 + 10 1 𝑆 2 + 3 𝑆 + 10
𝑪(𝒔) 𝑮(𝒔) 𝑲(𝒔)𝑮(𝒔) (
) . ( )
𝑆 𝑆+1 𝑆(𝑆 + 1)
𝑻(𝒔) = = = = 2 =
𝑹(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑮(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑲(𝒔)𝑮(𝒔) 𝑆 + 3 𝑆 + 10 1 𝑆 2 + 3 𝑆 + 10
1+( ).( ) . (1) 1 +
𝑆 𝑆+1 𝑆(𝑆 + 1)
𝑆 2 + 3 𝑆 + 10 𝑆 2 + 3 𝑆 + 10 𝑆 2 + 3 𝑆 + 10
𝑆(𝑆 + 1) 𝑆(𝑆 + 1) 𝑆(𝑆 + 1)
= = 2 =
𝑆(𝑆 + 1) + 𝑆 2 + 3 𝑆 + 10 𝑆 + 𝑆 + 𝑆 2 + 3 𝑆 + 10 2 𝑆 2 + 4 𝑆 + 10
𝑆(𝑆 + 1) 𝑆(𝑆 + 1) 𝑆(𝑆 + 1)
𝑆 2 + 3 𝑆 + 10 𝑆(𝑆 + 1) 𝑆 2 + 3 𝑆 + 10
= × =
𝑆(𝑆 + 1) 2 𝑆 2 + 4 𝑆 + 10 2 𝑆 2 + 4 𝑆 + 10

• The Laplace transform of the error signal:

𝑬(𝒔) = 𝑹(𝒔)(𝟏 − 𝑻(𝒔))

1 𝑆2 + 3 𝑆 + 10
⇒= (1 − 2 )
𝑆 2 𝑆 + 4 𝑆 + 10

• The final value of the error signal at steady state:

𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑺 𝑬(𝒔)

𝒔→𝟎

1 𝑆 2 + 3 𝑆 + 10 𝑆 2 + 3 𝑆 + 10 0 + 0 + 10
= lim (𝑆 (1 − 2
)) = lim (1 − 2
)=1− =0
𝑆→0 𝑆 2 𝑆 + 4 𝑆 + 10 𝑆→0 2 𝑆 + 4 𝑆 + 10 0 + 0 + 10

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 86

Example- Steady State Errors for Non-Unity Feedback Systems:

• Input signal:

1
𝑹(𝒔) =
𝑆

• Proportional (P) Controller:

𝑲𝑷 (𝒔) = 10

• First Order Transfer Function:

1
𝑮(𝒔) =
𝑆+2

• Feedback Transfer Function:

2
𝑯(𝒔) =
𝑆+4

• Transfer Function:
1 10
𝑪(𝒔) 𝑮(𝒔) 𝑲𝑷 (𝒔)𝑮(𝒔) (10). ( )
𝑻(𝒔) = = = = 𝑆 + 2 = 𝑆 +2
𝑹(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑮(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑲𝑷 (𝒔)𝑮(𝒔)𝑯(𝒔) 1 2 20
1 + (10). (𝑆 + 2) . (𝑆 + 4) 1 +
(𝑆 + 2)(𝑆 + 4)
10
𝑆 +2 10 (𝑆 + 2)(𝑆 + 4) 10(𝑆 + 4) 10 𝑆 + 40
= = × = = 2
(𝑆 + 2)(𝑆 + 4) + 20 𝑆 + 2 (𝑆 + 2)(𝑆 + 4) + 20 (𝑆 + 2)(𝑆 + 4) + 20 𝑆 + 6 𝑆 + 28
(𝑆 + 2)(𝑆 + 4)

• The Laplace transform of the error signal:

𝑬(𝒔) = 𝑹(𝒔)(𝟏 − 𝑻(𝒔))

1 10 𝑆 + 40
⇒= (1 − 2 )
𝑆 𝑆 + 6 𝑆 + 28

• The final value of the error signal at steady state:

1 10 𝑆 + 40 10 𝑆 + 40 0 + 40
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑺 𝑬(𝒔) = lim (𝑆 (1 − 2 )) = lim (1 − 2 )=1− = −0.428
𝒔→𝟎 𝑆→0 𝑆 𝑆 + 6 𝑆 + 28 𝑆→0 𝑆 + 6 𝑆 + 28 0 + 0 + 28

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 87

Example- Steady State Errors for Non-Unity Feedback Systems:

• Input signal:

𝟏
𝑹(𝒔) =
𝑺

• First Order Transfer Function:

1
𝑮(𝒔) =
𝑆+4

• Feedback Transfer Function:

5
𝑯(𝒔) =
𝑆 + 10

• Transfer Function:
1 𝐾
𝑪(𝒔) 𝑮(𝒔) 𝑲(𝒔)𝑮(𝒔) (𝐾). ( )
𝑻(𝒔) = = = = 𝑆 + 4 = 𝑆 + 4
𝑹(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑮(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑲𝑷 (𝒔)𝑮(𝒔)𝑯(𝒔) 1 + (𝐾). ( 1 ) . ( 5 ) 1 + 5𝐾
𝑆+4 𝑆 + 10 (𝑆 + 4)(𝑆 + 10)
𝐾
𝑆 + 4 𝐾 (𝑆 + 4)(𝑆 + 10) 𝐾(𝑆 + 10)
= = × =
(𝑆 + 4)(𝑆 + 10) + 5 𝐾 𝑆 + 4 (𝑆 + 4)(𝑆 + 10) + 5 𝐾 (𝑆 + 4)(𝑆 + 10) + 5 𝐾
(𝑆 + 4)(𝑆 + 10)
𝐾 𝑆 + 10 𝐾
=
𝑆 2 + 14 𝑆 + 40 + 5 𝐾

• The Laplace transform of the error signal:

𝑬(𝒔) = 𝑹(𝒔)(𝟏 − 𝑻(𝒔))

1 𝐾 𝑆 + 10 𝐾
⇒= (1 − 2 )
𝑆 𝑆 + 14 𝑆 + 40 + 5 𝐾

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 88

 • The final value of the error signal at steady state:

𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑺 𝑬(𝒔)

𝒔→𝟎

1 𝐾 𝑆 + 10 𝐾
= lim (𝑆 (1 − 2 ))
𝑆→0 𝑆 𝑆 + 14 𝑆 + 40 + 5 𝐾
𝐾 𝑆 + 10 𝐾 10 𝐾
= lim (1 − ) = 1 −
𝑆→0 𝑆 2 + 14 𝑆 + 40 + 5 𝐾 40 + 5 𝐾

• Finding the value of the gain (K):

10 𝐾
1− =0
40 + 5 𝐾
10 𝐾
1=
40 + 5 𝐾
10 𝐾 = 40 + 5 𝐾
10 𝐾 − 5 𝐾 = 40
5 𝐾 = 40
40
𝐾= =8
5

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 89

 CHAPTER
6
6 Hours

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 90

 Stability
Stability is an important concept. In this chapter, let us discuss the stability of system
and types of systems based on stability.

What is Stability?

A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to be

unstable. A stable system produces a bounded output for a given bounded input.

The following figure shows the response of a stable system.

This is the response of first order control system for unit step input. This response has
the values between 0 and 1. So, it is bounded output. We know that the unit step signal has
the value of one for all positive values of t including zero. So, it is bounded input.
Therefore, the first order control system is stable since both the input and the output are
bounded.

Types of Systems based on Stability:

We can classify the systems based on stability as follows.

• Absolutely stable system.

• Conditionally stable system.
• Marginally stable system.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 91

1- Absolutely Stable System:

If the system is stable for all the range of system component values, then it is known as
the absolutely stable system. The open loop control system is absolutely stable if all the
poles of the open loop transfer function present in left half of ‘S’ plane. Similarly, the closed
loop control system is absolutely stable if all the poles of the closed loop transfer function
present in the left half of the ‘S’ plane.

2- Conditionally Stable System:

If the system is stable for a certain range of system component values, then it is known
as conditionally stable system.

3- Marginally Stable System:

If the system is stable by producing an output signal with constant amplitude and constant
frequency of oscillations for bounded input, then it is known as marginally stable system.
The open loop control system is marginally stable if any two poles of the open loop transfer
function is present on the imaginary axis. Similarly, the closed loop control system is
marginally stable if any two poles of the closed loop transfer function is present on the
imaginary axis.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 92

 Stability Analysis
In this chapter, let us discuss the stability analysis in the ‘S’ domain using the
RouthHurwitz stability criterion. In this criterion, we require the characteristic equation to
find the stability of the closed loop control systems.

Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion:

Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion is having one necessary condition and one sufficient
condition for stability. If any control system doesn’t satisfy the necessary condition, then we
can say that the control system is unstable. But, if the control system satisfies the necessary
condition, then it may or may not be stable. So, the sufficient condition is helpful for
knowing whether the control system is stable or not.

1- Necessary Condition for Routh-Hurwitz Stability:

The necessary condition is that the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial should be
positive. This implies that all the roots of the characteristic equation should have negative
real parts.

Consider the characteristic equation of the order ‘n’ is:

𝒂𝟎 𝑺𝒏 + 𝒂𝟏 𝑺𝒏−𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑺𝒏−𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝒏−𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝑺𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏 𝑺𝟎 = 𝟎

Note that, there should not be any term missing in the nth order characteristic equation.
This means that the nth order characteristic equation should not have any coefficient that is of
zero value.

2- Sufficient Condition for Routh-Hurwitz Stability:

The sufficient condition is that all the elements of the first column of the Routh array
should have the same sign. This means that all the elements of the first column of the Routh
array should be either positive or negative.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 93

Routh Array Method:

If all the roots of the characteristic equation exist to the left half of the ‘S’ plane, then
the control system is stable. If at least one root of the characteristic equation exists to the
right half of the ‘S’ plane, then the control system is unstable. So, we have to find the roots
of the characteristic equation to know whether the control system is stable or unstable. But, it
is difficult to find the roots of the characteristic equation as order increases.

So, to overcome this problem there we have the Routh array method. In this method,
there is no need to calculate the roots of the characteristic equation. First formulate the Routh
table and find the number of the sign changes in the first column of the Routh table. The
number of sign changes in the first column of the Routh table gives the number of roots of
characteristic equation that exist in the right half of the ‘S’ plane and the control system is
unstable.

Follow this procedure for forming the Routh table.

• Fill the first two rows of the Routh array with the coefficients of the characteristic
polynomial as mentioned in the table below. Start with the coefficient of 𝑺𝒏 and
continue up to the coefficient of 𝑺𝟎 .
• Fill the remaining rows of the Routh array with the elements as mentioned in the table
below. Continue this process till you get the first column element of row 𝑺𝟎 is 𝒂𝒏 .
Here, 𝒂𝒏 is the coefficient of 𝑺𝟎 in the characteristic polynomial.

Note − If any row elements of the Routh table have some common factor, then you can
divide the row elements with that factor for the simplification will be easy.

The following table shows the Routh array of the nth order characteristic polynomial.

𝒂𝟎 𝑺𝒏 + 𝒂𝟏 𝑺𝒏−𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑺𝒏−𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝒏−𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝑺𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏 𝑺𝟎

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 94

 𝑺𝒏 𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟒 𝒂𝟔 ... ...

𝑺𝒏−𝟏 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝟓 𝒂𝟕 ... ...

𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟒 − 𝒂𝟓 𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟔 − 𝒂𝟕 𝒂𝟎
𝒏−𝟐 𝒃𝟏 = 𝒃𝟐 = 𝒃𝟑 =
𝑺 ... ... ...
𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟏

𝒃𝟏 𝒂𝟑 − 𝒃𝟐 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒂𝟓 − 𝒃𝟑 𝒂𝟏
𝑺𝒏−𝟑 𝒄𝟏 = 𝒄𝟐 = ⋮
𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟏

⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮

𝑺𝟏 ⋮ ⋮

𝑺𝟎 𝒂𝒏

Example:

Let us find the stability of the control system having characteristic equation,

𝑺𝟒 + 𝟑𝑺𝟑 + 𝟑𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝑺+ 𝟏 = 𝟎

Step 1 − Verify the necessary condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

All the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial, 𝑺𝟒 + 𝟑𝑺𝟑 + 𝟑𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝑺+ 𝟏 are positive.
So, the control system satisfies the necessary condition.

Step 2 − Form the Routh array for the given characteristic polynomial.

𝑺𝟒 𝒂𝟎 = 𝟏 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟑 𝒂𝟒 = 𝟏

𝑺𝟑 𝒂𝟏 = 𝟑 𝒂𝟑 = 𝟐 𝒂𝟓 = 𝟎

𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟔 − 𝒂𝟕 𝒂𝟎
𝒃𝟑 =
(𝟑 × 𝟑) − (𝟐 × 𝟏) (𝟑 × 𝟏) − (𝟎 × 𝟏) 𝒂𝟏
𝒃𝟏 = 𝒃𝟐 =
𝟑 𝟑 (𝟑 × 𝟎) − (𝟎 × 𝟏)
𝑺𝟐 =
𝟕 𝟑 𝟑
= = =𝟏
𝟑 𝟑 𝟎
= =𝟎
𝟑

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 95

 𝟕 𝟕
(𝟑 × 𝟐) − (𝟏 × 𝟑) (𝟑 × 𝟎) − (𝟎 × 𝟑)
𝒄𝟏 = 𝒄𝟐 =
𝟕 𝟕
𝟏 𝟑 𝟑
𝑺
𝟏𝟒 𝟎
( 𝟑 ) − (𝟑) 𝟓
= = = =𝟎
𝟕 𝟕
𝟕
𝟑 𝟑

𝑺𝟎 1

Step 3 − Verify the sufficient condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

All the elements of the first column of the Routh array are positive. There is no sign
change in the first column of the Routh array. So, the control system is stable.

Special Cases of Routh Array:

We may come across two types of situations, while forming the Routh table. It is
difficult to complete the Routh table from these two situations.

The two special cases are:

1- The first element of any row of the Routh array is zero:

If any row of the Routh array contains only the first element as zero and at least one of
the remaining elements have non-zero value, then replace the first element with a small
positive integer, 𝝐. And then continue the process of completing the Routh table. Now, find
the number of sign changes in the first column of the Routh table by substituting 𝝐 tends to
zero.

Example:

Let us find the stability of the control system having characteristic equation,

𝑺𝟒 + 𝟐𝑺𝟑 +𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝑺+ 𝟏 = 𝟎

Step 1 − Verify the necessary condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

All the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial, 𝑺𝟒 + 𝟐𝑺𝟑 +𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝑺+ 𝟏 are positive. So,
the control system satisfied the necessary condition.

Step 2 − Form the Routh array for the given characteristic polynomial.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 96

 𝑺𝟒 𝒂𝟎 = 𝟏 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟏 𝒂𝟒 = 𝟏

𝟐 𝟐
𝑺𝟑 𝒂𝟏 = =𝟏 𝒂𝟑 = =𝟏 𝒂𝟓 = 𝟎
𝟐 𝟐

(𝟏 × 𝟏) − (𝟏 × 𝟏) (𝟏 × 𝟏) − (𝟎 × 𝟏)
𝑺𝟐 𝒃𝟏 = =𝟎 𝒃𝟐 = =𝟏
𝟏 𝟏

𝑺𝟏

𝑺𝟎
The row 𝑺𝟑 elements have 2 as the common factor. So, all these elements are divided by 2.
• Special case (i) − Only the first element of row 𝑺𝟐 is zero. So, replace it by 𝝐 and
continue the process of completing the Routh table.

𝑺𝟒 1 1 1

𝑺𝟑 1 1

𝑺𝟐 𝝐 1

(𝝐× 𝟏) − (𝟏 × 𝟏) 𝝐 − 𝟏
𝑺𝟏 𝒄𝟏 = =
𝝐 𝝐

𝑺𝟎 1

Step 3 − Verify the sufficient condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

As ϵϵ tends to zero, the Routh table becomes like this.

𝑺𝟒 1 1 1

𝑺𝟑 1 1

𝑺𝟐 0 1

𝑺𝟏 −∞

𝑺𝟎 1

There are two sign changes in the first column of Routh table. Hence, the control system
is unstable.
ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 97
2- All the Elements of any row of the Routh array are zero:

In this case, follow these two steps:

• Write the auxiliary equation, 𝑨(𝒔) of the row, which is just above the row of zeros.
• Differentiate the auxiliary equation, 𝑨(𝒔) with respect to S. Fill the row of zeros with
these coefficients.

Example:

Let us find the stability of the control system having characteristic equation,

𝑺𝟓 + 𝟑𝑺𝟒 +𝑺𝟑 + 𝟑𝑺𝟐 +𝑺+ 𝟑 = 𝟎

Step 1 − Verify the necessary condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

All the coefficients of the given characteristic polynomial are positive. So, the control
system satisfied the necessary condition.

Step 2 − Form the Routh array for the given characteristic polynomial.

𝑺𝟓 𝒂𝟎 = 𝟏 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟏 𝒂𝟒 = 𝟏

𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝑺𝟒 𝒂𝟏 = =𝟏 𝒂𝟑 = =𝟏 𝒂𝟓 = =𝟏
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑

(𝟏 × 𝟏) − (𝟏 × 𝟏) (𝟏 × 𝟏) − (𝟏 × 𝟏)
𝑺𝟑 𝒃𝟏 = =𝟎 𝒃𝟐 = =𝟎
𝟏 𝟏

𝑺𝟐

𝑺𝟏

𝑺𝟎
The row 𝑺𝟒 elements have the common factor of 3. So, all these elements are divided by 3.
• Special case (ii) − All the elements of row 𝑺𝟑 are zero. So, write the auxiliary
equation, 𝑨(𝒔) of the row 𝑺𝟒 .
𝑨(𝒔) = 𝑺𝟒 + 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟏

Differentiate the above equation with respect to 𝑺.

𝒅𝑨(𝒔)
= 𝟒𝑺𝟑 + 𝟐𝑺
𝒅𝒔

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 98

Place these coefficients in row 𝑺𝟑 .

𝑺𝟓 𝒂𝟎 = 𝟏 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟏 𝒂𝟒 = 𝟏

𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝑺𝟒 𝒂𝟎 = =𝟏 𝒂𝟐 = =𝟏 𝒂𝟒 = =𝟏
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑

𝟒 𝟐
𝑺𝟑 𝒂𝟏 = =𝟐 𝒂𝟑 = =𝟏 𝒂𝟓 = 𝟎
𝟐 𝟐

(𝟐 × 𝟏) − (𝟏 × 𝟏) (𝟐 × 𝟏) − (𝟎 × 𝟏)
𝑺𝟐 𝒃𝟏 = = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒃𝟐 = =𝟏
𝟐 𝟐

(𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟏) − (𝟏 × 𝟐) −𝟏. 𝟓
𝑺𝟏 𝒄𝟏 = =
𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟓

𝑺𝟎 1

Step 3 − Verify the sufficient condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

There are two sign changes in the first column of Routh table. Hence, the control system is
unstable.

In the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion, we can know whether the closed loop poles
are in on left half of the ‘S’ plane or on the right half of the ‘S’ plane or on an imaginary
axis. So, we can’t find the nature of the control system. To overcome this limitation, there is
a technique known as the root locus.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 99

 State Space Model
The state space model of Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system can be represented as,

𝑿̇ = 𝑨𝑿 + 𝑩𝑼

𝒀 = 𝑪𝑿 + 𝑫𝑼

The first and the second equations are known as state equation and output equation
respectively.

Where,

• 𝑿 and 𝑿̇ are the state vector and the differential state vector respectively.
• 𝑼 and 𝒀 are input vector and output vector respectively.
• 𝑨 is the system matrix.
• 𝑩 and 𝑪 are the input and the output matrices.
• 𝑫 is the feed-forward matrix.

Basic Concepts of State Space Model:

The following basic terminology involved in this chapter.

• State: is a group of variables, which summarizes the history of the system in order to
predict the future values (outputs).
• State Variable: The number of the state variables required is equal to the number of the
storage elements present in the system.

Examples − current flowing through inductor, voltage across capacitor

• State Vector: is a vector, which contains the state variables as elements.

In the earlier chapters, we have discussed two mathematical models of the control
systems. Those are the differential equation model and the transfer function model. The state
space model can be obtained from any one of these two mathematical models. Let us now
discuss these two methods one by one.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 100

State Space Model from Differential Equation:

Consider the following series of the 𝑹𝑳𝑪 circuit. It is having an input

voltage, 𝒗𝒊 (𝒕) and the current flowing through the circuit is 𝒊(𝒕).

There are two storage elements (inductor and capacitor) in this circuit. So, the number
of the state variables is equal to two and these state variables are the current flowing through
the inductor, 𝒊(𝒕) and the voltage across capacitor, 𝒗𝑪 (𝒕).
From the circuit, the output voltage, 𝒗𝟎 (𝒕) is equal to the voltage across capacitor, 𝒗𝑪 (𝒕).
𝒗𝟎 (𝒕) = 𝒗𝑪 (𝒕)

Apply 𝑲𝑽𝑳 around the loop.

𝒅𝒊(𝒕)
𝒗𝒊 (𝒕) = 𝑹𝒊(𝒕) + 𝑳 + 𝒗𝑪 (𝒕)
𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝒊(𝒕) 𝑹𝒊(𝒕) 𝒗𝑪 (𝒕) 𝒗𝒊(𝒕)

⇒ =− − +
𝒅𝒕 𝑳 𝑳 𝑳

The voltage across the capacitor is -

𝟏
𝒗𝑪 (𝒕) = ∫ 𝒊(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕
𝑪

Differentiate the above equation with respect to time.

𝒅𝒗𝑪 (𝒕) 𝒊(𝒕)

=
𝒅𝒕 𝑪

𝒊(𝒕)
State vector, 𝑿 = [ ]
𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)
𝒅𝒊(𝒕)
𝒅
Differential state vector, 𝑿̇ = [𝒅𝒗 𝒕(𝒕)]
𝑪
𝒅𝒕

We can arrange the differential equations and output equation into the standard form
of state space model as,
ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 101
 𝒅𝒊(𝒕) 𝑹 𝟏
− − 𝒊(𝒕) 𝟏
𝒅 𝑳 𝑳
𝑿̇ = 𝒕 =[ ][ ] + [𝑳] [𝒗𝒊 (𝒕)]
𝒅𝒗𝑪 (𝒕) 𝟏 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)
𝟎 𝟎
[ 𝒅𝒕 ] 𝑪

𝒊(𝒕)
𝒀 = [ 𝟎 𝟏] [ ] + [𝟎][𝒖(𝒕)]
𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)

Where,

𝑹 𝟏
−− 𝟏
𝑨=[ 𝑳 𝑳 ] , 𝑩 = [𝑳] , 𝑪 = [𝟎 𝟏], 𝑫 = [𝟎]
𝟏
𝟎 𝟎
𝑪

State Space Model from Transfer Function:

Consider the two types of transfer functions based on the type of terms present in the
numerator. We will study one type.

1. Transfer function having constant term in Numerator.

2. Transfer function having polynomial function of ‘S’ in Numerator.
Transfer function having constant term in Numerator:

Consider the following transfer function of a system

𝒀(𝒔) 𝒃𝟎
= 𝒏
𝑼(𝒔) 𝑺 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝑺𝒏−𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝟏 𝑺 + 𝒂𝟎

Rearrange, the above equation as,

(𝑺𝒏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝑺𝒏−𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝟏 𝑺 + 𝒂𝟎 )𝒀(𝒔) = 𝒃𝟎 𝑼(𝒔)

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both sides.

𝒅𝒏 𝒚(𝒕) 𝒅𝒏−𝟏 𝒚(𝒕) 𝒅𝒚(𝒕)

+ 𝒂 𝒏−𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝒂 𝟏 + 𝒂𝟎 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒃𝟎 𝒖(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕𝒏 𝒅𝒕𝒏−𝟏 𝒅𝒕

Let

𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒙𝟏

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 102

 𝒅𝒚(𝒕)
= 𝒙𝟐 = 𝒙̇ 𝟏
𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝟐 𝒚(𝒕)
= 𝒙𝟑 = 𝒙̇ 𝟐
𝒅𝒕𝟐

𝒅𝒏−𝟏 𝒚(𝒕)
= 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙̇ 𝒏−𝟏
𝒅𝒕𝒏−𝟏

𝒅𝒏 𝒚(𝒕)
= 𝒙̇ 𝒏
𝒅𝒕𝒏

and 𝒖(𝒕) = 𝒖

Then,

𝒙̇ 𝒏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙𝒏 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟎 𝒙𝟏 = 𝒃𝟎 𝒖

From the above equation, we can write the following state equation.

𝒙̇ 𝒏 = −𝒂𝟎 𝒙𝟏 − 𝒂𝟏 𝒙𝟐 − ⋯ − 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙𝒏 + 𝒃𝟎 𝒖

The output equation is:

𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟏

The state space model is:

𝒙̇ 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 ⋯ 𝟎 𝟎 𝒙𝟏 𝟎
𝒙̇ 𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 ⋯ 𝟎 𝟎 𝒙 𝟐 𝟎
̇𝑿 = ⋮ = ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ + ⋮ [𝒖]
𝒙̇ 𝒏−𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 ⋯ 𝟎 𝟏 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 𝟎
[ 𝒙̇ 𝒏 ] [−𝒂𝟎 −𝒂𝟏 −𝒂𝟐 ⋯ −𝒂𝒏−𝟐 −𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ] [ 𝒙𝒏 ] [𝒃𝟎 ]

𝒙𝟏
𝒙𝟐
𝒀 = [𝟏 𝟎 ⋯ 𝟎 𝟎] ⋮ + [𝟎][𝒖]
𝒙𝒏−𝟏
[ 𝒙𝒏 ]

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 103

Where,

𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 ⋯ 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 ⋯ 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑨= ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮ , 𝑩 = ⋮ , 𝑪 = [𝟏 𝟎 ⋯ 𝟎 𝟎 ], 𝑫 = [𝟎 ]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 ⋯ 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
[−𝒂𝟎 −𝒂𝟏 −𝒂𝟐 ⋯ −𝒂𝒏−𝟐 −𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ] [𝒃 𝟎 ]
Example:

Find the state space model for the system having transfer function.

𝒀(𝒔) 𝟏
= 𝟐
𝑼(𝒔) 𝑺 + 𝑺 + 𝟏

Rearrange, the above equation as,

(𝑺𝟐 + 𝑺 + 𝟏)𝒀(𝒔) = 𝑼(𝒔)

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝒅𝟐 𝒚(𝒕) 𝒅𝒚(𝒕)
+ + 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒖(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕

Let

𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒙𝟏

𝒅𝒚(𝒕)
= 𝒚̇ 𝟏 = 𝒙𝟐 = 𝒙̇ 𝟏
𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝟐 𝒚(𝒕)
= 𝒚̇ 𝟐 = 𝒙𝟑 = 𝒙̇ 𝟐
𝒅𝒕𝟐

and 𝒖(𝒕) = 𝒖

Then, the state equation is:

𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟏 = 𝒖

𝒙̇ 𝟐 = −𝟏𝒙𝟏 − 𝟏𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝒖

The output equation is:

𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟏

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 104

 𝒙̇ = 𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒖

𝒚 = 𝑪𝒙 + 𝑫𝒖

𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒖𝟏
𝒙̇ = 𝑨 = [𝒙 𝒙𝟐 ] 𝒙 + 𝑩 = [𝒖𝟐 ] 𝒖
𝟏

𝒚 = 𝑪 = [𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 ]

The state space model is:

𝒙̇ 𝟎 𝟏 𝒙𝟏 𝟎
𝑿̇ = [ 𝟏 ] = [ ] [𝒙 ] + [ ] [𝒖]
𝒙̇ 𝟐 −𝟏 −𝟏 𝟐 𝟏

𝒙𝟏
𝒀 = [𝟏 𝟎] [𝒙 ] + [𝟎][𝒖]
𝟐

Where,

𝟏 𝟏 𝟎
𝑨=[ ] , 𝑩 = [ ] , 𝑪 = [𝟏 𝟎], 𝑫 = [𝟎]
−𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏

Example:

Find the state space model for the system having transfer function.

𝒀(𝒔) 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟑𝑺 + 𝟖 𝟏
= 𝟑 𝟐
=( 𝟑 𝟐
) (𝑺𝟐 + 𝟑𝑺 + 𝟖)
𝑼(𝒔) 𝑺 + 𝟔𝑺 + 𝟏𝟎𝑺 + 𝟓 𝑺 + 𝟔𝑺 + 𝟏𝟎𝑺 + 𝟓

Rearrange, the above equation as,

(𝑺𝟑 + 𝟔𝑺𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎𝑺 + 𝟓)𝒀(𝒔) = (𝑺𝟐 + 𝟑𝑺 + 𝟖)𝑼(𝒔)

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝒅𝟑 𝒚(𝒕) 𝒅𝟐 𝒚(𝒕) 𝒅𝒚(𝒕) 𝒅𝟐 𝒖(𝒕) 𝒅𝒖(𝒕)

+ + + 𝒚(𝒕) = + + 𝒖(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕𝟑 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕

Let

𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒙𝟏

𝒅𝒚(𝒕)
= 𝒚̇ 𝟏 = 𝒙𝟐 = 𝒙̇ 𝟏
𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝟐 𝒚(𝒕)
= 𝒚̇ 𝟐 = 𝒙𝟑 = 𝒙̇ 𝟐
𝒅𝒕𝟐

𝒅𝟑 𝒚(𝒕)
= 𝒚̇ 𝟑 = 𝒙𝟒 = 𝒙̇ 𝟑
𝒅𝒕𝟑

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 105

and
𝒖(𝒕) = 𝒙𝟏

𝒅𝒖(𝒕)
= 𝒙𝟐
𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝟐 𝒖(𝒕)
= 𝒙𝟑
𝒅𝒕𝟐

Then, the state equation is:

𝒙𝟒 + 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟏 = (𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟏 )𝒖

𝒙̇ 𝟒 = −𝟓𝒙𝟏 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙𝟑 + (𝟖𝒙𝟏 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝒙𝟑 )𝒖

The output equation is:

𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟏

𝒖(𝒕) = 𝒖 = 𝒙𝟏

𝒙̇ = 𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒖
𝒚 = 𝑪𝒙 + 𝑫𝒖

𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒖𝟏
𝒙̇ = 𝑨 = [𝒙 𝒙𝟐 ] 𝒙 + 𝑩 = [𝒖𝟐 ] 𝒖
𝟏

𝒚 = 𝑪 = [𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 ]

The state space model is:

𝒙̇ 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝒙𝟏 𝟎
̇𝑿 = [𝒙̇ 𝟐 ] = [ 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 ] [𝒙𝟐 ] + [𝟎] [𝒖]
𝒙̇ 𝟑 −𝟓 −𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 𝒙𝟑 𝟏

𝒙𝟏
𝒀 = [𝟖 𝟑 𝟏] [𝒙𝟐 ] + [𝟎][𝒖]
𝒙𝟑

Where,

𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝑨=[ 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 ] , 𝑩 = [𝟎] , 𝑪 = [𝟖 𝟑 𝟏], 𝑫 = [𝟎]
−𝟓 −𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 𝟏

Homework: Find the state space model for the equations?

𝒙̇ 𝟏 = 𝒖 − 𝒙𝟐 𝒙̇ 𝟐 = −𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙𝟏 − 𝒖 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟏

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 106

 State Space Analysis
In the previous chapter, we learnt how to obtain the state space model from differential
equation and transfer function. In this chapter, let us discuss how to obtain transfer function
from the state space model.

Transfer Function from State Space Model:

We know the state space model of a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system is -

𝑿̇ = 𝑨𝑿 + 𝑩𝑼

𝒀 = 𝑪𝑿 + 𝑫𝑼

Apply Laplace Transform on both sides of the state equation.

𝒔𝑿(𝒔) = 𝑨𝑿(𝒔) + 𝑩𝑼(𝒔)

⇒ (𝒔𝑰 − 𝑨)𝑿(𝒔) = 𝑩𝑼(𝒔)

⇒ 𝑿(𝒔) = (𝒔𝑰 − 𝑨)−𝟏 𝑩𝑼(𝒔)

Apply Laplace Transform on both sides of the output equation.

𝒀(𝒔) = 𝑪𝑿(𝒔) + 𝑫𝑼(𝒔)

Substitute, 𝑿(𝒔) value in the above equation.

⇒ 𝒀(𝒔) = (𝒔𝑰 − 𝑨)−𝟏 𝑩𝑼(𝒔) + 𝑫𝑼(𝒔)

⇒ 𝒀(𝒔) = [𝑪(𝒔𝑰 − 𝑨)−𝟏 𝑩 + 𝑫]𝑼(𝒔)

𝒀(𝒔)
⇒ = 𝑪(𝒔𝑰 − 𝑨)−𝟏 𝑩 + 𝑫
𝑼(𝒔)

The above equation represents the transfer function of the system. So, we can calculate
the transfer function of the system by using this formula for the system represented in the
state space model.

Note − When 𝑫 = [𝟎], the transfer function will be

𝒀(𝒔)
= 𝑪(𝒔𝑰 − 𝑨)−𝟏 𝑩
𝑼(𝒔)

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 107

Example:

Let us calculate the transfer function of the system represented in the state space model as,

𝒙̇ −𝟏 −𝟏 𝒙𝟏 𝟏
𝑿̇ = [ 𝟏 ] = [ ] [𝒙 ] + [ ] [𝒖]
𝒙̇ 𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝟐 𝟎

𝒙𝟏
𝒀 = [𝟎 𝟏] [𝒙 ] + [𝟎][𝒖]
𝟐

Here,

−𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏
𝑨=[ ] , 𝑩 = [ ] , 𝑪 = [𝟎 𝟏], 𝑫 = [𝟎]
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎

The formula for the transfer function when 𝑫 = [𝟎] is:

𝒀(𝒔)
= 𝑪(𝒔𝑰 − 𝑨)−𝟏 𝑩
𝑼(𝒔)

Substitute, 𝑨, 𝑩 & 𝑪 matrices in the above equation.

−𝟏
𝒀(𝒔) 𝒔 𝟎 −𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏
= [𝟎 𝟏] [[ ]−[ ]] [ ]
𝑼(𝒔) 𝟎 𝒔 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎

𝒔 + 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏
⇒ [𝟎 ]
𝟏 [ ] [ ]
−𝟏 𝒔 𝟎

𝟏 𝒔 𝟏 𝟏
⇒ [ 𝟎 𝟏] [ [ ]] [ ]
𝒔𝟐 + 𝒔 + 𝟏 −𝟏 𝒔 + 𝟏 𝟎

𝒔 𝟏
⇒ [𝟎 𝒔 𝟐 + 𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔 𝟐 + 𝒔 + 𝟏] [ 𝟏]
𝟏] [ −𝟏 𝒔+𝟏 𝟎
𝒔𝟐 + 𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔𝟐 + 𝒔 + 𝟏

𝟏 𝒔+𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
⇒[ 𝟐 ] [ ] =
𝒔 +𝒔+𝟏 𝒔𝟐 + 𝒔 + 𝟏 𝟎 𝒔𝟐 + 𝒔 + 𝟏

Therefore, the transfer function of the system for the given state space model is

𝒀(𝒔) 𝟏
=[ 𝟐 ]
𝑼(𝒔) 𝒔 +𝒔+𝟏

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 108

Example:

Let us calculate the transfer function of the system represented in the state space model as,

𝒙̇ 𝟎 𝟏 𝒙𝟏 𝟏
𝑿̇ = [ 𝟏 ] = [ ] [𝒙 ] + [ ] [𝒖]
𝒙̇ 𝟐 −𝟐 −𝟐 𝟐 𝟏

𝒙𝟏
𝒀 = [𝟐 𝟑] [𝒙 ] + [𝟎][𝒖]
𝟐

Here,

𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
𝑨=[ ] , 𝑩 = [ ] , 𝑪 = [𝟐 𝟑], 𝑫 = [𝟎]
−𝟐 −𝟐 𝟏

The formula for the transfer function when 𝑫 = [𝟎] is:

𝒀(𝒔)
= 𝑪(𝒔𝑰 − 𝑨)−𝟏 𝑩
𝑼(𝒔)

Substitute, 𝑨, 𝑩 & 𝑪 matrices in the above equation.

−𝟏
𝒀(𝒔) 𝒔 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
= [𝟐 𝟑] [[ ]−[ ]] [ ]
𝑼(𝒔) 𝟎 𝒔 −𝟐 −𝟐 𝟏

𝒔 −𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏
⇒ [𝟐 𝟑] [ ] [ ]
𝟐 𝒔+𝟐 𝟏

𝟏 𝒔+𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
⇒ [𝟐 𝟑] [ 𝟐 [ ]] [ ]
𝒔 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟐 −𝟐 𝒔 𝟏

𝒔+𝟐 𝟏
⇒ [𝟐 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟐 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟐] [𝟏]
𝟑] [ −𝟐 𝒔 𝟏
𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟐 𝟐
𝒔 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟐

𝒔+𝟐 𝟏
+
⇒ [𝟐 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟐 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟐]
𝟑] [ −𝟐 𝒔
𝟐
+ 𝟐
𝒔 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟐 𝒔 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟐

𝒔+𝟑 𝒔−𝟐
⇒ [𝟐 𝟑] [ ]
𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟐 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟐

𝟐𝒔 + 𝟔 𝟑𝒔 − 𝟔 𝟓𝒔
⇒[ 𝟐 ] = 𝟐
𝒔 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟐 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟐 𝒔 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟐

Therefore, the transfer function of the system for the given state space model is

𝒀(𝒔) 𝟓𝒔
=[ 𝟐 ]
𝑼(𝒔) 𝒔 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟐

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 109

Controllability and Observability:

Let us now discuss controllability and observability of control system one by one.

1. Controllability:

A control system is said to be controllable if the initial states of the control system are
transferred (changed) to some other desired states by a controlled input in finite duration of
time.

We can check the controllability of a control system by using Kalman’s test.

• Write the matrix 𝑸𝑪 in the following form.

𝑸𝑪 = [𝑩 𝑨𝑩 𝑨𝟐 𝑩 ⋯ 𝑨𝒏−𝟏 𝑩]

• Find the determinant of matrix 𝑸𝑪 and if it is not equal to zero, then the control system
is controllable.
2. Observability:

A control system is said to be observable if it is able to determine the initial states of the
control system by observing the outputs in finite duration of time.

We can check the observability of a control system by using Kalman’s test.

• Write the matrix 𝑸𝑶 in following form.

𝑪
𝑪𝑨
𝑸𝑶 = [𝑪𝑻 𝑨𝑻 𝑪𝑻 (𝑨𝑻 )𝟐 𝑪𝑻 ⋯ (𝑨 ) 𝑪 ] = 𝑪𝑨𝟐
𝑻 𝒏−𝟏 𝑻

⋮
[𝑪𝑨𝒏−𝟏 ]

• Find the determinant of matrix 𝑸𝑶 and if it is not equal to zero, then the control
system is observable.

Example:

Let us verify the controllability and observability of a control system which is

represented in the state space model as,

𝒙̇ −𝟏 −𝟏 𝒙𝟏 𝟏
𝑿̇ = [ 𝟏 ] = [ ] [𝒙 ] + [ ] [𝒖]
𝒙̇ 𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝟐 𝟎

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 110

 𝒙𝟏
𝒀 = [𝟎 𝟏] [𝒙 ] + [𝟎][𝒖]
𝟐

Here,

−𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏
𝑨=[ ] , 𝑩 = [ ] , 𝑪 = [𝟎 𝟏], 𝑫 = [𝟎] 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒏 = 𝟐
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎

For 𝒏 = 𝟐, the matrix 𝑸𝑪 will be

𝑸𝑪 = [𝑩 𝑨𝑩]

We will get the product of matrices 𝑨 and 𝑩 as,

−𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏
𝑨𝑩 = [ ][ ] = [ ]
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

𝟏 −𝟏
⇒ 𝑸𝑪 = [ ] , (𝟏 × 𝟏) − (−𝟏 × 𝟎) = 𝟏
𝟎 𝟏

|𝑸𝑪 | = 𝟏 ≠ 𝟎

Since the determinant of matrix 𝑸𝑪 is not equal to zero, the given control system is
controllable.
For 𝒏 = 𝟐, the matrix 𝑸𝑶 will be -
𝑸𝑶 = [𝑪𝑻 𝑨𝑻 𝑪𝑻 ]

Here,

−𝟏 𝟏 𝟎
𝑨𝑻 = [ ] 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑪𝑻 = [ ]
−𝟏 𝟎 𝟏

We will get the product of matrices 𝑨𝑻 and 𝑪𝑻 as

−𝟏 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏
𝑨𝑻 𝑪𝑻 = [ ][ ] = [ ]
−𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎

𝟎 𝟏
⇒ 𝑸𝑶 = [ ] , (𝟎 × 𝟎) − (𝟏 × 𝟏) = −𝟏
𝟏 𝟎

⇒ |𝑸𝑶 | = −𝟏 ≠ 𝟎

Since, the determinant of matrix 𝑸𝑶 is not equal to zero, the given control system is
observable.

Therefore, the given control system is both controllable and observable.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 111

Example:

Is the state equation

𝒙̇ 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝒙𝟏 𝟏
̇𝑿 = [𝒙̇ 𝟐 ] = [ 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 ] [𝒙𝟐 ] + [𝟎] [𝒖]
𝒙̇ 𝟑 −𝟏 −𝟑 −𝟑 𝒙𝟑 𝟎

𝒙𝟏
𝒀 = [𝟏 𝟐 𝟏] [𝒙𝟐 ] + [𝟎][𝒖]
𝒙𝟑

Controllable? Observable?

Controllability: the system is controllable ⇔ 𝑴−𝟏 𝑩 has no ZERO rows.

𝑸𝑪 = [𝑩 𝑨𝑩 𝑨𝟐 𝑩], 𝝆(𝑸𝑪 ) = 𝒏

Observability: the system is observable ⇔ 𝑪𝑴 has no ZERO columns.

𝑪
𝑸𝑶 = [ 𝑪𝑨 ] , 𝝆(𝑸𝑶 ) = 𝒏
𝑪𝑨𝟐

𝒙̇ = 𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒖

𝒚 = 𝑪𝒙 + 𝑫𝒖 ,𝑫 = 𝟎

➢ If the controllability matrix has full rank, then the system is controllable.
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝑸𝑪 = [𝑩 𝑨𝑩 𝑨 𝑩] = [𝟎 𝟐 𝟎 −𝟏] , ∆(𝑸𝑪 ) ≥ 𝟏, 𝝆(𝑸𝑪 ) = 𝒏(𝑨) = 𝟑
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟑

∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

➢ If the observability matrix has full rank, then the system is observable.
𝑪 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝑸𝑶 = [ 𝑪𝑨 ] = [−𝟏 −𝟐 −𝟏] , ∆(𝑸𝑶 ) ≤ 𝟎 , 𝝆(𝑸𝑶 ) ≠ 𝒏(𝑨) = 𝟏
𝑪𝑨𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏

∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

Note: Values can be found using MATLAB.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 112

clear all ; clc; close all;
% Insert the Matrices A, B, C, D, and I
syms s
% Matrix A
A = [0 1 0; 0 0 1; -1 -3 -3];
% Matrix B
B = [1; 0; 0];
% Matrix C
C = [1 2 1];
% Matrix D
D = 0;
% Matrix I
I = [s 0 0; 0 s 0; 0 0 s];

%% Verify whether this system is controllable and

observable.
% Find Controllable and Rank:
Cont = ctrb(A,B)
Rank_Cont = rank(Cont)
% Find Observable and Rank:
Obs = obsv (A,C)
Rank_Obs = rank(Obs)

% evaluate (sI-A)^(-1)
% get denominator
det(C*((s*eye(size(A,1))-A)^(-1))*B)

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 113

Example:
Is the state equation
𝒙̇ 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝒙𝟏 𝟎 𝟏
𝑿̇ = [𝒙̇ 𝟐 ] = [𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 ] [ 𝒙𝟐 ] + [ 𝟏 𝟎] [ 𝒖 ]
𝒙̇ 𝟑 𝟎 𝟐 −𝟏 𝒙𝟑 𝟎 𝟎

𝒙𝟏
𝒀 = [𝟏 𝟎 𝟏] [𝒙𝟐 ] + [𝟎][𝒖]
𝒙𝟑

Controllable? Observable?

Controllability: the system is controllable ⇔ 𝑴−𝟏 𝑩 has no ZERO rows.

𝑸𝑪 = [𝑩 𝑨𝑩 𝑨𝟐 𝑩], 𝝆(𝑸𝑪 ) = 𝒏

Observability: the system is observable ⇔ 𝑪𝑴 has no ZERO columns.

𝑪
𝑸𝑶 = [ 𝑪𝑨 ] , 𝝆(𝑸𝑶 ) = 𝒏
𝑪𝑨𝟐

𝒙̇ = 𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒖

𝒚 = 𝑪𝒙 + 𝑫𝒖 ,𝑫 = 𝟎

➢ If the controllability matrix has full rank, then the system is controllable.
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑸𝑪 = [𝑩 𝑨𝑩 𝟐]
𝑨 𝑩 = [𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟐 𝟎] , ∆(𝑸𝑪 ) ≥ 𝟏, 𝝆(𝑸𝑪 ) = 𝒏(𝑨) = 𝟑
𝟎 𝟎 𝟐 𝟎 −𝟐 𝟎

∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

➢ If the observability matrix has full rank, then the system is observable.
𝑪 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏
𝑸𝑶 = [ 𝑪𝑨 ] = [𝟎 𝟑 −𝟏] , ∆(𝑸𝑶 ) ≥ 𝟏 , 𝝆(𝑸𝑶 ) ≠ 𝒏(𝑨) = 𝟑
𝑪𝑨𝟐 𝟎 −𝟐 𝟒

∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

Note: Values can be found using MATLAB.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 114

clear all ; clc; close all;
% Insert the Matrices A, B, C, D, and I
syms s
% Matrix A
A = [0 1 0; 0 0 1; 0 2 -1];
% Matrix B
B = [0 1; 1 0; 0 0];
% Matrix C
C = [1 0 1];
% Matrix D
D = 0;
% Matrix I
I = [s 0 0; 0 s 0; 0 0 s];

%% Verify whether this system is controllable and

observable.
% Find Controllable and Rank:
Cont = ctrb(A,B)
Rank_Cont = rank(Cont)
% Find Observable and Rank:
Obs = obsv (A,C)
Rank_Obs = rank(Obs)

% evaluate (sI-A)^(-1)
% get denominator
det(C*((s*eye(size(A,1))-A)^(-1))*B)

Homework:

Is the state equation:

𝒙̇ 𝟏 𝟏 𝟎 −𝟏 𝒙𝟏 𝟏
̇𝑿 = [𝒙̇ 𝟐 ] = [−𝟑 𝒙
𝟒 𝟑 ] [ 𝟐 ] + [−𝟏] [𝒖]
𝒙̇ 𝟑 𝟐 𝟓 𝟒 𝒙𝟑 𝟏

𝒙𝟏
𝒀 = [𝟑 𝟎 𝟎] [𝒙𝟐 ] + [𝟎][𝒖]
𝒙𝟑

Controllable? Observable?

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 115

 Automatic
Control
ELTL 442

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY

Madinah College of Technology | Electrical Engineering Department

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 116

Lab contents
WEEKS CHAPTERS SUBJECTS NOTES

01/02/1444
1 REGISTRATION
05/02/1444

08/02/1444
2 • Laplace Transforms.
12/02/1444

15/02/1444
3 1 • Inverse Laplace Transforms. LAB # 1
19/02/1444 (7 points)

22/02/1444 • Inverse Laplace Transforms (partial

4
26/02/1444 fractions).

29/02/1444
5 • Response of the First Order System.
03/03/1444 LAB # 2
2
06/03/1444 (7 points)
6 • Response of the Second Order System
10/03/1444
13/03/1444
7 • Proportional Controller (P).
17/03/1444
20/03/1444
8 • Integral Controller (I).
24/03/1444
LAB # 3
27/03/1444 3
9 • Proportional–Integral Controller (PI). (7 points)
02/04/1444
05/04/1444 • Proportional–Integral–Derivative
10 Controller (PID).
09/04/1444
12/04/1444 FINAL EXAMINATION
11 LEC # 4
16/04/1444 (13 points)

Notes:
Laboratory
LAB # 1: 7 points, Continuous evaluation 1
LAB # 2: 7 points, Continuous evaluation 2
LAB # 3: 7 points, Continuous evaluation 3
LAB # 4: 13 points, Final Examination.

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 117

 CHAPTER
1
6 Hours

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 118

 Laplace Table

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 119

1- Laplace Transforms:

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 120

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 121
Examples:
1. 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝟏𝟓

15
𝐹(𝑠) =
𝑠

2. 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝟓 + 𝟒𝒆−𝟐𝒕

5 4 5 4 1 5𝑠 + 10 + 4𝑠 9𝑠 + 10
𝐹(𝑠) = + = +( × )= = 2
𝑠 𝑠+2 𝑠 1 𝑠+2 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 𝑠 + 2𝑠

3. 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝟓 + 𝟒𝒆+𝟐𝒕

5 4 5𝑠 − 10 + 4𝑠 9𝑠 − 10
𝐹(𝑠) = + = = 2
𝑠 𝑠−2 𝑠 2 − 2𝑠 𝑠 − 2𝑠

4. 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝟏𝒕 − 𝟐𝒆−𝟏𝒕

1 2 𝑠 + 1 − 2𝑠 2 −2𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 1
𝐹(𝑠) = 2 − = 3 =
𝑠 𝑠+1 𝑠 + 1𝑠 2 𝑠 3 + 1𝑠 2
5. 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝟐𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝒕

4 80 80
𝑋(𝑠) = 20 × = 2 = 2
𝑠2 +42 𝑠 + (4 × 4) 𝑠 + 16

6. 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝒕

4 4 4
𝑋(𝑠) = 1 × = 2 = 2
𝑠2 +42 𝑠 + (4 × 4) 𝑠 + 16

7. 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝟐𝒕 + 𝟏𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑𝒕

2 𝑠 2 𝑠 2𝑠 2 + 18 + 𝑠 3 𝑠 3 + 2𝑠 2 + 18
𝑌(𝑠) = + = + = =
𝑠 2 𝑠 2 + 32 𝑠 2 𝑠 2 + 9 𝑠 4 + 9𝑠 2 𝑠 4 + 9𝑠 2
8. 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝟐𝒕 + 𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟑𝒕

2 2 𝑠 2 2𝑠 2𝑠 2 + 18 + 2𝑠 3 2𝑠 3 + 2𝑠 2 + 18
𝑌(𝑠) = + ( × ) = + = =
𝑠2 1 𝑠 2 + 32 𝑠2 𝑠2 + 9 𝑠 4 + 9𝑠 2 𝑠 4 + 9𝑠 2
9. 𝒉(𝒕) = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟒𝒕 + 𝟖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟏𝒕

100 14 𝑠 100 14 8𝑠
𝐻(𝑠) = + 2 + (8 × 2 ) = + +
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 + 12 𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠2 + 1

10. 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒕𝟒

4! 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 24
𝐹(𝑠) = = = 5
𝑠 4+1 𝑠5 𝑠
11. 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝟐𝒕𝟒

4! 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 2 × 24 48
𝐹(𝑠) = = = = 5
𝑠 4+1 𝑠5 𝑠5 𝑠

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 122

 12. 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒕𝟖

8! 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 40320
𝐹(𝑠) = = =
𝑠 8+1 𝑠9 𝑠9

13. 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒕𝒆−𝟓𝒕

1
𝐹(𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 5)2

14. 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝟑𝒕𝒆𝟓𝒕

3×1 3
𝐹(𝑠) = =
(𝑠 − 5)2 (𝑠 − 5)2

15. 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒕𝟒 𝒆−𝟓𝒕

4! 4×3×2×1 24
𝐹(𝑠) = = =
(𝑠 + 5)4+1 (𝑠 + 5)5 (𝑠 + 5)5

16. 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒕𝟑 𝒆−𝟓𝒕

3! 3×2×1 6
𝐹(𝑠) = = =
(𝑠 + 5)3+1 (𝑠 + 5)4 (𝑠 + 5)4

17. 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒕𝟔 𝒆−𝟓𝒕

6! 6×5×4×3×2×1 720
𝐹(𝑠) = = =
(𝑠 + 5)6+1 (𝑠 + 5)7 (𝑠 + 5)7

18. 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝟔𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒕

2 2
𝐹(𝑠) = =
(𝑠 + 6)2 + 22 (𝑠 + 6)2 + 4

19. 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝟒𝒆−𝟔𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒕

2 8
𝐹(𝑠) = 4 × =
(𝑠 + 6)2 + 22 (𝑠 + 6)2 + 4

20. 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝟑𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟓𝒕

𝑠+3 𝑠+3
𝐹(𝑠) = =
(𝑠 + 3)2 + 52 (𝑠 + 3)2 + 25

21. 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝟐𝒆𝟑𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟓𝒕

𝑠−3 2(𝑠 − 3) 2𝑠 − 6
𝐹(𝑠) = 2 × = =
(𝑠 − 3)2 + 52 (𝑠 − 3)2 + 52 (𝑠 − 3)2 + 25

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 123

clear all;
close all;
clc;

syms f t s

% STEP FUNCTION:
% f=10

% RAMP FUNCTION:
% f=10*t

% EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION:
% f=exp(-2*t);

% SINUSOIDAL FUNCTION:
% f=sin(10*t)
% f=cos(10*t)

% f(t)= t^3

% f(t)= t^3*exp(-5*t)

% f(t)= exp(-3*t)*sin(2*t)
% f(t)= exp(-3*t)*cos(2*t)

F=laplace(f,t,s)
pretty(F)

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 124

2- Inverse Laplace Transforms:
𝟏
1. 𝑭(𝒔) =
𝒔+𝟐

ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠)] = 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 −2𝑡

(𝒔−𝟑)
2. 𝑭(𝒔) = (𝒔−𝟑)𝟐 +𝟖𝟏

ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠)] = 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 +3𝑡 cos 9𝑡

𝟔 𝟔 𝟑! 𝟑×𝟐×𝟏
3. 𝑭(𝒔) = 𝒔𝟒 = 𝒔𝟒−𝟏 = 𝒔𝟑 = 𝒏=𝟑
𝒔𝟑

ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠)] = 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 3
𝒔
4. 𝑭(𝒔) =
𝒔𝟐 +𝟑𝟔

ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠)] = 𝑓(𝑡) = cos 6𝑡

𝟏𝟓 𝟓
1. 𝑭(𝒔) = 𝒔𝟐 +𝟐𝟓 = 𝟑 × 𝒔𝟐 +𝟓𝟐

ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠)] = 𝑓(𝑡) = 3 sin 5𝑡

𝟐 𝟏
2. 𝑭(𝒔) = 𝟐𝒔+𝟒 = 𝒔+𝟐

ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠)] = 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 −2𝑡

𝟏𝟓 𝟑
3. 𝑭(𝒔) = (𝒔+𝟒)𝟐 +𝟗 = 𝟓 × (𝒔+𝟒)𝟐 +𝟑𝟐 𝒘 = √𝟗 = 𝟑, 𝒂 = 𝟒

ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠)] = 𝑓(𝑡) = 5𝑒 −4𝑡 sin 3𝑡

𝟗𝟔 𝟒×𝟑×𝟐×𝟏 𝟒!
4. 𝑭(𝒔) = (𝒔+𝟓)𝟓 = 𝟒 × = 𝟒 × (𝒔+𝟓)𝟒+𝟏
(𝒔+𝟓)𝟓−𝟏

ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠)] = 𝑓(𝑡) = 4𝑡 4 𝑒 −5𝑡

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 125

clear all;
close all;
clc;

syms f s t

% F(s)=1/(s+2)

% F(s)= (s-3)/((s-3)^2+81)

% F(s)=6/s^4

% F(s)= s/(s^2+36)

% F(s)= 15/(s^2+25)

% F(s)= 2/(2*s+4)

% F(s)= 15/((s+4)^2+9)

% F(s)= 96/((s+5)^5)

f(t)=ilaplace(F)
pretty(f)

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 126

3- Inverse Laplace Transforms (partial fractions):
(𝒔+𝟑) 𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐
1. 𝑭(𝒔) = (𝒔+𝟏)(𝒔+𝟐) = + 𝒔 + 𝟏 = 𝟎, 𝒔 = −𝟏
(𝒔+𝟏) (𝒔+𝟐)

(𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 3) −1 + 3 2
𝐴1 = |(𝑠 + 1) ( )| = |( )( )| =| | = = =2
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) 𝑠=−1 1 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) 𝑠=−1 (𝑠 + 2) 𝑠=−1 −1 + 2 1

(𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 3) −2 + 3 1
𝐴2 = |(𝑠 + 2) ( )| = |( )( )| =| | = = = −1
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) 𝑠=−2 1 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) 𝑠=−2 (𝑠 + 1) 𝑠=−2 −2 + 1 −1

𝟐 −𝟏
∴ 𝑭(𝒔) = +
(𝒔 + 𝟏) (𝒔 + 𝟐)

ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠)] = 𝑓(𝑡) = 2𝑒 −1𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡

𝒔 𝒔 𝟏 𝟐 𝑨 𝑨
2. 𝑭(𝒔) = 𝒔𝟐 +𝟏𝟏𝒔+𝟑𝟎 = (𝒔+𝟓)(𝒔+𝟔) = (𝒔+𝟓) + (𝒔+𝟔) 𝒔𝟏 = −𝟓, 𝒔𝟐 = −𝟔

𝑠 (𝑠 + 5) 𝑠 𝑠 −5 −5
𝐴1 = |(𝑠 + 5) ( )| = |( )( )| =| | = = = −5
(𝑠 + 5)(𝑠 + 6) 𝑠=−5 1 (𝑠 + 5)(𝑠 + 6) 𝑠=−5 (𝑠 + 6) 𝑠=−5 −5 + 6 1

𝑠 (𝑠 + 6) 𝑠 𝑠 −6 −6
𝐴2 = |(𝑠 + 6) ( )| = |( )( )| =| | = = =6
(𝑠 + 5)(𝑠 + 6) 𝑠=−6 1 (𝑠 + 5)(𝑠 + 6) 𝑠=−6 (𝑠 + 5) 𝑠=−6 −6 + 5 −1

−𝟓 𝟔
∴ 𝑭(𝒔) = +
(𝒔 + 𝟓) (𝒔 + 𝟔)

ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠)] = 𝑓(𝑡) = −5𝑒 −5𝑡 + 6𝑒 −6𝑡

𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑨𝟏 𝟐𝑨
3. 𝑭(𝒔) = 𝒔(𝒔+𝟏𝟎) = + (𝒔+𝟏𝟎) 𝒔=𝟎
𝒔

200 (𝑠) 200 200 200 200

𝐴1 = |(𝑠) ( )| = |( ) ( )| =| | = = = 20
𝑠(𝑠 + 10) 𝑠=0 1 𝑠(𝑠 + 10) 𝑠=0 (𝑠 + 10) 𝑠=0 0 + 10 10

200 (𝑠 + 10) 200 200 200

𝐴2 = |(𝑠 + 10) ( )| = |( )( )| =| | = = −20
𝑠(𝑠 + 10) 𝑠=−10 1 𝑠(𝑠 + 10) 𝑠=−10 𝑠 𝑠=−10 −10

𝟐𝟎 −𝟐𝟎
∴ 𝑭(𝒔) = +
𝒔 (𝒔 + 𝟏𝟎)

ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠)] = 𝑓(𝑡) = 20 − 20𝑒 −10𝑡

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 127

 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟏 𝑨 𝑨
𝟐
4. 𝑭(𝒔) = 𝒔𝟐 +𝟏𝟐𝒔+𝟐𝟕 = (𝒔+𝟑)(𝒔+𝟗) = (𝒔+𝟑) + (𝒔+𝟗)

10 (𝑠 + 3) 10 10 10 10 5
𝐴1 = |(𝑠 + 3) ( )| = |( )( )| =| | = = =
(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 9) 𝑠=−3 1 (𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 9) 𝑠=−3 (𝑠 + 9) 𝑠=−3 −3 + 9 6 3

10 (𝑠 + 9) 10 10 10 10 5
𝐴2 = |(𝑠 + 9) ( )| = |( )( )| =| | = = =
(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 9) 𝑠=−9 1 (𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 6) 𝑠=−9 (𝑠 + 3) 𝑠=−9 −9 + 3 −6 −3

𝟓 𝟓
∴ 𝑭(𝒔) = 𝟑 − 𝟑
(𝒔 + 𝟑) (𝒔 + 𝟗)

5 5
ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠)] = 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 −3𝑡 − 𝑒 −9𝑡
3 3

(𝒔+𝟑) (𝒔+𝟑) 𝟏 𝑨 𝟐𝑨
5. 𝑭(𝒔) = 𝒔𝟐 +𝟖𝒔+𝟏𝟐 = (𝒔+𝟐)(𝒔+𝟔) = (𝒔+𝟐) + (𝒔+𝟔)

(𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 3) −2 + 3 1
𝐴1 = |(𝑠 + 2) ( )| = |( )( )| =| | = =
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 6) 𝑠=−2 1 (𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 6) 𝑠=−2 (𝑠 + 6) 𝑠=−2 −2 + 6 4

(𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 6) (𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 3) −6 + 3 −3 3
𝐴2 = |(𝑠 + 6) ( )| = |( )( )| =| | = = =
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 6) 𝑠=−6 1 (𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 6) 𝑠=−6 (𝑠 + 2) 𝑠=−6 −6 + 2 −3 4

𝟏 𝟑
∴ 𝑭(𝒔) = 𝟒 + 𝟒
(𝒔 + 𝟐) (𝒔 + 𝟔)

1 3
ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠)] = 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 −2𝑡 + 𝑒 −6𝑡
4 4

(𝒔+𝟏) (𝒔+𝟏) 𝟏 𝑨 𝑨
𝟐
6. 𝑭(𝒔) = 𝒔𝟐 +𝟏𝟐𝒔+𝟑𝟓 = (𝒔+𝟓)(𝒔+𝟕) = (𝒔+𝟓) + (𝒔+𝟕)

(𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 5) (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 1) −5 + 1 −4
𝐴1 = |(𝑠 + 5) ( )| = |( )( )| =| | = = = −2
(𝑠 + 5)(𝑠 + 7) 𝑠=−5 1 (𝑠 + 5)(𝑠 + 7) 𝑠=−5 (𝑠 + 7) 𝑠=−5 −5 + 7 2

(𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 7) (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 1) −7 + 1 −6
𝐴2 = |(𝑠 + 7) ( )| = |( )( )| =| | = = =3
(𝑠 + 5)(𝑠 + 7) 𝑠=−7 1 (𝑠 + 5)(𝑠 + 7) 𝑠=−7 (𝑠 + 5) 𝑠=−7 −7 + 5 −2

−𝟐 𝟑
∴ 𝑭(𝒔) = +
(𝒔 + 𝟓) (𝒔 + 𝟕)

ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠)] = 𝑓(𝑡) = −2𝑒 −5𝑡 + 3𝑒 −7𝑡

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 128

 𝟏𝟐 𝑨𝟏 𝑨 𝟐 𝑨 𝟑
7. 𝑭(𝒔) = 𝒔(𝒔+𝟏)(𝒔+𝟒) = + (𝒔+𝟏) + (𝒔+𝟒)
𝒔

12 (𝑠) 12 12 12 12
𝐴1 = |(𝑠) ( )| = |( ) ( )| =| | = =
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 4) 𝑠=0 1 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 4) 𝑠=0 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 4) 𝑠=0 (0 + 1)(0 + 4) 4
=3

12 (𝑠 + 1) 12 12 12 12
𝐴2 = |(𝑠 + 1) ( )| = |( )( )| =| | = = = −4
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 4) 𝑠=−1 1 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 4) 𝑠=−1 𝑠(𝑠 + 4) 𝑠=−1 −1 × (−1 + 4) −3

12 (𝑠 + 4) 12 12 12 12
𝐴3 = |(𝑠 + 4) ( )| = |( )( )| =| | = = =1
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 4) 𝑠=−4 1 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 4) 𝑠=−4 𝑠(𝑠 + 1) 𝑠=−4 −4 × (−4 + 1) 12

𝟑 𝟒 𝟏
∴ 𝑭(𝒔) = − +
𝒔 (𝒔 + 𝟏) (𝒔 + 𝟒)

ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠)] = 𝑓(𝑡) = 3 − 4𝑒 −1𝑡 + 1𝑒 −4𝑡

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 129

 CHAPTER
2
4 Hours

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 130

 1- Response of the First Order System:

𝟏𝟎 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝟒𝒄̀ (𝒕) + 𝟐𝒄(𝒕)

𝒄(𝒕)𝒆−𝒕⁄𝝉 = 𝟎

𝟎, 𝑡<0
𝒓(𝒕) = {
𝟏, 𝑡≥0
𝑲 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝝉𝒄̀ (𝒕) + 𝒄(𝒕)

5 𝑟(𝑡) = 2 𝑐̀(𝑡) + 1 𝑐(𝑡)

𝑪(𝒔) 𝑽𝒐 (𝒔) 𝑲 5×1 5

𝑮(𝒔) = = = = =
𝑹(𝒔) 𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝒔) 𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏 2 𝑆 + 1 2 𝑆 + 1

Steady State Response Value (𝑪𝒔𝒔 ): 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑪𝒔𝒔 = 𝑲 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝑽

System Gain (𝑲𝒔 ): 𝑲𝒔 =
Response time Value at Time Constant 𝑪(𝝉): 𝑽𝑶 (𝝉) = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑 × 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽
Time Constant (𝝉): 𝝉= 𝒔𝒆𝒄
Response time Value at Settling Time 𝑪(𝒕𝒔 ): 𝑽𝑶 (𝒕𝒔 ) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖 × 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽
Settling Time (𝒕𝒔 ): 𝒕𝒔 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄
Response time Value at Rise Time 𝑪(𝒕𝒓 ): 𝑽𝑶 (𝒕𝒓 ) = 𝟎. 𝟗 × 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽
Rise Time (𝒕𝒓 ): 𝒕𝒓 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄

𝟏𝟐 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝟑𝒄̀ (𝒕) + 𝟒𝒄(𝒕)

𝒄(𝒕)𝒆−𝒕⁄𝝉 = 𝟎

𝟎, 𝑡<0
𝒓(𝒕) = {
𝟐, 𝑡≥0
𝑲 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝝉𝒄̀ (𝒕) + 𝒄(𝒕)

3 𝑟(𝑡) = 0.75 𝑐̀(𝑡) + 1 𝑐(𝑡)

𝑪(𝒔) 𝑽𝒐 (𝒔) 𝑲 3×2 6

𝑮(𝒔) = = = = =
𝑹(𝒔) 𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝒔) 𝝉𝑺 + 𝟏 0.75 𝑆 + 1 0.75 𝑆 + 1

Steady State Response Value (𝑪𝒔𝒔 ): 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑪𝒔𝒔 = 𝑲 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝑽

System Gain (𝑲𝒔 ): 𝑲𝒔 =
Response time Value at Time Constant 𝑪(𝝉): 𝑽𝑶 (𝝉) = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑 × 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽
Time Constant (𝝉): 𝝉= 𝒔𝒆𝒄
Response time Value at Settling Time 𝑪(𝒕𝒔 ): 𝑽𝑶 (𝒕𝒔 ) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖 × 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽
Settling Time (𝒕𝒔 ): 𝒕𝒔 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄
Response time Value at Rise Time 𝑪(𝒕𝒓 ): 𝑽𝑶 (𝒕𝒓 ) = 𝟎. 𝟗 × 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽
Rise Time (𝒕𝒓 ): 𝒕𝒓 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 131

 𝟖𝟎 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝟓𝒄̀ (𝒕) + 𝟐𝟎𝒄(𝒕)

𝒄(𝒕)𝒆−𝒕⁄𝝉 = 𝟎

𝟎, 𝑡<0
𝒓(𝒕) = {
𝟑, 𝑡≥0
(
𝑲 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝝉𝒄̀ 𝒕) + 𝒄(𝒕)

𝟏𝟎 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝟒𝒄̀ (𝒕) + 𝟐𝒄(𝒕)

𝒄(𝒕)𝒆−𝒕⁄𝝉 = 𝟎

𝟎, 𝑡<0
𝒓(𝒕) = {
𝟒, 𝑡≥0
𝑲 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝝉𝒄̀ (𝒕) + 𝒄(𝒕)

𝟏𝟐 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝟑𝒄̀ (𝒕) + 𝟒𝒄(𝒕)

𝒄(𝒕)𝒆−𝒕⁄𝝉 = 𝟎

𝟎, 𝑡<0
𝒓(𝒕) = {
𝟓, 𝑡≥0
𝑲 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝝉𝒄̀ (𝒕) + 𝒄(𝒕)

clear all; close all; clc;

n=5
d=[2 1]

G_s=tf(n, d)
step (G_s)

figure(1);
grid on
grid minor
xlabel ('$$Time$$', 'interpreter', 'latex');
ylabel ('$$Vc(t)$$', 'interpreter', 'latex');
title ('$$Step Response$$', 'interpreter', 'latex');

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 132

 2- Response of the Second Order System:

𝟑𝟔 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝟐 𝒄′′ (𝒕) + 𝟏𝟐 𝒄′ (𝒕) + 𝟏𝟖 𝒄(𝒕)

𝒄(𝒕) = 𝒄′ (𝒕) = 𝟎

𝟎, 𝒕<0
𝒓(𝒕) = {
𝟏, 𝒕≥𝟎

𝑲𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝒄′′ (𝒕) + 𝟐𝜶𝒄′ (𝒕) + 𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝒄(𝒕)

18 𝑟(𝑡) = 1𝑐 ′′ (𝑡) + 6𝑐 ′ (𝑡) + 9𝑐(𝑡)

𝑪(𝒔) 𝑽𝒐 (𝒔) 𝑲𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝑲𝝎𝒏 𝟐 2×9×1 18

𝑮(𝒔) = = = 𝟐 = = =
𝑹(𝒔) 𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝒔) 𝑺 + 𝟐𝜶 𝑺 + 𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝑺 + 𝝎𝒏 𝟐 1 𝑆 2 + 6 𝑆 + 9 1 𝑆 2 + 6 𝑆 + 9

System Gain (𝑲𝒔 ): 𝑲𝒔 =

Damping Coefficient (𝛂): 𝛂 = 𝜻𝝎𝒏
Natural Frequency (𝝎𝒏 ): 𝝎𝒏 = √𝝎𝒏 𝟐 = 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄
Steady State Response Value (𝑪𝒔𝒔 ): 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑪𝒔𝒔 = 𝑲 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝑽
Response time Value at Settling Time 𝑪(𝒕𝒔 ): 𝑽𝑶 (𝒕𝒔 ) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖 × 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽
Settling Time (𝒕𝒔 ): 𝒕𝒔 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄
Response time Value at Rise Time 𝑪(𝒕𝒓 ): 𝑽𝑶 (𝒕𝒓 ) = 𝟎. 𝟗 × 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽
Rise Time (𝒕𝒓 ): 𝒕𝒓 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄
Response time Value at Delay Time 𝑪(𝒕𝒅 ): 𝑽𝑶 (𝒕𝒅 ) = 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽
Delay Time (𝒕𝒅 ): 𝒕𝒅 = 𝒔ec
Response time Value at Peak Time (𝑴𝑷 ): 𝑴𝑷 = 𝑪𝑷 − 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽
Peak Time (𝒕𝑷 ): 𝒕𝑷 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄

𝟐𝟒 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝟒 𝒄′′ (𝒕) + 𝟏𝟐 𝒄′ (𝒕) + 𝟏𝟔 𝒄(𝒕)

𝒄(𝒕) = 𝒄′ (𝒕) = 𝟎

𝟎, 𝒕<0
𝒓(𝒕) = {
𝟐, 𝒕≥𝟎

𝑲𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝒄′′ (𝒕) + 𝟐𝜶𝒄′ (𝒕) + 𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝒄(𝒕)

𝟏𝟎 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝟐 𝒄′′ (𝒕) + 𝟖 𝒄′ (𝒕) + 𝟐 𝒄(𝒕)

𝒄(𝒕) = 𝒄′ (𝒕) = 𝟎

𝟎, 𝒕<0
𝒓(𝒕) = {
𝟑, 𝒕≥𝟎

𝑲𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝒄′′ (𝒕) + 𝟐𝜶𝒄′ (𝒕) + 𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝒄(𝒕)

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 133

 𝟒𝟖 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝟔 𝒄′′ (𝒕) + 𝟏𝟐 𝒄′ (𝒕) + 𝟐𝟒 𝒄(𝒕)

𝒄(𝒕) = 𝒄′ (𝒕) = 𝟎

𝟎, 𝒕<0
𝒓(𝒕) = {
𝟒, 𝒕≥𝟎

𝑲𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝒄′′ (𝒕) + 𝟐𝜶𝒄′ (𝒕) + 𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝒄(𝒕)

8 𝑟(𝑡) = 1𝑐 ′′ (𝑡) + 2𝑐 ′ (𝑡) + 4𝑐(𝑡)

𝑪(𝒔) 𝑽𝒐 (𝒔) 𝑲𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝑲𝝎𝒏 𝟐 2×4×4 32

𝑮(𝒔) = = = 𝟐 = = =
𝑹(𝒔) 𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝒔) 𝑺 + 𝟐𝜶 𝑺 + 𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝑺 + 𝝎𝒏 𝟐 1 𝑆 2 + 2 𝑆 + 4 1 𝑆 2 + 2 𝑆 + 4

System Gain (𝑲𝒔 ): 𝑲𝒔 =

Damping Coefficient (𝛂): 𝛂 = 𝜻𝝎𝒏
Natural Frequency (𝝎𝒏 ): 𝝎𝒏 = √𝝎𝒏 𝟐 = 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄
Steady State Response Value (𝑪𝒔𝒔 ): 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑪𝒔𝒔 = 𝑲 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝑽
Response time Value at Settling Time 𝑪(𝒕𝒔 ): 𝑽𝑶 (𝒕𝒔 ) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖 × 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽
Settling Time (𝒕𝒔 ): 𝒕𝒔 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄
Response time Value at Rise Time 𝑪(𝒕𝒓 ): 𝑽𝑶 (𝒕𝒓 ) = 𝟎. 𝟗 × 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽
Rise Time (𝒕𝒓 ): 𝒕𝒓 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄
Response time Value at Delay Time 𝑪(𝒕𝒅 ): 𝑽𝑶 (𝒕𝒅 ) = 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽
Delay Time (𝒕𝒅 ): 𝒕𝒅 = 𝒔ec
Response time Value at Peak Time (𝑴𝑷 ): 𝑴𝑷 = 𝑪𝑷 − 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽
Peak Time (𝒕𝑷 ): 𝒕𝑷 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄

𝟖 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝟐 𝒄′′ (𝒕) + 𝟏𝟔 𝒄′ (𝒕) + 𝟑𝟐 𝒄(𝒕)

𝒄(𝒕) = 𝒄′ (𝒕) = 𝟎

𝟎, 𝒕<0
𝒓(𝒕) = {
𝟓, 𝒕≥𝟎

𝑲𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝒄′′ (𝒕) + 𝟐𝜶𝒄′ (𝒕) + 𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝒄(𝒕)

clear all; close all; clc;

n=18
d=[1 6 9]

G_s=tf(n, d)
step (G_s)

figure(1);
grid on
grid minor
xlabel ('$$Time$$', 'interpreter', 'latex');
ylabel ('$$Vc(t)$$', 'interpreter', 'latex');
title ('$$Step Response$$', 'interpreter', 'latex');

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 134

 CHAPTER
3
8 Hours

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 135

 1- Proportional Controller (P):

Vin =5V Vin =5V Vin =5V Vin =5V

KP=1 KP=10 KP=50 KP=100
CSS = CSS = CSS = CSS =
e= e= e= e=
C(𝜏) = C(𝜏) = C(𝜏) = C(𝜏) =
𝜏= 𝜏= 𝜏= 𝜏=
C(Tr) = C(Tr) = C(Tr) = C(Tr) =
Tr = Tr = Tr = Tr =
C(TS) = C(TS) = C(TS) = C(TS) =
TS = TS = TS = TS =

Library Browser:

• Step

• Sum

• Gain

• Integrator

• Derivative

• Add

• Transfer fcn

• Mux

• Scope

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 136

 2- Integral Controller (I):

Vin =5V Vin =5V Vin =5V Vin =5V

KI=1 KI=10 KI=50 KI=100
CSS = CSS = CSS = CSS =
e= e= e= e=
C(𝜏) = C(𝜏) = C(𝜏) = C(𝜏) =
𝜏= 𝜏= 𝜏= 𝜏=
C(Tr) = C(Tr) = C(Tr) = C(Tr) =
Tr = Tr = Tr = Tr =
C(TS) = C(TS) = C(TS) = C(TS) =
TS = TS = TS = TS =

Library Browser:

• Step

• Sum

• Gain

• Integrator

• Add

• Transfer fcn

• Mux

• Scope

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 137

 3- Proportional–Integral Controller (PI):

Vin =5V Vin =5V Vin =5V Vin =5V

KP=1 KP=10 KP=1 KP=10
KI=1 KI=10 KI=10 KI=1
CSS = CSS = CSS = CSS =
e= e= e= e=
C(𝜏) = C(𝜏) = C(𝜏) = C(𝜏) =
𝜏= 𝜏= 𝜏= 𝜏=
C(Tr) = C(Tr) = C(Tr) = C(Tr) =
Tr = Tr = Tr = Tr =
C(TS) = C(TS) = C(TS) = C(TS) =
TS = TS = TS = TS =

Library Browser:

• Step

• Sum

• Gain

• Integrator

• Add

• Transfer fcn

• Mux

• Scope

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 138

 4- Proportional–Integral–Derivative Controller (PID):

Vin =5V Vin =5V Vin =5V Vin =5V

KP=1 KP=1 KP=10 KP=10
KI=1 KI=10 KI=10 KI=10
KD=0.2 KD=0.2 KD=0.2 KD=0.02
CSS = CSS = CSS = CSS =
e= e= e= e=
C(𝜏) = C(𝜏) = C(𝜏) = C(𝜏) =
𝜏= 𝜏= 𝜏= 𝜏=
C(Tr) = C(Tr) = C(Tr) = C(Tr) =
Tr = Tr = Tr = Tr =
C(TS) = C(TS) = C(TS) = C(TS) =
TS = TS = TS = TS =

Library Browser:

• Step
• Sum
• Gain
• Integrator
• Derivative
• Add
• Transfer fcn
• Mux
• Scope

ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 139

 Control Systems - Useful Resources
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use them to get more in-depth knowledge on this.

Useful Links on Control Systems:

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ENG. KHALID H ALSAYED & ENG. FLAIH R ALHARBY 140