Chapter 1

PATTERNS & NUMBERS IN NATURE AND THE WORLD

Patterns in nature are visible regularities found:

Patterns recurring in different context can sometimes be modelled mathematically. Mathematics

is the formal system on recognizing, classifying and exploiting patterns.

Mathematics – organize and systematize ideas about patterns in nature.

Patterns – possess utility and beauty.

• Patterns in stars which move in circles across the sky each day.
• The weather seasons cycle each year.
• Snowflakes contain sixfold symmetry which no two are exactly the same. There are evidences that
hexagonal snowflakes have an atomic geometry of ice crystals.
• Animals and fish stripes and spots attest to mathematical regularities in biological growth and
form. Evolutionary and functional arguments are explained by the patterns of animals.

FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

Pizano or Leonardo of Pisa (1170–1250) is from in Pisa, Italy. His father Guglielmo Bonacci was a
wealthy Italian merchant, who represented merchants of the Republic of Pisa who were trading in Bugia
(now Béjaïa) in Algeria, North Africa.

Around 1200 AD he published the Liber Abbaci, or “Book of Calculation.” An arithmetic text on
financial computations and promoted the use of Hindu-Arabic numerals. One of the exercises in
Fibonacci’s book :

“A man put a pair of rabbits in a place surrounded on all sides by a wall. How many pairs of rabbits
are produced from that pair in a year, if it is supposed that every month each pair produces a new pair,
which from the second month onwards becomes productive?”
 The Fibonacci sequence is the sequence f1, f2, f3, f4, ... which has its first two terms f1and f2
both equal to 1 and satisfies thereafter the recursion formula fn = fn–1 + fn–2. The sequence 1, 1, 2, 3,
5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, ... is called the Fibonacci sequence and its terms the Fibonacci
numbers.

A golden rectangle can be broken into squares the size of the next Fibonacci number down and
below.

Fibonacci spiral – Take a golden rectangle, break it down into

smaller squares based from Fibonacci sequence and divide each
with an arc.

Flower petals exhibit the Fibonacci number:

• White calla lily contains 1 petal

• Euphorbia contains 2 petals
• Trillium contains 3 petals
• Columbine contains 5 petals
• Bloodroot contains 8 petals
• Black-eyed susan contains 13 petals
• Sasha daisy contains 21 petals
• Field daisies contains 34, and other types of
daisies contain 55, and 89 petals.

The sunflower seed

conveys the Fibonacci
sequence. The pattern of
two spirals goes in
opposing directions
(clockwise and
counterclockwise). The no.
of clockwise spirals and
counterclockwise spirals
are consecutive Fibonacci
numbers and usually contains 34 and 55 seeds.
Pineapple spirals formed by their hexagonal nubs. The nubs
on form 5 spirals and 8 spirals, or 8 spirals and 13 spirals
that rotate diagonally upward to the right depending on
the size of the pineapple. The numbers 5, 8, and 13 are
Fibonacci numbers.

Pine cone spirals from the center have 5 arms and 8 arms,
or 8 arms and 13 arms, depending on the size, which again
two Fibonacci numbers.

GOLDEN RATIO

Luca Pacioli found the relationship between Fibonacci sequence and the golden ratio. The golden
ratio was first called as the Divine Proportion in the early 1500s in Leonardo da Vinci’s work was explored
by Luca Pacioli (Italian mathematician) entitled “De Devina Proportione” in 1509.

Da Vinci’s drawings of the five platonic solids and it was probably da Vinci who first called it the
“section aurea” Latin for Golden Section.

Two quantities are in the Golden ratio if their ratio is the same of their sum to the larger of the
two quantities. The Golden Ratio is the relationship between numbers on the Fibonacci sequence where
plotting the relationships on scales results in a spiral shape

GOLDEN RECTANGLE

The Fibonacci numbers can be applied to the proportions

of a rectangle, called the Golden rectangle. Golden Rectangle is
known as one of the most visually satisfying of all geometric forms
– hence, the appearance of the Golden ratio in art. The Golden
rectangle is also related to the Golden spiral, which is created by
making adjacent squares of Fibonacci dimensions.
 A Fibonacci spiral which approximates the golden spiral, using
Fibonacci sequence square sizes up to 34. The golden ratio is the limit of the
ratios of successive terms of the Fibonacci sequence (or any Fibonacci-like
sequence), as originally shown by Johannes Kepler (1571–1630).

Golden ration can also be deduced in an

isosceles triangle. A set of Whirling Triangles were
able to draw a logarithmic spiral that will converge
at the intersection of the two lines.

DIVISION IN EXTREME AND MEAN RATIO

Given a line AB being cut at a point P, so that the ratios 𝐴𝑃: 𝐴𝐵 and 𝑃𝐵: 𝐴𝐵 are the same. Euclid used this
construction on regular pentagons.
1+𝑥 𝑥
Taking PB to be of length 1, and let 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑥, so that 𝐴𝐵 = 1 + 𝑥. Then the required condition is 𝑥
=1
so that 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 1 = 0.
1−√5
Solutions of the quadratic equation: 𝜑 = 2
= 1.618034 …

−1+√5
1−𝜑 = = −1.618034 …
2

GOLDEN RATIO IN NATURE

Fibonacci numbers are said to be as one of the

nature's numbering systems. The leaf arrangements in plants
to the structures in outer space elicit golden ratio.
GOLDEN RATIO IN HUMAN BODY

Many parts of the body are in pair like arms, legs, eyes, buds. Parts
of the human body follow the Fibonacci, 2 hands with 5 digits, and 8 fingers
each contains 3 section. The ratio of forearm to hand is phi and other parts
of the human body.

VITRUVIAN MAN

Many researchers of the human body show mathematical

regularities one example is the inscribed man into a pentagram model of
Leonardo da Vinci.

GOLDEN RATIO IN ARTS

Golden Ratio shows beauty, balance and harmony in art, architecture & design. Also known as
Golden Section, or Golden Proportion, or Divine Proportion denoted by Phi (𝜑) = 1.6180339887. Phi is
the initial letters of Phidias’. Mark Barr (American mathematician), to use Phi in honor of Phidias.

➢ Phidias (490 BC – 430 BC) widely used the golden ratio in his works of sculpture. The exterior
dimension of the Parthenon in Athens, Greece embodies the golden ratio.

➢ In “Timaeus” Plato (428 BC – 347 BC) describes five

possible regular solids that relate to the golden ratio.
He also considers the golden ratio to be the most
binging of all mathematic relationships.

➢ Euclid was the first to give definition of the

golden ratio as “a dividing line in the extreme
and mean ratio” in his book the “Elements.” He
proved the link of the number to the
construction of the pentagram, known as golden
ratio.
GOLDE IN ARTS – Renaissance Artists

Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (1452–1519) or known as Leonardo da Vinci was into invention,
painting, sculpting, architecture, science, music, mathematics, engineering, literature, anatomy, geology,
astronomy, botany, writing, history, and cartography.

• The Last Supper • Monalisa

• Vitruvian Man • St. Jerome

Michelangelo di Lodovico Simon (1475–1564) or known as Michelangelo was a painter, architect,

poet, and engineer from the Renaissance. He was considered the greatest living artist of his time.

• The Creation of Adam

Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino (1483–1520) or known as Raphael was also a painter and architect
from the Renaissance.

• School of Athens • Two Men

• Stairs • Upper Arch

GOLDEN RATIO IN ARTS – Artists

Rembrandt Harmenszoon Van Rijn (1606 – 1669) or simply known as Rembrandt is a Dutch
painter. Today the Golden ratio is usually a concept that is applied in art, design and architecture. It is said
that the golden triangle is applied in his paintings “Self Portrait”.

George-Pierre Seurat (1859–1891) was a French post-impressionist painter. His paintings appear
to have applied golden ratio to define the horizon, to place point of interest and to create balance.

• Barthers at Asinieres
• Bridge of Courbevoie
• A Sunday on La Grande Jatte

Salvador Domingo Felipe Jacinto Dali (1904 – 1989) or known as Salvador Dali framed his paintings
using the golden ratio in his masterpiece, “The Sacrament of the Last Supper.”
GOLDEN RATIO IN ARTS – Early Renaissance Artists

Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi (1445– 1510), known as Sandro Botticelli, is an Italian painter. The
Birth of Venus is one of the world’s famous and appreciated works of art and it was painted between 1482
and 1485.

• Birth of Venus

GOLDEN RATIO IN ARTS – Architecture

➢ The Great Pyramid of Giza built 4700 BC in Ahmes Papyrus of Egypt is with proportion according
to a “Golden Ratio.” The length of each side of the base is 756 feet with a height of 481 feet. The
ratio of the base to the height is roughly 1.5717, which is close to the Golden ratio.

➢ Notre Dame is a Gothic Cathedral in Paris, built in between 1163 and 1250.

➢ Cathedral of Our Lady of Chartes in Paris, France also exhibits the golden ratio.

➢ Taj Mahal in India used the golden ratio in its construction and was completed in 1648.

➢ United Nations Building, the window configuration reveal golden proportion.

➢ Eiffel Tower in Paris, France, erected in 1889 is an iron lattice.

➢ CN Tower in Toronto, the tallest tower and freestanding structure in the world, contains the
golden ratio in its design.

GOLDEN RATIO IN DESIGNS

PATTERNS AND REGULARITIES

Types of Patterns:

Symmetry - is a sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion of balance or an object is invariant to any
of various transformations (reflection, rotation or scaling). There are two main types of symmetry,
bilateral and radial. Snowflakes have six-fold symmetry; each flake's structure forms a record of the
varying conditions during its crystallization, with nearly the same pattern of growth on each of its six
arms. Generally, crystals have a variety of symmetries and crystal habits; some are cubic or octahedral.

➢ Bilateral symmetry is a symmetry in which the left and right sides of the organism can be divided
into approximately mirror image of each other along the midline. Symmetry exists in living
things such as in insects, animals, plants, flowers, and others. Animals mainly have bilateral or
vertical symmetry, even leaves of plants and some flowers such as orchids.

➢ Radial symmetry (or rotational symmetry) is a type of symmetry around a fixed point known as
the center and it can be classified as either cyclic or dihedral. Plants often have radial or
rotational symmetry, as to flowers and some groups of animals. A five-fold symmetry is found in
the echinoderms, the group which includes starfish (dihedral-D5 symmetry), sea urchins, and
sea lilies (dihedral-D5 symmetry). Radial symmetry suits organisms like sea anemones whose
adults do not move and jellyfish (dihedral-D4 symmetry).

Fractal - curve or geometric figure, each part of which has the same statistical character as the whole. It
is a class of highly irregular shapes that are related to continents, coastlines, and snowflakes. It is use to
model structures in which similar patterns recur at progressively smaller scales, and in describing partly
random or chaotic phenomena such as crystal growth, fluid turbulence, and galaxy formation. Fractals
can be seen in some plants, trees, leaves, and others.

Logarithmic spiral (or growth spiral) - is a self-similar spiral curve which often appears in nature. It was
first described by Rene Descartes and was later investigated by Jacob Bernoulli. Spirals are more evident
in plants. Spirals can also be seen in typhoon, whirlpool, galaxy, tail of chameleon, and shell among
others.

BEHAVIOR OF NATURE

Behavior of nature can be observed around us. Natural regularities of nature:

Symmetry Fractals Spirals

Trees Meanders Waves
Foams Tessellations Cracks
Stripes Spots
 Golden ratio can be found in the beauty of nature, the growth patterns of many plants, insects,
and the universe.

➢ Honeycombs of the bees show specific regular repeating hexagons. It uses the least
amount of wax to store the honey giving a strong structure with no gaps.

➢ Zebra’s coat, the alternating pattern of blacks and white are due to mathematical rules
that govern the pigmentation chemicals of its skin.

➢ Spider webs illustrates a beautiful pattern. The spider creates a structure by performing
innate steps.

➢ The nautilus shell has natural pattern which contains a spiral shape called logarithmic
spiral.

➢ Age of the trees can be determined by applying dendrochronology which is a scientific

method of dating based on the amount of rings found in the core of a tree.

➢ Turtles have growth rings called “scutes” which are hexagonal. Scutes estimates the age
of the turtle. Smallest scute is in the center and is the oldest one, while the largest ones
on the outside are the newer ones.

➢ Lightning during storms creates fractals.

➢ Foam bubbles formed by trapping pockets of gas in a liquid or solid.

➢ Cracks can also be found on the barks of trees which show some sort of weakness in the
bark.

➢ The meander is one of a series of regular sinuous curves, bends, loops, turns, or
windings in the channel of the body of water.

➢ Hurricanes rotates, the enormous cloud bands form golden spiral

➢ Galaxies form the same way as the golden spiral.

➢ The waves of the sea also move in a golden spiral and even the fluid dynamics create
golden spiral.
APPLICATION OF MATHEMATICS

Application of Calculus

❖ In forensic, clarity the blurred image to clear image.

❖ Optimization (maximize or minimize) surface areas, volumes, profit and cost analysis, projectile
motion, etc.

Mathematical Modelling

❖ In medical field, drugs are designed to change the shape or motions of a protein by modelling using
geometry and related areas.

❖ Development of medicine to cure diseases.

Engineering

❖ Numerical analysis: heat, electricity, and magnetism, relativistic mechanics, quantum mechanics, and
other theoretical constructs.

Information technology

❖ Computers are invented thru mathematics.

❖ Computer science development includes mathematical principles.

❖ Google use linear algebra to quantify “relevance” with the help of mathematics.

❖ Facebook uses graph theory to create links between individuals.

Cryptography

❖ Computer security on ATM cards, computer passwords and electronic commerce.

Archaeology

❖ Surveys and try to find patterns to shed light on past human behavior.

❖ and in carbon dating artifacts.

Social Sciences

❖ Mathematical modelling on economics, sociology, psychology, and linguistics.

Political Science

❖ Political analysts study voting patterns and the influence of various factors on voting behavior.

Music and Arts

❖ Musical structure

❖ Gothic Architecture

❖ Egyptian Pyramids