University of Pretoria etd, Coetzer C E (2006)

THE IMPACT OF THE EMERGING MANAGEMENT

DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME ON THE
KNOWLEDGE OF LEARNERS

MRS. CE COETZER
9808443-8
M.COM (BUSINESS MANAGEMENT)
 University of Pretoria etd, Coetzer C E (2006)

THE IMPACT OF THE

EMERGING MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
ON THE KNOWLEDGE OF LEARNERS

by

CATHERINA ELIZABETH COETZER

submitted on fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

M. COM (BUSINESS MANAGEMENT)

in the

FACULTY OF ECONOMIC AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA

STUDY LEADERS: MRS. R MARITZ & DR. M PRETORIUS

February 2006

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

When attempting an ambitious project such as a Master’s degree, one realises that you will
need some support. However, it is not until you are busy with the project that you realise
exactly how much support you need. I would like to thank the following people for their
contributions in making this dream a reality:

• Mrs. Rachel Maritz and Dr. Marius Pretorius for their assistance, guidance, patience and
help throughout;

• Ms. Jacqui Sommerville and Ms. Loina Bodenstein for their assistance with the capturing
and processing of the statistics;

• My husband, who supported and motivated me throughout;

• My father – a special thanks for his assistance with the proof reading;

• My family – father, mother, sisters and in-laws – for their interest and encouragement;

• My friends, family and colleagues at SAMDI who were always there to support me; and

• Lastly, but most importantly, my Heavenly Father, for the grace to be afforded an
opportunity like this.

Without them I would not have been in a position to complete this thesis – I really appreciate
everything they did to assist me in this regard!

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By
CE Coetzer

Degree: M. Com (Business Management)

Department: Business Management
Study leaders: Mrs. R Maritz & Dr. M Pretorius

ABSTRACT

The South African Management Development Institute (SAMDI) is a Schedule 1 department

with the mandate for capacity building in the public service. One of its core programmes is
the Integrated Management Development Programme, which consists of the following
programmes:

• Foundation Management Development Programme (FMDP) for first level supervisors;

• Emerging Management Development Programme (EMDP) for junior managers;
• Advanced Management Development Programme (AMDP) for middle managers; and the
• Presidential Strategic Leadership Development Programme (PSLDP) for senior executives.

All these programmes have been based on solid training needs analyses, competency
frameworks and cutting edge research. However, these programmes will only have an
impact on service delivery if it succeeds in transferring knowledge to delegates attending it.
This study will focus specifically on the EMDP, and subsequently the research question for this
project is: ”Is there an increase in the knowledge of delegates that attended the EMDP?”

After the analysis of the statistics it became clear that the null-hypothesis (H0 = there is no
increase in the knowledge of delegates that attended the EMDP) should be accepted, as no
significant differences between the pre- and post-course results could be found.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page:

1 OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 11

1.1 INTRODUCTION 12
1.2 BACKGROUND 13
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT 14
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 15
1.5 IMPORTANCE / BENEFIT OF THE STUDY 15

2 OVERVIEW OF MANAGEMENT & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 16

2.1 INTRODUCTION 17
2.2 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF MANAGERS 18
2.3 THE NEED FOR MANAGEMENT & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 20
2.4 THE ROLE OF KNOWLEDGE IN MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT 24
2.5 TRENDS IN MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT METHODOLOGIES 25
2.5.1 Past 26
2.5.2 Present 29
2.5.3 Future 33
2.5.4 Third Generation Leadership Development 37
2.6 TRENDS IN MANAGEMENT & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT CURRICULA 40
2.6.1 Philosophy of Leadership Development 41
2.6.2 Emotional Intelligence in Leadership Development 41
2.6.3 The Servant Leader 43
2.6.4 Leadership as a Relationship 44
2.6.5 Competency Modelling 45
2.6.6 Embedding Learning in the Job 46
2.6.7 Global Leadership 50
2.7 DEVELOPING NEW YOUNG MANAGERS (NYMS) 53
2.7.1 Background to NYMs 53
2.7.2 Reasons for Classifying NYMs as a Unique Group 54
2.7.2.1 Unique Challenges NYMs face 54
2.7.2.2 NYMs’ Expectations of Employers 57
2.7.3 How to Develop NYMs 58

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2.7.4 Topics to be Covered in NYM Programmes 62

2.7.5 Improving Return on Investment on NYM programmes 66
2.8 EVALUATING MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 67
2.9 CONCLUSION 69

3 MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN THE SOUTH

AFRICAN PUBLIC SERVICE 71

3.1 INTRODUCTION 72
3.2 THE SOUTH AFRICAN MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE 73
3.2.1 History 73
3.2.2 Mandate 74
3.3 COMPETENCY FRAMEWORKS & DEFINITION OF CONSTRUCTS 75
3.3.1 Introduction to Competency Frameworks 76
3.3.2 Competency Framework for the Senior Management Services 76
3.3.3 Middle Management Competency Frameworks 78
3.3.3.1 Feeder Competencies 79
3.3.3.2 Generic Competencies 80
3.3.3.3 Specialist Competencies 82
3.3.3.4 Unique Competencies 82
3.3.3.5 Proficiency Levels 83
3.3.4 Comparing the Middle Management and Senior Management
Services Competency Frameworks 83
3.3.5 Construct Definition 84
3.4 THE INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT MODEL & PROGRAMME 85
3.4.1 The Integrated Management Development Model (IMD-Model) 85
3.4.1.1 Purpose of the IMD-Model 85
3.4.1.2 Scope of the IMD-Model 86
3.4.1.3 Target Group 87
3.4.2 The Integrated Management Development Programme (IMDP) 87
3.4.2.1 Background 87
3.4.2.2 Competency Frameworks and the IMDP 88
3.4.2.3 Consultations 89
3.4.2.4 Training Needs Analysis 90
3.4.2.5 Literature Review 91
3.4.2.6 Structure of the IMDP 92
3.4.2.7 Building Blocks 92
3.4.2.8 Systematic and Structured Recognition 93

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4 HYPOTHESES & RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 95

4.1 INTRODUCTION 96
4.2 HYPOTHESES 97
4.3 METHODOLOGY 97
4.3.1 Design of the Study 97
4.3.2 Population and Sample 98
4.3.3 Key Methods of Analysis 99
4.3.4 Data Collection Instrument 101
4.3.5 Data Collection Method 102
4.3.6 Data Processing 102

5 FINDINGS 106

5.1 INTRODUCTION 107

5.2 FINDINGS 108
5.2.1 Interpersonal Communication (Variable 13) 118
5.2.2 Strategies for Improving Creativity (Variable 25) 121
5.2.3 Management Styles (Variable 29) 122

6 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS 124

6.1 INTRODUCTION 125

6.2 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 126
6.2.1 Interpersonal Communication (Variable 13) 126
6.2.2 Strategies for Improving Creativity (Variable 25) 127
6.2.3 Management Styles (Variable 29) 127
6.3 CONCLUSIONS 128
6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS 129
6.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 131

LIST OF REFERENCES 132

ANNEXURE A: LIST OF SAMDI COURSES 138

ANNEXURE B: EXAMPLE OF PRE-COURSE QUESTIONNAIRE 140

ANNEXURE C: EXAMPLE OF POST-COURSE QUESTIONNAIRE 143

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LIST OF TABLES

Page:

CHAPTER 2

2.1 Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles 19

2.2 Top Five Delivery Methods for Soft Skills Preferred by Employees on Different
Organisation Levels 61
2.3 Management Development Programmes for New Young Managers 63
2.4 Top Five Soft Skills Required by Employees per Organisation Level 65
2.5 Top Five Hard/Technical Skills Required by Employees per Organisation Level 66

CHAPTER 3

3.1 Senior Management Service (SMS) Competencies and Definitions 77

3.2 Feeder Competencies and Definitions 79
3.3 Generic Competencies and Definitions 80
3.4 Comparison of Feeder, Generic and SMS Competencies 83
3.5 Links between Integrated Management Development Training Programmes and
Competency Frameworks 88
3.6 Summary of Integrated Management Development Programmes’ Accreditation
and Recognition 93

CHAPTER 4

4.1 Recommended Statistical Techniques by Measurement Level and Testing

Situation 100
4.2 Relationship Between Competencies from Different Frameworks (and modules of
the respective programmes in which they are covered) and the Questions
Contained in the Survey 101
4.3 Examples of Statements 102
4.4 Mark Allocations for the Different Ratings 103
4.5 Frequencies of Different Pre-Course Ratings per Item 103
4.6 Frequencies of Different Post-Course Ratings per Item 104

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CHAPTER 5

5.1 Respondents’ Overall Race Distribution 108

5.2 Respondents’ Overall Gender Distribution 108
5.3 Respondents’ Distribution between National and Provincial Departments 108
5.4 Length of Respondents’ Employment in the Public Service 108
5.5 Distribution of Respondents’ Highest Qualification 109
5.6 Distribution of Formal Qualifications (National Certificate or higher) in the
Field of Public Management / Administration 109
5.7 Items where No Significant Changes Occurred between Pre- and Post-Course
Testing 110
5.8 Items where Significant Differences between Pre- and Post-Course Testing
Did Occur 113
5.9 Difference between Pre- and Post-Course Means of Groups with Different Years
of Experience in terms of Interpersonal Communication 118
5.10 Comparison of Differences between Means of Groups with Different Years of
Experience in terms of Interpersonal Communication 119
5.11 Difference between Means of Groups with Different Levels of Formal Training in
the Field of Public Administration / Management in terms of
Interpersonal Communication 119
5.12 Comparison of Differences between Means of Groups With and Without Formal
Training in the Field of Public Administration / Management in terms of the
Interpersonal communication 120
5.13 Differences between Means of Groups with Different Levels of Qualifications in
terms of Strategies for Improving Creativity 121
5.14 Comparison of Differences between Means of Groups with Different Levels of
Qualifications in terms of Strategies for Improving Creativity 121
5.15 Differences between Means of Groups with Different Levels of Qualifications in
terms of Management Style 122
5.16 Comparison of Differences between Means of Groups with Different Levels of
Qualifications in terms of Management Style 123

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LIST OF FIGURES

Page:

CHAPTER 1

1.1 Graphical Illustration of Relationship between Competence, Skills and

Knowledge 15

CHAPTER 2

2.1 Sources of Training 24

2.2 Experienced Reflection 40

CHAPTER 3

3.1 Integrated Management Development Model (IMD-Model) 86

3.2 Integrated Management Development Programme (IMDP) 92

CHAPTER 5

5.1 Graphic Illustration of Comparison of Pre- and Post-Course Means of Groups

with Different Years of Experience in terms of the Interpersonal
Communication 118
5.2 Graphic Illustration of Comparison of Pre- and Post-Course Means of Groups
With and Without Formal Qualifications in the Field of Public Management and
Administration in terms of Interpersonal Communication 120
5.3 Graphic Illustration of Comparison of Pre- and Post-Course Means of Groups
with Different Levels of Qualifications in terms of Strategies for Improving
Creativity 121
5.4 Graphic Illustration of Comparison of Pre- and Post-Course Means of Groups
with Different Levels of Qualifications in terms of Management Style 122

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CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY

Overview of the Study

(Chapter 1)

Overview of Management and

Leadership Development
(Chapter 2)

Management and Leadership

Development in the South
African Public Service
(Chapter 3)

Hypotheses and Research

Methodology
(Chapter 4)

Findings
(Chapter 5)

Discussion, Conclusions and

Recommendations
(Chapter 6)

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1.1 INTRODUCTION

The chapter provides a bird’s eye view of the study – a brief background, the problem
statement, research objectives and lastly the importance or benefit of this study.

CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Background

1.3 Problem Statement

1.4 Research Objectives

1.5 Importance / Benefit of the Study

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1.2 BACKGROUND

The South African Management Development Institute (SAMDI) is a Schedule 1 Government

department that was established as such in October 1999. It has the mandate for training
and development in the public sector, i.e. national, provincial and local government. At the
moment SAMDI focuses its operations on the former two spheres of government.

SAMDI has recently introduced the Integrated Management Development Programme

(IMDP), which provides management training to managers on all levels, i.e.:

• The Presidential Strategic Leadership Development Programme (PSLDP) for senior

managers on salary levels 13-16;
• The Advanced Management Development Programme (AMDP) for middle managers on
salary levels 9-12;
• The Emerging Management Development Programme (EMDP) for junior managers on
salary levels 6-8; and
• The Foundation Management Development Programme (FMDP), for first line supervisors
on salary levels 3-5.

The IMDP provides for systematic and structured recognition, which leads to formal
qualifications. It is based on the competency frameworks developed by the Department for
Public Service and Administration (DPSA).

DPSA has developed two competency frameworks, i.e. the Senior Management Service (SMS)
Competency Framework with eleven competencies, and the Middle Management Competency
Framework (MMCF) with ten feeder and fifteen generic competencies. Feeder competencies
(Middle Management Competency Framework 2003:3) can be defined as those middle
management competencies that all employees entering the middle management ranks must
possess or be able to demonstrate (entry level competencies), whilst generic competencies
are those competencies that are required by middle managers in most of their duties and
activities throughout the public service (Middle Management Competency Framework
2003:3).

The implementation of the IMDP commenced in May 2003, when a nationwide training needs
analysis among middle and emerging managers was undertaken. The PSLDP for senior
managers was developed in 2000, and since comprehensive focus group sessions were held
at the time, senior managers were not included in the 2003 training needs analysis. Based
on the needs identified, the competency frameworks mentioned earlier, and the Integrated

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Management Development Model, the course content for the EMDP and AMDP were
determined. Course material was developed and subsequently evaluated by SAMDI’s
Curriculum Review Committee, and eventually the first courses were presented at the end of
September 2003.

1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Since there is general agreement that training should not only be conducted merely for the
sake of training, but rather for impact and improved service delivery, the question that needs
to be answered is:

”Is there an increase in the knowledge of delegates that attended the EMDP?”

This study attempts to provide an answer to this question.

At this point it is prudent that a definition for knowledge be determined. A clear distinction
between knowledge and other related terms, such as skills and competence should also be
made. Competence can be defined as the specification of knowledge and skill, and the
application of that knowledge and skill to the standard of performance required in
employment (Northeastern Illinois University, n.d.). It can also be described as the ability to
apply appropriate skills and knowledge for the effective and efficient completion of a job or
task in a variety of situations (Minesafe, n.d.). From these definitions it is clear that
competence has at least two facets, i.e. skill and knowledge.

The term skills refers to the ability to use knowledge effectively and readily in the
performance of a task (Memorial University of Newfoundland, n.d.). It can also be defined as
a great ability of proficiency – expertness that comes from training, practice, etcetera, (Forest
Discovery Guide, n.d.) or the practical ability to apply theoretical knowledge to particular
situations (Minesafe, n.d.). From this definition it is clear that knowledge is a facet of skills,
which can be defined as the ability to obtain and retain theoretical information relating to a
specific subject and being able to research further information. According to Stair and
Reynolds (1998:5) knowledge can be defined as the body of rules, guidelines and procedures
used to select, organise and manipulate data to make it suitable for a specific task.
Knowledge is demonstrated by the following activities (Orient InfoSolutions, n.d.):

• Observation and recall of information;

• Knowledge of dates, events and places;
• Knowledge of major ideas; and

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• Mastery of subject matter.

The relationship between competence, skills and knowledge are graphically depicted below:

Competence
- the application of that
knowledge and skill to the
standard of performance
required in employment
Competence
Skills
- practical ability to apply
theoretical knowledge to
particular situations

Skills
Knowledge
- the ability to obtain and
retain theoretical information
relating to a specific subject
Knowledge
Figure 1.1: Graphical illustration of relationship between competence, skills and
knowledge

This study therefore attempts to measure the ability of the learners attending the EMDP to
obtain and retain theoretical information relating to management.

1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study is to determine whether the knowledge levels of delegates that
attended the EMDP have increased. The essence of training is the transfer of knowledge and
skills, and therefore this study will attempt to justify the existence of the mentioned training
programme or to identify weaknesses in the training programme. The findings of this study
will assist SAMDI in determining the future of the EMDP.

1.5 IMPORTANCE / BENEFIT OF THE STUDY

The study will indicate whether the Emerging Management Development Programme
succeeds or fails in increasing the knowledge of the delegates that attend the programme.
This will put SAMDI in a position to determine steps with regard to the future rollout of the
EMDP.

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CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW OF MANAGEMENT & LEADERSHIP

DEVELOPMENT

Overview of the Study

(Chapter 1)

Overview of Management and

Leadership Development
(Chapter 2)

Management and Leadership

Development in the South
African Public Service
(Chapter 3)

Hypotheses and Research

Methodology
(Chapter 4)

Findings
(Chapter 5)

Discussion, Conclusions and

Recommendations
(Chapter 6)

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2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter aims to provide background regarding the field of management and leadership
development. Specific attention is devoted towards the roles and responsibilities of
managers, as well as the need for management and leadership development.

CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW OF MANAGEMENT &

LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Roles & Responsibilities of

Managers

2.3 The Need for

Management & Leadership
Development
2.5 Trends in Management &
Leadership Development
Methodologies

2.4 The Role of Knowledge in

Management Development 2.6 Trends in Management &
Leadership Development
Curricula

2.7 Developing New Young Managers (NYMs)

2.8 Evaluating Management & Leadership Development

2.9 Conclusion

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2.2 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF MANAGERS

Before management development can be discussed, it is necessary to have an understanding

of the roles managers play. According to Robbins (2001:2), management functions include
the following:

• Planning: encompasses defining an organisation’s goals, establishing an overall strategy

for achieving those goals and developing a comprehensive hierarchy of plans to integrate
and coordinate activities.
• Organising: designing an organisation’s structure. It includes the determination of which
tasks are to be done, who is to do them, how the tasks are grouped, who reports to
whom, and where decisions are to be made.
• Leading: directing and coordinating the organisation’s people. When managers motivate
employees, direct the activities of others, select the most effective communication
channels, or resolve conflicts among members, they are engaging in leading.
• Controlling: ensuring that things are going as they should. Actual performance must be
compared with previously set goals. If there are any significant deviations, it is
management’s job to get the organisation back on track.

Given these functions that managers perform, it is interesting to study the roles managers
play in their day-to-day activities. In the late 1960s, Henry Mintzberg, a graduate student,
undertook a careful study of five executives to determine what these managers did on their
jobs. On the basis of his observations of these managers, Mintzberg concluded that
managers perform ten different, highly interrelated roles, or sets of behaviours attributable to
their jobs. These roles can be grouped as follows (Robbins 2001:4):

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Table 2.1: Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles (Robbins 2001:4)

Role Description Example
Interpersonal roles
Figurehead Is symbolic head, required to perform Handles ceremonies, status requests,
a number of routine duties of a legal solicitations.
or social nature.
Leader Is responsible for the motivation and Performs virtually all managerial
direction of subordinates. activities involving subordinates.
Liaison Maintains a network of outside Acknowledges mail, external board work.
contacts who provide favours and
information.
Informational roles
Monitor Receives wide variety of information, Handles all mail and contacts categorised
serves as nerve centre of internal and as concerned primarily with receiving
external information of the information.
organisation.
Disseminator Transmits information received from Forwards mail into organisation for
outsiders or from other subordinates informational purposes, makes verbal
to members of the organisation. contacts involving information flow to
subordinates such as review sessions.
Spokesperson Transmits information to outsiders on Attends board meetings, handles
organisation’s plans, policies, actions, contacts involving transmission of
and results, serves as expert on information to outsiders.
organisation’s industry.
Decisional roles
Entrepreneur Searches organisation and its Holds strategy and review sessions
environment for opportunities and involving initiation or design of
initiates projects to bring about improvement projects.
change.
Disturbance handler Is responsible for corrective action Holds strategy and review sessions
when organisation faces important, involving disturbances and crises.
unexpected disturbances.
Resource allocator Makes or approves significant Handles scheduling, requests for
organisational decisions. authorisation, budgeting, the
programming of subordinates’ work.
Negotiator Is responsible for representing the Handles contract negotiation.
organisation at major negotiations.

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In order to play the managerial roles set out above, certain skills are required. These skills
can be clustered as follows (Robbins 2001:4):

• Technical skills: These skills encompass the ability to apply specialised knowledge or
expertise. When one thinks of the skills held by professionals such as civil engineers or
oral surgeons, the focus is typically on their technical skills. Through extensive formal
education, they have learned the special knowledge and practices of their field. Of
course, professionals do not have a monopoly on technical skills, and not all technical
skills have to be learned in schools or formal training programmes. All jobs require some
specialised expertise, and many people develop their technical skills on the job.
• Human skills: The ability to work with, understand, and motivate other people, both
individually and in groups, describes human skills. Many people are technically proficient
but interpersonally incompetent. They might be poor listeners, unable to understand the
needs of others, or have difficulty managing conflicts. Since managers get things done
through other people, they must have good human skills to communicate, motivate and
delegate.
• Conceptual skills: Managers must have the mental ability to analyse and diagnose
complex situations. These tasks require conceptual skills. Decision-making, for instance,
requires managers to spot problems, identify alternatives that can correct them, evaluate
those alternatives, and select the best one. Managers can be technically and
interpersonally competent, yet still fail because of an inability to rationally process and
interpret information.

A typical management development programme, such as the Emerging Management

Development Programme, should therefore build skills on these three levels in order to equip
managers to fulfil their roles successfully.

2.3 THE NEED FOR MANAGEMENT & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

The Centre for Creative Leadership (CCL) defines leadership development as follows
(McCauley, Moxley & Van Velsor, 2003):

“Leadership development is the expansion of a person’s capacity to be effective in leadership

roles or processes, enabling people to work together in productive and meaningful ways.”

From this definition it is clear that leadership development is not only about people learning
and developing themselves, but others also. According to Gale (2002), companies that have
a network of leaders throughout the organisation are the ones most likely to thrive.
Employees who are given the opportunity to develop leadership skills are more inclined to

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take responsibility and feel pride in their work. When they are empowered to make decisions
and be accountable for their actions, potential leaders take ownership in the success of the
company, and often become superior performers.

However, few people have all the skills discussed earlier, and it is therefore necessary that
managerial skills and competence be developed continuously. At this point it is important to
clarify the difference between training and development. Training is the process of providing
employees with specific skills or helping them correct deficiencies in their performance.
Development is an effort to provide employees with the abilities the organisation will need in
the future (Gómez-Mejía, Balkin & Cardy 2001:260).

According to Mondy, Noe & Premeaux (1999:274), a firm’s future lies largely in the hands of
its managers. This group performs certain functions that are essential to the organisation’s
survival and prosperity. Managers must make the right choice in most of the numerous
decisions they make. Otherwise, the firm will not grow and may even fail. Will Pilder, senior
vice president of KnowledgePool Americas, a talent management company in New York, adds
the following (Gale, 2002):

“Offering leadership training is not just a feel-good issue, it is a critical business strategy.
Everyone benefits from leadership development – it prompts employees to work harder for the
company and set more challenging career-development goals; it teaches managers to be better
coaches to their own direct reports; and it prepares the entire population to react more
effectively to a shifting workplace environment. Leadership at every level is the only way to
infuse an organisation with the values and morale to maintain productivity, even in the face of
change. It is also the most effective succession planning technique. No longer can you groom
one individual for a specific job; you must have a pool of talented people who can assume any
leadership role when the need arises. When companies downsize or management positions
open, companies must have the skills and in-house experience to respond to the change
immediately.”

Therefore, it is imperative that managers keep up with the latest developments in their
respective fields and – at the same time – manage an ever-changing workforce operating in a
dynamic environment. Mondy et al. (1999:274) are of the opinion that management
development can be described as learning experiences provided by an organisation for the
purpose of upgrading skills and knowledge required in current and future managerial
positions. Whereas critical knowledge and skills are provided by organisations in
development programmes, the process also requires personal commitment of the individual
manager. In fact, taking responsibility for one’s own development may be the most
important aspect. Hill (2001:573) agrees that management development is a very broad
concept. It is intended to develop the manager’s skills over his/her career with the firm.
Thus, as part of a management development programme, a manager might be sent on

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several foreign postings over a number of years to build cross-cultural sensitivity and
experience. At the same time, along with other managers in the firm, the manager might
attend management education programmes at regular intervals. Hill also indicates that
historically most international businesses have been more concerned with training than with
management development. Recently, however, the shift toward greater global competition
and the rise of trans-national firms have changed this. It is increasingly common for firms to
provide general management development programmes in addition to training for particular
posts. In many international businesses, the explicit purpose of these management
development programmes is strategic. Management development is seen as a tool to help
the firm achieve its strategic goals.

Management development programmes are designed to increase the overall skill levels of
managers through a mix of ongoing management education and rotation of managers
through a number of jobs within the firm to give them varied experiences. They are attempts
to improve the overall productivity and quality of the firm’s management resources. Further
to this, they help build a unifying corporate culture by socialising new managers into the
norms and value systems of the firm. In-house company training programmes and intense
interaction during off-site training can foster esprit de corps, i.e. shared experiences, informal
networks, perhaps a company language or jargon, as well as develop technical competencies
(Hill 2001:575).

First line supervisors, middle managers and executives may all be expected to participate in
management development programmes. These programmes are offered in-house, by
professional organisations, and colleges and universities. In-house programmes are often
planned and presented by a firm’s training and development specialists in conjunction with
line managers. Professional organisations, such as the Society for Human Resource
Management and the American Management Association, conduct conferences and seminars
in a number of specialities. Numerous colleges and universities also provide management
training and development programmes. At times, colleges and universities possess expertise
not available within business organisations. In some cases, academicians and management
practitioners can advantageously present training and development programmes jointly. One
survey revealed the most frequently mentioned reasons for conducting management training
outside the company, include (Mondy et al. 1999:274):

• An outside perspective;
• New viewpoints;
• Possibility of taking executives out of the work environment;
• Exposure to faculty experts and research; and

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• A broader vision.

The most frequently mentioned reasons for keeping management training inside the
company, include (Mondy et al. 1999:274):

• Training that is more specific to needs;

• Lower costs;
• Less time;
• Consistent, relevant material;
• More control of content and faculty; and
• Development of organisational culture and teamwork.

Basically, companies have various training and development options. A survey of

organisations with hundred or more employees revealed numerous types of training currently
being used. Basic computer skills were the most popular type of training, offered by 88% of
the organisations responding to the survey. This was followed by technical skills/knowledge
(85%), and management skills/development (84%) (Mondy et al. 1999:275).

Mondy et al. (1999:278) indicate that a perfectly conceived training programme can fail if
management cannot convince participants of its merits. Participants must believe that the
programme has value and will help them achieve their personal and professional goals. The
credibility of training and development programmes may depend on a series of successful
programmes.

Implementing training and development programmes is often difficult. One reason is that
managers are typically action oriented and feel that they are too busy for training and
development. According to one management development executive, most busy executives
are too involved in chopping down the proverbial tree to stop for the purpose of sharpening
their axes. Another difficulty in programme implementation is that qualified trainers must be
available. In addition to possessing communication skills, the trainers must know the
company’s philosophy, its objectives, its formal and informal organisation, and the goals of
the training programme. Training and development requires more creativity than perhaps
any other human resource function (Mondy et al. 1999:278).

According to Paul Froland (in Mondy et al. 1999:279), the sources of training can be
categorised as in-house, outside providers, and a combination of the two. A study conducted
in 1996 indicated that the majority of training is presented by a combination of in-house
trainers and outside suppliers. This is graphically depicted in Figure 2.1.

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Sources of training

74
80 68 69
70
60
Percentage

50
40 26
30 17 20
20 11 10
6
10
0
% provided in- % provided by % provided by both
house outside suppliers

First line supervisors Middle managers Senior managers

Figure 2.1: Sources of training (Froland in Mondy et al. 1999:279)

When management and leadership interventions are conducted, these interventions should
focus on two distinct levels, i.e. the knowledge level as well as the skills level. The next
section will focus on the role of knowledge in management development.

2.4 THE ROLE OF KNOWLEDGE IN MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT

Since this study is focusing on the increase in the knowledge of the learners that attended
the Emerging Management Development Programme, it is necessary to discuss the concept
of knowledge and the role thereof in management development, in more detail.

As previously indicated, knowledge can be defined as the ability to obtain and retain
theoretical information relating to a specific subject and being able to research further
information (Forest Discovery Guide, n.d.). According to Stair and Reynolds (1998:5)
knowledge can be defined as the body of rules, guidelines and procedures used to select,
organise and manipulate data to make it suitable for a specific task. The Wikipedia
Encyclopaedia (2006) defines knowledge as the confident understanding of a subject,
potentially with the ability to use it for a specific purpose. It can also be described as
information that has a use or purpose – whereas information can be placed onto a computer,
knowledge exists in the heads of people. It is information to which intent has been attached
(Bambooweb, 2002). Knowledge, according to most thinkers, must follow three defining
criteria: it must be justified, true and believed. However, meeting these qualifications may
be difficult or impossible. Therefore it is also common to weigh knowledge in how it can be

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applied or used. In this sense, knowledge consists of information augmented by

intentionality (or direction). This model places data, information, knowledge and wisdom into
an increasingly useful pyramid (Wikipedia, 2006).

According to Fleming (in Bellinger, 2004) a collection of data is not information. A collection
of information is not knowledge, a collection of knowledge is not wisdom, and a collection of
wisdom is not truth. The idea is that information, knowledge and wisdom are more than
simply collections. Rather, the whole represents more than the sum of its parts and has a
synergy of its own. When a pattern relation exists amidst the data and information, the
pattern has the potential to represent knowledge. It only becomes knowledge, however,
when one is able to realise and understand the patterns and their implications. The patterns
representing knowledge have a tendency to be more self-contextualising. That is, the pattern
tends, to a great extent, to create its own context rather than being context dependent to the
same extent that information is. A pattern which represents knowledge also provides, when
the pattern is understood, a high level of reliability or predictability as to how the pattern will
evolve over time, for patterns are seldom static. Patterns which represent knowledge have a
completeness to them that information simply does not contain. In summary the concepts
can therefore be defined as follows (Fleming in Bellinger, 2004):

• Information relates to description, definition or perspective (what, who, when, where);

• Knowledge comprises strategy, practice, method or approach (how); and
• Wisdom embodies principle, insight, moral or archetype (why).

From these definitions it becomes clear that knowledge is information that has been
organised and processed in order to identify the patterns which will ultimately serve a
purpose. In this study the EMDP-delegates’ knowledge in terms of the management field will
be evaluated before and after they have attended the training programme to determine
whether they were able to process the information presented to them in class in such a way
that becomes useful knowledge.

2.5 TRENDS IN MANAGEMENT & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT METHODOLOGIES

A magazine entitled Human Resource Planning (HRP) recently published an article which
reviews past, present and future trends in leadership development. Interestingly, the authors
noted that a decade has passed before HRP first published an article with the word
“leadership” in its title. What is even more interesting is that leadership development is now
one of HRP’s five key knowledge areas. An overview of the trends in leadership development
will now be discussed.

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2.5.1 THE PAST

Historically, leadership development has been limited to the executive team and the few up-
and-coming people who were groomed to replace them. That worked well in an economy
where the core business strategy could go unchanged for years and a stable corporate
culture was the mainstay of success, but this strategic model is no longer viable. At that time
employees were given leadership titles and were expected to figure out how to handle their
new roles, but were not trained effectively. Not surprisingly, they often floundered. The title
“leader” in many organisations was met with scorn when the person assigned to the role had
no idea how to behave in the new position (Gale, 2002).

The last two decades have witnessed something of an explosion of interest in leadership
development in organisations. Some of the most noteworthy issues and trends in the field of
leadership development in the past twenty years fall under these two general headings
(Hernez-Broome & Hughes 2004:25):

• The proliferation of leadership development methods

The proliferation of leadership development methods refer to the increasing use and
recognition of the potency of a variety of developmental experiences. Classroom-type
leadership training – for long the primary formal development mode – is now
complemented (or even supplanted) by activities as diverse as high ropes courses or
reflective journaling. Classroom training should not be the only part of a leadership
development initiative, and may be the least critical. While training may even be a
necessary element of leadership development, developmental experiences are likely to
have the greatest impact when they can be linked to or embedded in a person’s ongoing
work and when they are an integrated set of experiences. Activities like coaching,
mentoring, action learning and 360-degree feedback are increasingly key elements of
leadership development initiatives (Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:25).

Developmental relationships primarily take two forms, i.e. coaching and mentoring.
Coaching involves practical, goal-focused forms of one-on-one learning and, ideally,
behavioural change (Hall, 1999, in Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:25). It can be a short-
term intervention intended to develop specific leadership skills or a more extensive
process involving a series of meetings over time. Mentoring is typically defined as a
committed, long-term relationship in which a senior person supports the personal and
professional development of a junior person. It may be a formal programme or a much
more informal process. Realising the value of mentoring, organisations are increasingly

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looking at ways to formalise these types of relationships as part of their leadership

development efforts (Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:25).

Action learning is a set of organisation development practices in which important real-

time organisational problems are tackled. Three kinds of objectives are set: delivering
measurable organisational results, communicating what has been learnt specific to a
particular context, and developing more general leadership skills and capabilities (Palus &
Horth, 2004, in Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:25). Effective action learning may range
from tacit, unfacilitated learning at work to focused and high-impact learning projects to
transformation of people and organisations (Marsick, 2002, in Hernez-Broom & Hughes
2004:25).

Challenging job assignments are a potent form of leadership development and provide
many of the developmental opportunities in organisations today. The level of
organisational involvement in making job assignments part of the leadership development
process runs the gamut from simply providing people with information about
developmental opportunities in their current job to a systematic programme of job
rotation. Using job assignments for developmental purposes provides benefits that go
beyond getting the job done and may even result in competitive advantages for the
organisation (Ohlott, 2004, in Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:25).

According to the Centre for Creative Leadership’s model, the developmental process has
three key drivers in leadership development, i.e. assessment, challenge and support.
Each underpins the development experience, and leadership development is most
effective when all three elements are present. The development process requires a
variety of developmental experiences, coupled with the ability to learn, together creating
the capabilities for developing leadership. Assessment comprises data capturing,
predominantly from feedback methods, which provides a benchmark identifying an
individual’s strengths, weaknesses and developmental needs. Challenges mean taking
people out of their comfort zones by facing them with new and testing experiences,
developing new capacities in the process. Support through the development process
provides the individual with the motivation and belief that they can learn, grow and
change (McCauley, Moxley & Van Velsor, 2003).

One developmental method that has been very pervasive, is the use of 360-degree
feedback to assess leadership competencies. Chappelow (2004, in Hernez-Broom &
Hughes 2004:25) recently noted that perhaps the most remarkable trend in the field of

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leader development over the past twenty years has been the popularity and growth of
360-degree feedback.

Another kind of leadership development method gaining popularity during the past
twenty years has involved teams (Ginnett, 1990, in Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:26).
The prevalence and importance of teams in organisations today, and the unique
challenges of leading teams, make it easy to forget that teams were not always so
pervasive a part of organisational lives. During his doctoral work in organisational
behaviour at Yale about twenty years ago, Robert Ginnett would tell others about his
special interest in the leadership of teams. Routinely, he says, they would assume he
must be an athletic coach: “who else”, they would say, “would be interested in teams?”
(Ginnett, 1990, in Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:26).

• The importance of a leader’s emotional resonance with and impact on others

Twenty years ago, leadership in organisations was dominated by the classic two-factor
approach, focusing on task and relationship behaviours. That general approach can be
characterised as transactional in nature, as distinguished from a qualitatively different
approach, often described as transformational (Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:26).

Transactional leadership is characterised by mutually beneficial exchanges between

parties to optimise mutual benefit, including the accomplishment of necessary
organisational tasks. The exchange-model nature of transactional leadership tends to
produce predictable and somewhat short-lived outcomes. Transformational leadership
touched followers’ deeper values and sense of higher purpose, and led to higher levels of
follower commitment and effort and more enduring change. Transformational leaders
provide compelling visions of a better future and inspire trust through seemingly
unshakeable self-confidence and conviction (Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:26).

One factor presumably underlying the interest in charismatic and transformational leaders
is the nature and strength of their emotional impact on others. The nature of leaders’
emotional connectedness to others is also apparent in the growing interest over the past
decade in topics like leaders’ genuineness, authenticity, credibility and trustworthiness.
These seem related more to the affective quality of a leader’s relationships with others
than to specific leader behaviours and competencies. Attention given during the last
decade to the concept of emotional intelligence also attests to that shifting interest. For
example, Goleman et al (2002, in Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:26) present data that a
leader’s ability to resonate emotionally with others is a better predictor of effective

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executive leadership than is general intelligence. Recent research at the Centre for
Creative Leadership (CCL) has uncovered links between specific elements of emotional
intelligence and specific behaviours associated with leadership effectiveness. Effective
leadership is clearly about more than just enacting the “right” behaviours, or merely
translating feedback into changed behaviour (Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:26).

2.5.2 THE PRESENT

Today, effective leadership is commonly viewed as central to organisational success, and

more emphasis is placed on leadership development than ever before. Developing more and
better individual leaders is no longer the sole focus of leadership development, although it
remains a critical aspect. Increasingly, leadership is defined not as what the leader does, but
rather as a process that engenders and is the result of relationships – relationships that focus
on the interactions of both leaders and collaborators instead of focusing on only the
competencies of the leaders. Leadership development practices based on this paradigm are
more difficult to design and implement than those that have been popular for the last several
decades in which the objective was to train leaders to be good managers. In the light of this,
several themes describe the state of leadership development today (Hernez-Broom & Hughes
2004:27):

• Leadership development within the context of work

Leadership development initiatives today typically offer performance support and real
world application of skills through such methods as training programmes, coaching and
mentoring, action learning and developmental assignments. Combining instruction with a
real business setting helps people gain crucial skills and allows the organisations to attack
relevant, crucial and real-time issues. The goal of leadership development ultimately
involves action, not knowledge (Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:27). In a review of the
key trends in management development in 2003, Elie Botaris, the Director of Practices at
the Management Centre Europe (MCE) said that one tendency that perhaps stood out
above all others is the growing need to link learning to business strategy and fully align it
with the goals and values of the organisation. More and more organisations are moving
away from individual, ad hoc learning activities towards team and organisational learning
that will give immediate results and have a higher overall impact (Botaris, 2003).

Therefore, development today means providing people opportunities to learn from their
work, rather than taking them away from their work to learn. It is critical to integrate
those experiences with each other and with other developmental methods. State of the

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art leadership development now occurs in the context of ongoing work initiatives that are
tied to strategic business imperatives. However, it should be noted that it is not just the
variety of development methods that matters, greater variety is not necessarily better. It
is also critical to integrate various developmental experiences with each other as well as
with both developmental and business objectives. That way they can have a greater
collective impact than they otherwise could have (Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:28).

The way has also been paved for more personalised and focused learning, designed and
developed to specifically meet the unique needs of an organisation or business unit.
Taking it to the next level, this learning can be further personalised and focused around
team-specific and individual needs. The learning is based on the business strategy and
incorporates internal systems, processes and tools already in use by the company, as well
as real-life business cases and situations, thus enabling employees at all levels to
immediately transfer what they learn into application at the workplace. A personalised
and focused approach positions learning as an enabler and catalyst of change and
improved productivity and efficiency, leading to future growth and business success.
(Botaris, 2003)

In reviewing the entire field of leadership development (McCauley & Van Velsor, 2003, in
Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:28) it was noted that the approach of many organisations
is events-based rather than systemic. One method of making leadership development
more systemic is to make sure it involves more than training. An array of developmental
experiences must be designed and implemented that are meaningfully integrated with
one another. Leadership development efforts must be ongoing, not a single programme
or event. The idea of leadership development strategies that link a variety of
developmental practices including work itself (e.g. action learning projects) with other
human resources systems and business strategy is an emerging and probably necessary
evolution of our state-of-practice (Alldredge, 2003, in Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:28).

• Critical reflection about the role of competencies in leadership development

Although the field is moving away from viewing leadership and leadership development
solely in terms of leader attributes, skills, and traits, leadership competencies remain a
core dimension of leadership development activities in most organisations. Botaris (2003)
is of the opinion that learning initiatives are increasingly being designed to incorporate a
set of common core and functional competencies that will help achieve the organisation’s
goals and realise the vision. There has therefore been a growth in competency-based
and performance-based learning activities and development curricula.

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A relatively recent benchmarking study found that leading-edge companies define

leadership by a set of competencies that guide leadership development at all levels
(Barrett & Beeson, 2002, in Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:28). A majority of
organisations have identified leadership competencies, or at least tried to define the
characteristics and qualities of successful leaders. How then are leadership competencies
most effectively used in leadership development?

Leadership competencies need to correspond to the organisation’s particular strategy and

business model (Intagliata, 2000, in Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:28). Leadership
development programmes implemented in isolation of the business environment rarely
bring about profound or long-lasting changes; therefore, organisations must develop
leaders and leadership competencies that correspond with and are specific to their
distinct business challenges and goals. While common leadership qualities or
competencies characterise effective leaders, developing such core leader qualities may
not be enough. The leadership competencies of a best-practice organisation uniquely fit
the organisation, its particular strategy, and its business model (Hernez-Broom & Hughes
2004:28).

• Revisiting the issue of work/life balance

Health and well-being at work are issues of increasing interest and attention, including
their relevance to leadership. In an environment of constant change and unrelenting
competition, managing stress and personal renewal to avoid burn-out are becoming a
central focus for leadership development. Dealing with multiple and competing demands
of a fast-paced career and personal/family relationships and responsibilities is a common
challenge, and there is increasing recognition that a person’s work and personal life have
reciprocal effects on each other. It is well-known that individual leader effectiveness is
enhanced when people manage multiple roles at home and at work, but we continue to
learn more about the organisational benefits and maybe even the benefits to family and
community as well. It is also known that leadership effectiveness is correlated with
better health and exercising (McDowell-Larson, 2002, in Hernez-Broom & Hughes
2004:29).

One can therefore expect that issues related to the balancing of a manager’s professional
and private life should be covered in management development programmes such as the
EMDP.

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In addition to the themes already mentioned, the Management Centre Europe has also
identified the following trends in management development (Botaris, 2003):

• With the personalised and focused approach comes the need for evaluation and
measurement of the learning outcome and its business impact. This is done against the
desired goals and objectives set by the business and the learning partner at the time the
investment is made. As a result of this, learning and development organisations are
increasingly being challenged by business to think more strategically and to show the
value they can add to the bottom line (this can also be linked to the Future-scenario
below in the context of Return on Investment)
• Corporate universities are still popular, particularly with large organisations where training
can be combined under one roof and run as an integrated business. Indeed, in many
cases, corporate universities have become very successful and are, for example, used to
reinforce the organisation’s brand image as one that invests in its people and their future.
Other corporate universities have even become independent businesses in their own
right. Corporate universities can be a highly effective vehicle to manage executive
education and can help ensure business success through the development of future
leaders from within.
• Leadership development continues to be the focus of many organisations, whether it is to
bridge the gap produced by succession planning, to meet the ever-growing need for
“fresh blood”, and new competencies, or to adapt to increasing globalisation, where
leaders are expected to lead and develop their teams and their business in new markets
and across diverse cultural, political and economic settings.
• Another trend is that coaching in general, and executive coaching in particular, have
become an integral part of the learning process. They enable growth and development
of managers and leaders in an accommodated and flexible way. Coaching is becoming a
more and more recognised and established way to achieve personal development in an
increasingly challenging world. Meyer and Fourie (2004:5) share this view.
• The new economy is focusing more and more on e-learning, in response to the need for
creative and effective ways of improving training effectiveness while achieving significant
cost savings in terms of travel and time away from the office. Furthermore, the demand
for and the use of blended e-learning solutions, combining the classroom and
complementary on-line learning, has been increasingly growing in the market.
• Project management continues to be a hot topic of training across all business disciplines
and industry sectors.

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2.5.3 THE FUTURE

Jim Concelman (Gale, 2002), the manager of leadership development at an employee

selection and development company, says that the role of leadership is shifting: front-line
employees are expected to lead teams, mid-level managers are heading up strategic
initiatives, and downsized staffs are expected to take responsibility for more work with less
guidance. These new opportunities call for more than management skills. They also require
managers to arouse enthusiasm and establish an environment of respect and dependability,
in which employees are encouraged and expected to contribute their opinions.

According to Hernez-Broom & Hughes (2004:29), several trends will have a major role in the
future understanding and practice of leadership and leadership development. They
represent, in different ways, the critical role changing contexts will play in leadership
development.

• Leadership competencies will still matter

In future leadership competencies will still matter, but they will change as the competitive
environment changes. According to a Conference Board study (Barrett & Beeson, 2002,
in Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:29) five critical forces will shape leadership
competencies (requirements) in the future:

o Global competition;
o Information technology;
o The need for rapid and flexible organisations;
o Teams; and
o Differing employee needs.

Given these, most organisations will not need the completely independent type of leader
as much as a leader who can motivate and coordinate a team-based approach. This new
environment will have greater ambiguity and uncertainty, and many if not all aspects of
leadership (e.g. strategy development) will require a more collaborative approach to
leadership. The model of effective leadership in the future will be one of encouraging
environments that unlock the entire organisation’s human asset potential (Hernez-Broom
& Hughes 2004:29).

The Conference Board report “Developing Business Leaders for 2010” (Barrett & Beeson,
2002, in Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:29), identified four essential roles for meeting the

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business challenges of the future, and the career derailers that will matter most in the
future. The four essential roles for meeting future business challenges include master
strategist, change manager, relationship/network builder, and talent developer. The
most important derailers in the future include hesitancy to take necessary business risks,
personal arrogance and insensitivity, controlling leadership style, and reluctance to tackle
difficult people issues (Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:29).

Change in the context in which leadership is practiced, will bring certain competencies
even more to the forefront, including globalisation, the increasing use of technology, and
public scrutiny of the character and integrity of leaders (Hernez-Broom & Hughes
2004:29).

• Globalisation / internationalisation of leadership concepts, constructs and

development methods

Future leaders will need to be conversant in doing business internationally and conceiving
strategies on a global basis. Globalisation will intensify the requirement that senior
leaders deal effectively with a complex set of constituencies external to the organisation
(e.g. responsibility for managing the company’s interface with trade, regulatory, political,
and media groups on a wide range of issues) (Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:29).

Leadership development is rapidly moving to include substantial components, involving

international markets, world economic trends, and focus on particular regions such as the
Asia Pacific rim (Cacioppe, 1998, in Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:29). Leaders are
being exposed to how the world is becoming interdependent and the need to be up to
date with international trends that are vital to the success of the business. Use of the
Internet to obtain information and to market products and services worldwide is a topic in
many current leadership development programmes (Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:29).

• The role of technology

The technology revolution has changed organisational life. It has changed the ways
information and knowledge are accessed and disseminated, and the ways in which people
can communicate and share with one another. This has profound implications for what
effective leadership will look like, as well as how to use technology most effectively in
leadership development (Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:29).

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The pressure on costs, increased reality of virtual teams, and the availability of
technology in leadership development, has reduced the need for people to travel to
training programmes, will make learning opportunities available to geographically
dispersed leaders, and will allow individuals access to learning opportunities when it best
suits their schedule. Technology can extend learning over time rather than limiting it to
time spent in the classroom. Technology will also enhance the emergence and sharing of
knowledge among participants via such venues as chat-rooms, through leader access, e-
learning advances, e-mentoring / shadowing, and business simulations (Hernez-Broom &
Hughes 2004:30).

While technology is useful for some aspects of leadership development, it cannot replace
the importance of bringing leaders together to deepen their relationships and their
learning experience. Maximising the effectiveness of leadership development offers the
best of both worlds: integrating face-to-face classroom and coaching experiences, with
technology based tools and processes, i.e. blended learning solutions (Alexander &
Ciaschi, 2002 in Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:30).

• Increasing interest in the integrity and character of leaders

The 1990s witnessed ethical lapses and arrogance among senior executives of certain
companies of disturbing-if-not-unprecedented magnitude. Such events probably
accelerated and deepened growing sentiment among many – including members of
organisational governance boards – that interrelationships among leadership, character
and values ought to be made more salient. (Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:30)

It is probably not a coincidence that a recent article in CEO Magazine (Martin, 2003 in
Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:30) observed that “the age of the imperial CEO is waning.
In its place, a crop of new CEOs – humble, team building, highly communicative – is
rising”. Similarly, one of the intriguing and unexpected findings in the book Good to
Great (Collins, 2001 in Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:30), was of the universally modest
and self-effacing nature of CEOs in the good-to-great companies. This contrasts
considerably with the often flamboyant and self-promoting style of many popular
business leaders in recent years who, despite celebrity status, typically did not have an
enduring positive impact on their companies. (Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:30)

Bass and Steidlmeier (1999, in Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:30) noted that
transformational leadership is only authentic when it is based on the leader’s moral
character, concern for others, and congruence of ethical values with action. A leader’s

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credibility and trustworthiness is critical, and increasing numbers make the case that
character – as defined by qualities like one’s striving for fairness, respecting others,
humility, and concern for the greater good – represents the most critical quality of
leadership.

• Pressure to demonstrate return on investment (ROI)

Perhaps the strongest pressure facing leadership practitioners in the future may be to
demonstrate ROI (Kincaid & Gordick, 2003 in Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:30). While
leadership development is strategically important, it is usually expensive. Yet while
leading-edge companies today such as PepsiCo, IBM and Johnson & Johnson spend
significant time and resources on leadership development, attempts to quantify its
benefits precisely have remained elusive and have led some to speculate that investment
in developing better leaders may be falling short of the desired impact.

Therefore, to maximise ROI for leadership development efforts, organisations must

effectively plan, implement and evaluate their initiatives. They must create a “chain of
impact” that connects leadership development to relevant organisational outcomes
(Martineau & Hannum, 2003 in Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:30). Historically most
organisations have not closed the loop through systematic evaluation and thus make
assumptions about its efficacy based on anecdotes, reactions or hunches. (Hernez-
Broom & Hughes 2004:30)

According to Minnaar-van Veijeren (n.d.), the aim of changes in corporate governance

world wide is to promote greater accountability, transparency and stakeholder
confidence. In South Africa the release of the second King Committee Report (King II) in
July 2001 has led to renewed interest in good corporate governance practices. Although
this is not particularly relevant to the public sector where the EMDP is taking place, it is
interesting to note that King II requires that organisations report on a triple bottom line –
social aspects such as values, ethics and the reciprocal relationship with stakeholders
other than shareholders; economic aspects which cover the financial performance of the
company; and lastly environmental aspects such as the impact of production on the
natural area where it is located. Of particular interest is the fact that non-financial issues
such as human rights, ethics and AIDS are becoming part of the responsibility of
organisations. Companies are also required to report on the training of staff and
management, which emphasises the importance of applicable, relevant training that
contributes to the bottom line (Minnaar-van Veijeren, n.d.).

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• New ways of thinking about the nature of management and leadership

development

Increasingly leadership and leadership development are seen as inherently collaborative,

social and relational processes (Day, 2001 in Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:30).
Similarly, Vincere (2002, in Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:30) has noted the advent of
the “networked economy” where “partnerships, strategic and tactical, customer and
supplier, personal and organisational, are essential to competitive effectiveness”. As a
result, leadership will be understood as the collective capacity of all members of an
organisation to accomplish such critical tasks as setting direction, creating alignment, and
gaining commitment. Leadership development based on this paradigm is more difficult to
design and implement than those that have been popular for the last several decades, in
which the focus was to train individual leaders. Taking this next step will require a
deeper understanding of the role of organisational systems and culture in leadership
development (Van Velsor & McCauley, 2004 in Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:30)

In conclusion it can be argued that the dual challenges of understanding the nature of
leadership development and implementing effective leadership development practices will in
all likelihood be greater than ever before. At the same time, experts are guardedly optimistic
about the field’s future. This optimism can be directly tied to some of the trends that make
the future both challenging and interesting. For example, leadership development practices
will need to become better integrated in the broader context of organisational business
challenges and systems. Thus, not only will organisations need to hire and develop leaders,
they will also need to be the kind of organisations that nurture and reinforce enactment of
the kinds of behaviours desired in those leaders. Similarly, demands to demonstrate ROI can
encourage greater rigor and clarity in the understanding of the nature of leadership
development and how its impact is assessed. Meeting such challenges will be one important
thrust of more comprehensive efforts in the years ahead to demonstrate convincingly the
strategic role of people in organisations (Hernez-Broom & Hughes 2004:30).

2.5.4 THIRD GENERATION LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

According to Mintzberg (2004:28), management development programmes have long relied

on lecture and discussion of cases, in other words, on learning from other people’s
experience. He calls this trend first-generation management development, which is not
sufficient in training modern leaders. Learners are not vessels into which knowledge can
simply be poured – or, perhaps, closer to the case study method, horses led to water in the

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hope that they will drink. People must be actively engaged in learning, which means it
should relate to their personal experience.

Accordingly, a second-generation of programmes emerged to create experiences for learning,

dating back to Reg Revans’ early work in Europe on action learning. This had resurgence in
the United States in recent years – stimulated by General Electric’s Work-Out programmes.
Managers have come into programmes to be sent promptly back to their workplace, or to
that of others, to engage in projects to improve things and thereby to learn. Some of the
challenges experienced in this regard were (Mintzberg, 2004:28):

• Many of those programmes have involved more action than learning; in other words, they
have become organisation development in the name of management development.
• Managers are busy people, busier than ever. Do they need programmes that create
more work for them back at work? Do they need artificial experiences when they’re
overwhelmed with natural experience?

Based on these issues, Mintzberg identified a need for third-generation management

development. This means that managers need to – now more than ever – slow down, step
back, and reflect thoughtfully on their natural experience. Therefore the motto for third
generation management is “use work, don’t make work” (Mintzberg, 2004:28).

According to this third-generation of management development philosophy, managers cannot

be created in a classroom. It condemns conventional Masters in Business Administration
(MBA) courses, as these courses are “too analytic and too far removed from context”. It
believes that management is a practice that has to combine a great deal of craft, i.e.
experience, with a certain amount of art, as vision and insight, and some science, particularly
in the form of analysis and technique. Inexperienced managers can therefore not truly
benefit from MBA-programmes, since they only have to rely on science and second-
generation development through other people’s experience. Thomas & Cheese (2005:24)
also states that the experience-based approach represents a comprehensive new way of
developing leaders as it knits together on-the-job experience, life experience and specific
skills development, rather than presenting employees with a smorgasbord of classes and
programmes that are tenuously linked (if linked at all) to career development, succession
planning or business objectives. From these views new programmes, such as the
International Master’s Programme in Practicing Management (IMPM), have been
conceptualised. This IMPM was developed jointly by key experts from the McGill University in
Montreal, the Lancaster Management School in England, the Indian Institute of Management

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in Bangalore, Insead in France, and several universities in Japan. The programme has very
distinct characteristics, which can be summarised as follows (Mintzberg 2004:30):

• The programme is combined with management development – only practicing managers

are accepted onto the programme, and they should be nominated by the companies,
preferably in groups so they could work together.
• The IMPM focuses on five managerial mindsets, rather than functional silos, i.e.
(Mintzberg 2004:31):
o Reflective (about self);
o Worldly (about context);
o Analytical (about organisation);
o Collaborative (about relationships); and
o Action (about change).
• In all sessions the 50/50 principle applies: the faculty contributes in terms of concepts
(ideas in the form of lectures, cases, exercises, etcetera) and the participants bring their
experiences. Where these concepts and experiences meet is where learning takes place,
in the process of thoughtful reflection – individually, in groups around the tables, and in
plenary discussions. According to the 50/50 principle half of the time the material
introduced by the presenters should by turned over to the participating managers around
the tables on their agendas: What does this mean for you, in your situation? When
interesting questions arise about a managerial competency, the class can engage in
“competency sharing” – not how could or should a competency be practiced, but how
have the people in this room done it, what is their own experience, what has worked for
them.
• The IMPM reinvented the classroom concept – they call it “experienced reflection”. This
reflection in the classroom had to be reinforced by activities on the job that as much as
possible use natural work there to extend the learning – not only for participating
managers, but also to take the learning into their organisations. In order to create
classrooms truly conducive to managers sharing reflections on their experience, the nice,
neat rows facing the instructor were replaced with seven or eight round tables in a flat
classroom, where about 40 managers had to take their seats. The “experienced
reflection” process can be graphically depicted as follows (Mintzberg, 2004:34):

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Concepts from faculty

Reflections in the class room

Reflections in the class room

Experiences from managers Impacts on the job

Figure 2.2: Experienced Reflection (Mintzberg, 2004:34)

In terms of management development practices in South Africa, a large number of second-

generation programmes are currently being presented, even by some of the leading business
schools in the country. A typical programme such as the Foundation Management
Programme (FMP) offered by the Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS), consists of
modules in Computers and Technology, Understanding the Business Environment,
Management, Introduction to Financial Management, Leadership and People Management,
Marketing and Sales, and Improving Operational Performance. Subsequently a number of
changes in the area of management and leadership development can be expected over the
next few years (GIBS, 2005).

2.6 TRENDS IN MANAGEMENT & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT CURRICULA

“A successful leader must be able to communicate, motivate and solve problems”, says
Concelman, a manager at an employee selection and development company. However, many
managers are not getting the necessary support to develop these skills. “Managers are
taught to do things by the book, whereas leaders need to think of new ways to do things”, he
says. Jon Katzenbach, senior partner at a performance consulting firm in New York City,
adds that leadership is about more than following a set course. “It is a mindset of adaptive
responsiveness”. This quality is particularly important at the front lines, where performance
is directly linked to a leader’s ability to inspire a team (Gale, 2002).

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2.6.1 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

The philosophy of leadership implicit in leadership development programmes of the past is no

longer adequate for dealing with the complex problems inherent in communities and
organisations today. This implicit philosophy assumes that leadership rests in individuals who
must be capable of inspiring and influencing others to solve problems and achieve goals.
However, this “heroic” view of leadership is often based on a deficiency view of people, as
Peter Senge (in Sandman & Vandenberg, 1995) points out:

“Especially in the West, leaders are heroes – great men (and occasionally women) who rise to
the fore in times of crises… Therefore the traditional view of leadership is based on assumptions
of people’s powerlessness, their lack of personal vision and inability to master the forces of
change, deficits which can be remedied only by a few great leaders.”

However, a new philosophy of leadership is emerging. Dubbed “post-heroic” leadership

(Huey in Sandman & Vandenberg, 1995), it is based on bottom-up transformation, fuelled by
shared power and community building. Although various scholars and authors differ in their
scope and focus when describing changes required by the new leadership philosophy, there
are at least three common themes, i.e. shared leadership, leadership as a relationship and
leadership in the community.

A task team appointed by the Michigan State University, mandated to determine amongst
others a definition for 21st century leadership, concluded that leadership development for the
21st century is holistic – it is centred in groups or organisations rather than individuals, and
engages the group in heart, mind, spirit and energy. The driving forces of this philosophy,
then, are community, the heart of a group’s leadership; vision, which engages the spirit;
learning, which stimulates the mind; and action, which compels energy. From this point of
view, leadership development shifts from individual-centred to collective-centred; from a
packaged curriculum to an evolving, customised educational process focussed on building
relationships; and from discrete leadership development programmes to leadership
development embedded in concrete issues identified by the participants in the process
(Sandman & Vandenberg, 1995).

2.6.2 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

In an article by O’Brien (2003), he argues that the latest scientific findings indicate that
brainy but dogmatic bosses rarely rise to be stars in an age where organisational speed and
flexibility are the keys to survival. Time magazine (in O’Brien, 2003) sifted through the
current thinking and reported “New brain research suggests that emotions, not IQ, may be

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the true measure of human intelligence”. This phenomenon, referred to as “EQ”, became the
hot ticket for business success, and it seems likely that both individual executives and boards
of directors need to know how to cultivate it. O’Brien is of the opinion that a highly personal
practice, aimed at improving the following four adaptive skills, should be embraced in order
to develop the managers of the future (O’Brien, 2003):

• Practice self-awareness: Practicing this skill is a way of escaping the conditioned confines
of one’s past. Consciousness can be raised by “catching yourself in the act of thinking”
as often as possible, routinely noticing your emotions and determining whether one is
facing the facts or indulging biases.
• Use imagery: This is what Olympic ski-racers do before they enter the starting gate –
with closed eyes and swaying bodies they run the course in their minds, which ultimately
improves their performance. A similar approach may be to set aside time each day to
dream with gusto about what you want to achieve.
• Frame and reframe events: When the Greek Stoic Epictetus said 2 000 years ago that it
is not events that matter, but one’s opinion of them, this is what he was talking about.
Every time something important happens, assign as many interpretations to it as
possible, even “zany” ones. Then go with the interpretation most supportive of your
dreams.
• Integrate the perspectives of others: Brain research shows that people’s view of the
world is physiologically limited by genes and the experiences they have had. Learning to
incorporate the useful perspectives of others is nothing less than a form of amplifying
one’s senses. When someone interprets something differently than it was intended, one
should pause to consider that a gift of perception, if only one will accept it.

Mastering the emotional components of these four practices often proves to be the most
difficult for senior executives, but as Goleman (O’Brien, 2003) emphasised, doing so can yield
“Resonant Leadership” – emotionally intelligent leaders. By practicing self-awareness, leaders
notice their moods and emotions and how these are influencing their behaviours. By using
imagery, they can go beyond the intellectual data to make smart choices that look to others
like “leaps of faith”. By framing and reframing events and integrating the perspectives of
others, leaders can manage their own reactions, thereby improving their emotional state and
that of their organisations. These practices are not a curriculum in the sense that a Masters
in Business Administration (MBA) is, but what the latest research seems to imply is that
without the software of emotional maturity and self-knowledge, the hardware of academic
training alone is worth less and less (O’Brien, 2003).

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Dipak (Golosinksi, 2002), adds to O’Brien’s (2003) view by saying that, while experts debate
the terminology of “soul”, “inner voice” or “centre”, the commonality of the words suggests a
foundation, and the best leaders harness its power. In so doing, these leaders transform
themselves and their followers, enabling all to develop their full potential while driving
organisational excellence. Jain (Golosinksi, 2002) is of the opinion that the “soul” of
leadership involves the ability of a leader to mentor and motivate by demanding the best
from a team, while creating an environment that challenges and enriches. He believes that
leaders should invest in their people, allowing them to flourish by giving them the tools and
opportunities to grow – both professionally and personally.

In Jain’s (Golosinksi, 2002) view, being innovative requires leaders to do two basic, but
extraordinary things. First, they must develop the introspection required to understand
themselves and unlock their own potential, enabling them to guide others along a similar
path. Then, they use insights uncovered by this “journey to awareness” to appreciate the
motivations of others. “Leaders who wish to create excellence in their people must first
remember to cultivate it in themselves” (Golosinski, 2002).

2.6.3 THE SERVANT LEADER

Neuschel (Golosinksi, 2002) has spent some fifty years studying leadership, tracing many of
its core elements to antiquity, and deriving a framework from his observations that he calls
the “servant leader”.

True leaders understand that their roles carry profound responsibility toward others, Neuschel
(Golosinksi, 2002) says. Rather than expect others to serve them, servant leaders are
prepared to nurture their followers, building bonds based upon mutual respect – and love
(Golosinski, 2002). Wilkinson & Cilliers (2004:34) add that servant leaders believe the
following:

• Because they follow their own dreams, servant leaders also motivate others to follow
their dreams;
• Servant leaders inspire others to discover and develop their talents and passion to the
benefit of all;
• Servant leaders recognise others’ potential and encourage them to try out new things;
• Servant leaders understand what a good investment training and experience is –
individuals that are equipped to live their dreams, inspire those around them;
• Servant leaders articulate the joint vision and often discuss it jointly – then adapt it as
and when necessary; and

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• Servant leaders accept that the true leader is in fact a servant – a good way to show true
leadership, is by actively helping others to realise their dreams.

2.6.4 LEADERSHIP AS A RELATIONSHIP

Posner (2004) says that a leader is uncomplicatedly defined as a person who has followers.
This implies that there has to be a relationship between those who aspire to lead and those
who choose to follow, and any discussion of leadership must attend to the dynamics of this
relationship. Strategies, tactics, skills and practices are hollow unless the fundamental human
aspirations that connect leaders and their constituents are understood (Posner, 2004).

Flowing from this, it is important to know what people expect from their leaders – the
characteristics in an individual that invites people to willingly follow that person. Posner
(2004) indicates that they have found surprisingly consistent responses to this question over
the past twenty years. These answers have also been consistent across industries,
disciplines, generations and continents. Time and again people send a clear message about
the qualities leaders must demonstrate if they want others to voluntarily enlist in a common
cause and to freely commit to action. According to their research, the following are the
crucial attributes for leaders (Posner, 2004):

• Honesty: In virtually every survey conducted, honesty was selected more often than any
other leadership characteristic. Honesty is absolutely essential to leadership. If people
are going to willingly follow someone, whether it is into battle or into the boardroom,
they first want to assure themselves that the person is worthy of their trust. They want
to know that the would-be leader is truthful, ethical and principled.
• Forward-looking: Leaders are expected to have a sense of direction and a concern for
the future of the organisation. Leaders must know where they are going. They must
have a destination in mind when asking constituents to join them on a journey into the
unknown. Constituents ask that a leader have a well-defined orientation toward the
future. They want to know what the organisation will look like, feel like, and be like
when it arrives at its goal in six months or six years.
• Inspiring: Followers admire and respect leaders who are dynamic, uplifting, enthusiastic,
positive and optimistic. Leaders are expected to be inspiring, yet it is not enough for
leaders to have dreams of the future. They must be able to communicate those dreams
in ways that encourage followers to sign on for the duration and to work hard for the
goal.
• Competent: If constituents are to enlist in another person’s cause, they must see the
person as having the capabilities and skills to guide them forward. The particular type of

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competence that constituents look for varies with the leader’s role. The universal
expectation is that the person has the relevant experience needed to be able to get
things done. Of critical importance is competence in working well with others, bringing
out their best.
• Credibility: In combination, the above four characteristics can communicate a powerful
message, i.e. credibility. In assessing the believability of sources of communication –
whether newscasters, salespeople, physicians, priests, business managers, military
officers, politicians, architects or civic leaders – researchers typically evaluate people on
the same criteria that people use to determine what they want from people that they
would willingly follow. Research has proved, quite unexpectedly, that above all else,
people want leaders who are credible.

2.6.5 COMPETENCY MODELLING

Competency models are descriptions of strong individual performance, and are the yardstick
against which all performance is evaluated. Rothwell (Donovan-Wright, 2002) says that a
Camelot-type place to work, where the strength and strategy of the organisation is the sum
total of the individual talents of the employees, is not necessarily an unattainable fantasy. He
says that an organisation that far surpasses any other in its class in terms of performance
and customer satisfaction is quite possible; if they take the best employee performance they
have, capture it, and replicate it. This will lead to company-wide high performance and
better business results (Donovan-Wright, 2002).

Rothwell (Donovan-Wright, 2002) says that theorists have talked for years about “core
competencies” of organisations. Core competencies have been thought of as characteristics
that set an organisation apart from its competitors and that the organisation therefore dare
not outsource. What a competency really is, he says, is an inherent characteristic that
predisposes an individual (not a company) toward certain skills and behaviours that achieve
exemplary performance – it is anything that leads to results. However, it should be noted
that what is exemplary for one organisation may not necessarily be exemplary for another
organisation. Therefore the key is to develop and implement models of ideal performance
based on the specific organisation (Donovan-Wright, 2002).

Competency modelling enables organisations to shift from job-based to people-based

structures in which exemplary employees are identified and interviewed to discover their
secrets to success. It is recommended that the organisation’s decision-makers begin the
process by stating exactly what they want from the effort – such as a corporate culture that
values customer service. This data is then compiled, compared, analysed, and synthesized

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into pictures of competency for the organisation. Competency models spotlight stellar
individual performance and use it as the yardstick against which all performance is evaluated
(Donovan-Wright, 2002).

2.6.6 EMBEDDING LEARNING IN THE JOB

In an article published by the American Society for Training and Development (July 2004), a
case study of IBM is presented. In this article the writers indicate that focusing on classroom
education, e-learning and other forms of formal training may cause organisations to miss the
opportunity to tap into the basic human drive to self-educate. They are of the opinion that
the importance of formal training should not be underemphasised, but the future of
organisational learning will maximise the opportunity to “learn while doing” more efficiently
than ever before (Johnston & Morton, 2004).

Johnston & Morton (2004) indicate that, in response to the changing requirements of an on-
demand world, IBM set a goal to create an environment where employees can easily learn
what they need and when they need it, and apply that knowledge, understanding, and
experience for their own benefit as well as IBM’s. To foster that culture, IBM created a new
learning archetype for the on-demand business environment based on the following
assumptions:

• Learners must be empowered to shape, rather than just passively receive, their learning
experience;
• Opportunities to learn must become embedded in process workflows, enabling learning
while doing;
• The focus of learning must extend beyond learners as individuals to include learners as
teams and organisations; and
• Learning must become a key vehicle to enhance relationships across the enterprise and
its entire value chain.

In order to translate all these concepts into real work programmes, IBM introduced the Role
of the Manager@IBM – a programme that taps existing technology, resources and content to
expand learning’s role to make learning ubiquitous across the organisation. This company-
wide blended learning programme addresses the management role from an on-demand
perspective. To date, this two-year initiative has been the largest management development
initiative in the history of IBM. It touches 32 000 executives and managers in IBM across all
business units and geographics (Johnston & Morton, 2004).

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The Role of the Manager@IBM focuses managers on identifying and addressing business
issues and then helps them formulate action plans with targeted strategies and goals. The
programme uses e-learning, in-person learning, management communities, informal
education and the full capabilities of the IBM-intranet. It operates in five phases, i.e.
(Johnston & Morton, 2004):

• Customised requirements by Business Unit: each business unit receives customised

requirements based upon industry, geographic location, etcetera.
• ManagerJam: New technology and learning methods are used to gather input on key
leadership issues and to allow key executives to dialogue or “jam” with each other online.
The focused and directed discussion involves a team approach to resolving issues defined
by the unit.
• Edvisor: A web-based, online tool developed to support continuous learning for all
managers, including those in non-traditional office situations and those working remotely.
Edvisor has three components: exploring web-based learning, preparing for the Role of
Manager class, and an Individual Development Plan.
• The In-Class Learning Lab: Two days that focus on experiential, higher-order learning,
personal networking and action learning.
• Manager Ongoing Dialogue: An online, shared e-space where the same group of
managers collaborates on their chosen management action challenges.

In less than a year, Role of the Manager@IBM has already resulted in (Johnston & Morton,
2004):

• Intentionally aligned learning with the business strategy through action learning around
imperatives designed by each business unit’s senior executive team;
• Served as a catalyst for IBM’s managers to create and sustain new momentum to achieve
and exceed revenue goals for the year;
• Helped produce a net return of more than $20 million in just one of nine IBM business
units; and
• Improved manager effectiveness and behavioural change. Specific improvement areas,
measured by employee surveys, include general leadership, clarity, strategy linkage,
transforming goals into action, collaboration, communication, and overall satisfaction.

However, creating such a programme does not occur overnight and requires a significant
amount of organisational adaptation. The Role of the Manager@IBM is just one of IBM’s
learning programmes that has been reinvented to give learners more control. Many of
today’s learning programmes are targeted at helping individuals learn where and when they

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work, using technology already on their desktop. In order to move towards the “future of
learning”, IBM has identified five dimensions of change that can significantly impact the role
of learning in an organisation (Johnston & Morton, 2004):

• Governance and management: Reinventing the role of learning requires innovative

thinking at the governance level. When enabled by a governance and management
system that understands how learning can impact an organisation, learning can deliver
real business value and return on investment.
• Design and delivery: Implementing the future of learning requires adapted design and
delivery that expands instructional design to include more focus on learning that is
embedded in work and centred on the learner.
• Technology: Thousands of companies already use technology that can quickly and easily
be adapted for learning. Intranets, instant messenger programmes, e-mail, cell phones
and other programmes and devices are just a few of the technologies employees already
use on a daily basis. These tools can enhance person-to-person interaction and create a
pervasive learning environment that supports a vibrant learning culture.
• Organisational alignment: The most successful learning programmes are those which
align business priorities with individual job roles. For the organisation, a focus on growth
and innovation requires an ongoing alignment of learning initiatives to business priorities.
For employees, when learning is made directly relevant to their position and when they
understand how learning can directly impact their performance, they are more engaged
and motivated to complete the programme.
• Culture: To make a truly strategic change in the learning paradigm, companies must look
at how they think about learning and foster the organisational culture accordingly. If the
learner is to be empowered to shape his own learning experience, then businesses must
change the way they think about learning and foster the organisational culture
accordingly. If the learner is to be empowered to shape his own learning experience, the
businesses must change the way they think about learning. Learning may be redefined
to include anytime access to key subject matter experts, or as having “just-in-time”
information via hand-held devices. Companies should ask how they can foster an
environment that encourages the sharing of knowledge, best practices and critical
information.

Moreover, companies should understand the geographic, language and cultural challenges
that may exist when implementing a new learning programme. Individualised content means
understanding the environment in which individuals work. As organisations understand how
to tap technology, culture, and the individual’s motivation to learn, they can create learning
programmes that keep their employees engaged and better equipped. Opening a new world

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of delivery and communication will empower companies to create a competitive workforce for
the 21st century (Johnston & Morton, 2004).

The notion of Learning on the Job is also supported by Henry Mintzberg and the IMPM (refer
to paragraph 2.5.4 above). They believe that learning does not end with the goodbyes in the
classroom, though that is where many programmes stop. With the IMPM a great deal of
effort is devoted to extending the learning of the programme into the workplace in two
respects: by introducing activities there as part of the programme and by encouraging,
together with the support of students’ companies, informal applications of the learning on the
job, namely IMPacts (Mintzberg, 2004:34).

IMPact is their label for how the managers of the programme apply what they learn directly
in their organisations. The most obvious is when they change something for the better as a
result of the learning. This is called “action impact”. Sometimes, that just happens naturally,
e.g. a manager exposed to some new technique comes back and applies it at work. This is
encouraged, by two activities in particular. In the Venture-part of the programme, working
alone or with other participants from their company, managers engage in some change
activity and report on the experience. Participants who wish to obtain the master’s degree in
practicing management write a major paper, which often takes them deeper into some key
issue facing their company (Mintzberg, 2004:35).

It is necessary to emphasise that the change is fine and important, but that the object of
management development is learning. Third-generation management development must
extend the learning of the classroom well into the organisation. This can be referred to as
“teaching impact” (Mintzberg, 2004:35). All managers have to be coaches and mentors.
Every manager has to be a teacher, to help improve the performance of those around
him/her. However, managers that are granted the privilege of attending a serious
development programme have a special obligation in this regard: learners in the classroom
must be teachers on the job. That way, the learning of the programme can be leveraged in
the company. Some of that happens naturally, but that does not suffice. In third-generation
management development, it has to be encouraged by the faculty and by the companies. In
the IMPM-classroom consciousness about teaching impact is raised by having managers share
experiences in what they have done to help others learn about what they have learned.
Management development will become much more powerful when company and classroom
work together to extend the learning beyond the participating managers (Mintzberg,
2004:35).

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Among the workplace activities introduced as part of the programme, most powerful has
been what is called Reflection Papers. Several weeks after each module, when managers
have settled back at work, they are requested to revisit all of the material of the module –
notes, readings, overheads – and write a paper connecting whatever parts of it they find
relevant to themselves, their jobs and their companies. The material, quickly reviewed,
jumps back to life in the place where it has to be relevant, and links can be made. These
papers yielded surprising results. The Reflection Papers were expected to be short, but many
often are very long, as the managers really get into it. One manager went into his office on a
Sunday morning to work on his paper, expecting to be home by noon. He worked until 04:00
the next morning! These papers can be insightful, sometimes startling. The assignment is
simple, the learning is often profound. And that means that the companies sponsoring the
managers are better served (Mintzberg, 2004:34).

2.6.7 GLOBAL LEADERSHIP

In their special issue “Leadership in a Changed World”, the Harvard Business Review editors
observe that, “for all the talk about global organisations and executives, there is no definite
answer to the question of what, exactly, is meant by global”. There is some consensus,
however. First, the five top executives interviewed all agreed that “the shift from a local to a
global marketplace is irreversible and gaining momentum”. Second, they all insist on what
Hassen (Green, Hassen, Immelt, Marks & Meiland, 2003) calls a “global attitude”: “an attitude
which involves a real passion and curiosity about the world, a willingness to accept good
ideas no matter where they come from, and collaboration around geographies” (Johnston &
Morton, 2004).

Beyond cultural sensitivity, which is characterised by openness, understanding and respect,

some of these top executives emphasise the value of cultural differences. Green declares
that (Rosinski, 2004):

“If, for example, my French colleagues lost their French-ness or my Brazilian colleagues lost their
Brazilian-ness, life would be a lot duller, and HSBC would be a lot less profitable. We prize our
diversity. That’s all part of the richness and fun of working together, and it’s what makes us so
creative and responsive to our client’s needs.”

Unfortunately, as Daniel Meiland (Rosinski, 2004) explains:

“Many companies have not been all that successful at developing global executives. The
intentions are good, but the fact is, practice has not caught up with intent.”

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This is where global leadership comes in. Strangely, many companies still assume that global
leadership competencies will somehow either come naturally or through superficial training.
On the contrary, excellent international companies (including Unilever, Chubb Insurance,
Baxter Healthcare and IBM) have found that developing global leaders requires a rigorous
and systematic approach. These companies discovered that the unique combination of
coaching and intercultural skills is key to effective global leadership, which operates in a
complex and multidimensional environment. It is in essence a more creative form of
coaching. Whereas traditional coaching tends to operate within the confines of your own
cultural norms, values and beliefs, coaching across culture seeks to challenge these cultural
assumptions and discover solutions that are “out-of-the-box” (Rosinski, 2004).

Coaching is an effective leadership practice that develops people while getting results.
Coaching is about facilitating the unleashing of people’s potential to achieve important,
meaningful objectives. Coaching across cultures makes it possible to deploy even more
potential by tapping into different possible worldviews: alternative ways of thinking,
communicating, organising, dealing with power and responsibility, defining identity and
purpose, and viewing time. Beyond tolerating or adapting to differences, the goal is to
proactively learn from other cultures and make the most of various perspectives, i.e. leverage
the richness that lies in cultural diversity (Rosinski, 2004).

For example, Chubb Asia Pacific’s executives learned to blend Western directness and Asian
indirectness, retaining the best of each communication pattern: clear and firm on the
content, yet sensitive on the process. This attitude has played a significant role in fostering
harmony and unity at the top, which in turn has allowed these senior executives to mobilise
the entire workforce and achieved record growth in Asia Pacific. Similarly leaders at Baxter
Renal in the United Kingdom became skilled at reconciling profit-driven and people-driven
values. Used to impersonal marketing plans, business professionals learned to better hold
patients’ needs to heart. They developed the values of caring and empathy. They found a
new pride and inspiration knowing that their work would make a real difference for patients.
The leadership team set out to make Renal patients’ lives as easy as possible. Baxter offered
to take care of various tasks that patients would normally have to worry about, such as the
disposal of dialysis bags, water purification, or the update of prescriptions. From a business
standpoint, this approach further reinforced Baxter’s market position and success (Rosinski,
2004).

Developing global leadership typically involves a combination of consulting, training and

coaching. The approach should consider the company’s context and build on its current
leadership development initiatives. It should promote alignment and consistency with other

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levers of progress such as the company’s vision, strategy, culture, performance appraisal and
reward system. Ideally the levers should reinforce each other rather than send confusing
signals (for example, employees are our main asset – but the company does not seem to care
about its employees, or corporate social responsibility – without a genuine intention to make
the world a better place). However, the author suggests incorporating the following (non-
exhaustive list of) leadership competencies into any leadership model (Rosinski, 2004):

• Empowering leadership:
o Intercultural coaching – being able to adopt a coaching style enhanced with a
global and intercultural perspective;
o Intercultural excellence – having a capacity to work effectively across cultures
through an appreciation of cultural differences augmented by an ability to
leverage these differences; and
o Integrity – being true to oneself and genuinely committed to serve others.
• Visionary leadership:
o Dialectic / synthetic leadership – uniting and interconnecting (“and”) rather than
dividing and excluding (“or”);
o Creative leadership – being curious and able to see reality from multiple
perspectives, particularly for addressing leadership challenges; and
o Farsighted leadership – framing organisational goals in the broader context of
improving the world.
• Effective communication:
o Intercultural communication – being able to rely on various forms of
communication: explicit and implicit, direct and indirect, affective and neutral,
formal and informal.

Coaching across cultures applies at various levels: for leading diverse individuals creatively,
cross-cultural teams and across organisations (Rosinski, 2004):

• At the individual level, leaders discover new cultural choices for dealing with challenging
situations and for making the most of a diverse workforce;
• At the team level, they learn how leveraging diversity can lead, somewhat paradoxically,
to increased team unity and performance; and
• At the organisational level, leaders find out how to integrate disparate cultures during
mergers, acquisitions and alliances. They also sharpen their ability to define the new
company’s culture and to make it become real. In today’s global, multicultural, dynamic
and competitive world, organisations have to achieve greater results with scarcer
resources. Furthermore, they need the creativity and farsightedness to seize the new

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ideas and aspirations that are also inherent in our turbulent and changing environment.
Effective global leadership is necessary to address both the threats and the opportunities,
thereby enabling sustainable business success. Therefore global leadership development
is becoming vital to attract, develop and retain the human talent necessary to achieve
this.

2.7 DEVELOPING NEW YOUNG MANAGERS (NYMS)

This section will specifically focus on the latest trends in the development of young managers,
as this study will later on focus on the emerging managers. Attention will be devoted
towards reasons for classifying NYMs as a unique group, approaches to develop NYMs, topics
to be covered in NYM programmes, and improving the return on investment on NYMs.

2.7.1 BACKGROUND TO NYMS

Earning a place in the managerial ranks used to be fairly straightforward: people were hired
into entry-level positions and expected to put in their time, do a decent job, and eventually
garner a promotion to management. There were dues to pay and a corporate ladder to
climb. Nowadays, however, different rules apply. Enter the New Young Managers (NYMs),
whose ascend to a position of authority is occurring fast and in large numbers. According to
the United States Department of Labour, there is a continuing escalation of employees aged
20 to 34 in management jobs. Dun and Bradsheet report that roughly 15 percent of
managers in their 20s and 30s anchor such top spots as CEO, president and business owner
(McDermott, 2001).

This is confirmed by a study done by the Chartered Management Institute and PPP
Healthcare, which found that young managers between the ages of 25 and 35 are switching
jobs in just a couple of years in their quest for quality of life and job satisfaction. Unlike
previous generations, who aspired to a job for life, 82% of young managers believe there is
no such thing and are quite prepared to vote with their feet if organisations fail to deliver.
More than seven in every 10 (71%) young managers expect to stay in their current
organisation for a maximum of five years. A startling 41% plan to move on within just two
years, raising major challenges for companies seeking to recruit and retain good managerial
talent (Chartered Management Institute, 2002).

A tight labour market and dramatic shifts in the business environment and corporate staffing
patterns have much to do with why the face of management is getting younger. The
overused term “Gen Xers” refers to an age group characterised by ambition, impatience,

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flexibility, independence, creativity, and techno-literacy – having grown up in the technical

revolution. Such traits are simpatico with the current fast-moving, fast-changing, web-wired
marketplace and are highly desirable to businesses across industry sectors. The growing
preponderance on NYMs in the workplace, however, says nothing about their readiness to
don the managerial mantle. Many are thrust into the role equipped with little more than a
half-day management workshop. That is akin to a flight attendant being promoted to pilot
after a morning’s worth of flying lessons (McDermott, 2001)!

2.7.2 REASONS FOR CLASSIFYING NYMS AS A UNIQUE GROUP

2.7.2.1 THE UNIQUE CHALLENGES NYMS FACE

It is quite obvious that a person in his 20’s, appointed on the same level as someone in their
40’s, will experience some challenges in his day-to-day duties. This section will focus on
those challenges.

• Less experience and organisational maturity

Nurturing people fresh in management positions is familiar territory to training and

development professionals. A distinct challenge posed by NYMs is that they are being
hired or promoted into management at a much younger age than their counterparts were
only 10 to 15 years ago. NYMs come into management with significantly less functional
experience and organisational maturity. In short, they are not only new to management,
but also new to the world of work. They are expected to be the boss and act like the
boss despite little or no firsthand exposure to the facts of corporate life (McDermott,
2001).

Generally NYMs face a steep learning curve in developing rudimentary project and people
management skills. Accustomed to functioning as individual contributors – whether in
school or non-supervisory positions – their transition to management requires a new
mindset and new skills. They now must accomplish their work as well as motivate other
people and achieve results through them. They must make decisions about what work is
to be done, when, and by whom. They must demonstrate authority and control without
alienating people and manage the expectations of their own bosses and upper
management (McDermott, 2001).

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• Less protection as a result of flatter organisation structures

Compounding the adjustment period are flattened organisational charts, which put NYMs
nearer to top management and the business pressures that reside there. A good
example is someone we can call Anne Smith, who was promoted in her mid-20s to the
position of director at a major publication, reporting to the editor-in-chief. Smith comes
into close daily contact with pressure exerted on her boss to produce, improve and grow
the magazine. There are no layers of management to cushion the rougher aspects of
managerial accountability. Smith knows about the pressing demands of NYMs these days
to move beyond the supervisory aspects of being a manager to also serve as a leader –
to become part of the leadership team, to demonstrate the ability to think strategically,
and to help influence the direction and achievements of the organisation as a whole.
Fortunately, Smith’s boss, who wants her to be a strategic business partner, realised that
would and could not happen until Smith learned first to lead her own department and get
it to deliver the highest-quality magazine possible on time every month (McDermott,
2001).

• High expectations and new ideas

In the first weeks of their new regime, NYMs typically discover that the realities of being
a manager do not match the grander vision they had of the role. Many come to their
post eager to try the ideas and knowledge they gained in college or early work
experiences, only to meet with friction and resistance from their staff or be perceived as
brash and arrogant for messing with the status quo. There are risks for any new
manager, but perhaps more for young, organisationally unseasoned people who want to
initiate major changes that are not warranted, mandated or championed by upper
management. Without guidance from the organisation to tap and channel NYMs
enthusiasm productively, they are subject to disillusionment, frustration and feelings of
failure (McDermott, 2001).

• Generational diversity

NYMs are entering management nearly straight from school or after just a few years of
work, so their backgrounds most likely involved friends, family and others who shared
similar values. Consequently, many NYMs have little or no experience dealing with
people who have widely disparate values and are motivated by vastly different
management styles and incentives. NYMs need to acquire critical skills for managing
across generation gaps and value gaps (McDermott, 2001).

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Yet another obstacle that NYMs face is generational diversity. Traditionally, employees
tended to advance with same-age peers throughout their careers, but the presence of
NYMs has tossed four generations into a corporate melting pot. Ron Zemke, co-author of
Generations at Work: Managing the Clash of the Veterans, Boomers, Xers and Nexters in
Your Workplace, notes (McDermott, 2001):

“The old ways, the pecking order, strict hierarchy, slow promotional tracks, and short life
spans that kept one generational cohort isolated from other generational cohorts not longer
exist, or they exist in a much less rigid, more permeable manner”.

Multi-generational mixing and teaming in the workplace frequently lead to clashes around
different values, ambitions, management styles and attitude toward work. NYMs charged
with managing and leading a multigenerational team (in addition to management
upwards) have had less time and experience in the workplace through which to acquire
skills in building relationships, fostering collaboration, and handling organisational
dynamics and politics. They have also spent less time being managed, properly or
otherwise, so have had fewer opportunities to learn how to do it effectively (McDermott,
2001).

Consider a 25-year old NYM whose reports are mostly boomers. Some older workers
may be nurturing, recalling when they started and were trying to make their mark, and
willing to share their organisational wisdom. Others may feel their jobs are threatened
and resent being told what to do by someone who is young enough to be their child. The
ones who coveted the management job are likely to feel passed over and angry that their
longer tenure and experience were discounted. Meanwhile, NYMs can struggle with
discomfort at giving instructions to employees older and more experienced than
themselves. They can also be impatient with older employees who do not work fast
enough to suit them, who do not embrace technology, or who do not seem to respect
their authority (McDermott, 2001).

• Managing same-age peers

Managing same-age peers raises other issues. The transition from buddy to boss seldom
happens as quickly and easily as the title change. A NYM who used to hang out with his
co-workers after office hours is suddenly allocating their assignments and deadlines,
evaluating their performance, and perhaps determining the size of their paycheques. A
NYM cannot play favourites and let anyone slack off or take advantage. Many NYMs are
startled when they realise that they are now the boss who is griped about. A NYM who

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fails to acknowledge the power shift and puts too much emphasis on being liked and
accepted is likely to head for a fall (McDermott, 2001).

• Proving themselves to upper management by working long hours

Regarding managing upwards, NYMs regularly become preoccupied with trying to gain
credibility and be taken seriously by senior managers. NYMs may work twice as hard to
prove their ability to handle the job despite their age and can be reluctant to ask for
guidance for fear that they will be perceived as unskilled, unknowledgeable or unable to
deal with their new responsibilities. Their quest to earn upper management’s respect and
trust may lead them to take no action at all just to avoid doing the wrong thing
(McDermott, 2001).

This is confirmed in the study done by the Chartered Management Institute, which found
that, despite being in the early stages of their management careers, young managers
believe that they are expected to put in long hours and are concerned about the knock-
on effects. 86% work more than their contracted hours with over half (51%) working at
least five extra hours a week. Only eight percent keep to their agreed hours (Chartered
Management Institute, 2002).

Young managers say that this is affecting their social and leisure life (58%), and both
their physical and emotional well being (54%). 65% of those with children believe it is
damaging their relationship with them and 57% of those living with a partner are
concerned by the negative effects on their relationship. Of major concern is that a third
admitted to feeling stressed – by this they mean under excessive pressure – most of the
time (Chartered Management Institute, 2002).

2.7.2.2 NYMS’ EXPECTATIONS OF EMPLOYERS

Along with the confidence to take charge of their own careers, NYMs also expect a new
employer-employee working relationship, built on partnership and trust. Their preferred
management style is one that empowers, in contrast to the bureaucracy and authoritarianism
that still prevail in many organisations. What is more, young managers are least satisfied
with their top team when it comes to their verbal communication, emotional intelligence and
listening skills (Chartered Management Institute, 2002).

NYMs also expect to be trusted to work more flexibly in their bid to achieve a better work-
home balance. Highest on their wish list is the chance to work from home regularly, making

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the most of new communication technology and the option to work a compressed week: say,
completing their agreed hours over four days instead of five. But most organisations have
yet to embrace these ways of working – for example, only 13% of organisations offer a
compressed working week, while three times as many young workers (39%) would prefer to
work this way (Chartered Management Institute, 2002).

When it comes to the job, their focus is firmly on getting on in their careers and fulfilling their
personal potential. Yet almost a quarter (23%) says their current job has failed to live up to
their expectations. They say the top three factors motivating them when choosing a job are
career prospects and promotion opportunities, the challenges presented by the job and the
opportunities for personal growth and development. Their preferred employee benefits are
an occupational pension (62%), private healthcare (49%) and a company car (36%)
(Chartered Management Institute, 2002).

The study conducted by the Chartered Management Institute also reveals a principled group
who say they are prepared to tackle wrong-doing personally in their working life. 89% say
they would take action if they believed employees in their organisation were behaving
unethically or unlawfully, or only one in a hundred would turn a blind eye. In a similar vein,
three quarters want to work in an organisation that balances the interests of all its
stakeholders – shareholders, customers, employees and the local community (Chartered
Management Institute, 2002).

2.7.3 HOW TO DEVELOP NYMS

The development of NYMs should start as early as possible. Errors in judgment are bound to
happen, but it can be tough to overcome early management blunders. Coaching and training
can help prevent big mistakes and minimise those that do occur. A lot of learning will take
place in the course of NYMs doing their jobs, but some training early on gives them critical
tools and enables them to approach their experiential learning with greater awareness
(McDermott, 2001).

Development should stem from two primary sources (McDermott, 2001):

• The organisation can enlist the internal training department, corporate universities or
external consultants and learning institutions (or a combination thereof); and
• It is important that executive managers, especially the NYM’s boss, play a key role
through regular coaching, mentoring and performance feedback. An active commitment
by upper management models expected behaviours and facilitates down the line transfer

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of skills and knowledge to NYMs and their staff. Management’s support also enables a
proactive diagnosis and response to specific training gaps or performance problems that
may surface.

Development of NYMs must be viewed as a process. Natural-born managers are rare. They
become effective best through ongoing, strategically directed learning. As much as possible,
development should target individual learning needs and provide practical guidance for a
NYM’s day-to-day duties and responsibilities. In addition, opportunities for NYMs to interact
with other NYMs are of enormous benefit in identifying issues, solving problems and
exchanging information (McDermott, 2001). Prior to the actual training, it is important to
take the following actions (McDermott, 2001):

• Clarify expectations and goals. Define and communicate explicitly the NYM’s role,
expectations and boundaries of responsibility and authority. Set goals and objectives that
are of the SMART-model: specific, measurable, action-oriented, realistic, time-bound.
Clarify expected business results and measures of success. Those actions should be done
by the NYM with his/her manager face-to-face, not by the manager issuing a memo or
handing out a job description.
• Describe the big-picture strategy and vision. Explain to the NYM the direction that the
organisation as a whole is taking, as well as short- and long-term plans for achieving its
vision. Describe how the NYM’s department or business fits into the big picture. Define
exactly how the NYM can have impact and make a meaningful contribution.
• Identify skills gaps. After clarifying the NYM’s expectations and goals, determine the
skills and knowledge he/she will need to attain them. Then conduct an assessment of
the NYM’s knowledge and skills – technical, functional and leadership – to identify gaps.
Use a formal assessment tool (such as the Leadership Effectiveness Analysis instrument
created by the Management Research Group) to get a reliable profile based on the
required competencies and behaviours.

Initially a joint assessment of the NYM and his/her manager is beneficial, but this should be
followed up with a 360-degree feedback process 9 to 12 months later.

Any development should be structured around individual learning needs, though the form and
content of such efforts can vary according to such factors as company policies on training,
funding for training and resources for delivery. Ideally, development includes group
programmes and individualised coaching and training. If provided early, those elements give
NYMs a period of trial-and-error before they take full charge (McDermott, 2001).

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In a report prepared by the Center for Creative Leadership (CCL), entitled Emerging Leaders
Research Survey Summary Report, the findings of a survey conducted amongst 3 417
respondents were set out. Respondents from a wide range of generations (i.e. silent
generation – born in 1925-1945; early boomers – born in 1946-1954; late boomers – born in
1955-1963; early Xers – born in 1964-1976; and late Xers – born in 1977-1982) took part in
this study. One of the focus areas of this study concentrated on preferences regarding
development methodologies. When the respondents were asked “how” they want to learn,
all age groups preferred to learn soft skills through the following methods (DePinto, 2003):

• On the job interaction (71%);

• One-on-one coaching (64%);
• Peer interaction / feedback (60%);
• Discussion groups (55%);
• Classroom instruction / live (54%); and
• Assessment and feedback (53%).

The least preferred delivery methods for the development of soft skills were indicated as
(DePinto, 2003):

• Books / reading (40%);

• Case studies (25%);
• Outdoor experiential programmes (14%);
• Workbooks / manuals (12%);
• Games or simulations – non-computerised (10%);
• Web based training (10%);
• Computer based training (9%);
• Computer based games or simulations (6%); and
• Satellite / broadcast television / distance learning programmes (4%).

The study also proved significant differences between the preferred training methodologies
for soft skills according to organisation level, which can be set out as follows (DePinto & Deal,
2004):

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Table 2.2: Top five delivery methods for soft skills preferred by employees on
different organisation levels
Top / Upper Middle Middle Professional First level /
Executive Management Managers Hourly
Peer interaction / One-on-one On the job On the job On the job
feedback coaching experience experience experience
One-on-one On the job One-on-one Discussion groups One-on-one
coaching experience coaching coaching
On the job Peer interaction / Peer interaction / Peer interaction / Discussion groups
experience feedback feedback feedback
Assessment and Assessment and Discussion groups One-on-one Assessment and
feedback feedback coaching feedback
Discussion groups Classroom Classroom Classroom Classroom
instruction / Live instruction / Live instruction / Live instruction / Live

With regard to hard or technical skills, all age groups prefer the following delivery methods
(DePinto, 2003):

• Classroom instruction / live (75%);

• On the job interaction (73%);
• Workbooks / manuals (55%); and
• Books / reading (51%).

Interestingly enough, there were no difference in the preferences expressed based on the
organisational levels. With regard to the less preferred methods for training in hard or
technical skills, the following methods scored the lowest ratings (DePinto & Deal, 2004):

• One on one coaching (42%);

• Computer based training (41%);
• Web based training (28%);
• Discussion groups (26%);
• Case studies (24%);
• Peer interaction / feedback (24%)
• Assessment and feedback (20%);
• Computer based games or simulations (12%);
• Satellite / broadcast television / distance learning programmes (9%); and
• Games or simulations – non-computerised (5%).

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2.7.4 TOPICS TO BE COVERED IN NYM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

The focus of developmental interventions should be on fundamentals. It is no use telling

NYMs that they need to get results through others, but they do not know how to go about it.
They need basic management skills, including how to delegate and how to manage time,
workflow and projects (McDermott, 2001).

The development process should follow these guidelines (McDermott, 2001):

• Cultivate people management skills. NYMs would probably find becoming a manager a
breeze if they did no have to worry about managing and strengthening staff
performance, not to mention coping with their staffs’ various concerns, demands and
personalities. NYMs need basics in situational leadership, coaching, managing diversity,
meeting facilitation, conflict resolution, performance feedback, decision-making and
motivation.
• Teach team play. NYMs accustomed to functioning as isolated producers may feel
trepidation about interacting with management and other departments or business units
and might even resist. They may also be caught up trying to manage their staff,
resulting in tunnel vision with regard to their role with peers. They need skills in
collaboration, influence management, interpersonal dynamics, communication and
presentation. Down the road, conduct teambuilding sessions to fine-tune their teamwork
skills and motivate high-performance teamwork.
• Develop team leadership. NYMs need assistance to reach beyond supervisory,
administrative aspects of their jobs and learn how to lead their teams. The role of team
leader can be intimidating, and NYMs can be more comfortable dealing with people one-
on-one. Facilitation from an internal or external human resources or organisational
effectiveness consultant can help NYMs develop competencies in managing team
performance and process, building a team as a group, developing team members
individually, and managing team borders with regard to key stakeholders.
• Elicit strategic leadership. Another dimension of leadership that NYMs must step into is
exhibiting leadership in the organisation to act as a strategic business partner. That
relies on having a broad organisational perspective, developing innovative solutions and
prioritising and responding to demands for achieving business results. It can be hard for
NYMs to think “blue sky” when they are constantly being pulled down to earth by the
day-to-day concerns.
• Invite them to participate in meetings that address big-picture, long-term business issues.
Expose them to upper-management discussions. Ask them to write white papers on
strategic business issues (such as how to grow the business, cut costs, produce new

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products or offer new services), and identify ways their departments can contribute to
organisational success.
• Enhance their Emotional Intelligence (EI). Developing NYMs to become high achievers
and leaders requires attention to their level of EI, a term coined by Peter Salovey and
John Mayer, and popularised by Daniel Goleman. EI relates to abilities that can be
slotted into the categories of being self-aware and self-motivated, managing emotions,
having empathy and handling relationships. NYMs need to recognise that derailment on
the management track can often be due more to low EI than to lack of intelligence,
functional ability or technical expertise. Leadership models and development should
encompass a range of EI competencies, including flexibility, stress tolerance, cooperation
and interpersonal expertise.

At present there are a range of management development programmes that specifically

targets NYMs. These include, amongst others, the following:

Table 2.3: Management Development Programmes for New Young Managers

Institution Programme Content
IEDC – Bled School of Young Managers • General management
Management Programme • Marketing
• Project management
• Business strategy
• Finance & accounting
• Team skills
• Presentation skills
The Management Centre Emerging Managers • Fundamental “cornerstones” of a
Programme manager’s role
• Personal development plan
• Personal effectiveness
• Communication
• Motivation and performance
• Coaching and feedback skills
• Analysing and building teams
Siena College eMerging Manager • Strategy
Training Program • Marketing
• Sales
• Finance
• People
• Leadership

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Referring back to the study conducted by the Centre for Creative Leadership, respondents
were asked to rate the likelihood that they would seek development in a variety of topic areas
using a five-point Likert-type scale. 45% of the respondents indicated that they were likely
or very likely to seek development in the following areas in the next year (DePinto, 2003):

• Leadership
• Vision
• Performance appraisal
• Team building
• Problem solving / decision-making
• Public speaking / presentation skills
• Quality / process improvement
• Managing change
• Strategic planning
• Self-awareness
• Conflict management
• Management / business skills
• Communication skills
• Computer training
• Skills training in my field of expertise

According to Mondy et al (1999:276), supervisory training programmes may include the

following areas:

• Time management
• Planning, organising, decision-making and problem solving;
• Motivating, disciplining and appraising the performance of employees;
• Supervision, including delegation and giving constructive feedback;
• Interviewing skills;
• Conflict resolution;
• Diversity training; and
• Oral presentations.

Overall, Leadership and Skills training in my field of expertise were the areas in which
respondents were the most likely to indicate that they would seek development. With regard
to Computer training, Late Xer, Early Boomer and Silent Generation age cohort groups
express a higher level of interest than the Early Xer and Late Boomer age cohort groups.
Younger people were also more likely to say they would be interested in development in

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international business knowledge, international customs and foreign languages. This result
suggests that younger people have a greater focus on the global nature of their work than do
older people. With regard to entrepreneurialism, the younger an employee is, the more he
would like to receive training in this area. This may indicate that younger age cohorts have a
greater need to actively participate and be supported in innovative endeavours within their
organisations (DePinto, 2003).

It is further important to note that there are statistically significant differences at .05 level
between the organisation levels in terms of leadership, team building, vision, managing
change, conflict management, creativity, diversity, performance appraisals and coaching
skills. The top five soft skills that employees on the different organisation levels want to learn
can be set out as follows (DePinto & Deal, 2004):

Table 2.4: Top five soft skills required by employees per organisation level
Top / Upper Middle Middle Professional First level /
Executive Management Managers Hourly
Leadership Leadership Leadership Leadership Communication
skills
Team building Team building Team building Team building Team building
Vision Vision Managing change Communication Self-awareness
skills
Managing change Managing change Conflict Conflict Leadership
management management
Communication Conflict Vision Self-awareness Creativity
skills management

Employees indicated that they want to learn the following hard or technical skills: skills
training; problem solving / decision-making; computer training; strategic planning;
presentation skills; management / business skills; quality / process improvement; time
management; hiring / interviewing and training in international customs. All except skills
training showed statistically significant differences at .05 level between organisation levels.
The following gives an indication of the top five hard or technical skills needs per organisation
level (DePinto & Deal, 2004):

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Table 2.5: Top five hard/technical skills required by employees per organisation
level
Top / Upper Middle Middle Professional First level /
Executive Management Managers Hourly
Strategic planning Strategic planning Skills training Skills training Computer training
Problem solving / Skills training Problem solving / Computer training Skills training
decision-making decision-making
Skills training Problem solving / Strategic planning Problem solving / Problem solving /
decision-making decision-making decision-making

Management / Management / Management / Presentation skills Time

business skills business skills business skills management
Quality / process Quality / process Computer training Strategic planning Quality / process
improvement improvement improvement
Presentation skills Presentation skills

The study on the differences in the developmental needs of managers at multiple levels
reached the following conclusions (DePinto & Deal, 2004):

• Managers have an accurate perception of what training they need to be effective. This
being the case, efforts should be made to ensure that programmes are in place with the
appropriate topics targeted for each level.
• Traditional pedagogic methods are still preferred for learning hard or technical skills. This
training should be reinforced with relevant job assignment, especially for younger
employees.
• Soft skills may be introduced through traditional pedagogic methods, but they should be
reinforced through action learning groups.
• Investing in technology based training may not be truly cost effective if employees are
not receptive to those methods of content delivery.

2.7.5 IMPROVING THE RETURN ON INVESTMENT (ROI) ON NYMS

The need for upper management’s involvement and support in developing NYMs cannot be
overemphasised. The manager to whom a NYM reports should hold a quarterly, one-on-one
meeting with the NYM during the first 12 to 18 months to ensure regular performance
feedback. The manager should also fulfil the role of coach – a crucial but often sorely
neglected aspect of good leadership. Inexperienced managers who receive no conscious or
systematic coaching tend to feel isolated or left to fend for themselves. The message they
receive is “swim or sink” (McDermott, 2001).

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Along with ongoing development and coaching, management should convey its support and
encourage receptivity from the NYM’s group when he/she first takes charge. For example,
the management team or CEO could issue a written announcement describing the NYM’s
qualifications, reasons for selection and other information to introduce and promote the
appointment. The NYM’s manager could bring the NYM and his/her staff together for a
transition meeting, with the manager conducting the first part and then turning the meeting
over to the NYM. In addition, managers can set up meetings between the NYM and his/her
staff members and other key people the NYM will be working with, inside and outside of the
company, including customers and suppliers (McDermott, 2001).

Developing young managers is a bottom-line issue and sound business practice. Smart
companies take the responsibility of developing NYMs seriously, viewing and treating it as an
investment in a valuable asset and devoting time and resources needed to protect and grow
that investment. Ineffective performance costs an organisation, as do turnover and
replacement. Letting NYMs muddle their way through their first management assignment will
no doubt result in poor performance for the NYM, his/her staff and the organisation.
Investing in their development not only boosts performance, but also fosters their motivation
and loyalty. Young workers are known for putting a premium on training and development.
If they are not learning new skills and advancing in a marketable direction, they are unlikely
to stick around (McDermott, 2001).

2.8 EVALUATING MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

Developmental initiatives – when properly designed and carried out – link different kinds of
learning opportunities and occur over a period of time. They also link back to the
organisation so that individual development is connected to organisational goals in a cycle of
assessment, practice and learning. It could be argued that the results of such initiatives are
best measured with an evaluation process that is itself cyclical – not isolated in its methods or
defined by discrete points in time. Recognising the cyclical nature of evaluation allows
organisations to use them as planning and learning tools that augment the individual and
group impact of leadership development (Martinau & Hannu, 2003).

Change is the norm for many organisations, and evaluation can be a tool for enhancing and
dispersing organisational learning amid what can be seen as continuous transition. This
approach creates a fluid process for evaluating leadership development initiatives while
enhancing individual, group and organisational learning, rather than creating a measurement
system designed solely to create valid results (Preskill & Torres, 1999 in Martinau & Hannu,
2003).

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In line with this approach, the Centre for Creative Leadership has developed a framework for
the evaluation of leadership development. This framework can be set out as follows
(Martinau & Hannu, 2003):

• Focusing the evaluation: This phase includes learning and planning activities that guide
evaluators and others toward results that are relevant and beneficial. Activities that focus
an evaluation, which should ideally be conducted by the evaluator in conjunction with the
design or implementation of the initiative, include the following:
o Identify stakeholders for the initiative and for the evaluation;
o Determine the purpose of the initiative and the evaluation;
o Identify the resources available;
o Determine the level and type of impact;
o Surface expectations; and
o Draft evaluation questions and potential data-collection methods.
The complexity of organisational contexts and cultures combined with the complexity of
developing leaders requires processes to help stakeholders develop a common
understanding of issues, purposes and roles. Combining the design phases of the
evaluation and the initiative helps ensure the utility and efficiency of both processes. As
the evaluation project becomes more focused, this combination will assist in identifying
the right questions to ask to appropriate people. At the end of this phase, the evaluation
strategy would be finalised.
• Designing and conducting the evaluation: Once the focusing activities are complete, the
phase of designing and conducting the evaluation follows. In this phase evaluators and
key stakeholders design and apply the evaluation plan. Measuring and interpreting
degrees of change are complex endeavours. It is at this stage where research design
considerations such as using multiple data-collection techniques should be addressed. To
manage the evaluation project’s complexity, you can use the information stakeholders
have provided during the focusing stage to explore the benefits, drawbacks and caveats
associated with different evaluation techniques.
• Using evaluation findings: This final phase in the evaluation cycle is often overlooked.
Typically the results of the evaluation are compiled and reported by the evaluation team,
which includes evaluators and key stakeholders (supporters, staff and participants, for
example), and this team may also make preliminary recommendations for action.
However, organisational learning is the ultimate goal of a well-conceived and
professionally produced evaluation. Delivering a report with recommended actions is not
enough to realise that goal. Implementing and monitoring the action plan that arises
from evaluation help ensure that such learning will indeed take place.

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2.9 CONCLUSION

In conclusion it can be said that managers are mainly responsible for four functions, i.e.
planning, organising, leading and controlling. These functions are performed when managers
play the roles of figurehead, leader, liaison, monitor, disseminator, spokesperson,
entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator and negotiator. In order to play these
roles managers need technical, human and conceptual skills, which can be enhanced through
management development interventions. These interventions can take a number of forms,
but it normally strives to equip managers to achieve the organisation’s strategic objectives.

Management development interventions have evolved substantially over the past years, and
specific trends of the past, present and future have been elaborated on. Of particular interest
to the EMDP is the current and future trends, which include leadership development within
the context of work; a critical reflection about the role of competencies in leadership
development and the continued importance thereof; revisiting the issue of work/life balance;
the globalisation/internationalisation of leadership concepts, constructs and development
methods; the role of technology in management development; an increasing interest in the
integrity and character of leaders and the pressure to demonstrate return on investment.
Arguments regarding the third generation of leadership development programmes, which
focuses on managers’ own real life experiences and what can be learned from it, have also
been elaborated on.

Trends in management and leadership development curricula, such as the holistic approach
to leadership development in the 21st century, the inclusion of issues such as emotional
intelligence, servant leadership and leadership as a relationship have also been explored.
Notions such as competency modelling, the embedding of learning in the job and global
leadership have also been investigated as these might impact on the future content and
delivery methods of the EMDP.

Since the EMDP targets junior managers in the South African public service, attention was
devoted to the development of new young managers and their specific circumstances, which
include being less experienced and having less organisational maturity, having less protection
as a result of flatter organisation structures, having high expectations and new ideas, battling
with generational diversity, managing same-age peers, and proving themselves to upper
management by working long hours. Preferences in terms of how different generations
prefer to learn was analysed, and all age groups indicated that they prefer learning soft skills
through on the job interaction and one-on-one coaching, whilst all groups prefer classroom
instruction and on the job interaction for the learning of hard skills. Typical content to be

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included in management development programmes for new young managers include the
cultivation of people management skills, the teaching of team play, the development of team
leadership, eliciting strategic leadership, inviting them to participate in meetings that address
big-picture, long-term business issues, and enhancing their emotional intelligence.
Leadership, vision, performance appraisal, team building and problem solving/decision-
making were rated the top training needs. This provides a helpful checklist to determine
whether the EMDP covers the right content according to new young managers’ needs.

Lastly return on investment and methods for the evaluation of management development
interventions were discussed. If these are well understood, management development
programmes of a much higher quality and more profound impact can be developed, and
therefore taking cognisance of this can have a positive influence on future reviews of the
EMDP.

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CHAPTER 3: MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN PUBLIC SERVICE

Overview of the Study

(Chapter 1)

Overview of Management and

Leadership Development
(Chapter 2)

Management and Leadership

Development in the South
African Public Service
(Chapter 3)

Hypotheses and Research

Methodology
(Chapter 4)

Findings
(Chapter 5)

Discussion, Conclusions and

Recommendations
(Chapter 6)

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3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter will focus on the current situation pertaining to management and leadership
development in the South African public service. Specific attention will be paid to the South
African Management Development Institute (SAMDI) as organisation, the competency
frameworks and definition of constructs, as well as the Integrated Management Development
Model and Programme.

CHAPTER 3: MANAGEMENT & LEADERSHIP

DEVELOPMENT IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN PUBLIC
SERVICE

3.1 Introduction

3.2 The South African Management Development Institute

3.3 Competency Frameworks & Definition of Constructs

3.4 The Integrated Management Development Model & Programme

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3.2 THE SOUTH AFRICAN MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE

3.2.1 HISTORY

The South African Management Development Institute (SAMDI), the successor of the Public
Service Training Institute (PSTI), has a long and colourful history. SAMDI as it is known
today was established in 1994 – the exciting time when the world witnessed the dramatic
change of the political dispensation of South Africa (SAMDI, 2004).

Since the end of 1994, the composition, structure and the role of SAMDI had been under
review and an extensive process of restructuring started to enhance the relevance, quality
and effectiveness of its programmes and to pave the way for successful operation in a more
competitive environment. The proclamation of SAMDI as a Schedule 2 department (headed
by a Deputy Director-General) was the first phase in positioning itself to take its own
professional decisions regarding future operations. Although SAMDI increasingly became
responsible for its own affairs, it remained accountable to the Minister for Public Service and
Administration (MPSA) (SAMDI, 2004).

In October 1999 SAMDI was established as a fully-fledged Schedule 1 department. This

elevation by Cabinet meant that, as a department, SAMDI was to be headed by a Director-
General. Cabinet also gave a directive that SAMDI should be transformed into an effective
institution that plays a critical role in management and organisational development in order to
accelerate service delivery (SAMDI, 2004).

According to SAMDI’s latest strategic plan (2005b:7), SAMDI’s vision is to create a self-
sustaining organisational transformation centre of excellence for public service delivery. By
doing this, it will strive to enhance the capacity of the public service to deliver on the
strategic priorities of the South African Developmental State. In pursuance of this mission,
SAMDI will work actively to strengthen the link between learning and mission across the
public service. SAMDI will design and deliver quality interventions that are responsive to the
needs of management in the public services. These interventions will effect improved levels
of efficiency, effectiveness and service delivery through:

• Developing management and leadership abilities across the public service;

• Improving the functioning of the systems related to provisioning management and
administration in the public services;
• Developing and implementing systems that allow for the appropriate development and
utilisation of human resources in the public sector;

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• Offering training programmes to support the anti-corruption strategy being promoted

throughout government; and
• Extending the delivery impact of SAMDI across the continent so as to support the NEPAD
priority of effective and efficient public services.

In order to enable SAMDI to achieve these objectives, SAMDI will develop the requisite
institutional capacity to enable the institution to effectively and efficiently carry out the
activities outlined in the strategic plan, and to work as an institution that is able to continually
learn and that promotes lifelong learning for its staff. Through this approach to learning and
development SAMDI will strive to create a positive culture in which individuals are highly
motivated and productive (SAMDI 2005:8).

By offering relevant and quality interventions, and operating in a cost effective manner in line
with sound financial principles, SAMDI will be able to put in place a cost recovery strategy
coupled with donor mobilisation, which ensures its long-term sustainability (SAMDI 2005:28).

Presently SAMDI can present more than forty different courses – a complete list of these
courses is attached at Annexure A.

3.2.2 MANDATE

• Public Service Act, 1994, Chapter II Section 4 (2): "The institute (a) shall provide
such training or cause such training to be provided or conduct such examinations or tests
or cause such examinations or tests to be conducted as the Head: South African
Management and Development Institute may with the approval of the Minister decide or
as may be prescribed as a qualification for the appointment, promotion or transfer of
persons in or to the public service; (b) may issue diplomas or certificates or cause
diplomas or certificates to be issued to persons who have passed such examinations."

• Public Service Regulations, 2001, Chapter 1 Part IX, Paragraph C: "Training

directed by the Minister. C.1: The Minister may issue directives regarding the training of
employees or categories of employees in the Public Service. C.2: The Minister shall,
where appropriate, ensure that every institution responsible for training in the Public
Service and the training offered in the Public Service gains accreditation from the South
African Qualifications Authority. C.3: The department or training institution offering any
training directed by the Minister shall issue certificates in respect of such training when
completed successfully. All departments shall recognise those certificates.”

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• White Paper on Public Service Training and Education, 1997, Chapter 6,

Paragraph 6.8:
o 6.8.3: As part of the transition to a more competitive training environment, SAMDI
will, however, remain the most important statutory body in the provision of Public
Service training and education.
o 6.8.8: The focus of SAMDI will need to be redefined within the content of the above
framework. It is envisaged that SAMDI will focus its efforts on core competency
areas identified by the PSETO so that these priorities include the following transversal
areas: Public management training, Transversal government policies and practices,
The public policy process, and Public service delivery.
o 6.8.9: The role of SAMDI should ensure that it supports strategic government policy
initiatives, e.g. capacity building for departments and provinces in respect of
decentralisation and delegation of administrative powers.”

• Department of Public Service and Administration Cabinet Memorandum 23 of

2002, paragraph 2.7.2: "The role of the South African Management Development
Institute (SAMDI): A centralised training structure under the jurisdiction of SAMDI was
recommended. This would facilitate the co-ordination of training, needs analyses, skills
audits and public service training."

Further to the legislative mandate, the DG of SAMDI received a unique and challenging
mandate with his appointment – to turn SAMDI around! This meant that there was no longer
room for underperformance, and that a cost-recovery strategy had to be put in place so that
SAMDI eventually would be financially self-sustainable. SAMDI currently uses three sources
to fund the presentation of its courses, i.e. the departmental budget that is allocated to every
government department annually, funds made available by international donor organisations
as well as funds received from client departments for services rendered (cost recovery). Due
to the fact that SAMDI receives a very limited departmental budget, the majority of its
courses were previously funded by the European Union. These funds were only available
until the end of 2002. The successful implementation of a cost recovery strategy was thus
critical for SAMDI in order to survive since 2003. Recovered funds should be ploughed back
into training and development opportunities yet again (SAMDI Strategic Plan 2001: 47).

3.3 COMPETENCY FRAMEWORKS & DEFINITION OF CONSTRUCTS

In paragraph 2.6.5, competency modelling has been identified as one of the trends in
management and leadership development curricula. Competency frameworks have been
developed for the South African public service, and the identified competencies form the

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constructs measured by the study to determine the impact of the Integrated Management
Development Programme on the knowledge of learners. This chapter focuses on an
introduction to competency frameworks, the frameworks for the senior and middle managers
respectively, a comparison between the two frameworks and the definition of constructs.

3.3.1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPETENCY FRAMEWORKS

The Public Service Regulations (2001:7) defines competence as:

“… a blend of knowledge, skills, behaviour and aptitude that a person can apply in the work
environment, which indicates a person’s ability to meet the requirements of a specific post.”

A competency framework is the foundation for, and a key driver of, effective human resource
management. It describes the activities and behaviours of employees using a common set of
terms and scales, thus creating a common language across human resource (HR) processes.
Having the knowledge, skills, behaviours and attitudes described in a competency model is a
helpful tool that allows both the individual and the organisation to know what knowledge and
skills are required to be effective in a given role (Competency Framework for Senior
Management Services 2001:2).

3.3.2 COMPETENCY FRAMEWORK FOR THE SENIOR MANAGEMENT SERVICES (SMS)

The process of competency profiling in the South African public service started with the
introduction of the Competency Framework for the SMS in 2001. The SMS Competency
Framework defines the competencies that are important for the public service to be
successful, and ensures that senior managers have the requisite competencies and associated
proficiency levels to succeed at the strategic level (Competency Framework for SMS 2001:2).

The South African public service is divided into sixteen salary levels, and according to the
Public Service Regulations (2001:49) the SMS consists of employees:

(a) Who immediately before 1 January 2001 were remunerated on grade 13 and higher;
and
(b) Who were appointed to the SMS on or after 1 January 2001 in a permanent or
temporary capacity in posts of the fixed establishment.

The SMS Competency Framework has emerged from an exhaustive process of interviews,
desktop studies, surveys, focus group sessions and analyses. The data gathering exercise
spanned across the SMS and culminated in a wealth of raw data on behaviours. In the

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process a wide range of stakeholders, subject matter experts and senior managers were
consulted (Competency Framework for SMS 2001:2).

In developing the SMS Competency Framework, focus was placed on critical generic
competencies, which senior managers would be expected to possess, rather than functional /
technical competencies, which are essential to a specific department or a specific job. The
SMS Competency Framework consists of a set of eleven generic competencies that
communicate what is expected of senior managers. In addition, this Framework seeks to
establish a shared understanding of the critical success factors for performance in the SMS.
This Framework is based on the requirements for the whole of the SMS in both its current
and emerging form (Competency Framework for SMS 2001:1).

The competencies that were viewed as being of critical importance for high performance in
the senior manager’s role are:

Table 3.1: Senior Management Services Competencies and Definitions (SMS

Competency Framework 2001:7-22)
SMS COMPETENCIES DEFINITIONS OF COMPETENCIES
Must be able to provide a vision, set the direction for the
Strategic Capability & Leadership organisation and inspire others in order to deliver on the
organisational mandate.
Must be able to plan, manage, monitor and evaluate specific
Programme & Project Management
activities in order to deliver the desired outputs.
Must be able to compile and manage budgets, control cash
flow, institute risk management and administer tender
Financial Management procurement processes in accordance with generally
recognised financial practices in order to ensure the
achievement of strategic organisational objectives.
Must be able to initiate and support organisational
Change Management transformation and change in order to successfully implement
new initiatives and deliver on service delivery commitments.
Must be able to promote the generation and sharing of
Knowledge Management knowledge and learning in order to enhance the collective
knowledge of the organisation.
Must be able to explore and implement new ways of delivering
Service Delivery Innovation (SDI) services that contribute to the improvement of organisational
processes in order to achieve organisational goals.
Must be able to systematically identify, analyse and resolve
Problem Solving & Analysis existing and anticipated problems in order to reach optimum
solutions in a timely manner.

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SMS COMPETENCIES DEFINITIONS OF COMPETENCIES

Must be able to manage and encourage people, optimise their
People Management & Empowerment outputs and effectively manage relationships in order to
achieve organisational goals.
Must be willing and able to deliver services effectively and
Client Orientation & Customer Focus efficiently in order to put the spirit of customer service (Batho
Pele) into practice.
Must be able to exchange information and ideas in a clear and
concise manner appropriate for the audience in order to
Communication
explain, persuade, convince and influence others to achieve
the desired outcomes.
Must be able to display and build the highest standards of
Honesty & Integrity ethical and moral conduct in order to improve confidence and
trust in the public service.

The SMS Competency Framework has four proficiency levels that consist of specific
behavioural indicators that noticeably reflect different expected levels of performance or
expertise. The proficiency levels are as follows (SMS Competency Framework 2001:4):

• Basic: Applies basic concepts and methods but requires supervision and coaching.
• Competent: Independently develops and applies more advanced concepts and
methods. Plans and guides the work of others. Performs analysis.
• Advanced: Understands and applies more complex concepts and methods. Leads and
directs people or groups of recognised specialists. Able to perform in-depth analysis.
• Expert: Sought out for deep, specialised expertise. Leads the direction of the
organisation. Defines model / theory.

3.3.3 MIDDLE MANAGEMENT COMPETENCY FRAMEWORK (MMCF)

About a year after the introduction of the SMS Competency Framework, in 2002, the
Department for Public Service and Administration (DPSA) embarked on the process of
developing MMCF. In this competency framework two types of competencies have been
identified, i.e. Feeder competencies and Generic competencies. Specialist, unique and
occupational or functional competencies have not been developed. The MMCF provides a
common language for use in human resource development, selection, performance
management, job analysis and evaluation as well as organisational development. (MMCF
2003:3)

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3.3.3.1 FEEDER COMPETENCIES

Feeder competencies are those middle management competencies that all employees
entering the middle management ranks must possess or be able to demonstrate. If several
of these are at the advanced stage before entry into the middle management ranks, the
performance on the middle management generic competencies will be greatly enhanced. If
new employees join the public service as middle managers, then they are either selected for
those minimum competencies or acquire the necessary competencies (skills) at the
appropriate proficiency level automatically as part of their basic induction training (MMCF
2003:4).

Feeder competencies can be considered as those competencies that must be mastered before
undertaking the generic competencies for middle managers on salary levels eleven and
twelve. The establishing of feeder competencies ensures that all middle managers have the
same basic entry skills, which in turn support the abilities of managers to work together and
in a common way with internal and external customers, all according to a common framework
(MMCF 2003:4).

The feeder competencies, with their definitions, are as follows:

Table 3.2: Feeder Competencies and Definitions (Middle Management Competency

Dictionary 2003:9-28)
FEEDER COMPETENCIES DEFINITIONS OF COMPETENCIES
Must be able to consider the needs and difficulties of others and
take an active interest in their feelings, capabilities and
Concern for Others
perspectives in order to assist them with the difficulties they face
and act with integrity, warmth and concern.
Must be able to generate ideas, fresh perspectives and innovative
Creative Thinking approaches in order to contribute solutions to problems, overcome
constraints and generate new solutions to problems.
Must be able to display positive attitudes and behaviours, which
demonstrate an awareness and willingness to respond to
Customer Service Orientation
customers in order to respond to and meet their needs,
requirements and expectations.
Must be able to define issues, problems and opportunities,
generate different courses of action, evaluate the constraints and
Decision-Making risks associated with each course of action identified and selects
the viable option in order to address the problems and/or
opportunities identified.

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FEEDER COMPETENCIES DEFINITIONS OF COMPETENCIES

Must be able to work effectively, cooperatively and amiably with
persons of diverse intellectual or physical capabilities or racial,
Diversity Citizenship
cultural or gender backgrounds in order to create, participate and
promote harmonious and supportive relationships with others.
Must be able to produce written business or technical
communications and reports and communicate verbally in
Organisational Communication
meetings, public presentations, conversations and interviews in
Effectiveness
order to convey and communicate concepts, messages, decisions
and policies.
Must be able to identify and define problems, extract key
information from data and develop workable solutions for the
Problem Analysis
problems identified in order to test and verify the cause of the
problem and develop solutions to resolve the problems identified.
Must be able to use introspection, self-evaluation and self
Self Management management techniques in order to pro-actively and continuously
improve own behaviour and performance.
Must be able to work cooperatively with other individuals and
Team Membership makes valued contributions to the outputs of others in order to
assess own team or project to achieve the required outputs.
Must be able to apply the technical knowledge and skills required
Technical Proficiency
in the specialist and professional job role and responsibilities.

3.3.3.2 GENERIC COMPETENCIES

Generic competencies are those competencies that are required by middle managers in most
of their duties and activities throughout the public service. They do not include the specific
occupation or professional competencies, but only generic middle management
competencies. (MMCF 2003:4)

Table 3.3: Generic Competencies and Definitions (Middle Management Competency

Dictionary 2003:30-59)
GENERIC COMPETENCIES DEFINITIONS OF COMPETENCIES
Must be able to operationalise and implement the strategic
imperatives and policies as allocated to the work unit into services,
Applied Strategic Thinking products and implementation frameworks in order to convert and
implement strategic plans and policies in service delivery
programmes.
Must be able to effectively evaluate, identify and use appropriate
Applying Technology technologies in the workplace in order to enhance productivity,
efficiency, responsiveness and the quality of service provided in

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GENERIC COMPETENCIES DEFINITIONS OF COMPETENCIES

order to aid the achievement of the organisation’s goals and
objectives.
Must be able to plan the work unit budget and manage income and
expenditure, through responsible implementation of policies,
Budgeting & Financial Management
practices and decisions in order to achieve unit objectives
effectively and efficiently.
Must be able to collect data and information, analyse and translate
information into knowledge for planning, decision-making or
management reporting and to communicate and distribute to
Communication & Information different audiences, using a variety of information and
Management communication technologies (e.g. intranet, e-mail, video-
conferencing, telecommunications, etcetera) in order to provide
and communicate information for decision-making, reporting
document storage and planning.
Must be able to measure and improve or upgrade work methods,
procedures and systems and decrease costs in order to improve
Continuous Improvement
the quality and cost efficiency of services and products delivered to
customers.
Must be able to achieve excellence in delivering the planned
customers service outcomes (i.e. service levels and standards) for
Customer Focus & Responsiveness the department and monitoring the unit’s service delivery in order
to achieve the service delivery targets and to ensure the highest
level of customer care and customer satisfaction.
Must be able to develop and coach others and constructively
review the work of others in order to improve and advance the
Developing Others
skills, knowledge and performance levels of those who report to
them.
Must be able to adapt to diverse cultural practices, customs, values
and norms of individuals and groups in order to meet equity
Diversity Management
requirements, contribute to the transformation of work unit and
department.
Must be able to make impact, persuade and influence individuals
or groups in order to gain support and action for ideas, proposals
Impact & Influence
or initiatives put forward in order to achieve a specific objective or
result.
Must be able to anticipate, diffuse and resolve disagreements,
confrontations, tensions and complaints in a practical and
Managing Interpersonal Conflict & constructive manner in order to achieve results, solve service
Resolving Problems delivery difficulties, gain acceptance to plans, policy
implementation and proposals.

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GENERIC COMPETENCIES DEFINITIONS OF COMPETENCIES

Must be able to develop contacts and build and maintain a network
of professional relations in order to keep abreast of developments
Networking & Building Bonds
in other departments. Works cooperatively with other work units
and departments and develops reciprocal levels of support.
Must be able to plan and organise the work of the work unit and
groups, using goal setting, objectives, targets, creating work
Planning & Organising schedules and work plans with associated budgets and resources,
according to the department’s procedures, in order to achieve the
tasks, functions and results or outputs required of the work unit.
Must be able to solve problems by analysing situations and apply
critical thinking in order to resolve problems and decide on courses
Problem Solving & Decision-Making
of action and implement the solutions developed in order to
overcome problems and constraints.
Must be able to plan and manage projects by creating Work
Breakdown Schedules (WBS), activity schedules, time scales and
Project Management
timelines with associated budgets in order to deliver projects on-
time, within cost and at the required quality level.
Must be able to build cohesive and productive work and project
Team Leadership teams in order to achieve the required outputs, either as a work
unit or as a component within the organisation.

3.3.3.3 SPECIALIST COMPETENCIES

Specialist competencies refer to the specific occupational competencies that characterise the
specialist and/or technical component of each business unit or directorate. Specialist
competencies are the competencies by which the technical components of the public service
give expression to their work and tend to relate only to specific professional or occupational
functions, such as trade agreements, techno-economic, trade tariffs, legal drafting, business
regulation, etcetera. These do not form part of the MMCF. (MMCF 2003:4)

3.3.3.4 UNIQUE COMPETENCIES

Unique competencies are those competencies that are specific to a single or few individuals
or small groups of individuals undertaking very special or unique functions in the public
service (e.g. protocol management, translation, speech writing, etcetera). By the nature of
the competency the expertise that lies in a unique competency cannot be obtained generally
and is to be learned “on-the-job” and deals primarily with propriety or very specialised
knowledge. Thus, they apply to only a very few individuals and in most cases do not form
part of any competency framework. (MMCF 2003:4)

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3.3.3.5 PROFICIENCY LEVELS

The MMCF defines the capabilities to be demonstrated, assessed and/or ratified in order to
agree that a particular level of proficiency on a particular competency has been or can be
achieved. Three proficiency levels, which reflect the general behaviours that can be expected
for jobs at salary level eleven and twelve, have been established. These proficiency levels
are as follows (MMCF 2003:6):

• Basic: The proficiency level required to successfully perform at the level of “new
entrant” or a person who can only handle the competency in its “basic format” and
requires regular supervision and direction. The purpose of training and development is
to, at least, move the proficiency level from “basic” to “competent” for all middle
managers.
• Competent: The “competent” proficiency level indicates that the person can perform
the competency at the minimum required level without supervision. This is the standard
that any performance improvement programme and training or coaching effort seeks to
achieve.
• Advanced: This competency proficiency level indicates that the performer has fully
mastered the competency, works without supervision, is capable of instructing others on
the competency and capable of solving or applying the competency to a wide range of
new of different situations.

3.3.4 COMPARING THE MIDDLE MANAGEMENT AND SENIOR MANAGEMENT SERVICES COMPETENCY
FRAMEWORKS

Table 3.4: Comparison of Feeder, Generic and SMS Competencies (Middle

Management Competency Dictionary 2003:7)
FEEDER COMPETENCIES MIDDLE MANAGEMENT SMS COMPETENCIES
GENERIC COMPETENCIES
Creative Thinking Continuous Improvement Service Delivery Innovation
Customer Service Orientation Customer Focus and Customer Orientation and
Responsiveness Customer Service
Concern for others
Diversity Citizenship Diversity Management Change Management
Organisational Communication Communication and Communication
Effectiveness Information Management
Knowledge Management

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FEEDER COMPETENCIES MIDDLE MANAGEMENT SMS COMPETENCIES

GENERIC COMPETENCIES
Problem Analysis Problem Solving and
Problem Solving and Analysis
Decision-Making Decision-Making
Self Management Influence and Impact
Team Membership Team Leadership
Technical Proficiency
Applied Strategic Thinking Strategic Capability and
Leadership
Planning and Organising Programme and Project
Management
Project Management
Budgeting and Financial Financial Management
Management
Developing Others People Management and
Empowerment
Networking and Building
Bonds
Managing Interpersonal
Conflict and Resolving
Problems
Applying Technology
Honesty and Integrity

3.3.5 CONSTRUCT DEFINITION

For purposes of this study, the five competencies that appear on all the levels will be utilised.
These competencies can be clustered into the following categories:

1. Creativity for improved service delivery;

2. Customer care;
3. Diversity in the workplace;
4. Communication; and
5. Problem analysis, problem solving and decision-making.

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3.4 THE INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT MODEL & PROGRAMME

3.4.1 THE INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT MODEL (IMD-MODEL)

3.4.1.1 PURPOSE OF THE IMD-MODEL

SAMDI realised that there is a need for an integrated management development programme
in the South African public service – a programme that starts on supervisory or junior
management levels, continues through the middle management ranks and ultimately
concludes on the level of top executives. Subsequently SAMDI, in association with its service
providers, commenced with the development of an Integrated Management Development
Model. This was preceded by research on international and local best practice regarding
leadership and management. The research reflects current practices in fourteen countries
and made a comparative analysis between the most prominent management development
institutes in the world. The purpose of this model is to, for the first time, provide a coherent
and comprehensive career framework for leaders and managers in the South African public
service. To date management development has been approached in an ad hoc, on-the-spur-
of-the-moment fashion. Contrary to this, the IMD-Model stretches across the career span of
managers, focusing on the competencies and skills required for the particular level of
management that they find themselves in. As public officials progress through the
managerial ranks, their skills and knowledge are updated and enhanced through various
means to ensure the optimal functioning of managers in the South African public sector. The
integrated management development model, which is graphically depicted below, attempts
to provide a bird’s eye view of how leadership and management development can be
perceived in the public sector as a whole.

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Figure 3.1: Integrated Management Development Model (SAMDI 2005a:3)

3.4.1.2 SCOPE OF THE IMD-MODEL

The IMD-model covers both management and leadership competencies, packaged in a format
that provides the skills that managers need, as they need them. The first layer of the IMD-
model involves fully fledged residential management development programmes, collectively
known as the Integrated Management Development Programme (IMDP). The first
programme in the IMDP is the Foundation Management Development Programme for first line
supervisors, followed by the Emerging Management Development Programme for junior
managers, the Advanced Management Development Programme for middle managers, and
lastly the Presidential Strategic Leadership Development Programme, designed for senior and
executive managers. The latter 3 programmes are currently being implemented, whilst the
FMDP is currently under development.

The second layer of the IMD-Model consists of post-training support interventions, which may
involve seminars, indabas, workshops, colloquiums and other just-in-time interventions.

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The third layer concludes the management development process, and covers back-home
interventions such as coaching, mentoring, rotation, job enrichment, etc.

All components are embedded in the South African public service’s Human Resource
Development Strategy, and are aligned with the requirements of the skills development
legislation and the National Qualifications Framework.

3.4.1.3 TARGET GROUP

The IMDP focuses on four levels of management, i.e.:

1. First Line Supervisors: First-line supervisors on salary levels 3-5, who needs skills
such as self management, as well as a basic understanding of management principles
and what it entails.
2. Emerging Managers: Junior managers on salary levels 6-8 who have more
responsibilities than just being a functional specialist – they also have to manage
outputs, people, budgets, etcetera.
3. Middle Managers: The engine room of the public service – managers employed on
salary levels 9-12 who are responsible for operational management.
4. Executive Managers: Senior public officials employed on salary levels 13-16, who are
responsible for the strategic directions their organisations pursue.

3.4.2 THE INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (IMDP)

3.4.2.1 BACKGROUND

To address the need for practical, relevant training courses for managers on all levels, four
core training programmes have been designed. These have been discussed above.

In designing the Integrated Management Development Programme, four sources of

information played a major role in determining the course content for the mentioned
programmes. These information sources are the Competency Frameworks, consultations with
top-level executives (specifically Directors-General), literature reviews as well as a nationwide
training needs analysis.

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3.4.2.2 COMPETENCY FRAMEWORKS AND THE IMDP

The development and content of the Competency Frameworks were discussed in detail
earlier. In short, the Department for Public Service and Administration (DPSA) developed
two competency frameworks, i.e. the Senior Management Service (SMS) competency
framework, as well as the Middle Management Competency Framework (MMCF). In the
MMCF two sets of competencies were developed, i.e. feeder competencies and generic
competencies. The four programmes in the IMDP are all aligned to the competency
frameworks, and this can be set out as follows:

Table 3.5: Links between the Integrated Management Development Programme

and Competency Frameworks

COMPETENCY MODULE
Concern for Others Human Resource Management
Creative Thinking Thinking skills
Development Programme
Competency Framework)

Foundation Management
Feeder Competencies
(Middle Management

Customer Service Orientation Service Orientation

Decision-Making Thinking Skills
Organisational Communication Communication
Effectiveness
Problem Analysis Thinking Skills
Self Management Personal Mastery
Team Membership Management Principles and
Processes
Diversity Citizenship Human Resource Management
Concern for Others Customer Care / Supervisory
Management
Development Programme
Competency Framework)

Emerging Management
Feeder Competencies
(Middle Management

Creative Thinking Problem Analysis & Decision-Making

Customer Service Orientation Customer Care
Decision-Making Problem Analysis & Decision-Making
Organisational Communication Organisational Communication
Effectiveness Effectiveness
Problem Analysis Problem Analysis & Decision-Making
Self Management Self Management
Team Membership Supervisory Management
Diversity Citizenship Supervisory Management

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COMPETENCY MODULE
Applied Strategic Thinking Strategic Management

Advanced Management Development Programme

Budgeting and Financial Public Finance Management
Generic Competencies (Middle Management

Management
Communication and Information Knowledge Management
Management
Continuous Improvement Project Management
Competency Framework)

Customer Focus and Enhancing Service Delivery

Responsiveness
Developing Others People Performance Management
Diversity Management People Performance Management
Impact and Influence Results through Leadership
Managing Interpersonal Conflict and People Performance Management
Resolving Problems
Networking and Building Bonds Results through Leadership
Planning and Organising Project Management
Problem Solving and Decision- Policy Management & Public
Making Accountability
Project Management Project Management
Team Leadership People Performance Management
Strategic capability and leadership Strategy into Action
Senior Management Services Competency

Management and Leadership Skills

Policy formulation and Policy and Knowledge Management
Presidential Strategic Leadership

implementation
Development Programme

Communication Communication Strategies

Client orientation and customer Service Delivery
focus
Framework

People management and Human Resource Management

empowerment
Knowledge management Policy and Knowledge Management
Financial management Financial Management
Programme and project Project Management
management
Service delivery innovation Service Delivery
Change management Management and Leadership Skills
Problem solving and analysis Project Management

3.4.2.3 CONSULTATIONS

In 2000, when the need for a high-level, strategic, visionary training programme was
identified, the Presidential Strategic Leadership Development Programme (PSLDP) was born.
This was the culmination of President Thabo Mbeki’s vision to increase the leadership capacity
amongst senior managers in the Public Service. Extensive consultations with top-level
executives took place, and ultimately the key focus areas of the PSLDP were determined to
include the following (8 modules x 3 days each):

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• Strategy into Action;

• Service Delivery;
• Finance Management;
• Policy and Knowledge Management;
• Human Resource Management;
• Communication Strategies;
• Management and Leadership Skills; and
• Project Management.

In 2002 a need was identified for training in Ethics and Risk Management, and it has been
decided that this will be added as the ninth module of the PSLDP. With the inception of the
IMDP in 2003, the PSLDP has been subjected to an intensive reviewing process to ensure that
the course content is still appropriate and up-to-date.

3.4.2.4 TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS

In 2003 SAMDI conducted a nationwide training needs analysis amongst emerging and
middle managers, as well as their supervisors, to determine the course content for the EMDP
and the AMDP. More than a thousand emerging and middle managers, and over a hundred
and eighty of their supervisors, participated in this initiative. The questionnaires were based
on the feeder and generic competencies for the emerging and middle managers’ analyses
respectively.

As a result of the training needs analysis it was determined that the courses would be
developed according to the following outline:

1. Emerging Management Development Programme: (2 blocks x 5 days each)

• Block 1: Contextualising the Role of the Public Official
o Public Affairs in Context
o Problem Analysis and Decision-Making
o Self Management
• Block 2: The Complete Supervisor
o Customer Care
o Supervisory Management
o Organisational Communication Effectiveness
o Quality Assurance
(It is envisaged that this programme framework will be revisited in 2006, with the
possibility of expanding the course to 15 days also being explored)

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2. Advanced Management Development Programme: (3 blocks x 5 days each)

• Block 1: Strategy and Policy
o Strategic Management
o Knowledge Management
o Policy Management and Public Accountability
• Block 2: Practising Public Management
o Public Finance Management
o Project Management
o Enhancing Service Delivery
• Block 3: Integrating the People Factor
o Results through Leadership
o People Performance Management
o Completing the Public Service Puzzle (extensive competency assessment)

3.4.2.5 LITERATURE REVIEWS

In 2004, when SAMDI commenced with the development of the Foundation Management
Development Programme, the managers realised that a substantial amount of experience
have been gained through the process of designing and developing the EMDP and AMDP.
Subsequently SAMDI conducted an in-house literature review in order to determine the
content of the FMDP. Course frameworks of similar courses and research related to the
topics to be covered were studied. In the end the following framework was approved for the
FMDP, which will be 10 days in duration:

• Self management;
• Management principles and processes;
• Service orientation;
• Thinking skills;
• Communication;
• Stock and financial management; and
• Human resource management.

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3.4.2.6 STRUCTURE OF THE INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

The Integrated Management Development Programme can be illustrated as follows:

- Certificate of competence / attendance

Executive Management - Currently under review
& Leadership - Credits per programme to be
Development Portfolio determined
Entry:
*To be determined

- Certificate of competence
Advanced Management - 92 Credits
Development - Admission to Masters programme
Programme (AMDP)
- (University entry requirements apply)
Entry:
*Level 9-12
*Gr. 12

- Certificate of competence
Emerging Management - 36 of 92 Credits
Development - Admission to Honors programme
Programme (EMDP)
- (University entry requirements apply)
Entry:
*Level 6-8
*Gr. 12

- Certificate of competence
Foundation - Currently under development
Management - Number of credits to be determined
Development
Programme (FMDP)
Entry:
*Levels 3-5
*Basic literacy at NQF level 4

Figure 3.2: Integrated Management Development Programme (SAMDI 2005a:4)

3.4.2.7 BUILDING BLOCKS

As indicated in the chapter regarding the competency frameworks, some competencies are
key requirements on all levels of management. The level on which the competency is
displayed often intensifies on the higher ranks. The IMD-model has identified the
competencies that are required on all managerial levels, and the four programmes have been
designed in such a fashion that these competencies are addressed in all the programmes,
building on what has been learned in the previous course. In Figure 3.2 above, the
competencies that are covered in all three core programmes are clearly indicated. The
competencies presented as part of all three programmes also include competencies identified
as priority areas in the public service, such as financial management skills.

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3.4.2.8 SYSTEMATIC AND STRUCTURED RECOGNITION

As a final step, the IMD-model allows for systematic and structured recognition. The existing
three programmes in the IMDP carry educational credits, which are acknowledged by all
tertiary institutions in South Africa. It is envisaged that the successful completion of the
FMDP will also lead to the acquiring of educational credits. The recognition received upon
successful completion of the existing programmes, can be set out as follows:

Table 3.6: Summary of Integrated Management Development Programme

Accreditation and Recognition

PROGRAMME NQF- SELECTION RECOGNITION

LEVEL CRITERIA

Emerging Management 5 • Salary levels 6- • Certificate of Competence

Development 8; issued by the University of
Programme • Supervisory Pretoria;
responsibilities • 36 of the 92 credits
• Gr. 12 / required for the
equivalent undergraduate subject
qualification; Public Administration,
• Recommended provided that the candidate
by immediate meets the admission
supervisor requirements of the
• Satisfactory University of Pretoria;
performance • Successful participants,
assessment wishing to further their
over past 12 formal education and who
months; and are in possession of a B-
• Available to degree or equivalent
complete both qualification in Public
blocks of the Administration, will be
EMDP. admitted unconditionally to
the Honours programme in
Public Administration at the
University of Pretoria.
Advanced Management 6 • Salary levels 9- • Certificate of Competence
Development 12; issued by the University of
Programme • Grade 12 or Pretoria;
equivalent • 92 credits required for the

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PROGRAMME NQF- SELECTION RECOGNITION

LEVEL CRITERIA

qualification; undergraduate subject

• Recommended Public Administration,
by supervisor; provided that the candidate
• Satisfactory meets the admission
performance requirements of the
assessment University of Pretoria;
over past • Successful participants,
twelve months; wishing to further their
• Preferably from formal education and who
previously are in possession of a B-
disadvantaged degree or equivalent
groups, qualification, coupled with
especially black at least four years
women; and managerial experience, will
• Available to be admitted unconditionally
complete all to the Masters in Public
three blocks of Administration (MPA) at the
the AMDP. University of Pretoria.
Presidential Strategic 7 • Senior • 128 credits on level 7 of the
Leadership managers on National Qualifications
Development salary levels Framework;
Programme 13-16 • The programme is
• Gr. 12 or accredited by the University
equivalent of Potchefstroom and the
qualification University of North West;
• Successful participants may
apply, subject to normal
selection, to register for the
Masters Degree in Public
Management and
Governance (MPG) at
University of the Northwest.

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CHAPTER 4: HYPOTHESES & RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY

Overview of the Study

(Chapter 1)

Overview of Management and

Leadership Development
(Chapter 2)

Management and Leadership

Development in the South
African Public Service
(Chapter 3)

Hypotheses and Research

Methodology
(Chapter 4)

Findings
(Chapter 5)

Discussion, Conclusions and

Recommendations
(Chapter 6)

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4.1 INTRODUCTION

As indicated in the problem statement (refer to section 1.3), this study attempts to answer
the question “Is there an increase in the knowledge of delegates that attended the EMDP?”
In order to find an answer to this question, it has to be broken down into measurable pieces.
This chapter focuses on the hypotheses (measurable pieces) that were tested by this study,
as well as the methodologies that were used to do so.

CHAPTER 4: HYPOTHESES & RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Hypotheses

4.3 Methodology

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4.2 HYPOTHESES

According to Cooper & Schindler (1998:43) a hypothesis can be defined as a proposition (a

statement about concepts that may be judged as true or false if it refers to observable
phenomena) that is formulated for empirical testing. The following main hypothesis is tested:

• H0 = There is no increase in the knowledge of delegates that attended the

EMDP.
• Ha = There is an increase in the knowledge of delegates that attended the
EMDP.

4.3 METHODOLOGY

4.3.1 DESIGN OF THE STUDY

According to Cooper & Schindler (1998: 131), a research study can be described by means of
seven descriptors. According to these descriptors, this study’s design can be classified as
follows (Cooper & Schindler 1998:131):

• Degree of research question crystallisation: A formal study is a study that begins with a
hypothesis or research question and involves precise procedures and data source
specifications. The goal of a formal research design is to test the hypotheses or to
answer the research questions posed. This type of study is opposed to exploratory
studies, which aim to develop hypotheses or questions for further research. In this case
a formal study with a hypothesis, involving precise procedures and data source
specifications is more appropriate as the objective of the study is to determine whether
the knowledge levels of delegates that attended the EMDP increased or not.
• Method of data collection: When using the interrogation or communication mode, the
researcher questions the subjects and collects their responses through personal or
impersonal means. In contrast hereto are observational studies, where information is
obtained through inspection of activities of a subject without attempting to elicit
responses from anyone. In this case delegates were questioned by means of a
questionnaire, and subsequently the interrogation or communication mode was used. It
would be very difficult if not impossible to determine whether delegates’ knowledge of
management has increased through an observation study.
• Researcher control of variables: Ex post facto design studies are those where the
investigator has no control over the variables in the sense of being able to manipulate
them. This is opposed to experiments, where the researcher attempts to control and/or

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manipulate variables in the study. Since the researcher could not control the delegates’
knowledge levels in any way, this is an ex post facto study.
• Purpose of the study: Research that is concerned to find who, what, where, when or
how much are referred to as descriptive studies. If it is concerned with learning why, it is
a causal study. Since this study aimed to determine whether there was an increase in
the knowledge of delegates that attended the EMDP (how much do they know?) this is a
descriptive study.
• Time dimension: Longitudinal studies are those that are repeated over an extended
period, in contrast with cross-sectional studies that are carried out once and represent a
snapshot of one point in time. This study is a longitudinal study as it aimed to capture
delegates’ growth in knowledge (or lack thereof) over a period of time.
• Topical scope: A statistical study is designed for breadth rather than depth. They
attempt to capture a population’s characteristics by making inferences from a sample’s
characteristics. Hypotheses are tested quantitatively. Generalisations about findings are
presented based on the representativeness of the sample and the validity of the design.
On the other side of the spectrum are case studies, which place more emphasis on fewer
events or conditions in their interrelations. Although hypotheses are used, the reliance
on qualitative data makes support or rejection thereof more difficult. This study is a
statistical study in which the hypothesis is tested quantitatively, and where
generalisations are based on the representativeness of the sample and the validity of the
design.
• Research environment: Here distinctions are made between field conditions and
laboratory conditions. This study took place in “real life”, not in a laboratory of some
kind.

4.3.2 POPULATION AND SAMPLE

The target population for the EMDP course, i.e. public servants on salary levels 6-8 with
managerial responsibilities, consists of about 570 000 junior managers. It was agreed that a
representative sample should be drawn from delegates that attended the EMDP in 2004/05.
Delegates had to identify themselves in the questionnaires so that “before” and “after” results
can be compared.

In order to determine the sample size, the Factor Analysis “Rule of Thumb”, i.e. Q (variables)
number x 5, was used. In this case the number of 25 statements (variables) contained in the
questionnaire was multiplied by 5 respondents per item = 125 questionnaires, rounded up to
150 questionnaires in case some questions were not answered. Subsequently it was agreed

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that at least 150 pre- and post-course questionnaires should be obtained from delegates that
attended the EMDP.

4.3.3 KEY METHODS OF ANALYSIS

As already mentioned, the hypothesis for this study is as follows:

• H0 = There is no increase in the knowledge of delegates that attended the

EMDP.
• Ha = There is an increase in the knowledge of delegates that attended the
EMDP.

In order to determine which statistical test should be used, at least three questions should be
considered, i.e. (Cooper & Schindler, 1998:479):

• Does the test involve one sample, two samples or k samples?

In this case there are two samples, i.e. the completed pre-course questionnaires and the
completed post-course questionnaires.
• If two samples or k samples are involved, are the individual cases independent or related?
The two samples are related, as there is a phenomenon that is measured twice. In such
a case both parametric and nonparametric tests are applicable.
• Is the measurement scale nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio?
In this case the measurement data is ratio, as it represents actual amounts of the
variable (i.e. test results before and after attending the EMDP).

The following table indicates the recommended statistical techniques by measurement level
and testing situation (Cooper & Schindler 1998:480):

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Table 4.1: Recommended statistical techniques by measurement level and testing situation (Cooper & Schindler, 1998:480) (Shading by author
for emphasis)

Measurement level One-sample case Two-samples case k-samples case

Related samples Independent samples Related samples Independent samples
Nominal Binomial McNemar Fischer exact test Cochran Q χ2 for k samples
χ2 One sample test χ2 Two samples test
Ordinal Kolmogorov-Smirnov one- Sign test Median test Friedman two-way Median extension
sample test Wilcoxon matched pairs Mann-Whitney U test ANOVA Kruskal-Wallis one-way
Runs test Kolmogorov-Smirnov ANOVA
Wald-Wolfowitz
Interval & ratio t-test t-test for paired samples t-test Repeated measures One-way ANOVA
Z-test Z-test ANOVA N-way ANOVA

As indicated in Table 4.1, this study is firstly a two samples case. Secondly the cases are related, and thirdly ratio data is used. From this it becomes clear
that the t-test for paired samples should be used to determine whether there are any differences in the results obtained in the pre-course and post-course
questionnaire for a particular item. The significance level was taken as α = 0.05.

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Once it has been established where significant differences in the results of the pre- and post-
course questionnaires occurred, the Generalised Linear Model (GLM) was used to determine
whether the change in marks (in cases where significant changes did occur) was different for
the respective demographic groups. Lastly, if the GLM did indicate changes in marks for
particular demographic groups, Scheffe’s test was conducted to determine amongst which
demographic groups these changes occurred.

4.3.4 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT

Five competencies, i.e. creative thinking, customer service orientation, diversity management,
organisational communication effectiveness and problem analysis & decision-making appear
on all three competency levels (Feeder, Generic and SMS). When the questionnaire was
developed, five statements were developed for each of these crosscutting competencies
based on the theory contained in the EMDP manual. The competencies on which the
questionnaire was based are as follows (with the modules in which they are covered indicated
in brackets):

Table 4.2: The Relationship between competencies from the different competency
frameworks (and the modules of the respective programmes in which they are
covered) and the questions where they are covered in the survey.
FEEDER COMPETENCIES QUESTION NUMBERS
Creative Thinking (Creative thinking) Questions 2, 7, 12, 17 and 22
Customer Service Orientation (Customer care) Questions 3, 8, 13, 18 and 23
Diversity Citizenship (Supervisory management) Questions 4, 9, 14, 19 and 24
Organisational Communication Effectiveness (Organisational Questions 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25
communication effectiveness)
Problem Analysis Decision-Making Questions 1, 6, 11, 16 and 21
(Problem analysis & decision-making)

Respondents were requested to indicate, on a scale of 1-4, to what extent they agree with a
statement. Marks for the answers will be allocated on the same scale, i.e. 4 marks for a
correct answer, down to 1 mark for the most incorrect answer. Examples of the pre- and
post-course questionnaires are attached as Annexure B and C respectively.

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4.3.5 DATA COLLECTION METHOD

Questionnaires were distributed with other course materials (manuals etc.) to all groups
attending the EMDP. Facilitators were given briefing notes to have the pre-course
questionnaires completed before they commence with the training on the first day of the first
block, and to have the post-course questionnaires completed on the last day of Block 2, after
the training has been completed.

4.3.6 DATA PROCESSING

One hundred and eighty six sets of pre- and post-course questionnaires were obtained and
the data contained therein was captured. As already mentioned, the initial idea was to test
the five competencies that appear on all three levels of the competency frameworks.
Questionnaires were developed for this purpose and statements were based on the theory
contained in the EMDP manual. Delegates had to indicate the extent to which they view a
statement as correct on a scale of 1-4, i.e. 4 = correct (no mistakes in statement), 3 =
mostly correct (one mistake in statement), 2 = mostly incorrect (numerous mistakes in
statement) and 1 = incorrect (statement is completely wrong). This can be illustrated as
follows:

Table 4.3: Examples of statements and ratings

Statement 1 2 3 4
1 The decision-making process consists of three steps, i.e. the X
development of alternatives, the analysis of alternatives and the choice
of the best alternative.
2 Creativity means doing things completely different to others – it always X
involves radical changes.
3 To treat citizens as customers implies listening to their views, treating X
them with consideration and respect, ensuring that service is always of
the highest quality, and responding swiftly and sympathetically when
standards fall below the promised level.
12 Creativity is something people are born with, although a limited X
number of people can learn to be creative.

Scores were derived from the ratings allocated by the delegates. Four marks were allocated
for a correct answer, three for a mostly correct answer, two for a mostly incorrect answer,
and 1 for an incorrect answer. As illustrated in table 4.4, respondents had to allocate a rating

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of 1-4 according to the correctness of the statement. The allocation of marks can be set out
as follows:

Table 4.4: Mark allocations for the different ratings

Ratings and marks 1 2 3 4
Mark allocations in cases where the correct rating is a 1: 4 3 2 1
Mark allocations in cases where the correct rating is a 2: 3 4 2 1
Mark allocations in cases where the correct rating is a 3: 1 2 4 3
Mark allocations in cases where the correct rating is a 4: 1 2 3 4

The following table illustrates the frequencies of the different pre-course ratings per item:

Table 4.5: Frequencies of different pre-course ratings per item (number of

delegates that chose the particular rating indicated per question)
Variable Item 1 2 3 4 Not
indicated
1
2
3
4 Demographic information

5
6
7
8
9 Steps in the decision-making process 15 13 47 103 8
10 Scope of creativity 36 23 79 45 3
11 Treating citizens as customers 8 3 36 137 2
12 Purpose of affirmative action 15 19 66 83 3
13 Definition of interpersonal 69 49 45 20 3
communication
14 Requirements for the development of 18 17 65 83 3
alternatives
15 Definition of creativity 13 11 28 130 4
16 Definition of consulting 10 9 41 118 8
17 Characteristic of diversity 78 22 44 36 6
18 Types of non-verbal communication 27 45 83 28 3
19 Definition of impulsive decision-making 22 30 54 71 9

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Variable Item 1 2 3 4 Not

indicated
20 Characteristic of creative people 22 21 66 74 3
21 Number of Batho Pele principles 65 7 26 82 6
22 Resistance to diversity management 15 17 65 86 3
23 Types of verbal communication 27 13 86 59 1
24 Human factors in decision-making 16 22 66 78 4
25 Strategies for improving creativity 62 31 43 46 4
26 Features of government information 12 8 50 112 4
programmes
27 Relation between diversity management 8 16 43 114 5
and other strategies
28 Vertical communication 54 17 43 68 4
29 Management styles 18 21 41 103 3
30 Factors hampering creativity 18 13 51 100 4
31 Definition of redress 60 49 56 17 4
32 Factors underpinning valuing diversity 14 23 54 86 9
33 Improving active listening skills 13 8 32 130 3

The following table illustrates the frequencies of the different post-course ratings per item:

Table 4.6: Frequencies of different post-course ratings per item (number of

delegates that chose the particular rating indicated per question)
Variable Item 1 2 3 4 Not
indicated
1
2
3
4 Demographic information

5
6
7
8
9 Steps in the decision-making process 9 13 54 107 3
10 Scope of creativity 35 22 68 59 2
11 Treating citizens as customers 5 3 22 155 1
12 Purpose of affirmative action 12 19 64 91 0

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Variable Item 1 2 3 4 Not

indicated
13 Definition of interpersonal 54 36 68 28 0
communication
14 Requirements for the development of 17 26 69 72 2
alternatives
15 Definition of creativity 16 6 38 123 3
16 Definition of consulting 14 8 42 114 8
17 Characteristic of diversity 88 16 28 52 2
18 Types of non-verbal communication 22 40 84 35 5
19 Definition of impulsive decision-making 20 23 50 89 4
20 Characteristic of creative people 29 18 58 79 2
21 Number of Batho Pele principles 107 8 29 35 7
22 Resistance to diversity management 20 24 63 78 1
23 Types of verbal communication 24 6 57 98 1
24 Human factors in decision-making 19 23 73 67 4
25 Strategies for improving creativity 49 22 39 74 2
26 Features of government information 7 15 50 110 4
programmes
27 Relation between diversity management 9 11 58 106 2
and other strategies
28 Vertical communication 89 13 24 57 3
29 Management styles 5 22 44 113 2
30 Factors hampering creativity 20 19 46 97 4
31 Definition of redress 93 37 40 14 2
32 Factors underpinning valuing diversity 14 25 70 74 3
33 Improving active listening skills 5 7 15 157 2

In order to evaluate the integrity of the questionnaires in terms of measuring the five
competencies as was envisaged, a factor analysis was conducted. This process indicated that
the questionnaire did not measure five competencies, but two factors – one strong and one
weak factor (Cronbach alpha values of 0.735 and 0.447 respectively), were identified.
However, when comparing the differences in the results of the pre- and post-course
questionnaires of these two factors, there were no significant differences.

Due to the fact that the factors did not show any significant changes, the individual items
were considered once more. T-tests were conducted, and ten items showed significant
differences (mostly improvements). These items are discussed in more detail in Chapter 5.

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CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS

Overview of the Study

(Chapter 1)

Overview of Management and

Leadership Development
(Chapter 2)

Management and Leadership

Development in the South
African Public Service
(Chapter 3)

Hypotheses and Research

Methodology
(Chapter 4)

Findings
(Chapter 5)

Discussion, Conclusions and

Recommendations
(Chapter 6)

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5.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter the differences in the knowledge levels of delegates before and after
attending the EMDP, in cases where they occurred, are discussed.

CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Findings

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5.2 FINDINGS

This section contains details on the differences (i.e. post-course score minus pre-course
score) found between the pre- and post-course questionnaires, where applicable. In cases
where significant changes were found (i.e. p-values that are smaller than 0.05), further
analysis in terms of the demographical groups amongst which these changes occurred, were
conducted (as set out in Chapter 4). The findings are reported below.

Demographical information as obtained from the questionnaires can be summarised as

follows:

Table 5.1: Respondents’ overall race distribution

Race Frequency Percentage
Black 150 80.6
White 12 6.5
Coloured 9 4.8
Asian 14 7.5
Not indicated 1 0.5

Table 5.2: Respondents’ overall gender distribution

Gender Frequency Percentage
Male 91 48.9
Female 95 51.1
Not indicated 0 0

Table 5.3: Respondents’ distribution between national and provincial

departments
Sphere of government Frequency Percentage
National 57 30.6
Provincial 129 69.4
Not indicated 0 0

Table 5.4: Length of respondents’ employment in the public service

Length of service Frequency Percentage
0-5 years 31 16.7
6-10 years 29 15.6
11-15 years 36 19.4

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Length of service Frequency Percentage

16-20 years 39 21
21+ years 33 17.7
Not indicated 18 9.7

Table 5.5: Distribution of respondents’ highest qualification

Highest qualification Frequency Percentage
School qualification 64 34.4
Certificate / Diploma 77 41.4
Degree 23 12.4
Postgraduate 21 11.3
Not indicated 1 0.5

Table 5.6: Distribution of formal qualifications (National Certificate or higher) in

the field of Public Management / Administration
Formal qualification? Frequency Percentage
Yes 46 24.7
No 135 72.6
Not indicated 5 2.7

From the above tables it becomes clear that most of the respondents in this survey were
black, but that the distribution amongst males and females was basically equal. The
respondents are mainly employed in the provincial sphere of government, and on average
have 16-20 years of experience in the public service. Most of the respondents have a
National Certificate or Diploma, which qualification is mostly not in the field of Public
Management / Administration.

When t-tests were conducted on the difference in results between the pre- and post-course
tests, no significant changes were found in the differences (post-course score minus pre-
course score) of the following variables (p-values are larger than 0.05), and subsequently no
further analysis was conducted on these items:

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Table 5.7: Items where no significant differences occurred between pre- and
post-course testing
Variable Statement Pre- Post- p-value of
course course difference
mean mean
9 Steps in the decision-making process: 3.0225 3.1257 0.2542
The decision-making process consists of
three steps, i.e. the development of
alternatives, the analysis of alternatives and
the choice of the best alternative.
10 Scope of creativity: Creativity means 2.2732 2.1793 0.3522
doing things completely different to others –
it always involves radical changes.
12 Purpose of affirmative action: 3.0929 3.1129 0.6449
Affirmative action attempts to monitor and
control the changing demographics of an
organisation. It always promotes the
interests of blacks, women and the disabled.
14 Requirements for the development of 3.1639 3.0652 0.2258
alternatives: The requirements for the
development of alternatives are creativity
and experience.
15 Definition of creativity: Creativity 3.5110 3.4645 0.6157
includes the ability to take existing things
and combine them in different ways for new
purposes.
16 Definition of consulting: Consulting the 1.5000 1.5618 0.7411
users of services calls for the public service
to treat citizens with courtesy and
consideration.
17 Characteristic of Diversity: Diversity is a 2.7889 2.7609 0.8754
negative aspect of our community that
always leads to conflict.
18 Types of non-verbal communication: 2.9126 3.0000 0.3534
Non-verbal communication includes sign
language, vocal intonation, appearance as
well as spoken words.

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Variable Statement Pre- Post- p-value of

course course difference
mean mean
20 Characteristic of creative people: 1.9454 1.9239 0.9478
Creativity is something people are born with,
although a limited number of people can
learn to be creative.
22 Resistance to diversity management: 3.2131 3.0757 0.1391
The main resistance to managing diversity
comes from denial and the difficulty involved
in learning new skills and adapting to
different ways of solving problems.
24 Human factors in decision-making: 1.9011 1.9891 0.3888
Human factors in decision-making include
personal value systems, body language and
attitudes.
26 Features of government information 3.0989 3.1154 0.7558
programmes: Government information
programmes should not be limited to
disseminating factual information; it must
also induce the citizen to take action.
27 Relation between diversity 3.0608 3.1577 0.1996
management and other strategies: In
some cases diversity management should be
aligned to the organisational strategy and
the human resource strategy.
30 Factors hampering creativity: Being too 3.0110 2.9286 0.3505
busy, not allowing you time to relax and a
lack of competition in the present
environment can hamper motives for
creative input.
32 Factors underpinning valuing diversity: 3.1977 3.1148 0.3413
Valuing diversity is driven by ethics and
assumes that a common set of values will be
created.

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In Table 5.7 it is shown that no significant changes occurred after the intervention in 15 of
the 25 items. From this it is clear that the learners’ knowledge did not increase significantly
after the training programme.

In terms of the items contained in Table 5.8 below, t-tests proved significant changes in the
difference between the pre- and post-course questionnaires. Further analysis was then
conducted to determine whether any particular demographic group (grouped in terms of
race, gender, experience (years of service), highest qualification and whether a delegate had
formal training in the field of Public Management / Administration) played a role in terms of
which groups gained more from the programme than others.

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Table 5.8: Items where differences between pre- and post-course testing did occur
Variable Statement Pre-course Post-course p-value of Comments
Mean Mean difference
11 Treating citizens as 3.6413 3.7676 0.0299 The correct rating for this question was a 4, as it does not
customers: To treat citizens contain any mistakes. The p-value indicates a significant
as customers implies listening to improvement in the difference between the pre- and post-
their views, treating them with course questionnaires. However, when conducting the
consideration and respect, GLM, it became clear that there were no differences
ensuring that service is always between the different race or gender groups.
of the highest quality, and Distributions between national and provincial
responding swiftly and departments, qualifications and more specifically
sympathetically when standards qualifications in the field of Public Management /
fall below the promised level. Administration did not play a role in this regard either (p-
value is 0.5433).
13 Interpersonal 2.2240 2.5914 0.0019 This statement is mostly correct (rating of 3), as it should
communication: be “e.g. in a group, in a lecture, or in mass
Interpersonal communication communication”. The p-value for this item indicates a
takes place when two people highly significant improvement in the score between the
communicate face to face, e.g. pre- and post-course questionnaires. When conducting
man and animal, plant or any the GLM, a p-value of 0.0470 is obtained, indicating that
other object. the changes occurred amongst particular demographic
groups. In analysing which demographic characteristics

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Variable Statement Pre-course Post-course p-value of Comments

Mean Mean difference
show differences through Scheffe’s test, it becomes clear
that both experience (years of service) and formal training
received in the area of Public Management /
Administration played a role (p-values of 0.0044 and
0.0271 respectively). Please refer to Table 5.13, 5.14,
5.15 and 5.16 below for further details in this regard.
19 Definition of impulsive 2.0169 1.8571 0.0454 This statement is completely incorrect (rating of 1), as the
decision-making: Impulsive definition for intuitive decision-making was given. The p-
decision-making can be defined value on the t-tests for this item indicates a significant
as a decision that is reached decrease in the scores between the pre- and post-course
based on a “hunch” or gut questionnaires. When conducting the GLM, a p-value of
feeling of the decision-maker. 0.3273 was obtained, indicating that the decrease could
not be attributed to any specific demographic group.
21 Number of Batho Pele 2.3056 3.0447 0.0000 This statement is incorrect (rating of 1), as there are only
principles: There are ten eight Batho Pele principles. The p-value for this item
Batho Pele principles. indicates a highly significant improvement in the
difference between the results of the pre- and the post-
course questionnaires. However, when conducting the
GLM, it becomes clear that these changes appeared
across demographical groups and that no group gained

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Variable Statement Pre-course Post-course p-value of Comments

Mean Mean difference
significantly more from the course than another group (p-
value = 0.6131).
23 Types of verbal 2.9568 3.2378 0.0032 This statement is correct; therefore a rating of 4 should
communication: Verbal be given. The p-value for this item indicates a highly
communication refers to written significant change in the improvement between the results
and spoken words. of the pre- and the post-course questionnaires. However,
the GLM proves yet again that these changes appeared
across all demographical groups and that no group gained
significantly more from the course than another group (p-
value = 0.3998).
25 Strategies for improving 2.4011 2.7500 0.0009 This statement is correct; therefore a rating of 4 should
creativity: In order to be be allocated. The p-value for this item indicates a highly
more creative, one has to significant change in the difference of the results of the
surround yourself with people pre- and post-course questionnaires. In terms of the GLM
that love and support you. it is clear that demographics played a role in this question
(p-value = 0.0008) – in this case particularly qualifications
(p-value = 0.0002). Please refer to table 5.17 and 5.18
for more information in this regard.

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Variable Statement Pre-course Post-course p-value of Comments

Mean Mean difference
28 Vertical communication: 2.3132 2.7322 0.0006 This statement is wrong (rating of 1), as the definition for
Vertical communication takes horizontal communication is provided. In terms of the
place between staff members or difference between the pre- and post-course results, a
departments on the same levels highly significant improvement occurred. However, the
within the same office, GLM indicates that this change appeared yet again across
department or branch. the board, and could not be allocated to any demographic
group (p-value = 0.8573).
29 Management style: There 3.2514 3.4402 0.0382 This statement is correct; therefore a rating of 4 should
are four basic management be allocated. The p-value for this item indicates a
styles, i.e. supporting, coaching, significant change in the difference of the results of the
delegating and directing pre- and post-course questionnaires. In terms of the GLM
management styles. it is clear that demographics played a role in this question
(p-value = 0.0.0014) – in this case particularly
qualifications (p-value = 0.0010). Please refer to table
5.19 and 5.20 for more information in this regard.
31 Definition of redress: 2.8352 3.1359 0.0019 This statement is completely wrong, and therefore
Redress implies that public receives a rating of 1. The p-value in this case indicates a
institutions should strive to significant change in the results of the pre- and post-
deliver a better service to all – it course questionnaires. However, the GLM indicates that
will, however, not be possible to it is similar in all the demographic groups (p-value =

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Variable Statement Pre-course Post-course p-value of Comments

Mean Mean difference
apologise to all unhappy 0.9957).
customers and therefore one
should not waste your time
trying to do so.
33 Improving active listening 3.4246 3.7609 0.0033 A 4 is awarded to this statement as it contains no
skills: Active listening can be mistakes. When conducting a t-test on the difference in
improved by being motivated, the results of pre- and post-course results, the p-value
making eye contact, showing indicates a highly significant improvement, but the GLM
interest, avoiding distracting yet again indicates that it could not be attributed to any
actions, and so forth. demographic group (p-value = 0.5115).

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Significant differences (95% significance level) could be attributed to certain demographic

groups in three cases (variable 13, 25 and 29). These areas are discussed below.

5.2.1 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION (VARIABLE 13)

Table 5.9: Difference between pre- and post-course means of groups with
different years of experience in terms of interpersonal communication (Variable
13)
Difference
Years experience Pre-course mean Post-course mean
between means
0-5 years 2.5102 2.2857 -0.2245
6-10 years 2.1034 2.7586 0.6552
11-15 years 2.2059 2.4722 0.2059
16-20 years 2.0769 2.8974 0.8205
21+ years 2.0938 2.6667 0.5312

Comparison of pre- and post-course means:

Definition of interpersonal communication in terms of
Years of service
2.8974
2.7586

2.6667
2.5102

2.4722
2.2857

2.2059
2.1034

2.0938
2.0769

3
2.5
Mean value

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21+
Years of service

Pre-course mean Post-course mean

Figure 5.1: Graphic illustration of comparison of pre- and post-course means of

groups with different years of service in terms of interpersonal communication
(Variable 13)

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Table 5.10: Comparison of differences between means of groups with different

years of experience in terms of the definition of interpersonal communication
(Variable 13)
Comparison of
Years experience differences between Significance level
means
21+ vs. 0-5 0.7729
21+ vs. 6-10 -0.0442
Not significant
21+ vs. 11-15 0.3969
21+ vs. 16-20 -0.2937
16-20 vs. 0-5 1.066 P < 0.05
16-20 vs. 6-10 0.2495
16-20 vs. 11-15 0.6906
11-15 vs. 0-5 0.3760 Not significant
11-15 vs. 6-10 -0.4411
6-10 vs. 0-5 0.8171

Table 5.9 and Figure 5.1 illustrate the differences between the means of the pre- and post-
course results for interpersonal communication for groups with different levels of experience.
When these differences are compared, Scheffe’s test indicates that delegates with 16 to 20
years of experience gained significantly more from the course than the delegates with 0 to 5
years of experience. The results of Scheffe’s test are set out in Table 5.10.

Table 5.11: Difference between means of groups with different levels of formal
training in the field of Public Administration / Management in terms of the
definition of interpersonal communication (Variable 13)
Formal training Difference
Pre-course mean Post-course mean
received between means
Yes 2.3043 2.3479 0.0435
No 2.1955 2.6519 0.4361

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Comparison of pre- and post-course means:

Definition of interpersonal communication in terms of
Formal qualifications in the field of Public Admin/ Management

2.6519
2.3479
2.3043

2.1955
3

Mean value
2
1
0
Yes No
Formal qualification in Public Management /
Admin?

Pre-course mean Post-course mean

Figure 5.2: Graphic illustration of comparison of pre- and post-course means of

groups with and without formal qualifications in the field of public management
and administration in terms of the definition of interpersonal communication
(Variable 13)

Table 5.12: Comparison of differences between means of groups with and

without formal training in the field of Public Administration / Management in
terms of the definition of interpersonal communication (Variable 13)
Comparison of
Formal training received differences between Significance level
means
Yes vs. No -0.4128 P < 0.05

Table 5.11 and Figure 5.2 illustrate the differences between the means of the pre- and post-
course results for the interpersonal communication for groups with and without formal
qualifications in the field of public management / administration. When these differences are
compared, Scheffe’s test indicates that delegates without formal qualifications gained
significantly more from the course than the delegates who already have a formal qualification
in this subject area. The results of Scheffe’s test are set out in Table 5.12.

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5.2.2 STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING CREATIVITY (VARIABLE 25)

Table 5.13: Differences between means of groups with different levels of

qualifications in terms of strategies for improving creativity (Variable 25)
Level of Difference
Pre-course mean Post-course mean
qualifications between means
School 2.6452 2.4762 -0.1475
Diploma / certificate 2.4533 2.9211 0.4933
Degree 2.1304 2.5217 0.3913
Postgraduate 1.7619 3.1905 1.4286

Comparison of pre- and post-course means:

Strategies for improving creativity in terms of
Level of qualifications

3.1905
2.9211
2.6452

2.5217
2.4762

2.4533

4
2.1304

1.7619
3
Mean value

2
1
0
School Diploma / Degree Postgraduate
certificate
Level of qualification

Pre-course mean Post-course mean

Figure 5.3: Graphic illustration of comparison of pre- and post-course means of

groups with different levels of qualifications in terms of strategies for improving
creativity (Variable 25)

Table 5.14: Comparison of differences between means of groups with different

levels of qualifications in terms of strategies for improving creativity (Variable 25)
Comparison of
Qualifications differences between Significance level
means
Postgraduate vs. Degree 1.0373
Not significant
Postgraduate vs. Diploma / Certificate 0.8943
Postgraduate vs. School 1.6150 p < 0.05
Degree vs. Diploma / Certificate -0.1429
Not significant
Degree vs. School 0.5777
Diploma / Certificate vs. School 0.7207 p < 0.05

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Table 5.13 and Figure 5.3 illustrate the differences between the means of the pre- and post-
course results in terms of strategies for improving creativity for groups with different levels of
qualifications. When these differences are compared, Scheffe’s test indicates that delegates
with postgraduate qualifications, as well as those with diplomas and certificates, gained
significantly more from the course than the delegates who only had school qualifications.
The results of Scheffe’s test are set out in Table 5.14.

5.2.3 MANAGEMENT STYLES (VARIABLE 29)

Table 5.15: Differences between means of groups with different levels of

qualifications in terms of management style (Variable 29)
Level of Difference
Pre-course mean Post-course mean
qualifications between means
School 3.5714 3.3333 -0.2581
Diploma / certificate 3.1733 3.4605 -0.2933
Degree 3.0435 3.5652 0.5217
Postgraduate 2.8095 3.5238 0.7143

Comparison of pre- and post course means:

Management style in terms of
Level of qualifications
3.5238
3.5714

3.5652
3.4605
3.3333

3.1733

3.0435

2.8095

4
3
Mean value

2
1
0
School Diploma / Degree Postgraduate
certificate
Level of qualification

Pre-course mean Post-course mean

Figure 5.4: Graphic illustration of comparison of pre- and post-course means of

groups with different levels of qualifications in terms of management style
(Variable 29)

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Table 5.16: Comparison of differences between means of groups with different

levels of qualifications in terms of management style (Variable 29)
Comparison of
Qualifications differences between Significance level
means
Postgraduate vs. Degree 0.1925
Not significant
Postgraduate vs. Diploma / Certificate 0.3718
Postgraduate vs. School 0.9810 p < 0.05
Degree vs. Diploma / Certificate 0.1793 Not significant
Degree vs. School 0.7884 p < 0.05
Diploma / Certificate vs. School 0.6091 p < 0.05

Table 5.15 and Figure 5.4 indicate the differences between the means of the pre- and post-
course results in terms of management style for groups with different levels of qualifications.
When these differences are compared, Scheffe’s test indicates that delegates with
postgraduate qualifications, degrees, as well as those with diplomas and certificates, gained
significantly more from the course than the delegates who only had school qualifications.
The results of Scheffe’s test are set out in Table 5.16.

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CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION &

RECOMMENDATIONS

Overview of the Study

(Chapter 1)

Overview of Management and

Leadership Development
(Chapter 2)

Management and Leadership

Development in the South
African Public Service
(Chapter 3)

Hypotheses and Research

Methodology
(Chapter 4)

Findings
(Chapter 5)

Discussion, Conclusions and

Recommendations
(Chapter 6)

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6.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter discusses the findings as set out in the previous chapter and draws conclusions
regarding possible reasons for these findings, and thereafter makes recommendations
regarding possible actions that could be taken in future.

CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS &

RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Discussion of Findings

6.3 Conclusions

6.4 Recommendations

6.5 Limitations of the Study

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6.2 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

As already indicated, no significant changes were found between the pre- and post-course
results of 15 of the 25 items, and subsequently the null-hypothesis (H0 = there is no increase
in the knowledge of delegates that attended the EMDP) has to be accepted.

When the factor analysis was conducted, one weak and one strong factor were identified. A
possible reason for this could be the fact that management competencies are very much
interrelated, and therefore a clear distinction in terms of different factors could not be made.

For a small number of the individual items contained in the questionnaires significant changes
occurred amongst certain demographical groups. These cases can be summarised as follows:

6.2.1 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION (VARIABLE 13):

In the case of this item delegates with 16-20 years’ experience gained significantly more from
the course than delegates with 0-5 years’ experience. This could be the result of a number of
factors, amongst which the following:

• Delegates with 0 to 5 years’ experience were appointed in the new dispensation and legal
framework and were therefore exposed to this new situation right from the start of their
careers, whilst those with 16 to 20 years’ experience started their careers in the previous
dispensation and therefore had a lot more to learn on the programme, which covered the
latest legislation etc.
• Delegates with 16-20 years’ experience have been in the system for quite some time, and
subsequently they have a well-established frame of reference. This frame of reference
enables the transfer of learning as the delegates can process the new information easily
in terms of real life situations.

Significant differences occurred between groups with formal training in the field of Public
Administration / Management as well – delegates without this type of formal qualification
gained significantly more than those without. Possible reasons include:

• Since the EMDP is based on the content of the university subject Public Administration
which is presented over the first year and a half of studies towards a degree in this field,
delegates who are already in possession of a qualification in Public Administration /
Management may have experienced the course content as “nothing new”, whilst

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delegates without a qualification in this field of expertise probably had an eye-opening

experience.

6.2.2 STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING CREATIVITY (VARIABLE 25):

In the case of this item delegates with postgraduate qualifications, as well as those with
diplomas and certificates, gained significantly more from the course than delegates who only
had school qualifications. Factors leading to this result may be:

• Delegates with postgraduate qualifications and those with diplomas and certificates have
been involved with training and development after school, and therefore they were in a
position to learn easier as they are more used to it. Delegates who only have school
qualifications may be a little out of practice in this regard, and therefore they gained less
from the programme.
• The issue of a frame of reference again plays a role here – delegates with post-school
qualifications have been exposed to more theories and arguments, and therefore have a
broader frame of reference through which they can make sense of all the information
obtained through the programme.

6.2.3 MANAGEMENT STYLES (VARIABLE 29):

In the case of this item all delegates with post-school qualifications gained significantly more
from the course than delegates who had school qualifications only. In this case possible
reasons can again be the following:

• Delegates with post-school qualifications have been involved with training and
development after school, and therefore they may be in a position to learn easier as they
are more used to it. Delegates who only have school qualifications may be a “little out of
practice” in this regard, and therefore they gained less from the programme.
• The issue of a frame of reference again plays a role here – delegates with post-school
qualifications have been exposed to more theories and arguments, and therefore have a
broader frame of reference through which they can make sense of all the information
obtained through the programme.
• Further to this, delegates with post-school qualifications have background experience that
may assist in making knowledge more applicable.

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6.3 CONCLUSIONS

This study could not prove an increase in the knowledge of delegates that attended the
Emerging Management Development Programme. According to Mondy et al (1999:260),
much remains to be discovered regarding the learning process, but several generalisations
may assist in understanding the phenomenon of the transfer of knowledge. These include:

• Learners progress in an area of learning only as far as they need to in order to achieve
their purposes.
• Individuals are more likely to be enthusiastic about a learning situation if they themselves
have participated in the planning and implementation of the project.
• What is learned is more likely to be available for use if it is learned in a situation much
like that in which it is to be used and immediately preceding the time it is needed.
• Practice may not make perfect, but it does make “better”. Repeating the performance of
a task is an almost certain approach for performance improvement.
• Depending on the type of training, a wise move may be to space the training sessions.
For example, the period of time between training sessions for highly complex tasks may
need to be increased to permit the learning to be assimilated.

From these generalisations the following may be concluded:

• The wrong people were nominated to attend the courses, and as a result of this limited
progression took place since the delegates that did attend the courses, were not on the
right levels to benefit from the programme.
• The nomination process is often controlled centrally, leaving delegates little if any room
for participation in the planning and implementation of the training project. Delegates
are often informed of training programmes at the last minute, and therefore they do not
have the opportunity to participate in the planning and implementation of the training
programme, which results in negative attitudes towards the training programmes they
are sent on.
• Enough time should be allowed in the training programme for a number of repetitive
exercises in order to ensure that delegates grasp the underlying principles properly.

Other possible questions include:

• The effectiveness of the course may be questionable as no significant increase in the

knowledge of delegates was found.

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• All facilitators may not be evenly and suitably equipped and skilled to present the EMDP,
which will have an impact on the extent to which knowledge is transferred.
• The attitudes and willingness of learners (buy-in) to participate in the programme could
also be questioned – were they there because they wanted to be there, or because the
boss sent them?
• Although the questionnaires’ development were based on the Middle Management
Competency Framework, and despite the fact that questions were developed based on
the content of the Emerging Management Development Programme’s official course
documentation, delegates were not in a position to answer the detailed questions to such
an extent that a significant change could be observed.

6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS

Speculative recommendations can be made on a number of levels. In this case

recommendations will be focused on matters that SAMDI can influence and/or control. The
view is held that the implementation of the following recommendations can lead to an
improvement in the successful transfer of knowledge:

• It is recommended that the SAMDI project manager have face-to-face meetings with
clients enrolling for the EMDP, in order to explain and motivate the selection criteria of
the programme. If clients have an in-depth understanding of the reasoning behind it,
they may put more effort into identifying the right people to attend the programme.
• Delegates nominated for the EMDP should have a particular need for development in this
area, as identified in their Personal Development Plans (PDPs). Further to this delegates
should be consulted timely regarding the envisaged training intervention so that they can
make the necessary arrangements to attend the training programme. Although these are
the responsibilities of the departments concerned, SAMDI can require copies of PDPs in
order to ensure that the nominee really requires training in this particular field. SAMDI
can also put measures of communication with the individual delegates in place – SMS
alerts and notifications, etcetera.
• Time should be allowed for experienced reflections. Even though the EMDP targets junior
managers, they all have some level of experience and they can benefit tremendously
from each others’ experiences, if only allowed to share those. In terms of the action
learning cycle, this step is often neglected, whilst numerous methods of reflection, e.g.
learning journals, morning reflections, and the writing of reflection papers can be
employed very successfully.
• SAMDI has realised that the allocated ten days for the EMDP is not sufficient – it is
recommended that the process of extending the duration to fifteen days be fast-tracked

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so that delegates can start benefiting from the additional time allocation as soon as
possible. This change should ensure that sufficient time for repetitive activities as well as
for reflections are available.
• At present the EMDP is presented in the form of workshops (classroom-type training). In
terms of the proliferation of leadership development programmes (refer to 2.5.1 above),
classroom-type leadership training should be complemented by activities as diverse as
high ropes courses or reflective journaling. Since developmental experiences are likely to
have the greatest impact when they can be linked to or embedded in a person’s ongoing
work and when they are an integrated set of experiences, it is recommended that SAMDI
explore alternative methods to supplement classroom-type leadership training.
• It has been reported that some of the EMDP groups consisted of delegates that were
quite diverse in terms of their experience, levels of qualifications, etc. Since it has been
proven that, at least in some cases, both these factors play a role in determining whether
delegates’ knowledge levels increase significantly or not, it is recommended that
delegates with more homogenous demographics be grouped together in attempt to group
learners that will move at more of less the same pace together.
• If delegates were informed that they would be completing the same test after the
completion of the programme as well, the results may have been more favourable.
• In terms of the content of the EMDP, the following is recommended:
o Course content should focus on the basics – it is no use telling junior managers that
they should achieve results through people, but not how to go about it. (Refer to
sub-section 2.7.4 above.)
o The issue of work/life balance is currently not addressed in the materials. In an
environment of constant change and unrelenting competition, managing stress and
personal renewal to avoid burn-out are becoming a central focus for leadership
development. (Refer to sub-section 2.5.2 above.)
o Soft skills, including self-awareness and management, emotional intelligence, “the
voice within”, honesty, being forward-looking and credibility could be emphasised
more.
o Studies indicate that younger employees have a keen interest in the global nature of
their work, and therefore it is recommended that an introduction to global initiatives
such as NEPAD be included in the course as well.
• Lastly it is recommended that the impact of this training programme be investigated in a
broader sense, i.e. after the delegates completed their Portfolios of Evidence, and after
they had the opportunity to implement what they have learned.

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6.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The findings of this study were limited by the following aspects:

• Although the questionnaires’ development were based on the Middle Management

Competency Framework, and despite the fact that questions were developed based on
the content of the Emerging Management Development Programme’s official course
documentation, delegates were not in a position to answer the detailed questions to such
an extent that a significant change could be observed.
• The questionnaires were completed before the first block started, and on the last day of
the second block. It can be argued that in-depth learning did not take place in that
period – after the completion of Block 2 delegates have to complete a detailed work-
based Portfolio of Evidence, and the actual learning may only take place at this stage
when delegates engage with the materials and integrate the theory with their practical
situations.
• Results may have been more positive if a second post-course questionnaire were
completed after some time (e.g. one year after the completion of the course).
• The course is approached in a very practical way, where the pre- and post-course
questionnaires focussed mainly on the theoretical information contained in the course
manuals. These differences in emphasis may have caused results that are not a true
reflection of the knowledge that were transferred.

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Annexure A

ANNEXURE A: LIST OF SAMDI COURSES

CHANGE MANAGEMENT AND SERVICE DELIVERY IMPROVEMENT

1. Batho Pele leadership engagements
2. Batho Pele implementation for middle managers
3. Induction & reorientation
4. Compulsory frontline staff training
5. Change management
6. Conflict resolution
7. Anti-corruption & ethics management
8. Excellent customer service:
9. Service delivery improvement plans
10. Team development
11. Administrative Justice Act
12. Executive support staff programme
13. Policy development & implementation
14. Diversity management
15. Gender equality and mainstreaming
16. Disability management

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT TRAINING PROGRAMMES

17. Human resource management
18. Labour relations
19. Job evaluation
20. Job evaluation panel training

INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (IMDP)

21. Foundation Management Development Programme (FMDP)
22. Emerging Management Development Programme (EMDP)
23. Advanced Management Development Programme (AMDP)
24. Presidential Strategic Leadership Development Programme (PSLDP)
25. Executive Leadership Programme
26. Senior Executive Programme
27. Mentorship training portfolio

SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT TRAINING PROGRAMMES

28. Logistical information system (LOGIS) I

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Annexure A
29. Logistical information system (LOGIS) II
30. Acquisition management
31. Asset management
32. Supply chain management I
33. Supply chain management II
34. Provisioning and logistical management III

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT TRAINING PROGRAMMES

35. Training of trainers (TOT) programme
36. Presentation and facilitation skills
37. HIV/AIDS training and HIV/AIDS for government planners
38. Manage HIV/AIDS in the workplace
39. Skills development facilitation
40. Assessor training
41. Employee wellness programme

FINANCIAL & PROJECT MANAGEMENT

42. Finance for non-financial managers
43. Financial administration
44. Project management
45. Operational planning & budgeting
46. Contract management
47. Business plan development training

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Annexure B

ANNEXURE B: PRE-COURSE QUESTIONNAIRE

Dear EMDP-Delegate,

You are kindly requested to complete the following questionnaire, which forms an important part of an approved study to
determine the degree to which the Emerging Management Development Programme transfers vital knowledge. All
information will be treated as confidential, and no individual results will be used.

SECTION A: BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION FOR OFFICE USE

1. Initials and surname: V1 1 1

2. ID or passport number: V2

3. Race (Please indicate with an X): 2-14

1: Black 2: White 3: Coloured 4: Asian V3 15
4. Gender (Please indicate with an X):
1: Male 2: Female V4 16
5. Are you employed in a National or Provincial department (Please
indicate with an X)?
1: National 2: Provincial V5 17
6. How long (number of years) have you been in the Public Service?
V6 18-19
7. Highest qualification (Please indicate with an X):
1: Gr. 10/Std 8 2: Gr. 12/Matric 3: Certificate 4: Diploma V7 20

5: Degree 6: Honours 7: Masters 8: Doctorate

9: Post Doctorate

8. Did you receive formal training (National Certificate or higher

qualification) in the field of Public Management / Administration
(Please indicate with an X)?
V8 21
1: Yes 2: No

9. Dates for attending the EMDP (if scheduled already):

Block 1: Block 2:

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Annexure B

SECTION B: SCENARIO TESTING

Please indicate whether you think the statements below are:
4 = Correct (No mistakes in statement)
3 = Mostly correct (One mistake in statement)
2 = Mostly incorrect (Numerous mistakes in statement)
1 = Incorrect (Statement is completely wrong)
PLEASE CHOOSE ONLY ONE OPTION. Circle the option you choose.

Statements 1 2 3 4 For office use

1 The decision-making process consists of three steps, i.e. 1 2 3 4
V9 22
the development of alternatives, the analysis of
alternatives and the choice of the best alternative.
2 Creativity means doing things completely different to 1 2 3 4
V10 23
others – it always involves radical changes.
3 To treat citizens as customers implies listening to their 1 2 3 4
views, treating them with consideration and respect,
V11 24
ensuring that service is always of the highest quality,
and responding swiftly and sympathetically when
standards fall below the promised level.
4 Affirmative action attempts to monitor and control the 1 2 3 4
changing demographics of an organisation. It always
V12 25
promotes the interests of blacks, women and the
disabled.
5 Interpersonal communication takes place when two 1 2 3 4 V13 26
people communicate face to face, e.g. man and animal,
plant or any other object.
6 The requirement for the development of alternatives is 1 2 3 4 V14 27
creativity and experience.
7 Creativity includes the ability to take existing things and 1 2 3 4
combine them in different ways for new purposes. V15 28
8 Consulting the users of services calls for the public 1 2 3 4
service to treat citizens with courtesy and consideration. V16 29
9 Diversity is a negative aspect of our community that 1 2 3 4
always lead to conflict. V17 30
10 Non-verbal communication includes sign language, vocal 1 2 3 4
intonation, appearance as well as spoken words.
V18 31
11 Impulsive decision-making can be defined as a decision 1 2 3 4
that is reached based on a “hunch” or gut feeling of the V19 32
decision-maker.
12 Creativity is something people are born with, although a 1 2 3 4
limited number of people can learn to be creative. V20 33
13 There are ten Batho Pele principles. 1 2 3 4
V21 34
14 The main resistance to managing diversity comes from 1 2 3 4
denial and the difficulty involved in learning new skills V22 35
and adapting to different ways of solving problems.
15 Verbal communication refers to written and spoken 1 2 3 4 V23 36
words

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Annexure B

For office use

Statements 1 2 3 4
16 Human factors in decision-making include personal value 1 2 3 4 V24 37
systems, body language and attitudes.
17 In order to be more creative, one has to surround 1 2 3 4
V25 38
yourself with people that love and support you.
18 Government information programmes should not be 1 2 3 4
V26 39
limited to disseminating factual information; it must also
induce the citizen to take action.
19 In some cases diversity management should be aligned 1 2 3 4 V27 40
to the organisational strategy and the human resource
strategy.
20 Vertical communication takes place between staff 1 2 3 4 V28 41
members or departments on the same levels within the
same office, department or branch.
21 There are four basic management styles, i.e. supporting, 1 2 3 4 V29 42
coaching, delegating and directing management styles.
22 Being too busy, not allowing you time to relax and a lack 1 2 3 4 V30 43
of competition in the present environment can hamper
motives for creative input.
23 Redress implies that public institutions should strive to 1 2 3 4 V31 44
deliver a better service to all – it will, however, not be
possible to apologise to all unhappy customers and
therefore one should not waste your time trying to do
so.
24 Valuing diversity is driven by ethics and assumes that a 1 2 3 4 V32 45
common set of values will be created.
25 Active listening can be improved by being motivated, 1 2 3 4 V33 46
making eye contact, showing interest, avoiding
distracting actions, and so forth.

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Annexure C

ANNEXURE C: POST-COURSE QUESTIONNAIRE

Dear EMDP-Delegate,

You are kindly requested to complete the following questionnaire, which forms an important part of an approved study to
determine the degree to which the Emerging Management Development Programme transfers vital knowledge. All
information will be treated as confidential, and no individual results will be used.

SECTION A: BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION FOR OFFICE USE

10. Initials and surname: V1 2 1

11. ID or passport number: V2

12. Race (Please indicate with an X): 2-14

1: Black 2: White 3: Coloured 4: Asian V3 15
13. Gender (Please indicate with an X):
1: Male 2: Female V4 16
14. Are you employed in a National or Provincial department (Please
indicate with an X)?
1: National 2: Provincial V5 17
15. How long (number of years) have you been in the Public Service?
V6 18-19
16. Highest qualification (Please indicate with an X):
1: Gr. 10/Std 8 2: Gr. 12/Matric 3: Certificate 4: Diploma V7 20

5: Degree 6: Honours 7: Masters 8: Doctorate

9: Post Doctorate

17. Did you receive formal training (National Certificate or higher

qualification) in the field of Public Management / Administration
(Please indicate with an X)?
V8 21
1: Yes 2: No

18. Dates for attending the EMDP (if scheduled already):

Block 1: Block 2:

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Annexure C

SECTION B: SCENARIO TESTING

Please indicate whether you think the statements below are:
4 = Correct (No mistakes in statement)
3 = Mostly correct (One mistake in statement)
2 = Mostly incorrect (Numerous mistakes in statement)
1 = Incorrect (Statement is completely wrong)
PLEASE CHOOSE ONLY ONE OPTION. Circle the option you choose.

Statements 1 2 3 4 For office use

1 The decision-making process consists of three steps, i.e. 1 2 3 4
V9 22
the development of alternatives, the analysis of
alternatives and the choice of the best alternative.
2 Creativity means doing things completely different to 1 2 3 4
V10 23
others – it always involves radical changes.
3 To treat citizens as customers implies listening to their 1 2 3 4
views, treating them with consideration and respect,
V11 24
ensuring that service is always of the highest quality,
and responding swiftly and sympathetically when
standards fall below the promised level.
4 Affirmative action attempts to monitor and control the 1 2 3 4
changing demographics of an organisation. It always
V12 25
promotes the interests of blacks, women and the
disabled.
5 Interpersonal communication takes place when two 1 2 3 4 V13 26
people communicate face to face, e.g. man and animal,
plant or any other object.
6 The requirement for the development of alternatives is 1 2 3 4 V14 27
creativity and experience.
7 Creativity includes the ability to take existing things and 1 2 3 4
combine them in different ways for new purposes. V15 28
8 Consulting the users of services calls for the public 1 2 3 4
service to treat citizens with courtesy and consideration. V16 29
9 Diversity is a negative aspect of our community that 1 2 3 4
always lead to conflict. V17 30
10 Non-verbal communication includes sign language, vocal 1 2 3 4
intonation, appearance as well as spoken words.
V18 31
11 Impulsive decision-making can be defined as a decision 1 2 3 4
that is reached based on a “hunch” or gut feeling of the V19 32
decision-maker.
12 Creativity is something people are born with, although a 1 2 3 4
limited number of people can learn to be creative. V20 33
13 There are ten Batho Pele principles. 1 2 3 4
V21 34
14 The main resistance to managing diversity comes from 1 2 3 4
denial and the difficulty involved in learning new skills V22 35
and adapting to different ways of solving problems.
15 Verbal communication refers to written and spoken 1 2 3 4 V23 36
words

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 University of Pretoria etd, Coetzer C E (2006)

Annexure C

For office use

Statements 1 2 3 4
16 Human factors in decision-making include personal value 1 2 3 4 V24 37
systems, body language and attitudes.
17 In order to be more creative, one has to surround 1 2 3 4
V25 38
yourself with people that love and support you.
18 Government information programmes should not be 1 2 3 4
V26 39
limited to disseminating factual information; it must also
induce the citizen to take action.
19 In some cases diversity management should be aligned 1 2 3 4 V27 40
to the organisational strategy and the human resource
strategy.
20 Vertical communication takes place between staff 1 2 3 4 V28 41
members or departments on the same levels within the
same office, department or branch.
21 There are four basic management styles, i.e. supporting, 1 2 3 4 V29 42
coaching, delegating and directing management styles.
22 Being too busy, not allowing you time to relax and a lack 1 2 3 4 V30 43
of competition in the present environment can hamper
motives for creative input.
23 Redress implies that public institutions should strive to 1 2 3 4 V31 44
deliver a better service to all – it will, however, not be
possible to apologise to all unhappy customers and
therefore one should not waste your time trying to do
so.
24 Valuing diversity is driven by ethics and assumes that a 1 2 3 4 V32 45
common set of values will be created.
25 Active listening can be improved by being motivated, 1 2 3 4 V33 46
making eye contact, showing interest, avoiding
distracting actions, and so forth.

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