CHAPTER 1: DIODES

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:

After the completion of the chapter, students will be able to:

LO1. Identify the concept of different solid-state devices used as switches

LO2. Determine how semiconductor is made
LO3. Determine the different energy levels
LO4. Define semiconductor diode
LO5. Determine the operation of semiconductor diode
LO6. Differentiate the diode equivalent circuits
LO7. Analyze and determine the differences between clipper and clamper

1.1. Solid-State Electronic Materials

Three categories of electronic materials:

CONDUCTOR INSULATOR SEMICONDUCTOR

there is only one valence there are 8 valence electrons (8 there are 4 valence electrons (4
electron (1 v.e.) v.e.) v.e.)
in conductors, metallic bond is insulators have ionic bonds semiconductors consist of
exited covalent bond.
allows current to flow provide high value of resistance show conductivity of both
which resists current flow conductors and insulators
has very low resistance has very high resistance shows moderate value of
(approximately 0 ohm) (approximately infinite) resistance
conductivity value is 10-7 mho/m conductivity value is 10-13 conductivity value is between
mho/m 10-7 mho/m – 10-13 mho/m
resistivity is less than 10-5-ohm resistivity is greater than 105- resistivity is between 10-5-ohm
meter ohm meter m – 105-ohm meter
temperature coefficient is temperature coefficient is temperature coefficient is
positive negative negative
valence and conduction bands valence and conduction band valence and conduction band
overlapped are separated (6 eV to 10eV) have 1.1 eV energy difference

1.2. Semiconductor Materials

Electronic device or integrated circuit begins with a semiconductor material of the highest
quality.
Semiconductor falls into two categories: Single-crystal and compound. Silicon (Si) and
Germanium (Ge) are a single-crystal structure semiconductor, while Gallium Arsenide (GaAs),
Cadmium Sulfide (CdS), Gallium Nitride (GaN), and Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) are called
compound semiconductors since they were constructed using two or more materials of different atomic
structure.
Silicon become the semiconductor material choice since it is one of the most abundant
materials on earth. Silicon is less sensitive to temperature than Germanium. Silicon is still the leading
semiconductor material for electronic components and ICs.

1.3. Covalent Bond and Intrinsic Materials

 The fundamental components of an atom are the electron, proton, and neutron. In the lattice
structure, neutrons and protons form the nucleus and electrons appear in fixed orbits around the
nucleus.

Figure 1.1. Atomic Structure (a) silicon, (b) germanium, (c) gallium and arsenic

Covalent bonding is bonding of atoms strengthened by sharing of electrons. In a pure silicon

and germanium, the valence electrons of one atom are adjoined by four neighboring atoms. Since GaAs
is a compound semiconductor, it is shared by two different atoms, gallium and arsenic is surrounded by
its complementary atom.

Figure 1.2. Covalent Bonding of (a) Silicon atoms, (b) GaAs crystal

The valence electrons may still be able to absorb enough kinetic energy from natural sources
to break the covalent bond and is stated as “free electron”. Any electron that has detached from the
fixed lattice structure and is particularly sensitive to any applied electric fields, such as those created
by voltage sources or any difference in potential, is said to as "free”.

The vacancies left behind in the covalent bonding structure represent our very limited supply of
holes.
 At room temperature, there are approximately 1.5 × 1010 free carriers (15billion electrons) in
3
1 𝑐𝑚 of intrinsic silicon material. Intrinsic semiconductor is a material that has been processed to
remove as many impurities as possible, making it as pure as possible.

The density of these free electrons is equal to the intrinsic carrier density 𝑛𝑖 (𝑐𝑚−3 ), which is
determined by material properties and temperature:
𝐸𝐺
2 3 (−𝑘𝑇 )
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑇 𝑒 cm−6
Equation 1.1. Intrinsic carrier density

where:
𝐸𝐺 = semiconductor bandgap energy in eV (electron volt)
𝑘 = Boltzmann constant (8.62 × 10−5 𝑒𝑉/𝐾)
𝑇 = absolute temperature, K
𝐵 = material dependent parameter (1.08 × 1031 𝐾 −3 ∙ 𝑐𝑚−6 for Si)

𝑩 (𝑲−𝟑 Relative Mobility (𝝁𝒏 ) Intrinsic Carriers /

Semiconductor 𝑬𝑮 (𝒆𝑽) 𝒄𝒎𝟐
∙ 𝒄𝒎−𝟔 ) 𝒄𝒎𝟔
𝑽∙𝒔
GaAs 1.27 × 1029 1.42 8500 1.7 × 106
Silicon 1.08 × 1031 1.12 1500 1.5 × 1010
Germanium 2.31 × 1030 0.66 3900 2.5 × 1013
Table 1.1. Table of Factors

Other material features, such as the relative mobility of free carriers in the material, are just as
essential as the number of carriers in the intrinsic form. The ability of free carriers to move around the
material is known as relative mobility factor (𝝁𝒏 ).

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
Calculate the value of 𝑛𝑖 in silicon at room temperature (300 𝐾).

1.4. Energy Levels

Within the atomic structure of each isolated atom there are specific energy levels associated
with each shell and orbiting electron. In general, the higher the energy state of an electron as it moves
away from the nucleus, and every electron that has left its parent atom has a higher energy state than
any other electron in the atomic structure.

Figure 1.7. Discrete level in isolated atomic structure

As you can see on the figure below, in a conductor, the conduction band and valence band
overlaps. In insulator, valence band and conduction band are separated in which energy gap must be
greater than 5 eV. In semiconductor, valence band and conduction band have a difference of 1.1eV or
lesser.

Figure 1.8. conduction and valence bands of an insulator, a semiconductor, and a conductor

In which, to become a free carrier, an electron in the valence band of silicon must absorb more
energy than an electron in the valence band of germanium. To enter the conduction band, an electron
in the valence band of gallium arsenide must gain more energy than an electron in silicon or germanium.

The unit of measurement is electron volts, substituting the charge of one electron and a
potential difference of 1 V results in an energy level referred to as one electron volt.
𝑊 = 𝑄𝑉
Equation 1.2. Energy

Thus,
𝑊 = 𝑄𝑉
𝑊 = (1.6 × 10−19 𝐶)(1𝑉)
𝑊 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽 = 1𝑒𝑉

1.6. Semiconductor Diodes

 The semiconductor diode or also called as pn-junction diode is formed by simply joining the n-
type and p-type material together.

Figure 1.14. Diode and its symbol

When the two materials are "connected," the electrons and holes at the junction region merge,
resulting in a lack of free carriers in the vicinity. It is called as depletion region, named after the
"depletion" of free carriers in this region of exposed positive and negative ions.

Figure 1.15. Diode and its depletion region

1.7. Biasing a Diode

When the diode is formed, the majority carriers of p-type (holes) and n-type (electrons) diffused
towards each other in which it causes it to recombine and create a region at the middle of the diode
called the "depletion region". The depletion region acts as a barrier which opposes the flow of charge
carriers (barrier potential).

This barrier potential is the required voltage across the junction of the diode before forward
current can flow significantly. It is different from every material: 0.3V for germanium, 0.7V for silicon and
1.2V for gallium arsenide in room temperature (27°C).

In the absence of an applied bias across a semiconductor diode, the net flow of charge in one
direction is zero. Therefore, in no-bias conditions, the current is zero.

Forward Bias Condition

Under forward bias condition, the positive potential of the supply is connected to the p-type
material (also called as the anode) and the negative potential is connected to the n-type material (also
called as cathode).
 Figure 1.16. Diode under forward bias condition

The application of forward bias will pressure electrons in the n-type material and the holes in
the p-type material to recombine with the ions near the boundary and reduce the width of the depletion
region. As the applied bias increases in magnitude, the depletion region will continue to decrease in
width until a flood of electrons can pass through the junction, resulting in an exponential rise in current.

Figure 1.17. Characteristic Curve of Diode

Reverse Bias Condition

In reverse bias condition, the positive terminal of the supply is connected to the cathode and
the negative terminal is connected in the anode.
 Figure 1.18. Diode under reverse bias condition

The p-type material's holes are dragged away from the junction, increasing the thickness of the
depletion region. The electrons will also be drawn away from the junction since the n-type area is
connected to the positive side. As a result, the depletion region expands, and this widening is
accelerated by increasing reverse-bias voltage.

Reverse saturation current is the current under reverse bias condition

1.8. Shockley’s Equation

The Shockley diode equation, often known as the diode law, is named after Bell Telephone
Laboratories co-inventor William Shockley. It describes the I–V (current-voltage) characteristic of an
idealized diode in forward or reverse bias (applied voltage):
𝑉𝐷
𝑛𝑉
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑇 − 1) 𝐴

Equation 1.3. Shockley’s Equation

where:
𝐼𝑆 = reverse saturation current
𝑉𝐷 = applied forward bias voltage
𝑛 = ideality factor (n = 1)

Thermal Voltage
Thermal voltage describes the voltage produced within the P-N junction due to the action of
temperature
𝑘𝑇𝐾
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉
𝑞
Equation 1.4. thermal voltage equation
where:
𝐽
𝑘 = Boltzmann Constant (1.38 × 10−23 )
𝐾
𝑇𝐾 = Absolute temperature in Kelvin (273 + 𝑇°𝐶 )
𝑞 = magnitude of electric charge (1.6 × 10−19 𝐶)

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
 At a temperature of 27°𝐶 (common temperature for components in an enclosed operating
system), determine the thermal voltage.
a. 26 mV
b. 30 mV
c. 16 mV
d. 36 mV

Barrier Potential
Required voltage across the junction of the diode before forward current can flow significantly.
𝑉𝑇𝐻2 = 𝑉𝑇𝐻1 − 𝑘(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) 𝑉
Equation 1.5. barrier potential equation

where:
𝑉𝑇𝐻2 = threshold voltage at 𝑇2
𝑉𝑇𝐻1 = threshold voltage at 𝑇1
𝑇1 = initial temperature (°𝐶)
𝑇2 = final temperature (°𝐶)
mV mV
𝑘 = derating factor [Silicon: 2.0 ; Germanium: 2.5 ]
°C °C

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
Calculate the new threshold voltage of a germanium diode when it now operates at 100
degrees Celsius.
a. 0.113 𝑉
b. 0.185 𝑉
c. 0.325 𝑉
d. 0.613 𝑉
Reverse Saturation Current
Also known as “leakage current”, a very small current that flows in the diode when it is in
reverse bias.
𝑇2 −𝑇1
𝐼𝑆2 = 𝐼𝑆1 × 2 10 𝑉
Equation 1.6. barrier potential equation

where:
𝐼𝑆2 = reverse saturation current at 𝑇2
𝐼𝑆1 = reverse saturation current at 𝑇1
𝑇1 = initial temperature (°𝐶)
𝑇2 = final temperature (°𝐶)

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4:
A silicon diode has a reverse saturation current of 50 nA at room temperature. If the operating
temperature is raised by 50 °𝐶, what is now the reverse saturation current?
a. 105.56 nA
b. 287.73 nA
c. 827.89 nA
d. 1.66 uA
 1.9. Reverse Breakdown Voltage
It is the maximum voltage the junction can handle when reverse biased. It is also known as
peak inverse voltage (PIV) or peak reverse voltage (PRV).

Figure 1.19. IV curve of an ideal diode

1.10. Resistance Level

As the operating point of the diode changes, the resistance of diode will also change due to
the nonlinear shape of the characteristic curve.

DC or Static Resistance
The operating point of a diode will not change with respect to time in the application of DC
voltage.
𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝐷 =
𝐼𝐷
Equation 1.7. DC resistance equation

The DC resistance of a diode is higher below its knee voltage (barrier potential). Once it passed
that point, the current rise will affect the resistance of the diode.

Figure 1.20. DC resistance of an ideal diode at a specific operating point

AC or Dynamic Resistance
If an AC voltage is applied to the diode, the varying input will move the instantaneous operating
point up and down a region of the characteristics and thus defines a specific change in current and
voltage.

Figure 1.21. (a) AC resistance of an ideal diode, (b) AC resistance at Q-point

In general, therefore, the lower the Q-point of operation (smaller current or lower voltage), the
higher is the ac resistance.
∆𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝐷 =
∆𝐼𝐷
Equation 1.8. AC resistance equation

Average AC Resistance
Average AC resistance is determined by a straight line drawn between the two intersections
established by the maximum and minimum values of input voltage.
𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝐷 =
𝐼𝐷
Equation 1.9. DC resistance equation

Summary Table
 Figure 1.22. Resistance Levels

1.11. Diode Equivalent Circuits

An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements properly chosen to best represent the actual
terminal characteristics of a device or system in a particular operating region.

Ideal Diode Model

In an ideal diode model, it is assumed that it has zero threshold voltage 𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 0 𝑉, and has no
resistance when forward biased. When reverse biased, it is assumed to be an open circuit.
 Figure 1.23. Ideal Diode Model

Simplified Diode Model

In this model, diode is assumed to have a threshold voltage (Silicon: 𝑉𝑇𝐻 =
0.7 𝑉; Germanium: 𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 0.3 𝑉). It has no resistance when forward biased and acts as an open circuit
when reverse biased.

Figure 1.24. Simplified Diode Model

Piecewise or Linear Diode Model

In this model, the diode has a threshold voltage (Silicon: 𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 0.7 𝑉; Germanium: 𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 0.3 𝑉)
and forward resistance is considered. It is an open circuit when reverse biased.

Figure 1.25. Linear Diode Model

1.12. Diode Configuration

Series Diode Configuration
In general, a diode is in the “on” state if the current established by the applied sources is such
that its direction matches that of the arrow in the diode symbol, and 𝑉𝐷 ≥ 0.7 𝑉 for silicon, 𝑉𝐷 ≥ 0.3 𝑉
for germanium, and 𝑉𝐷 ≥ 1.2 𝑉 for gallium arsenide.

Figure 1.26. Series Diode Configuration

SAMPLE PROBLEM 5:
For the series diode configuration below. Find 𝑉𝐷 , 𝑉𝑅 , and 𝐼𝐷
Parallel Diode Configuration
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6:
For the diode configuration below. Find 𝑉𝑂 , 𝐼1 , 𝐼𝐷1 , and 𝐼𝐷2
 1.13. Clippers
Clippers, also called diode limiters, are networks that employ diodes to “clip” away a portion of
an input signal without distorting the remaining part of the applied waveform.

Application of Clippers:
• used for the generation and shaping of waveforms
• used for the protection of circuits from spikes
• used for amplitude restorers
• used as voltage limiters
• used in television circuits
• used in FM transmitters

Positive Negative
Simple Series Clippers

Biased Series Clippers

 Simple Parallel Clippers

Biased Parallel Clippers

SAMPLE PROBLEM 7:
Sketch the shape of the output voltage waveform for this “clipper” circuit, assuming an ideal
diode with no forward voltage drop:
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8:
Solve the current 𝐼𝑅 and output voltage of the circuit given below and sketch:
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9:
Solve for the output voltage across the load resistor of the circuit given below and sketch:
SAMPLE PROBLEM 10:
Determine the output voltage waveform:

1.14. Clampers
 A clamper is a network constructed of a diode, a resistor, and a capacitor that shifts a waveform
to a different dc level without changing the appearance of the applied signal. Clamping networks have
a capacitor connected directly from input to output with a resistive element in parallel with the output
signal. The diode is also in parallel with the output signal but may or may not have a series dc supply
as an added element.

Application of Clampers:
• used as direct current restorers
• used to remove distortions
• used as voltage multipliers
• used for the protection of amplifiers
• used as test equipment
• used as base-line stabilizer

Positive Clamper Circuit Negative Clamper Circuit

Positive Clamper with Positive 𝑽𝑹 Negative Clamper with Positive 𝑽𝑹

Positive Clamper with Negative 𝑽𝑹 Negative Clamper with Negative 𝑽𝑹

Clamper Analysis:
1. Analyze the input signal that will forward biased the diode (ON). When diode is “ON”, assume that
capacitor will charge instantaneously to a certain voltage level.
 Figure 1.27. Diode is ON and capacitor charging

2. Assume that when diode is “OFF”, the capacitor holds its stored energy (voltage level). Throughout
this period, apply KVL to determine the output voltage of the circuit.

Figure 1.28. Determine output voltage when diode is OFF

3. Check that the total output swing matches the input.

Figure 1.28. Sketching the output voltage

SAMPLE PROBLEM 11:

Determine the output voltage for the circuit below. Assume ideal diode:
 1.7. Diode Logic
Resistors and diodes are used in the diode logic to implement Boolean operations. Diodes
operate as switches that only conduct when they are biased forward. The switch is closed when the
diode is forward biased and open when the diode is reverse biased.
 Figure 1.13. (a) Diode Logic AND gate; (b) Diode Logic OR gate

Only non-inverting logic AND and OR operations can be used with diode logic. Diode logic
cannot be used to implement any other logic operations.

OR Gate Diode Logic

➢ The output is high only if at least one input is high and is low when both the inputs are low.
▪ If both inputs are logic 1 or HIGH, diodes are forward biased and are closed.
▪ If one input is HIGH, the diode connected to logic 1 acts as a closed switch.
▪ If both inputs are logic 0 or LOW, both diodes are reversed biased and acts as an open
switch.
A B Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

AND Gate Diode Logic

➢ The input and output logical variables are flipped or reversed to provide AND logic.
➢ The output voltage is high if both of the input voltages are high. The output voltage will be low if
either one or both inputs are low.
▪ The diodes are neutralized when both inputs A and B are high. The diode switches are
open and there is no voltage drop across the diodes.
▪ If one input is HIGH, that diode is reversed biased and acts as an open switch. While the
other input is LOW, the diode is forward biased and acts as a closed switch which causes
the output (Q) to be zero.
▪ If both inputs are LOW, the biasing voltage (+5V) will flow through the resistor causes the
diodes to forward biased which causes the output (Q) to be zero.
A B Q
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

1.8. Rectifier Circuits

Rectifier circuit converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). It is an essential circuit
for a power supply design.
 Figure 1.14. Schematic Diagram of DC Power Supply

Half-Wave Rectifier
➢ The process of removing one-half the input signal to establish a dc level is called half-wave
rectification
➢ The half-wave rectifier eliminates the negative portions of the input sinusoid.

Figure 1.15. Half-Wave Rectifier

𝑉𝐷𝐶 = 0.318(𝑉𝑚 − 𝑉𝑡ℎ ) 𝑉

Equation 1.10. Average value of Half-Wave Rectifier
where:
𝑉𝐷𝐶 = average value/DC voltage
𝑉𝑚 = peak voltage
𝑉𝑡ℎ = threshold voltage (0.7V − silicon; 0.3V germanium)

SAMPLE PROBLEM 12:

Sketch the output v o and determine the dc level of the output for the network. Assume ideal
diode:
SAMPLE PROBLEM 13:
Sketch the output v o and determine the dc level of the output for the network. Assume silicon
diode:
Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier

Figure 1.16. Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier

➢ Full wave rectifier turns each waveform cycle's two halves into a pulsing DC signal.
➢ The full wave rectifier's output has far less ripple than the half wave rectifier's output, resulting in a
smoother output waveform
➢ Average (DC) output voltage is higher than for half wave.
➢ The peak inverse voltage (PIV) rating of the diode must be equal or exceed the peak value of the
applied voltage (𝑃𝐼𝑉 ≥ 𝑉𝑚 ).
𝑉𝐷𝐶 = 0.636(𝑉𝑚 − 2𝑉𝑡ℎ ) 𝑉
Equation 1.11. Average value of Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier
where:
𝑉𝐷𝐶 = average value/DC voltage
𝑉𝑚 = peak voltage
𝑉𝑡ℎ = threshold voltage (0.7V − silicon; 0.3V germanium)

SAMPLE PROBLEM 14:

Determine the output waveform for the network and calculate the output dc level and the
required PIV of each diode.
Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier

Figure 1.17. Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier

➢ The center tapped full wave rectifier is a type of rectifier that transforms the entire AC signal into a
DC signal using two diodes and a center tapped transformer.
➢ The peak inverse voltage (PIV) rating of the diode must be equal to the doubled peak value of the
applied voltage (𝑃𝐼𝑉 ≥ 2𝑉𝑚 )