Semiconduct

or Physics
Prerequisite topics
Classification of Semiconductors
Semiconductors are mainly
two types

1. Intrinsic (Pure)
Semiconductors
2. Extrinsic (Impure)
Semiconductors
 Intrinsic Semiconductor

• A Semiconductor which does not have

any kind of impurities, behaves as an
Insulator at 0k and behaves as a
Conductor at higher temperature is
known as Intrinsic Semiconductor or
Pure Semiconductors.

• Germanium and Silicon (4th group

elements) are the best examples of
intrinsic semiconductors and they
possess diamond cubic crystalline
structure.
Energy level diagram of an intrinsic S.C

Electron
energy
ne

nh
hole
energy
ne =ni + nD & nh =ni
nh =ni + nA & ne
 MODULE 3
SOLID STATE PHYSICS (semiconductors)

Prerequisites: Intrinsic & extrinsic,Semiconductors,Energy bands in

conductors, semiconductors & insulators, Semiconductor diode, I-V
characteristics in forward & reverse bias)

Direct & indirect band gap semiconductor; Fermi level; Fermi Dirac
distribution; Fermi energy level in intrinsic & extrinsic semiconductors; effect
of Impurity concentration & temperature on Fermi level;mobility,current
density; Hall Effect; Fermi Level diagram for p-n junction(unbiased, forward
bias, reverse bias); Applications of semiconductors: LED, Zener diode,
Photovoltaic cell.
 2
The energy of a free electron is given by E =p /2m
Where p is the momemtum & m is the mass of an electron is parabolic in nature as
shown in Fig.

p p
The energy momemtum
relationship of a SC is shown in
the fig. C.B
Electron
Energy

Eg
p p

Hole
Energy
V.B
1)DIRECT BAND GAP: In direct band gap semiconductors
e.g GaAs,the maximum of the valence band & the
minimum of the C.B occur at the same momemtum as
shown. Thus an electron making a transition from V.B to
C.B need not undergo any change in its momemtum.
2)INDIRECT BAND GAP: All elementary S.C’S e.g Si are
indirect band gap S.C’S in which the maximum of V.B & the
minimum of the C.B occur at two different momemtum
values as seen in fig
Therefore when an electron make a transition from the
maximum point in the V.B to the minimum point in the
C.B,it requires not only an energy change (≥Eg) but also
some momemtum change (≥pc)
Elemental Semiconductors:
1.The commonly known S.C’s Si & Ge have monoatomic tetravalent
diamond cubic structure. Their conductivity is improved by doping them
with trivalent or pentavalent impurities. These elements in intrinsic &
extrinsic form are called elemental semiconductors.
2.During electron transition from C.B to V.B the recombination energy is
released in the form of heat energy. These are indirect band gap
semiconductors.

Elemental S.C
All group IV elements in pure &
doped form(Indirect Band Gap).
electron hole recombination
….heat energy is released.
Compound Semiconductors:
On the other hand, compound semiconductors are semiconductor
compounds eg. GaAs, GaAsP. In these semiconductors during electron
hole recombination optical energy is released. These are direct band
gap semiconductors which has wide applications in LED’s & LASER
diodes.

Compound S.C
Formed by 2 or more different
groups III -IV,IV - V,II – VI ,IV – VI
(Direct Band Gap).
electron hole recombination ….
optical energy is released.
 Fermi-Dirac Statistics
The Fermi Dirac statistics is applied to electrons & it tries
to find the no. of electrons in a given temperature. The
main function of this statistics is the Fermi Dirac
distribution function, which is given by

EF = Fermi energy or Fermi level

k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10−23
J/K = 8.6 × 10−5 eV/K
T = absolute temperature in K
When applied to SC in particular f(E) gives probability of finding
electrons within C.B.

We can equally used it to find probability of holes within the C.B.

Since a hole is missing electron ,for hole we take 1-f(E)
 FERMI ENERGY & FERMI LEVEL
Pauli's exclusion principle

Vacant
energy
levels

Filled
Fermi Energy energy
EF levels
FERMI LEVEL :
It is not a real energy level , it is an imaginary reference level to
compare other energy states.

It is defined as highest or uppermost filled energy level in any solid at

absolute 0 temperature(00 K).

Correspondingly Fermi Energy is the maximum energy that an electron

can have in a solid at temperature 00 K
Illustration of Fermi Dirac Distribution Function
(A) At T = 0 K

0K
(A) At T = 0 K all the levels below the fermi level are occupied
& all levels above it are vacant.

(i) at levels

(ii) at levels

(iii) at levels

lndeterminate
The (i),(ii),& (iii) results are summarized below

f(E)
_________
1

0
Ef
E
(B) At T > 0 K ,for E = EF
Probability of vacant states

Probability of the filled states

 (B) At T > 0 K ,for E = EF
Probability of vacant states

Probability of the filled states

This shows that with thermal excitation electron vacant few energy
levels below EF & shift to occupy equal no. energy levels above EF .
Hence the probability of occupancy of the energy levels very close to EF
& above & below EF is 50%
Position of Fermi level
example

c
Centre of mass
 FERMI LEVEL IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
The fermi dirac probability distribution function which gives the
probability that an electron has energy E is

The width of V.B & C.B are assumed to be very small compared to the
Forbidden energy gap Eg. As the widths of the V.B & C.B are very small,
they are represented by single values of energy Ev &Ec respectively.
Then the probability that an electron is in V.B is the probability that it
has energy Ev & is represented by F(EV) which ids given by

………………(1)
Similarly the probability that the electron is in the C.B is

……………..(2)

If at any temperature ‘T’

Let nc = no.of electrons in C.B
nV = no.of electrons in V.B
N=Total no. of electrons in C.B & V.B
Then, N = nc + nv

Or

1 = F(EC) +F(EV)
Or F(EC) +F(EV) = 1
OR

Thus the fermi level lies exactly at the centre of the forbidden gap as
shown
Effect of impurity concentration on
Fermi level in n-type semiconductor
Energy level diagram of n type semiconductor
Effect of impurity concentration on Fermi level in n-type semiconductor
Effect of impurity concentration on Fermi level in n-type semiconductor
Effect of impurity concentration on Fermi level in n-type semiconductor
Effect of impurity concentration on
Fermi level in p-type semiconductor
Effect of impurity concentration on Fermi level in p-type semiconductor
Effect of impurity concentration on Fermi level in p-type semiconductor
Effect of impurity concentration on Fermi level in p-type semiconductor
Effect of temp. on fermi level in
n-type S.C
Fig: electron concentration in n-type S.C as a function of 1/T
tor
Effect of temp. on fermi level in p-type
S.C
Fig: Hole concentration in p-type S.C as a function of 1/T
 Electron-hole concentrations
• A vacancy is left when a covalent bond is broken.
• The vacancy is called a hole.
• A hole moves when the vacancy is filled by an electron from
a nearby broken bond (hole current).
• The electron density is n (ni for intrinsic material)
• Hole density is represented by p.
• For intrinsic silicon, n = ni = p.
Direction after collision is still random
• But electron is
accelerated in direction
of the field
• Over time makes
progress in particular
direction
• It “drifts” to the right
• This figure would
represent a very high Motion of electron under applied field
field
 Definition of current
• Amount of charge
crossing a plane per
unit time
• Electron charge is
negative
– Electron in figure drifting
to the right
– Electron drift current
In(drift) is going to the left
 Hole drift
• Hole is drifting to the
left
• Hole is positively
charged
• Hole drift current Ip(drift)
is traveling to the left.
• Both electron and hole
drift current going to
the left
End result
 Drift Current

• Charged particles move or drift under the influence of the applied field.
• The resulting current is called drift current.
• Electrical resistivity ρ and its reciprocal, conductivity σ, characterize current
flow in a material when an electric field is applied.
 Mobility
• At low fields, carrier drift velocity v (cm/s) is
proportional to electric field E (V/cm). The constant of
proportionality is the mobility, μ:
The average velocity acquired by an electron is directly
proportional to applied electric field & is known as drift
velocity
Thus
Where is the proportionality constant k/as mobility of an
electron. It is expressed in or
Conductivity & resistivity:
Derivation of conductivity

From ohms law, we have

Comparing (a) & (b)

For metals

n= no.of electrons per unit volume /concentration of electrons

But

For semiconductors

n= no.of electrons per unit volume /concentration of electrons

p = concentration of holes
 For intrinsic semiconductors: n=p

Conductivity of extrinsic semiconductors:

At room temperature only one carrier predominates

❖ For n type S.C n>>p

Where ND = concentration of donar atoms.

❖ For p type S.C p>>n

❖ Where NA = concentration of acceptor atoms.

HALL EFFECT: THE DISCOVERY
•Discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.

•Quantum Hall Effect discovered in

1975
w
d
As the holes are the majority carrier,the current is given by:

Where A= w X d(cross sectional area of the specimen),

density & drift velocity of holes.

The magnetic field is applied transversely to the crystal surface in z

direction. Hence the holes experience a magnetic force in the
downward direction.

The seperation of charges sets up a transverse electric field across

The specimen given by
Where is called the HALL VOLTAGE & the HALL FIELD

At equillibrium condition

Using eqn (4) in eqn (5),it can be written as

From eqns (1) & (2),the drift velocity of holes is found as

Combining eqns (6) & (7),the hall voltage can be written as

Also ,since A = w X d, it can be written as

An important parameter is the HALL COEFFICIENT as the hall field per unit current density
Per unit magnetic induction & is written as

Using eqns (4) & (8)

Thus Hall coeff is the reciprocal of the charge density or charge concentration

, for p –type S.C

(12)
, for n –type S.C
It is to be noted that in S.C with the increase in temperature as the
carrier concentration nh & ne increases, the Hall coefficient RH
decreases sharply, whereas in metals RH is independent of
temperature. The unit of RH =m3/C.
The net electric field E acting on the charge carriers is a constant of the
applied electric field Ex & Hall electric field EH. The angle made by E with
the x axis is called the Hall angle which is given by

Using eq (10) in eq (13)

We know σp = nh μh
e
Therefore(14) becomes
The pn Junction
 EXAMPLES OF P-N JUNCTIONS:
✔Varicap that act as a variable capacitor

✔Tunnel diode & gun diode as oscillator

✔Zener diode as a voltage stabilizer

✔Photodiode as a light detector

✔Solar cell as a voltage source

✔LED & laser as light source

n-type versus p-type

In n-type - the electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the minority
carriers.
In p-type - the holes are called the majority carriers and electrons are the
minority carriers.
The Equilibrium pn Junction
● Join n-type and p-type doped Silicon (or Germanium) to form a p-n junction.

Creates a charge
Electron diffusion separation that
sets up electric
field, E
Hole diffusion

-- ++
p -- ++ n
E
-- ++

The Electric field will create a force that will stop the
diffusion of carriers 🡪 reaches thermal equilibrium
condition
 W
-- ++
p - - E ++ n
-- ++

Known as space charge

region/depletion region.

Potential difference across the depletion region is called the built-in potential barrier, or built-in
voltage:
 Applications
of

Semiconductor
1)Light Emitting Diode: LED
What is an LED/Light Emitting Diode ?

The lighting emitting diode is

a p-n junction diode. It is a
specially doped diode and made
up of a special type of
semiconductors. When the light
emits in the forward biased, then
it is called as a light emitting
diode.
How does the Light Emitting
Diode work?
The light emitting diode simply, we know as a diode.
When the diode is forward biased, then the electrons &
holes are moving fast across the junction and they are
combining constantly, removing one another out. Soon
after the electrons are moving from the n-type to the
p-type silicon, it combines with the holes, and then it
disappears. Hence it makes the complete atom & more
stable and it gives the little burst of energy in the form
of a tiny packet or photon of light.
LED: How It Works
• When current flows
across a diode

• Negative electrons move one way and

positive holes move the other way
LED: How It Works
• The holes exist at a
lower energy level than
the free electrons

• Therefore when a free electrons falls it

losses energy
LED: How It Works
• This energy is emitted
in a form of a photon,
which causes light

• The color of the light is determined by

the fall of the electron and hence
energy level of the photon
 Working of Light
Emitting Diode

The above diagram shows how the light emitting diode works
and the step by step process of the diagram.
 •From the diagram, we can observe that
the N-type silicon is in red color and it
contains the electrons, they are indicated
by the black circles.

Working of Light
Emitting Diode

The above diagram shows how the light emitting diode works
and the step by step process of the diagram.
 •From the diagram, we can observe that
the N-type silicon is in red color and it
contains the electrons, they are indicated
by the black circles.
•The P- type silicon is in the blue color
and it contains holes, they are indicated
by the white circles.

Working of Light
Emitting Diode

The above diagram shows how the light emitting diode works
and the step by step process of the diagram.
 •From the diagram, we can observe that
the N-type silicon is in red color and it
contains the electrons, they are indicated
by the black circles.
•The P- type silicon is in the blue color
and it contains holes, they are indicated
by the white circles.
•The power supply across the p-n
junction makes the diode forward biased
and pushing the electrons from n-type to
p-type. Pushing the holes in the opposite
direction.
Working of Light
Emitting Diode

The above diagram shows how the light emitting diode works
and the step by step process of the diagram.
 •From the diagram, we can observe that
the N-type silicon is in red color and it
contains the electrons, they are indicated
by the black circles.
•The P- type silicon is in the blue color
and it contains holes, they are indicated
by the white circles.
•The power supply across the p-n
junction makes the diode forward biased
and pushing the electrons from n-type to
p-type. Pushing the holes in the opposite
direction.
Working of Light •Electron and holes at the junction are
Emitting Diode combined.

The above diagram shows how the light emitting diode works
and the step by step process of the diagram.
 •From the diagram, we can observe that
the N-type silicon is in red color and it
contains the electrons, they are indicated
by the black circles.
•The P- type silicon is in the blue color
and it contains holes, they are indicated
by the white circles.
•The power supply across the p-n
junction makes the diode forward biased
and pushing the electrons from n-type to
p-type. Pushing the holes in the opposite
direction.
Working of Light •Electron and holes at the junction are
Emitting Diode combined.
•The photons are given off as the
electrons and holes are recombined.

The above diagram shows how the light emitting diode works
and the step by step process of the diagram.
Inside a Light Emitting Diode

1. Transparent Plastic
Case
2. Terminal Pins
3. Diode
Kinds of LEDs
 Types of Light Emitting Diodes
There are different types of light emitting diodes present and some
of them are mentioned below.
•Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) – infra-red
•Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) – red to infra-red, orange
•Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP) –
high-brightness red, orange-red, orange, and yellow
•Gallium Phosphide (GaP) – red, yellow and green
•Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) – green
•Gallium Nitride (GaN) – green, emerald green
•Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) – near ultraviolet, bluish-green and
blue
•Silicon Carbide (SiC) – blue as a substrate
•Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) – blue
•Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) – ultraviolet
Working Principle of LED
The working principle of the Light emitting diode is based on the quantum
theory. The quantum theory says that when the electron comes down
from the higher energy level to the lower energy level then, the energy
emits from the photon. The photon energy is equal to the energy gap
between these two energy levels. If the PN-junction diode is in the
forward biased, then the current flows through the diode.

Working Principle
of LED
•The flow of current in the semiconductors is caused
by the both flow of holes in the opposite direction of
current and flow of electrons in the direction of the
current. Hence there will be recombination due to the
flow of these charge carriers.
•The flow of current in the semiconductors is caused
by the both flow of holes in the opposite direction of
current and flow of electrons in the direction of the
current. Hence there will be recombination due to the
flow of these charge carriers.
•The recombination indicates that the electrons in
the conduction band jump down to the valence
band. When the electrons jump from one band to
another band the electrons will emit the
electromagnetic energy in the form of photons and
the photon energy is equal to the forbidden energy
gap.
 Applications of Light Emitting Diodes
There are many applications of the LED and some of
them are explained below.
•LED is used as a bulb in the homes and industries
•The light emitting diodes are used in the motorcycles and
cars
•These are used in the mobile phones to display the
message
•At the traffic light signals led’s are used
Advantages of LED’s
•The cost of LED’s is less and they are tiny.
•By using the LED’s the electricity is controlled.
•The intensity of the LED differs with the help of the
microcontroller.
 Motivation/Applications:
Why LED’s?

• Wide range of colors

• Efficient and Reliable
– Saves money
• Requires less money to operate
• Generates less heat
– Good for electronics
– Reduced AC costs
• Last longer
2)Photovoltaic cell(Solar cell)
Solar cell: Solar cell is a photovoltaic device that converts
the light energy into electrical energy based on the
principles of photovoltaic effect

Photovoltaic effect
Definition:
The generation of voltage across the PN junction in a
semiconductor due to the absorption of light radiation is
called photovoltaic effect. The Devices based on this effect is
called photovoltaic device.
 Light energy

n-type semiconductor
Electrical
Power

p- type semiconductor

p-n junction
 Diffusion Current

● The basic diffusion process

● Flow of particles from a region of high-concentration to
a region of low-concentration.
● The movement of the particles will then generate the
diffusion current
Electron diffusion current density,

Where is the concentration gradient, e the electron charge & the diffusion constant

The hole diffusion current density,

The Electron drift current density,

Where is the mobility of electrons.

The hole drift current density ,

Total current in semiconductor:

The total carrier current density J in a semiconductor is the addition of diffusion &
drift current densities. Thus
At equilibrium condition

When no external voltage is applied & as equilibrium is attained the

drift & diffusion components of the current due to each type of
charge carriers cancel each other to retain electrical neutrality of
each side. Thus in equilibrium,

Since the net current is zero, the p-n junction is said to be an open
circuit.