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Lecture 4

The document discusses different types of sensors including light, sound, temperature, pressure, and other sensors. It covers how sensors work, common terms used to define sensor performance, and how sensors are classified based on energy emission and data source. Analog and digital sensors are described as well as the analog to digital conversion process.

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32 views7 pages

Lecture 4

The document discusses different types of sensors including light, sound, temperature, pressure, and other sensors. It covers how sensors work, common terms used to define sensor performance, and how sensors are classified based on energy emission and data source. Analog and digital sensors are described as well as the analog to digital conversion process.

Uploaded by

kpogliedmund
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Sensors

Sensors are physical devices that measure physical quantities


such as temperature, pressure etc.
Basically the perceptual system of smart systems are a
constitution of sensors.
Examples of sensors
 Light level sensors
o Photocells
o cameras
 Sound level sensors
o Microphones
o Ultrasonic sensor

 Strain sensors
o Strain gauges
 Temperature
o Thermometers
 Gravity
o Inclinometers
 Acceleration
o Accelerometers
o Rate gyroscopes
 Flames
o UV detectors
The following are some common terms used in defining the
performance of sensors:
 Accuracy – the extent to which the value indicated by a
measurement system or element might be wrong.
 Range – the limits between which the input can vary
Types of sensors
Sensors are classified based on either of the following:
 Energy emission
 Data source
Energy Emission
Under this classification, there are two types:
o Passive – In this, type the sensor operates basically on
received energy only
 E.g., Human hearing and vision etc.
o Active – This is based on emitted energy
 E.g., Sonar, ladar, structured lighting etc.

Data Source
There are two types under this classification also:
o Proprioceptive – Sensing internal properties
 E.g. battery level etc.
o Exteroceptive – sensing external properties
 E.g. vision, ranging etc.
Signals to symbol
Sensors only provide signals and not state. It is the signal
provided which is processed, and out the processing a state is
then given. Basically the state is a symbol which is as a result of
the signal.
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Sensors may output either analog signals or digital ones. Some
of the formats of signals are as follows:
 Analog level
 Analog waveform
 Digital level
 Digital waveform
Clearly, today’s computers are purely digital hence require
digital inputs, but real world signals are analog in nature hence
there is a need to have a circuit which converts the received
analog signals into digital.

Figure 1. The ADC.


Sampling
In the process of converting analog signals to digital, the analog
signal has to be sampled. This sampling is the job of the analog-
to-digital convertor (ADC)
Sampling has to be done at some fixed frequency. According to
Nyquist criterion, sampling must be done at (2 × maximum
frequency) of the sample to be sampled.

Some Analog Sensors


 Photocell for light
 Potentiometers for position
Photocells
They are passive sensors, used for measuring light intensity.
There are two technologies in employing photocells: photo-
resistor and photo-diode.
Photo-resistor
This is the light-dependent resistor. It this LDR, basically
increasing light intensity simply decreases resistance.
Photo-diode
This are called light-dependent diodes. In this photodiodes,
increasing light increases current.
Photocell Circuits
All calculations basically is from the Ohm’s Law
V = IR
Basically the sensor must be placed in circuit. The light sensors
vary current or resistance. ADCs measure voltage.

Figure 2. A photocell circuit


Potentiometers
A common example is the volume control on a sound system.
They vary resistance with shaft position.

Figure 2. The potentiometer sensor circuit.

Simple Digital Sensors


The 1-bit digital sensor (switch) is perhaps the simplest sensor.
There are two modes:
 Normally Open (NO) – In this mode, current flows when
switch is pressed.
 Normally Closed (NC) – In this mode, current flows when
switch is released.
There is a need to have a hardware or software button de-bounce
circuit incorporated.
Types of switches
o Press Switch
o Toggle Switch
o Reed Switch
Optosensors
LEDs
These are emitters
Photodiodes or Phototransistors
These are detectors
Reflectance
Optosensors measure reflected intensity where intensity is a
function of range and material properties
 Object proximity
 Bar-code reading

Break-beam
 Object presence
Ultrasound
 Ultrasound range sensing is based on time-of-flight
principle
 The emitter produces a chirp of sound (at very high
frequency)
 Sound travels away from emitter, bounces off barrier,
returns to detector.
 The time elapsed is measured

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