Appendix Complex Numbers A1

Im A complex number can be represented by an expression of the form a 1 bi, where a

2+3i and b are real numbers and i is a symbol with the property that i 2 − 21. The complex
_4+2i number a 1 bi can also be represented by the ordered pair sa, bd and plotted as a point in
i a plane (called the Argand plane) as in Figure 1. Thus the complex number i − 0 1 1 ? i
0 Re is identified with the point s0, 1d.
1
_i The real part of the complex number a 1 bi is the real number a and the imaginary
_2-2i 3-2i part is the real number b. Thus the real part of 4 2 3i is 4 and the imaginary part is 23.
Two complex numbers a 1 bi and c 1 di are equal if a − c and b − d, that is, their real
parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal. In the Argand plane the horizontal
FIGURE 1 axis is called the real axis and the vertical axis is called the imaginary axis.
Complex numbers as points in the The sum and difference of two complex numbers are defined by adding or subtracting
Argand plane their real parts and their imaginary parts:
sa 1 bid 1 sc 1 did − sa 1 cd 1 sb 1 ddi
sa 1 bid 2 sc 1 did − sa 2 cd 1 sb 2 ddi
For instance,
s1 2 id 1 s4 1 7id − s1 1 4d 1 s21 1 7di − 5 1 6i
The product of complex numbers is defined so that the usual commutative and distribu­
tive laws hold:
sa 1 bidsc 1 did − asc 1 did 1 sbidsc 1 did
− ac 1 adi 1 bci 1 bdi 2
Since i 2 − 21, this becomes

sa 1 bidsc 1 did − sac 2 bdd 1 sad 1 bcdi

EXAMPLE 1
s21 1 3ids2 2 5id − s21ds2 2 5id 1 3is2 2 5id
− 22 1 5i 1 6i 2 15s21d − 13 1 11i ■

Division of complex numbers is much like rationalizing the denominator of a rational

expression. For the complex number z − a 1 bi, we define its complex conjugate to be
z − a 2 bi. To find the quotient of two complex numbers we multiply numerator and
denominator by the complex conjugate of the denominator.

21 1 3i
EXAMPLE 2 Express the number in the form a 1 bi.
2 1 5i
 Appendix Complex Numbers

SOLUTION We multiply numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of

2 1 5i, namely, 2 2 5i, and we take advantage of the result of Example 1:

21 1 3i 21 1 3i 2 2 5i 13 1 11i 13 11
− ? − 2 − 1 i ■
2 1 5i 2 1 5i 2 2 5i 2 1 52 29 29

Im The geometric interpretation of the complex conjugate is shown in Figure 2: z is the

z=a+bi
reflection of z in the real axis. We list some of the properties of the complex conjugate
i in the following box. The proofs follow from the definition and are requested in Exer­
cise 18.
0 Re
_i
Properties of Conjugates
–
z=a-bi
z 1 w − z 1 w      zw − z w zn − z n
FIGURE 2

Im
| |
The modulus, or absolute value, z of a complex number z − a 1 bi is its distance
from the origin. From Figure 3 we see that if z − a 1 bi, then
„@ z=a+bi
bi
@„+„„b
„a„
|z|
=
œ
b
| z | − sa 2 1 b2

0 a Re Notice that

FIGURE 3 zz − sa 1 bidsa 2 bid − a 2 1 abi 2 abi 2 b 2i 2 − a 2 1 b 2

and so zz − z | | 2

This explains why the division procedure in Example 2 works in general:

z zw zw
− −
w ww |w| 2

Since i 2 − 21, we can think of i as a square root of 21. But notice that we also have
s2id2 − i 2 − 21 and so 2i is also a square root of 21. We say that i is the principal
square root of 21 and write s21 − i. In general, if c is any positive number, we write

s2c − sc i
With this convention, the usual derivation and formula for the roots of the quadratic equa-
tion ax 2 1 bx 1 c − 0 are valid even when b 2 2 4ac , 0:

2b 6 sb 2 2 4ac
x−
2a

EXAMPLE 3 Find the roots of the equation x 2 1 x 1 1 − 0.

SOLUTION Using the quadratic formula, we have

21 6 s1 2 2 4 ? 1 21 6 s23 21 6 s3 i
x− − − ■
2 2 2
 Appendix Complex Numbers A3

We observe that the solutions of the equation in Example 3 are complex conjugates of
each other. In general, the solutions of any quadratic equation ax 2 1 bx 1 c − 0 with
real coefficients a, b, and c are always complex conjugates. (If z is real, z − z, so z is its
own conjugate.)
We have seen that if we allow complex numbers as solutions, then every quadratic
equation has a solution. More generally, it is true that every polynomial equation

a n x n 1 a n21 x n21 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 a 1 x 1 a 0 − 0

of degree at least one has a solution among the complex numbers. This fact is known as
the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra and was proved by Gauss.

Polar Form
Im We know that any complex number z − a 1 bi can be considered as a point sa, bd and
a+bi
that any such point can be represented by polar coordinates sr, d with r > 0. In fact,
r
b a − r cos       b − r sin 
¨
0 a Re
as in Figure 4. Therefore we have

FIGURE 4 z − a 1 bi − sr cos d 1 sr sin di

Thus we can write any complex number z in the form

z − rscos  1 i sin d

b
where | |
r − z − sa 2 1 b 2     and    tan  −
a

The angle  is called the argument of z and we write  − argszd. Note that argszd is not
unique; any two arguments of z differ by an integer multiple of 2.

EXAMPLE 4 Write the following numbers in polar form.

(a) z − 1 1 i (b) w − s3 2 i
SOLUTION
| |
(a) We have r − z − s12 1 12 − s2 and tan  − 1, so we can take  − y4.
Therefore the polar form is

Im
1+i
z − s2 S cos

4
1 i sin

4
D
2
œ„
π
4 | |
(b) Here we have r − w − s3 1 1 − 2 and tan  − 21ys3 . Since w lies in the
0 π Re
fourth quadrant, we take  − 2y6 and
_
6
2
œ„
3-i F S D S DG
w − 2 cos 2

6
1 i sin 2

6

FIGURE 5 The numbers z and w are shown in Figure 5. ■

 Appendix Complex Numbers

The polar form of complex numbers gives insight into multiplication and division. Let

z1 − r1scos 1 1 i sin 1 d      z2 − r2scos  2 1 i sin  2 d

Im be two complex numbers written in polar form. Then

z™ z¡
z1 z2 − r1r2scos 1 1 i sin 1 dscos  2 1 i sin  2 d
¨™
− r1r2 fscos 1 cos  2 2 sin 1 sin  2 d 1 issin 1 cos  2 1 cos 1 sin  2 dg
¨¡
Therefore, using the addition formulas for cosine and sine, we have
Re
¨¡+¨™

1 z1z2 − r1r2 fcoss1 1  2 d 1 i sins1 1  2 dg

z¡z™
This formula says that to multiply two complex numbers we multiply the moduli and add
FIGURE 6 the arguments. (See Figure 6.)
A similar argument using the subtraction formulas for sine and cosine shows that to
divide two complex numbers we divide the moduli and subtract the arguments.

Im z1 r1
z − fcoss1 2  2 d 1 i sins1 2  2 dg     z2 ± 0
z2 r2
r
In particular, taking z1 − 1 and z2 − z (and therefore 1 − 0 and  2 − ), we have the
¨ following, which is illustrated in Figure 7.
0 _¨ Re
1 1
r z 1 1
If   z − rscos  1 i sin d,   then − scos  2 i sin d.
z r
FIGURE 7

EXAMPLE 5 Find the product of the complex numbers 1 1 i and s3 2 i in polar
form.
SOLUTION From Example 4 we have

1 1 i − s2 S cos D 
4
1 i sin

4

and F S D S DG
s3 2 i − 2 cos 2

6
1 i sin 2

6

Im
z=1+i So, by Equation 1,

F S D S DG
zw
2
œ„ 2œ„2    
π
s1 1 idss3 2 id − 2s2 cos 2 1 i sin 2
4 6 4 6
12
0

S D
Re

2  
− 2s2 cos 1 i sin
w=œ„
3-i 12 12

FIGURE 8 This is illustrated in Figure 8. ■

 Appendix Complex Numbers A5

Repeated use of Formula 1 shows how to compute powers of a complex number. If

z − r scos  1 i sin d

then z 2 − r 2scos 2 1 i sin 2d

and z 3 − zz 2 − r 3scos 3 1 i sin 3d

In general, we obtain the following result, which is named after the French mathemati­
cian Abraham De Moivre (1667–1754).

2  De Moivre’s Theorem If z − r scos  1 i sin d and n is a positive integer,

then
z n − fr scos  1 i sin dg n − r nscos n 1 i sin nd

This says that to take the nth power of a complex number we take the nth power of the
modulus and multiply the argument by n.

EXAMPLE 6 Find ( 21 1 12 i)10.

SOLUTION Since 12 1 12 i − 12 s1 1 id, it follows from Example 4(a) that 12 1 12 i has the
polar form
1
2
1
1 i−
2
s2
2
S cos

4
1 i sin

4
D
So by De Moivre’s Theorem,

S 1
2
1
1 i
2
D S DS
10
−
s2
2
10
cos
10
4
1 i sin
10
4
D
S −
25
2 10
cos
5
2
1 i sin
5
2
D −
1
32
i ■

De Moivre’s Theorem can also be used to find the nth roots of complex numbers. An
nth root of the complex number z is a complex number w such that

wn − z

Writing these two numbers in trigonometric form as

w − sscos  1 i sin d    and    z − r scos  1 i sin d

and using De Moivre’s Theorem, we get

s nscos n 1 i sin nd − r scos  1 i sin d

The equality of these two complex numbers shows that

s n − r    or    s − r 1yn

and cos n − cos     and    sin n − sin 

 Appendix Complex Numbers

From the fact that sine and cosine have period 2, it follows that
 1 2k
n −  1 2k    or     −
n

Thus F S
w − r 1yn cos
 1 2k
n
D S
1 i sin
 1 2k
n
DG
Since this expression gives a different value of w for k − 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 2 1, we have
the following.

3  Roots of a Complex Number Let z − r scos  1 i sin d and let n be a posi­

tive integer. Then z has the n distinct nth roots

F S
wk − r 1yn cos
 1 2k
n
D S
1 i sin
 1 2k
n
DG
where k − 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 2 1.

| |
Notice that each of the nth roots of z has modulus wk − r 1yn. Thus all the nth roots of
z lie on the circle of radius r 1yn in the complex plane. Also, since the argument of each
suc­cessive nth root exceeds the argument of the previous root by 2yn, we see that the
nth roots of z are equally spaced on this circle.

EXAMPLE 7 Find the six sixth roots of z − 28 and graph these roots in the complex
plane.
SOLUTION In trigonometric form, z − 8scos  1 i sin d. Applying Equation 3 with
n − 6, we get

wk − 8 1y6 cos S
 1 2k
6
1 i sin
 1 2k
6
D
We get the six sixth roots of 28 by taking k − 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in this formula:

S
w0 − 8 1y6 cos

6
1 i sin

6
D S D
− s2
s3
2
1
1 i
2

S
w1 − 8 1y6 cos

2
1 i sin

2
D
− s2 i

Im
œ„2 i w¡
S
w2 − 8 1y6 cos
5
6
1 i sin
5
6
D S
− s2D 2
s3
2
1
1 i
2

w™ w¸
S
w3 − 8 1y6 cos
7
6
1 i sin
7
6
D S
− s2D 2
s3
2
1
2 i
2
2
_œ„
w£
0

w∞
2 Re
œ„
S
w4 − 8 1y6 cos
3
2
1 i sin
3
2
D − 2s2 i

_œ„2 i
w¢
S
w5 − 8 1y6 cos
11
6
1 i sin
11
6
D S D
− s2
s3
2
1
2 i
2
FIGURE 9
The six sixth roots of z − 28 All these points lie on the circle of radius s2 as shown in Figure 9. ■
 Appendix Complex Numbers A7

Complex Exponentials
We also need to give a meaning to the expression e z when z − x 1 iy is a complex num­
ber. The theory of infinite series as developed in Chapter 11 can be extended to the
case where the terms are complex numbers. Using the Taylor series for e x (11.10.11) as
our guide, we define
`
zn z2 z3
4 ez − o
n−0 n!
−11z1
2!
1
3!
1∙∙∙

and it turns out that this complex exponential function has the same properties as the real
exponential function. In particular, it is true that

5 e z11z2 − e z1e z2

If we put z − iy, where y is a real number, in Equation 4, and use the facts that

i 2 − 21,  i 3 − i 2i − 2i,  i 4 − 1,  i 5 − i,   . . .

siyd2 siyd3 siyd4 siyd5

we get e iy − 1 1 iy 1 1 1 1 1∙∙∙
2! 3! 4! 5!
y2 y3 y4 y5
− 1 1 iy 2 2i 1 1i 1∙∙∙
2! 3! 4! 5!

S
− 12
y2
2!
1
y4
4!
2
y6
6!
1∙∙∙ 1i y2
y3
3!
1 D S
y5
5!
2∙∙∙ D
− cos y 1 i sin y

Here we have used the Taylor series for cos y and sin y (Equations 11.10.16 and 11.10.15).
The result is a famous formula called Euler’s formula:

6 e iy − cos y 1 i sin y

Combining Euler’s formula with Equation 5, we get

7 e x1iy − e xe iy − e x scos y 1 i sin yd

EXAMPLE 8 Evaluate:  (a) e i      (b) e211iy2

SOLUTION
We could write the result of
(a) From Euler’s equation (6) we have
Example 8(a) as
e i 1 1 − 0 e i − cos  1 i sin  − 21 1 is0d − 21
This equation relates the five most
famous numbers in all of mathematics: (b) Using Equation 7 we get

S D
0, 1, e, i, and .
  1 i
e211iy2 − e21 cos 1 i sin − f0 1 is1dg − ■
2 2 e e

Finally, we note that Euler’s equation provides us with an easier method of proving
De Moivre’s Theorem:
fr scos  1 i sin dg n − sre i dn − r ne in − r nscos n 1 i sin nd
 Appendix Complex Numbers

Exercises
1–14 Evaluate the expression and write your answer in the 32.  z − 4ss3 1 i d,  w − 23 2 3i
form a 1 bi.
1. s5 2 6i d 1 s3 1 2i d 2. s4 2 12 id 2 s9 1 52 id
33–36 Find the indicated power using De Moivre’s Theorem.
3. s2 1 5i ds4 2 id 4. s1 2 2i ds8 2 3i d 33. s1 1 i d20 34. s1 2 s3 i d
5

5. 12 1 7i 6. 2i ( 12 2 i ) 35. s2 s3 1 2i d
5
36. s1 2 i d8
1 1 4i 3 1 2i
7. 8.
3 1 2i 1 2 4i 37–40 Find the indicated roots. Sketch the roots in the complex
1 3 plane.
9. 10.
11i 4 2 3i 37. The eighth roots of 1 38. The fifth roots of 32
11. i 3
12. i 100 39. The cube roots of i 40. The cube roots of 1 1 i

13. s225 14. s23 s212

41–46 Write the number in the form a 1 bi.
41. e iy2 42. e 2i
15–17 Find the complex conjugate and the modulus of the
number. 43. e iy3 44. e 2i
15. 12 2 5i 16. 21 1 2 s2 i 45. e 21i 46. e 1i
17. 24i
47. Use De Moivre’s Theorem with n − 3 to express cos 3 and
sin 3 in terms of cos  and sin .
18. Prove the following properties of complex numbers.
(a) z 1 w − z 1 w          (b) zw − z w 48. Use Euler’s formula to prove the following formulas for cos x
(c) z n − z n, where n is a positive integer and sin x:
[Hint: Write z − a 1 bi, w − c 1 di.] e ix 1 e2ix e ix 2 e2ix
cos x −       sin x −
2 2i
19–24 Find all solutions of the equation.
19. 4x 2 1 9 − 0 20. x 4 − 1 49. If usxd − f sxd 1 itsxd is a complex-valued function of a real
2 2 variable x and the real and imaginary parts f sxd and tsxd are
21. x 1 2x 1 5 − 0 22. 2x 2 2x 1 1 − 0
differentiable functions of x, then the derivative of u is defined
2
23. z 1 z 1 2 − 0 24. z 2 1 12 z 1 14 − 0 to be u9sxd − f 9sxd 1 it9sxd. Use this together with Equation 7
to prove that if Fsxd − e rx, then F9sxd − re rx when r − a 1 bi
is a complex number.
25–28 Write the number in polar form with argument between 0
50.  (a) If u is a complex-valued function of a real variable, its
and 2.
indefinite integral y usxd dx is an antiderivative of u.
25. 23 1 3i 26. 1 2 s3 i Evaluate
27. 3 1 4i 28. 8i
ye s11i dx
dx

29–32 Find polar forms for zw, zyw, and 1yz by first putting z and (b) By considering the real and imaginary parts of the integral
w into polar form. in part (a), evaluate the real integrals
29.  z − s3 1 i,  w − 1 1 s3 i
ye x
cos x dx    and    y e x sin x dx
30.  z − 4 s3 2 4i,  w − 8i
31.  z − 2 s3 2 2i,  w − 21 1 i (c) Compare with the method used in Example 7.1.4.