DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING TECHNONOLOGY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC EDE OSUN STATE
TECHNICAL DRAWING
COURSE OUTLINE:
(1) DIFFERENT DRAWING INSTRUMENTS,
EQUIPMENTS AND MATERIALS USED IN
TECHNICAL DRAWING
MEC
(2) GRAPHICAL COMMUNICATION
112/101 (3) CONSTRUCTION OF SIMPLE
GEOMETRICAL FIGURES AND SHAPES
(4) ISOMETRIC AND OBLIQUE PROJECTION
(5) SINGLE ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
(6) INTERACTION OF REGULAR SOLIDS

NATIONAL DIPLOMA LECTURE/PRACTICAL NOTE |

PREPARED BY: TECHNICAL DRAWING RESEARCH GROUP
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC EDE, OSUN STATE |
NOVEMBER, 2016

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WEEK 1 INTRODUCTION AND DIFFERENT TYPES OF DRAWING
INSTRUMENTS, EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS USED IN
TECHNICAL DRAWING

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO TECHNICAL DRAWING:

In this fast-developing society, an engineer plays a vital role. He is rightly called "The Creator",
a man who puts his imagination into actual practice. He thinks of problems in his mind and
conveys them to others through the language of systematic lines. It is this language of systematic
lines which is called Technical Drawing or Engineering Drawing. Therefore, an engineer must
know this language to project his ideas correctly on the paper and then execute the job efficiently
and effectively with the help of this drawing.
The technical drawing is concerned mainly with using lines, circles, arcs, etc. to illustrate the
general configuration of an object. It is a language of communication between architects and
engineers, usually to convey information about the object. However, it is important that the
drawing is produced to be accurate and clear.
Ability to read drawing is the most important requirement of all technical people in any
profession. As compared to the verbal or written description, this method is brief and clearer.
Some of the applications are building drawing for civil engineers, machine drawing for
mechanical engineers, circuit diagrams for electrical and electronics engineers, computer
graphics for one and all. The subject, in general, is designed to impart the following skills:
(i) Ability to read and prepare engineering drawings

(ii) Ability to make freehand sketching of objects

(iii) Power to imagine, analyze and communicate

(iv) Capacity to understand other subjects

(v) It is the major means of communication in the technological and architectural fields.

(vi) It is a universal language of all the engineers.

(vii) It is a means of expressing one‟s ideas in shorthand and clear methods.

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 1.2 DRAUGHTS MEN, DRAFTER OR DRAFTSMAN
Draughts men are people who are specialized in making technical or engineering drawings.
Draughtsmen most possess the following qualities such as accuracy, speed, legibility, neatness,
etc.
(i) ACCURACY: No drawing is of maximum usefulness if it is not accurate. The student must
learn from the beginning of their academic carrier that no success is achieved if the habit of
accuracy is not acquired.
(ii) LEGIBILITY: The draftsman should be able to produce drawings legibly and clearly to
serve its purpose well. Care should be given to details, especially to lettering.
(iii)SPEED: "Time is money" in the industry there is no demand for slow drafter. However,
speed is not attained by hurry but it comes with study and practice as fast workers are usually
more mentally alert.
(iv) NEATNESS: The work of draughtsmen must be neat. If a drawing is to be accurate and
legible, it must also be clean. Therefore, students should constantly strive to acquire the habit of
neatness.
1.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF DRAWING INSTRUMENTS, EQUIPMENT, AND
MATERIALS USED IN TECHNICAL DRAWING:
For the preparation of any drawing work, it is quite essential to use instruments correctly and
accurately, to get the required degree of accuracy. The followings are the list of some basic
equipment, drawing instruments and materials necessary for the preparation of drawing works:
(i) Drawing paper or drawing sheet
(ii) T – square
(iii) Drawing board
(iv)Set-square
(v)Pencil
(vi)Eraser
(vii)Protractor
(viii) Irregular or French curves
(ix)Drawing pins, Paper tape, cello-tape or drawing clips
(x)Set of drawing instruments e.g compass, divider, etc
(xi)Dusting brush

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(i) DRAWING PAPER OR DRAWING SHEET: There are different qualities of drawing
papers. The quality of the paper to be used for drawing depends upon the nature of the
drawing. The drawing paper should be uniform in thickness and of such a quality that the
erasing effect should not be there. In addition to this, it should be of such quality that the ink
should not spread out.
The drawing papers are obtained either in rolls or in sheets. The rolls available usually vary
from 750mm to 1800mm in width and generally 20metres in lengths. One of the sides of the
drawing paper is usually rough and smooth. The smooth surface is the proper side for drawing
work. The drawing paper or sheets are of the following sizes A0, A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, and A6.
For this course, the good quality A2 size drawing paper or sheet (420mm x 594mm) known as
half imperial sheet is generally used by engineering students as it is very handy and easy for
drawing work in the class and may be attached to the drawing board by using drawing pins,
paper tape, cello-tape or drawing clips.
549mm

420mm

Smooth surface

Fig 1.1: Illustration of a standard A2 drawing sheet recommended for drawing

(ii) T-SQUARE: T square is a technical drawing instrument primarily used for drawing
horizontal lines on a drafting table; it is also used to guide the set- square for drawing various
angles and vertical lines.

Stock
4
 Working Edge
Blade

Screw
Fig 1.2: Tee-Square
(iii)DRAWING BOARD: Drawing board is technical equipment used for holding the drawing
sheet while the drawing is being made and to also guide the stock of T – square.

Fig 1.3: Drawing Board

(iv) SET SQUARE: A set square is used for drawing all straight lines except the horizontal lines
which are usually drawn with T-square. It is also used for drawing perpendicular lines or the

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 lines at 300, 600, and 900 to the horizontal. The set square comes in two forms, both right
triangles: one with 90-45-45 degree angles and the other with 90-60-30 degree angles.

Fig 1.4: Set Square

(v) PENCIL: The pencils are used for preparing drawings on the sheets. The accuracy and
appearance of drawing depend upon the quality of the pencil used. Pencils are of various
grades easily recognized by the letters marked on pencils.
They are in nine grades of hardness H and six grades of blackness B. There are also two other
grades: F (Firm) and HB. Two pencils are advisable for drawing with instruments 2H and 3H
while HB is advisable for freehand drawing. For pencils to be used with instruments, it is
advisable to sharpen them to chisel point or sided-shaped. Pencils to be used for freehand
drawing should be shaped to round points.

Usually, hard pencils such as H, 2H, etc. are used for making the engineering drawing and
technical drawing but for lettering, figures, and sketching, soft pencils such as HB or B, etc. are
used. As complicated drawing demands fine lines and minute details, harder pencil such as 4H,
5H, and H grades should be used for the purpose.

(Round point or conical pencil) (Chisel edge pencil) (B pencils)

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 Fig 1.5: Pencil
(vi) COMPASS: Compass is used for drawing circles and arcs of circles of required sizes.

Fig 1.6: Compass

(vii) PROTRACTOR: Protractor is used for measuring or constructing angles which cannot be
obtained with the set squares.

Fig 1.7: Protractor

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(viii) ERASER: Eraser is used for erasing pencil lines.

Fig 1.8: Eraser

(ix) IRREGULAR OR FRENCH CURVES: French curves are used for drawing curved lines
and circular arcs.

Fig 1.9: French curves or irregular curves

(x) DRAWING PINS, PAPER TAPE, AND CELLO-TAPE OR DRAWING CLIPS: They
are used for holding drawing sheets or paper on the drawing board.

Fig 1.10: Drawing pin

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1.4 PRECAUTIONS NECESSARY TO PRESERVE THE DRAWING INSTRUMENTS,
EQUIPMENT, AND MATERIALS:
(i) DRAWING BOARD:
(a) Handle the drawing board carefully so that the top flat surface of the board should not be
spoiled.
(b) The ebony working edge of the board must be straight against which the stock of T-square
moves.
(c) Fasten an extra sheet of paper on the board to keep the surface clean
(ii) T-SQUARE:
(a) It should be placed properly on the drawing board in order not to drop on the floor
(b) Clean the blade with a moist cloth to remove pencil graphite lead
(c)It should be hung on a nail against the wall or table when not use
(d) Do not draw a horizontal line with the lower edge of the T – square
(e)Do not use T –square as a hammer
(f) Do not use T – square as a guide for cutting the paper with a knife
(iii) COMPASS:
(a) Do not oil the joints of the compass
(b) Test the tightness of the joint and see that it is tight and firm, yet reasonably easy to set with
one hand
(iv) PENCIL:
(a)While sharpening the pencil, do not allow the lead graphite to fall on the drawing sheet
(b) Do not put either end of the pencil into the mouth
(c)For drawing vertical and horizontal lines, the pencil should be slightly inclined towards the
edge of T- square from left to right so that the line can be drawn nearly coincident with the
edge of the T-square
(v) ERASER:
(a)Frequent use of eraser should be avoided
(b) Eraser crumbs should be swept away with a duster and should not be brushed off with hands
(vi) PROTRACTOR, FRENCH CURVES, AND SET SQUARE
(a) It should be kept properly on the drawing board in order not to fall on the floor for people to
break with legs

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(b) It should be returned to the jacket when it is not used

ASSIGNMENT ONE (1)

(1) Define technical drawing and state why the technical drawing is called the universal
language of engineers?
(2) What is the importance of technical drawings in the engineering field?
(3) Who is classified as draughtsmen and state the qualities they must possess.
(4) Name different types of drawing instruments and state in what direction the pencil should be
inclined while drawing horizontal lines.
(5) List three precautions to be taken while using the following drawing instruments;
(i) Drawing board (ii) T-square (iii) Compass (iv) Pencil (v) Eraser (vi) Protractor, French curve
and set square

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WEEK 2 GRAPHICAL COMMUNICATION

2.1 GRAPHICS AND DIFFERENT TYPES OF GRAPHIC PRESENT:

Engineering Drawing and engineering drafting are broad terms widely used to denote the graphic
language. However, since the language is not only used by engineers, but also by a much larger
group of people in diverse fields who are concerned with technical work or with industrial
production; the term that adequately suggests the scope of the graphic language is technical
drawing.
2.2 TECHNICAL SKETCHING AND MECHANICAL DRAWING
Technical sketching is the freehand expression of the graphic language while mechanical
drawing is the instrumental expression of it. There are two fundamental methods of writing
graphic language namely; freehand sketching and accurate construction with precision
instruments.
(a) FREEHAND SKETCHING: It is done by sketching the lines without an instrument than
pencils and eraser.
(b) ACCURATE CONSTRUCTION WITH PRECISION INSTRUMENT: It is the standard
method of expression, must drawing are draft to scale with the instrument used for drawing
lines, circles, and curved concisely and accurately.
2.3 VARIOUS CONVENTION PRESENT IN GRAPHICAL PRODUCTION
In engineering drawing or technical drawing, the details of various objects are drawn by different
types of lines. Each line has a definite purpose and sense to convey. For this, different
conventions of lines are used to represent the details of an object accurately on the drawing and
also to differentiate the different types of materials used for manufacturing various parts of a
machine on the drawing.
It is therefore important for the students to have clearly in mind the differences between the
various types of lines. For most engineering drawings you will require two thicknesses, a thick
and thin line. The general recommendations are that thick lines are twice as thick as thin lines.
(a) THICK LINES: A thick continuous line is used for visible edges and outlines.
(Thick line)
(b) THIN LINES: A thin line is used for hatching, leader lines, short centrelines, dimensions,
and projections.

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 (Thin line)
(c) BREAKLINES: Short breaks shall be indicated by solid freehand lines. For long breaks, full
ruled lines with freehand zigzags shall be used.
(i) Short break lines: The short break line is used for showing the break of an object for a
short length.
(Short break line)
(ii) Long break lines: The long break line is used for showing the break of an object for a
considerable length.
(Long break line)

Examples of objects that the short and long break lines applicable are; Shafts, rods, tubes, etc.,
(d) LEADERS: Leaders shall be used to indicate a part or portion to which a number, note, or
other reference applies and shall be an unbroken line terminating in an arrowhead, dot, or
wavy line. Arrowheads should always terminate at a line; dots should be within the outline of
an object.
………….. …………………… (Leathers)
(e) DATUM LINES: Datum lines shall be used to indicate the position of a datum plane and
shall consist of one long dash and two short dashes evenly spaced.
(Datum lines)
(f) PHANTOM LINES: Phantom lines shall be used to indicate the alternate position of parts
of the item delineated, repeated detail, or the relative position of an absent part and shall be
composed of alternating one long and two short dashes, evenly spaced, with a long dash at
each end.
-------------------------------------------------------- (Phantom line)
(g) STITCH LINES: Stitch lines shall be used to indicate the stitching or sewing lines on an
article and shall consist of a series of very short dashes, approximately half the length of the dash
or hidden lines, evenly spaced. Long lines of stitching may be indicated by a series of stitch lines
connected by phantom lines.
----------------------------------------------------- (Stitch lines)
(g) CENTER LINES: Centerlines shall be composed of long and short dashes, alternately and
evenly spaced, with a long dash at each end.

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 (Centreline)
(h) EXTENSION LINES: Extension lines are used to indicate the extension of a surface or to
point to a location outside the part outline. They start with a short, visible gap from the
outline of the part and are usually perpendicular to their associated dimension lines.

(i) OUTLINES OR VISIBLE LINES: The outline or visible line shall be used for all lines on
the drawing representing visible lines on the object.
(Outlines or Visible lines)
(j) CUTTING-PLANE/VIEWING-PLANE LINES: The cutting-plane lines shall be used to
indicate a plane or planes in which a section is taken. The viewing-plane lines shall be used
to indicate the plane or planes from which a surface or surfaces are viewed. On simple views,
the cutting planes shall be indicated as shown below.

(Cutting plane line)

(k) HIDDEN LINES: Hidden lines shall consist of short dashes, evenly spaced. These lines are
used to show the hidden features of a part. They shall always begin with a dash in contact
with the line from which they begin, except when such a dash would form a continuation of a
full line.
(Hidden lines)
(l) SECTIONING LINES: Sectioning lines shall be used to indicate the exposed surfaces of an
object in a sectional view. They are generally thin full lines but may vary with the kind of
material shown in section.

(Section lines)
(n) DIMENSION LINES: Dimension lines shall terminate in arrowheads at each end. They
shall be unbroken except where space is required for the dimension. The proper method of
showing dimensions and tolerances is explained below.
(Dimension line)

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2.4 APPLICATION OF TYPES OF LINES

Thin long chain line indicating centreline

The thick continuous line for outline of an object

Thin short dashes to indicate hidden details

The thick continuous line for outline of an object

Thick long chain line with arrowhead for cutting plane

Ruled line with zigzags to show continuity

Thin short dashes to indicate hidden details

Fig 2.1: Application of lines
2.5 LAYOUT OF DRAWING SHEETS:
The drawing sheet is positioned in either portrait or landscaped forms (upright or horizontal). A
standard drawing sheet must have a borderline (margins) and title blocks.

Fig 2.2: Position of a drawing sheet

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 Borderline (Margins)

Title block

Fig 2.3: Layout of an A2 drawing sheet

2.6 CONSTRUCTION OF BORDER OR MARGINS LINE AND TITLE BLOCK
(i) BORDERLINE OR MARGINS LINES: It is meant to protect the edge of the drawing. Its
lines maybe 10mm, 15mm, and 20mm for A4, A3, and A2 respectively marked out.
(ii) TITLE BLOCK: Every drawing must include a title block which indicates the following
information: Institution, the title of the drawing, draw by, check by, class, department, date,
matric number, Scale, and dimension (For student).
The title block is always drawn at the bottom right-hand side of the drawing paper or sheet
before the commencement of drawing. The recommended size of title block in Federal
Polytechnic Ede, Osun State Nigeria is 150mm by 60mm for A2 and A3 drawing paper.

20mm
2mm 150mm

FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC EDE 10

TITLE: LAYOUT OF A DRAWING SHEET 10
DRW BY SADIQ CHARLES 8
60mm DEPT MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY 8
2mm CHK BY LECTURER NAME 8
CLASS ND I (FT) DIM MM 8
DATE 12/01/2015 SCALE 1:1 8

20 70 20 40

Fig 2.4: Representation of title block on the A2 drawing sheet

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2.7 VARIOUS STANDARDS OF DRAWING SHEET
The standard sizes of drawing paper used for normal purposes should be as follows:
Table 2.1: Standard size of the drawing sheet

Fig 2.5: Standard size of the drawing sheet

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2.8 LETTERS AND FIGURES OF VARIOUS FORMS AND CHARACTERS
In Technical and Engineering drawing, lettering plays an important role as it explains those parts
of the object which cannot be shown by lines. On the other hand, poor lettering not only mars the
appearance of drawing but sometimes leads to wrong results which cause wastage of time and
labour. Thus, the lettering is the talk of drawing and therefore it should be legible, uniform in
appearance, simple and easy for rapid writing.
The art of writing the alphabets A, B, C, - - - - - - - Z and numbers such as 1, 2, 3, - - - - 0 etc. is
known as lettering.
It is an important part of the drawing and is used to write letters, dimensions, notes, and other
necessary information required for the complete execution of a machine or structure, etc.
2.9 REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD LETTERING:
In engineering drawing or technical drawing, good lettering must fulfill the following purposes:
(i) The knowledge of the shape and proportion of each letter
(ii) The knowledge of the order and direction of the strokes used in making letters
(iii)The knowledge of the rules for combining letters into words and word into sentences
(iv) The knowledge of writing the letters in plain and simple styles so that the lettering can be
done freehand and speedily
2.10 GENERAL PROPORTION OF LETTERING
The general proportion of lettering means the relationships between the height, width, and
spacing of each letter. The important proportion of lettering includes:
(i) NORMAL LETTERING: Normal lettering have normal height and width and are used for
general purposes e.g ENGINEERING
(ii) CONDENSED LETTERING: Condensed lettering is written in the narrow space. They are
used when space is limit e.g ENGINEERING
(iii)EXTENDED LETTERING: Extended lettering is wider than normal lettering but of the
same height e.g: ENGINEERING
2.11 COMPOSITION OF LETTERS
The composition means the letter is so arranged that the open area between two letters of a word
appears equal to the eye judgment.
Examples:
SPACING (Good composition) SPA C ING (Poor composition)

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Capital letters are preferred to lower case letters since they are easier to read on reduced size
drawing prints. Although the lower case letters are used for symbols or an abbreviation.
2.12 RECOMMENDATION FOR MINIMUM SIZE OF LETTERING ON DRAWING
SHEETS
Table 2.2: Recommended size for lettering
APPLICATION DRAWING SHEET SIZES MINIMUM CHARACTER HEIGHT
Drawing numbers A0, A1, A2, A3& 5.0mm
e.t.c A4 3.0mm

Dimension and A0 3.5mm

notes A1, A2, A3& A4 2.5mm
There are two fundamental methods of writing graphic languages freehand and with instruments.
The followings are various way of writing lettering:
(1) VERTICAL CAPITAL AND SMALL LETTERS LETTERING:
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
(Vertical capital lettering)

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
(Vertical small lettering)
(2) INCLINED CAPITAL AND SMALL LETTERS LETTERING:
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
(Inclined capital lettering)

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
(Inclined small lettering)
(3) VERTICAL NUMERICAL LETTERING:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
(4) INCLINED NUMERICAL LETTERING:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

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EXAMPLES OF LETTERING

Fig 2.6: Examples of lettering

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2.13 ABBREVIATIONS AND CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS USED ON MECHANICAL
AND ELECTRICAL DRAWINGS
There are some common engineering terms and expressions, which are frequently replaced by
abbreviations or symbols on drawing, to save space and drafting time. This will include the
technical, mechanical, electrical, electronic, and pneumatic symbols.
2.13.1 TECHNICAL DRAWING SYMBOLS
Table 2.3: General symbols for technical drawing

2.13.2 MECHANICAL CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS

Many common engineering features are difficult to draw in full. To save drafting time and spaces
on drawing, these features are represented in simple conventional form as shown below.

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Table 2.4: Mechanical conventional symbols

2.13.3 ELECTRICAL CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS

Table 2.5: Electrical conventional symbols

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2.13.4 PNEUMATIC CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS
Table 2.6: Pneumatic conventional symbols

2.14 DIMENSIONING
The main aim of drawing is to represent the correct size of the object to be manufactured or
constructed. It is, therefore, necessary that the drawing must carry the proper dimensions and
other information of the various parts of the object. The correct dimensioning will facilitate the
technician in manufacturing the part, whereas the wrong dimensioning may cause confusion and
will lead to a great loss of time, labour, and material. Therefore dimensions should be done in a
way that is simply located and easily understood by the technician.
A dimensioned drawing should provide all the information necessary for a finished product or
part to be manufactured. An example of the dimension is shown below:

Dimensions are always drawn using continuous thin lines. Two projection lines indicate where
the dimension starts and finishes. Projection lines do not touch the object and are drawn

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perpendicular to the element you are dimensioning. In general, units can be omitted from
dimensions if a statement of the units is included in your drawing. The general convention is to
dimension in mm. All dimensions less than 1 should have a leading zero. i.e. .35 should be
written as 0.35.

3 3 3
450 200
Ø36
R20
Ø30
Ø45 3

Fig 2.7: Dimensioning

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2.15 DRAWING SCALE
In Technical or Engineering drawing, it is often an inconvenience to represent the actual size of
the object e.g building on the drawing, so we generally reduce it to some proportion to
accommodate on the drawing sheet. However, sometimes, it becomes essential to increase the
actual size of the object to give clear conception, as in the case of small machine parts,
mathematical instruments, watches, etc. Now, the proportion by which we either reduce or
increase the actual length or true dimension of the object on the drawing is known as scale.
A scale is a ratio between the size represented on the drawing and the true size of the object.

Scale (S) =

2.15.1 SIZES OF SCALE

The following are the sizes of scale which are used in technical and engineering drawings;
(i) FULL SCALE is the scale in which the actual measurements or true dimensions of the object
are drawn to the same size on the drawing. i.e 1:1
(ii) REDUCE SCALE: is the scale in which the actual measurements or true dimension of the
object are reduced to some proportion. i.e
(a) 1:2 – drawing made to one- half of the actual size
(b) 1: 100 – drawing made to one – hundredth of the actual size
(iii)ENLARGE SCALE: is the scale in which the actual measurements or true dimension of the
object increases to some proportion. i.e
(a) 2:1 – drawing made to twice the actual size
(b) 5:1 – drawing made to five times the actual size
Table 2.7: Recommended scale in engineering drawing

EXAMPLES:
(1) Calculate the scale of a drawing if the dimension carried on the drawing is 4mm and the true
dimension is 40mm.

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 Solution
Given: Dimension to carry on the drawing (DCD) = 4mm, True dimension of the object
(TDO) = 40mm and scale (S) =?

Recall; Scale (S) = = = = 1:10

(2) Calculate the drawing dimension of a line having a true dimension of 543mm to a scale of
1/10.
Solution
Given: Dimension to carry on the drawing (DCD) =? True dimension of the object (TDO) =
543mm and scale (S) = 1:10

Recall; Scale (S) =

 Dimension to carry on the drawing (DCD) = Scale (S) x True dimension of the object
(TDO) =

Fig 2.8: Examples of scale

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 ASSIGNMENT TWO (2)
(1) Draw a borderline and title block
(2) On your drawing sheet write 1-50 using vertical and inclined lettering method
(3) Print the capital and small letter of A-Z using vertical lettering method
(4) Write the words below in vertical lettering methods:
(i) ENGINEERS SAYPOOR LETTERING MARS THE APPEARANCE OF DRAWING
(ii) NIGERIAN ATHLETES MUST GIVE AN EXEMPLARY PERFORMANCE IN AFRICA
GAMES
(5) Write the words below in inclined lettering methods:
(i) I AM PROUD TO BE AN ENGINEER
(ii) IT WILL RAINS CAT AND DOG
(iii)DRAWING IS THE GRAPHIC LANGUAGE OF ENGINEERS
(6) Using the write drawing instruments copy the following drawings below;

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WEEK 3-4 CONSTRUCTION OF SIMPLE GEOMETRICAL
FIGURES AND SHAPES

3.1 PURPOSE OF GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS:

The geometrical construction treats the properties of points, lines, surfaces, triangle, circles,
polygons, and solids used in plane geometry. It also deals with the properties of figures that
remain constant. Extensively, it deals with the ideas of putting together the part of a body.

3.2 CONSTRUCTION OF PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

3.2.1 PARALLEL LINES: (HOW TO CONSTRUCT A PARALLEL LINE TO LINE AB)
EXP: Draw a parallel line to line AB of length 80mm.
Procedures/steps
(i) Draw the line AB (ii) Mark point 1 and 3 near to the ends of the line and point 2 about the
centre of the line (iii) With centres 1, 2, 3 and a radius equal to the distance away of the required
parallel line draw arcs (iv) A line drawn across the tops of the arcs is the required parallel lines.

Fig 3.1: Parallel line

3.2.2 PERPENDICULAR LINES: (HOW TO CONSTRUCT A PERPENDICULAR LINE)
(A) AT A GIVEN POINT ON A STRAIGHT LINE:
EXP: Draw a perpendicular line to line AB of length 80mm at a point C 45mm away from end
A.
Procedures/steps
(i) Draw the line AB (ii) Mark the given point i.e C (iii) With centre C and any convenient radius
draw the semicircle DE (iv) With centre D and E and any convenient radius draw arcs to
intersect at F (v) A line drawn from C through the intersection of the arcs is the perpendicular
line

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 Fig 3.2: Perpendicular line at a given point
(B) AT THE END OF A GIVEN LINE (AB):
Procedures/steps
EXP: Draw a perpendicular line to line AB at end A, if line AB is 75mm long.
(i) Draw the line AB (ii) Extend line AB outwards through A (iii) With centre A and any
convenient radius draw the semicircle a‟ b‟ (iv) With centre a‟ and b‟ and any convenient radius
draw arcs to intersect at D (v) A line drawn from A through the intersection of the arcs is the
perpendicular line.

Fig 3.3: Perpendicular line at the end of a given line

3.3 BISECTION OF LINES, ANGLES, AND AREAS

3.3.1 CONSTRUCTION TO BISECT LINE (AB):
EXP: Draw line AB of length 66mm and bisect it.
Procedures/steps
(ii) Draw the given line AB (ii) With centre A and a radius greater than half AB, draw arcs above
and below the line AB (iii) With centre B draw arcs of the same radius to cut the previous one at
point C and D (iv) The line drawn through the intersections of the arcs will bisect the given line
AB at O

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 Fig 3.4: Bisection of line
3.3.2 CONSTRUCTION TO BISECT ANGLES:
Procedures/steps
(i) Draw the given angle AOB (ii) With centre O and any convenient radius is drawn an arc to
cut OA at C and OB at D (iii) With centre D and any convenient radius more than the previous
one, draw an arc (iv) With centre C and the same radius, draw an arc to intersect the previous
one at E (v) Join OE to pass through E. Line OE is the bisector line

Fig 3.5: Bisection of angle

3.3.3 CONSTRUCTION OF ANGLE 900,450, 600, 300, 150 AND 7.50:
3.3.3.1 CONSTRUCTION OF ANGLE 900 AND 450:
Procedures/steps
(i) Construct a perpendicular line AD to line AB at point A (ii) Angle BAD is the required angle
900 (iii) Bisect angle BAD to obtain angle 450

29
 Fig 3.6: Construction of angle 900 and 450
3.3.3.2 CONSTRUCTION OF ANGLE 600:
Procedures/steps
(i) Draw line AC at any convenient length (ii) Indicate point B anywhere online AC (iii) With
centre B and any convenient radius, draw an arc to cut AC at c (iv) With centre C and the same
radius, draw an arc to cut the previous one at D (v) Draw a line from B through D (vi) Angle
CBD is the required 600 angle.

Fig 3.7: Construction of angle 600

3.3.3.3 CONSTRUCTION OF ANGLE 300 AND 150

Procedures/steps
(i) Construct angle 600 (ii) Bisect angle 600 to get angle 300 (iii) Bisect angle 300 to get angle 150

Fig 3.8: Construction of angle 300and 150

30
3.4 CONSTRUCTION TO DIVIDE A STRAIGHT LINE
(A) INTO A GIVEN NUMBER OF EQUAL PARTS
EXP: Divide line AB of length 100mm into seven (7) equal parts.
Procedures/steps:
(i) Draw the given line AB (ii) Draw line AC at any convenient angle to line AB less than or
equal to 450 but not more than 450 (iii) Step off along AC the required number of divisions.
These may be of any convenient length but equal (iv) Join the last number to point B (v) Draw
lines parallel to this line BC from the other numbers (vi) AB is now divided into the required
number of equal parts.

Fig 3.9: Division of line into some equal parts

(B) INTO A GIVEN PROPORTION
EXP: Divide line AF of length 120mm into a proportion (i) 1:2:4 (ii) 2:3
Procedures/steps:
(i) Draw the given line AB (ii) Since the ratio is 1:2:4, this implies that the line will be divided
into (1+2+4) = 7 equal parts (iii) Draw line AD at any convenient angle less than or equal to 450
but not more than 450(iv) Divide line AD into 7 equal parts (v) Join the last number to point B
(v) Join points 1, 2 & 3 parallel to line 7B (vi) line AB is now divided into a proportion of 1:2:4
Note: Use the same procedures for example (ii)

Fig 3.10: Division of line into a given proportion

31
3.5 POLYGON
A polygon is a plane figure bounded by more than four straight lines and containing more than
four angles. When a plane figure has four or more sides it is called a polygon. There are two
main types of the polygon:
(i) REGULAR POLYGON: is a polygon that has all its sides and angles equal. Examples are;

Fig 3.11: Regular polygon

(ii) IRREGULAR POLYGON: This is a polygon that has none of its sides and angles equal.

Fig 3.12: irregular polygon

Fig 3.13: Triangle Terminology

32
` Fig 3.14: Relationship of one line to another line
3.6 CONSTRUCTION OF A REGULAR POLYGON WITH N SIDES IN A GIVEN
CIRCLE
In constructing a polygon with five sides and more, two standard methods must be employed.
These methods are;
(i) Distance across the flats and (ii) Distance across the corners
(i) DISTANCE ACROSS THE FLATS: This method involves taken into consideration the
number of sides of the polygon. The number of sides of the polygon will be divided into 360

degrees. i.e = θ. θ

A B
θ = External angle

Recall; Pentagon has 5 sides = = 720, Hexagon has 6 sides = = 600, Heptagon has 7

sides = = 51.40 , Octagon has 8 sides = = 450 and Nonagon has 9 sides = = 400.

The value of θ obtain will be used to construct the distance across the flat using the appropriate
set square. If the angle obtains can not be constructed with a set square then a protractor should
be used to measure the required angle. In using distance across the flat the polygon is drawn
outside the circle.
(ii) DISTANCE ACROSS THE CORNER: It involves drawing across two opposite planes
such that the polygon can be divided into 2 equal segments. It is used for polygons which have
an even number of sides. For example, hexagon (6sided), Octagon (8sided), Decagon (10 sided)
polygon, etc.

33
3.6.1 CONSTRUCTION OF POLYGON USING DISTANCE ACROSS THE CORNER
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw a circle with the given distance across the corner ( i.e diameter of the circle)
(ii) Step off the radius of the distance across the corner round the circumference of the circle ( i.e
for hexagon) and bisect the quadrant formed by the vertical and horizontal centre line of the
circle at both sides ( i.e for octagon).
(iii) Join all the divisions or points on the circle to produce the required polygon
3.6.2 CONSTRUCTION OF POLYGON USING DISTANCE ACROSS THE FLAT
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw a circle with the given distance across the flat (diameter)

(ii) Divide the 360 degrees by the number of sides of the polygon i.e =θ

(iii)Draw a rough sketch of the polygon as a guide to produce the shape across the flat
(iv) Draw the polygon using the corresponding set square or protractor equal to the angle θ obtain
above
3.7 CONSTRUCTION OF A REGULAR POLYGON
3.7.1 CONSTRUCTION OF A REGULAR HEXAGON WITH A DISTANCE ACROSS
THE FLAT:
Steps/procedures
EXP: Draw a hexagon with a 40mm distance across the flat.
(i) Draw a circle of diameter 40mm

(ii) Determine the value of θ using the given formula. i.e = θ, since N = 6 > θ = = 600

(iii) Draw a rough sketch of a hexagon as a guide and name the sides as follows; 1,2,3 ….6
(iv) Using 600 set square (since the value of θ above is 600), draw a tangent to the circle
The tangents are drawn across the circle by following the corresponding opposite sides
E D

F C

A B
Fig 3.15: Construction of hexagon across the flat

34
3.7.2 CONSTRUCTION OF A REGULAR OCTAGON WITH A DISTANCE ACROSS
THE FLAT:
Steps/procedures
EXP: Draw an octagon with a 60mm distance across the flat.
(i) Draw a circle of diameter 60mm

(ii) Determine the value of θ using the given formula. i.e = θ, since N = 8> θ = = 450

(iii) Draw a rough sketch of an octagon as a guide and name the sides as follows; 1,2,3 ….8
(iv) Using a 450 set square (since the value of θ above is 450), draw a tangent to the circle
(v) The tangents are drawn across the circle by following the corresponding opposite sides

F E

G D

H C

A B
Fig 3.16: Construction of an octagon across the flat

3.7.3 CONSTRUCTION OF A REGULAR PENTAGON WITH A DISTANCE ACROSS

THE FLAT:
Steps/procedures
EXP: Draw a regular pentagon of sides 45mm.
(i) Draw a horizontal line AB equal to the given side of the pentagon
(ii) Extend line AB through A and B respectively

(iii)Determine the value of θ using the given formula. i.e = θ, since N = 5 > θ = = 720

(iv) Draw a rough sketch of a pentagon as a guide and name the sides as follows; 1,2,3 ….5
(v) Since the value of θ above is 720, the set square cannot be used then, we make use of a
protractor to determine the angle θ above
(vi) Place a protractor on point A and measure 720 and also on point B respectively
(vii) Join the corresponding point to A and B respectively and extend the line at any convenient
length

35
(viii) Measure 45mm from point A and B respectively, to determine point C and D as shown
(ix) Repeat procedure vi to viii above to determine the intercept at E
(x) Join all the points using an outline ( thick line)
E

D C

A B
Fig 3.17: Construction of pentagon when given the length of the side
3.7.4 CONSTRUCTION OF A REGULAR HEXAGON WITH DISTANCE ACROSS THE
CORNER
EXP Draw a hexagon with a 50mm distance across the corner.
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw a circle equal to the given distance across the corner (diameter 50mm)
(ii) Without altering the compass, step off the radius around the circle to give six equally spaced
points
(iii)Join all the points to produce the hexagon
A B

F C

E D
Fig 3.18: Construction of hexagon across the corner
3.7.5 CONSTRUCTION OF AN OCTAGON WITH DISTANCE ACROSS THE CORNER
EXP Draw an octagon with a 44mm distance across the corner.
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw a circle equal to the given distance across the corner (diameter 44mm)
(ii) Draw the horizontal and vertical centre line across the circle
(iii)Bisect each of the 900 formed by the vertical and horizontal centre line
(iv) Join the opposite intersecting arcs

36
(v) The bisector lines, vertical centre line and the horizontal centre line formed eight points
(vi) Join all the points together to produce the regular octagon

Fig 3.19: Construction of an octagon across the corners

3.8 GENERAL METHOD OF CONSTRUCTING POLYGON
3.8.1 SEMICIRCLE METHOD
Steps/procedure
(i) Draw a line AB equal to the giving side and extend it through A and B
(ii) With centre A and radius AB draw a semicircle and divide it by trial into some equal parts as
the required sides of the polygon (i.e for pentagon divide it into 5 equal parts, hexagon 6 equal
parts, etc.)
(iii) Join points A and 2. This is the second side of the required polygon in every example
(iv) Bisect AB and A2. The bisectors intersect at O
(v) With centre O and radius OA draw a circle and mark off the other sides of the polygon on it
3.8.1.1 CONSTRUCTION OF PENTAGON BY SEMI CIRCULAR GENERAL METHOD
EXP: Draw a regular pentagon of side 30mm using a semicircular general method
Steps/procedure
(i) Draw a horizontal line AB equal to 30mm and extend it through A and B
(ii) With centre A and radius AB = 30mm draw a semicircle upward

37
(iii)Divide the semicircle into 5 equal parts by trial method. i.e Circumference of a circle
(C) = 2πr, but r = AB = 30mm and π = 3.142 > C= 2 x 3.142 x 30 = 188.52mm. For semicircle

C1 = = = 94.26mm, thus division by trial = = 18.852mm = 19mm

(iv) Repeat procedure (iii) and (v) in 3.8.1 above

E C

A B
Fig 3.20: Construction of the Pentagon with the semicircular method
3.8.1.2 CONSTRUCTION OF HEPTAGON BY SEMI CIRCULAR GENERAL METHOD
EXP: Draw a heptagon of side 35mm using a semicircular general method
Steps/procedure
(i) Draw a horizontal line AB equal to 35mm and extend it through A and B
(ii) With centre A and radius AB = 35mm draw a semicircle upward
(iii)Divide the semi-circle into 7 equal parts by trial method. i.e Circumference of a circle
(C) = 2πr, but r = AB = 35mm and π = 3.142 > C= 2 x 3.142 x 35 = 219.94mm. For semi-circle
C1 = = = 109.97mm, thus division by trial = = 21.994mm = 22mm

(iv) Repeat procedure (iii) and (v) in 3.8.1 above

38
Fig 3.20: Construction of heptagon with the semicircular method

3.8.2 TRIANGLE METHOD

Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw a horizontal line AB equal to the given side and bisect it
(ii) Using AB as a base, construct two(2) triangles with base angles of 600 and 450
(iii)The two triangles cut the bisector line at 6 and 4 respectively and thus the apex of the
triangles
(iv) Bisect points 4 and 6 to obtain 5. Point 5 is the centre of the circumscribing circle for a
regular polygon
(v) With radius 4-5 or 5-6, step off the radius along the bisector AB to obtain pints 7,8 and 9
respectively
(vi) Point 5 is the centre of the circumscribing circle for a regular pentagon of side length AB,
point 6 for regular hexagon, point 7 heptagon, point 8 octagon, etc.
(vii) Draw a circle with radius A5 for the pentagon, A6 for hexagon, A7 for heptagon, etc.
(viii) Step AB round the circle to obtain other sides
(ix) Join points so obtained to give the required polygon

3.8.2.1 CONSTRUCTION OF HEXAGON AND HEPTAGON BY TRIANGLE

GENERAL METHOD

39
EXP: Construct a hexagon and heptagon of side 40mm using a triangle general method of the
polygon.

Fig 3.20: Construction of hexagon with the triangular method

ASSIGNMENT THREE (3)

(1) Draw a hexagon and octagon using 60mm distance across the corner and 75mm distance
across the flat
(2) Draw a regular pentagon with side 32mm
(3) Draw a regular heptagon with side 30mm long
(4) Construct a heptagon with 90mm distance across the flat and 95mm across the corner
(5) Construct the following angles 22.50 67.50, 1350, 7.50, 1500, 750, 11.250 and 1050
(6) Draw a line 120mm long and bisect it
(7) Draw an angle ABC 1200 and bisect it
(8) Draw a line AB 173mm and divided it into six equal parts
(9) Construct angle ABC such that AB = 60mm, BC = 52mm and AC = 70mm. Note < ABC =
750 and < BCA = 22.50
(10) Draw a line AB 200mm and divide it into a proportion 4:5:3
(11) Construct a pentagon and heptagon with side length 30mm using both the semicircular and
triangle general methods

40
WEEK 5 SIMPLE GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCLE

4.1 CIRCLE
A circle is a plane figure bounded by a curved line called the circumference, which is always
equidistance from the centre.
4.2 PROPERTIES OF A CIRCLE

Fig 4.1: Properties of a circle

(i) RADIUS: is a straight line drawn from the centre to the circumference
(ii) DIAMETER: is a straight line drawn through the centre, meeting the circumference at both
ends
(iii)TANGENT is a straight line that touches the circumference. It is always at the right angle
(900) to the radius
(iv) CIRCUMFERENCE: is the metre or length of a circle
(v) ARC: is any part of the circumference
(vi) CHORD: is any straight line drawn across the circle meeting the circumference at both ends
(vii) SEGMENT: is part of a circle bounded by an arc and a chord
(viii) SECTOR: is part of a circle bounded by radii(two radius) and an arc
(ix) QUADRANT: is part of a circle bounded by radii (two radius) at a right angle and an arc

4.3 CONSTRUCTION OF DIAMETER OF A CIRCLE OF A GIVEN

CIRCUMFERENCE
EXP: Draw the diameter of a circle, if the circumference is 120mm.

41
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw the given circumference AA1 and bisect it at C
(ii) With C as centre and radius equal to CA, draw a semicircle
(iii) With A1 as centre and radius equal to A1C, draw an arc to cut the semicircle at D
(iv) From D, draw a perpendicular to AA1 to cut the line AA1 at E
(v) With E as centre and radius equal to ED, draw an arc to cut AA1 at B
(vi) Then, AB is the required diameter of the circle
D

A B C E A1
DIAMETER
GIVEN CIRCUMFERENCE
Fig 4.2: Construction of diameter of a given circumferences
4.3.1 CONSTRUCTION OF THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CIRCLE OF A GIVEN
DIAMETER
EXP: Draw the circumference of a circle if the diameter of the circle is 40mm
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw a vertical line at any convenient length at the left-hand end of your drawing area
(ii) Draw a semicircle on the vertical line equal to the given diameter AB with centre O
(iii)From B mark off three times the diameter to point C. i.e BC = 3x 40 = 120mm
(iv) From O draw a line at 300 to OA to meet the semicircle at D
(v) From D draw a line perpendicular to OA to meet OA at E and join EC
(vi) Line EC is the required circumference

Fig 4.3: Construction of circumference of a given diameter

42
4.4 CONSTRUCTION OF A CIRCLE TO PASS THROUGH THREE POINTS
EXP: Construct a circle to pass through points A, B, and C, if point AB = 30mm and BC =
20mm.
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw the given point A, B and C
(ii) Bisect AB and BC
(iii)The bisectors intersect at O which is the centre of the required circle
(iv) With centre O and radius OA or OB or OC, draw a complete circle to pass through the three-
point B
A C

Fig 4.4: Construction of circle to pass through three points

4.5 CONSTRUCTION OF A CIRCLE TO PASS THROUGH TWO (2) POINTS AND

TOUCH A GIVEN LINE
EXP: Draw a circle to pass through line CD of length 45mm and Point A and B 30mm away
from each other and at an angle 750 to line CD.
Steps/Procedures
(i) Locate the two given points A and B 30mm away from each other and draw a vertical line to
pass through them.
(ii) Extend the vertical line through B to any convenient length and mark point E anywhere along
the vertical line
(iii) Measure the given angle (750) from point E and mark line CD along the angle
(iv) Mark EF equal to EB
(v) Construct a semicircle on AF
(vi) Draw a line perpendicular to AF from E to touch the semicircle at G
(vii) Mark EH equal to EG
(viii) Draw a line perpendicular to CD at H

43
(ix) Bisect AB to cut the previous line at J, Point J is the required centre of the circle
(x) With centre J and radius JH, draw a complete circle

J I

C B
H

D
E G

F
Fig 4.5: Construction of circle to pass through two points and touch a given line
4.6 CONSTRUCTION OF A CIRCLE TO TOUCH A GIVEN SMALLER CIRCLE AND
A GIVEN LINE AT A GIVEN POINT
EXP: Construct a circle to touch a given smaller circle of diameter 50mm and a given line AB at
a point P 80mm away from end A. Note that; line AB is 40mm away from the centre of the
smaller circle
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw the given circle of diameter 50mm with centre O and the given line AB 40mm away
from the centre O with a given point P 80mm away from end A
(ii) Draw a line perpendicular to AB from P (line PC)
(iii)Draw a line perpendicular to AB through the centre O of the circle (line ED)
(iv) Join points E to P
(v) Line EP cut the circumference of the given circle at point F
(vi) Draw a line from centre O through F to touch the perpendicular PC at G
(vii) With centre G and radius, GP draw the required circle
C
E

O F G

44
 A D P B
Fig 4.6: Construction of circle to touch a given circle and a line at a given point
4.7 INSCRIBING AND CIRCUMSCRIBING CIRCLES
4.7.1 CONSTRUCTION TO INSCRIBE A CIRCLE ON A TRIANGLE
EXP: Draw a triangle ABC of side AB= BC = AC = 50mm and inscribe a circle on it
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw the given triangle ABC of sides 50mm
(ii) Bisect any two angles
(iii)The bisecting lines will intersect at O, which is the centre of the required circle
(iv) Draw a perpendicular to any side from O
(v) With centre O and radius OD draw the required circle
B

O
A D C
Fig 4.7: Inscribing a circle on a triangle
4.7.2 CONSTRUCTION TO CIRCUMSCRIBE A CIRCLE ON A TRIANGLE
EXP: Draw a triangle ABC of side AB= BC = AC = 50mm and circumscribe a circle on it
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw the given triangle ABC of sides 50mm
(ii) Bisect any two sides
(iii)The bisecting lines will intersect at O, which is the centre of the required circle
(iv) With centre O and radius OA or OB or OC draw the required circle
B

O
A C

45
Fig 4.8: Circumscribing a circle on a triangle
4.8 PRINCIPLE OF TANGENCY
The knowledge of the principles of tangency is required to:
(i) Join arcs with straight lines
(ii) Join arcs with other arcs
4.8.1 PRINCIPLE I: JOINING AN ARC WITH A STRAIGHT LINE
4.8.1.1 CONSTRUCTION OF A TANGENT TO JOIN ARCS WITH A STRAIGHT LINE:
EXP: Draw an arc tangent to a line AB of length 80mm at a point C on line DE parallel and
40mm away from AB
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw the straight line AB of length 80mm
(ii) Draw another line DE parallel to AB with distance R (40mm) from AB
(iii)With any points says C, on DE, draw the arc with radius R
(iv) The arc touches AB at a point T (the point of tangency)
Note: Point T lies on a line through C and at 900 to AB

D C E

A B
Fig 4.9: Tangent to an arc
4.8.2 PRINCIPLE II: JOINING AN ARCS WITH OTHER ARCS
This type of construction is used in the construction of;
(a) Open belt (b) Crossbelt
4.8.2.1 CONSTRUCTION OF LINE TANGENTS TO TWO CIRCLES (OPEN BELT)
Given: Circles of radii R1 and R with centers O and P, respectively

Steps/Procedures
(i) With P as center and a radius equal to (R-R1) draw an arc.

46
(ii) Locate the midpoint of OP as perpendicular bisector of OP as “M”.
(iii) With M as centre and Mo as radius draw a semicircle.
(iv) Locate the intersection point T between the semicircle and the circle with radius (R-R1).
(v) Draw a line PT and extend it to locate T1.
(vi) Draw OT2 parallel to PT1.
(vii) The line T1 to T2 is the required tangent

Fig 4.10: Construction of an open belt

4.8.2.2 CONSTRUCTION OF LINE TANGENTS TO TWO CIRCLES (CROSSED BELT)

Given: Two circles of radii R1 and R with centers O and P, respectively

Steps/Procedures
(i) Using P as a center and a radius equal to (R+ R1) draw an arc.
(ii) Through O draw a tangent to this arc.
(iii) Draw a line PT cutting the circle at T1
(iv) Through O draw a line OT2 parallel to PT1.
(v) The line T1T2 is the required tangent.

Fig 4.11: Construction of a crossed belt

47
4.9 CONSTRUCTION OF TANGENT TO A CIRCLE AT VARIOUS POINTS:
4.9.1 AT A POINT ON THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE CIRCLE
EXP: Draw a tangent to a circle of diameter 40mm at a point P anywhere on the circumference
of the circle
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw the circle of diameter 40mm with centre O and indicate point P anywhere on the
circumference of the circle
(ii) Join points O and P and extended the line through P
(iii)With centre P and radius, OP draw an arc to cut the extended line at A
(iv) Bisect OA
(v) The bisector BC is the required tangent

Fig 4.12: Tangent to circle at a point on the circumference

4.9.2 AT A POINT OUTSIDE THE CIRCLE
EXP: Draw a tangent to a circle of diameter 50mm at a point P outside the circle and 90mm
anywhere away from the centre O
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw the circle of diameter 50mm with centre O and indicate point P anywhere outside the
circle
(ii) Join points O and P
(iii)Construct a semi-circle on OP upward
(iv) The semicircle cut the circle at point A
(v) Join points P and A and extend the line to pass through both points
(vi) The line through A and P is the required tangent

Fig 4.13: Tangent to circle at a point outside the circumference

48
4.10 CONSTRUCTION OF AN ARC OF RADIUS TANGENT TO TWO LINES AT AN
ANGLE LESS THAN AND MORE THAN 900
4.9.1 ANGLE LESS THAN 900:
EXP: Draw an arc of radius 10mm and 25mm to an angle CAB less than 900, if sides AC = AB
= 80mm
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw the given angle CAB less than 900
(ii) Draw lines parallel to AB and AC at a distance equal to the radius of arc (10mm) away from
AC and AB respectively
(iii) The parallel line to AC and AB intersect at point O
(iv) Draw a line perpendicular to AB or AC from point O to cut AB or AC at point D (line OD)
(v) With centre O and radius OD draw the required arc
B

O
A D C
Fig 4.14: Tangent to an angle less than 900
4.10.2 ANGLE MORE THAN 900
EXP: Draw an arc of radius 10mm and 25mm to an angle CAB more than 900, if sides AC = AB
= 80mm
B

O
A C
Fig 4.15: Tangent to an angle more than 900

49
4.11 TO DRAW AN EXTERNAL TANGENT TO TWO CIRCLES

Steps/Procedures
(i) Join the centres of the circles by line AB, bisect AB, and draw a semi-circle
(ii) Position point E so that DE is equal to the radius of the smaller circle
(iii) Draw radius AE to cut the semi-circle at point G. Draw line AGH so that H lies on the
circumference of the larger circle
(iv) Draw line HJ parallel to BG. Line HJNote that angle AGB lies in a semi-circle and will be
900 will be tangential to the two circles and lines BJ and AGH are the normal

Fig 4.16: External tangent to two circles

4.11.1 TO DRAW AN INTERNAL TANGENT TO TWO CIRCLES

Steps/Procedures
(i) Join the centres of the circles by line AB, bisect AB and draw a semi-circle
(ii) Position point E so that DE is equal to the radius of the smaller circle BC
(iii) Draw radius AE to cut the semi-circle in H. Join AH; this line crosses the larger circle
circumference at J
(iv) Draw line BH. From J draw a line parallel to BH to touch the smaller circle at K. Line JK is
the required tangent. AJ and BK are normal
Note that angle AHB lies in a semi-circle and will, therefore, be 900

Fig 4.17: Internal tangent to two circles

50
4.11.2 TO DRAW INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL TANGENTS TO TWO CIRCLES OF
EQUAL DIAMETER

Steps/Procedures
(i) Join the centres of both circles by line AB.
(ii) Erect perpendiculars at points A and B to touch the circumferences of the circles at points C
and D. Line CD will be the external tangent.
(iii) Bisect line AB to give point E, then bisect BE to give point G.
(iv) With radius BG, describe a semi-circle to cut the circumference of one of the given circles at
H.
(v) Join HE and extend it to touch the circumference of the other circle at J.
(vi) Line HEJ is the required tangent, and hence BH and AJ are normal.
Note that again the angle in the semi-circle, BHE, will be 900

Fig 4.18: External and internally tangent to two circles

4.12 CONSTRUCTION OF AN ARC EXTERNALLY AND INTERNALLY TANGENT
TO TWO CIRCLES
Steps/Produces
(i) Draw the two given circles of radius A1 and B2
(ii) Let the internal arc radius be r and the external arc radius be R
(iii)To draw the internal arc, with centre A and radius r + A1 draw an arc
(iv) With centre B and radius r + B2 draw an arc to cut the previous one at C
(v) Join C to A and B
(vi) With centre C and radius CD draw the required internal arc

51
(vii) To draw the external arc, with centre A and radius R – A1 draw an arc
(viii) With centre B and radius R –B2 draw an arc to cut the previous one at E
(ix) Draw a line from E through A to join F and a line from E through B to join G
(x) With centre E and radius EF draw the required external arc
EXP: Draw an internal and external arc of radius 30mm and 60mm to a larger and small circle of
radius 20mm and 15mm respectively. If the centre of the circles are 75mm apart

Fig 4.19: External and internally arc to two circles

52
53
54
Example 3

Fig 4.20: Examples of Tangency

ASSIGNMENT FOUR (4)

SECTION A

(1) Draw separately (a) an external and (b) an internal tangent to two circles of 50 mm and 30
mm diameters and 80 mm apart (distance between centres).
(2) Draw a tangent to a circle of 60 mm diameter from a point P positioned 90mm from the
centre of the circle.

55
(3) Draw accurately the figures shown in Figures below. Mark all tangent points clearly with a
cross (+) and retain all construction lines. Dimensioning of the figures is not necessary.
Assume any dimensions which are not given.

SECTION B
(1) Draw a triangle ABC making AB = 115mm, BC = 80mm and AC = 85mm and also construct
the inscribed and circumscribed circle on it.
(2) Two lines join to form a Vee. AB is 32mm long and BC is 47mm long. The internal angle
between AB and BC is 1200. Construct a circle which will pass through point A, B, and C

56
(3) Construct ABC such that AB = 60mm, BC= 52mm and AC=70mm. Draw (i) The
circumscribing circle of ABC (ii) inscribe a circle on ABC
(4) (a) Construct a tangent to a circle of radius 25mm from a point outside it
(b) Construct a tangent to a circle of radius 30mm from a point on the circumference of the
circle
(c) Draw an inscribed circle to a given triangle of length AB = 80mm, < CAB = 400 and <
ABC = 650
SECTION C

Draw the given diagrams below to the given dimensions showing clearly your construction for
obtaining the tangents.

57
58
59
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WEEK 6-7 ELLIPSE

5.1 DEFINITION OF AN ELLIPSE

An ellipse is a plane figure bounded by a curved line termed the circumference. Its longest
diameter is called the major axis, its shortest diameter the minor axis. The two axes bisect at
right angles.
5.2 METHODS OF CONSTRUCTING ELLIPSE
(i) Trammel method (ii) concentric circle method (iii) Rectangular method
5.1.1 TRAMMEL METHOD
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw the two axes PB and PA
(ii) Make a trammel by taking a strip of paper and mark half the major and minor axes as
illustrated below
(iii)If the trammel is moved so that point A travels along the major axis and point B along the
minor axis, then the point P will trace an ellipse

Fig 5.1: Construction of ellipse by trammel methods

5.2.2 CONCENTRIC METHOD

61
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw two concentric circles equal in diameter to the major and minor axes
(ii) Divide the circumference of the larger circle into 12 equal parts
(iii)Join these points to the centre of the circle
(iv) Draw vertical lines from point 1-12 and horizontal lines from the point where the radiating
lines cut the inner circle, to intersect the vertical lines
(v) These intersecting points are the curve points
EXP: Draw an ellipse with 120mm major diameter and 80mm minor diameter using concentric
circle method.

Fig 5.2: Construction of ellipse by concentric methods

5.3 DRAUGHTING TECHNIQUES

There are three methods of draughting techniques namely; projection methods, measurement
methods, and transposition methods.
5.3.1 PROJECTION METHOD
Projection is the presentation of a figure or solid in a plane as it would look from a particular
direction. They are drawing that expresses the third view of an object.
The types of projection method include the orthographic, isometric, oblique and perspective
drawing e.t.c

62
The orthographic projection can be done easily by using perspective drawing techniques i.e the
techniques used to represent three-dimensional images on two-dimension.

Fig 5.3: Projection method (perspective drawing) of draughting techniques

5.3.2 MEASUREMENT METHOD

This is a method that always yields the exact relationship similar to the use of a proportional
divider. These techniques broadly encompass any method of drawing that involves making
accurate measurements primarily possible. It is not useful for beginners because it eliminates the
manual method. A beginner often has a problem with drawing measurement techniques because
they often rely on concepts like "find the midpoint or estimate the one-third point. Some
equipment used in measurement includes the proportional divider tool. N.B measuring
proportion and drawing (means the distance relationship between one point of an object and
other parts of the same object).
5.3.3 TRANSPOSITION METHOD
It is mostly used by site surveying draughtsmen using transpose reduced level (RLS) to grid
points. It is done by dividing the object to be drawn into an equal line of the horizontal and
vertical line called grid and then transfer.
Steps/Procedures
(i) Divide the given drawing into grids as shown below
(ii) Draw the equal grid and transfer the drawing into the transform

63
Giving drawing Step 1 Step 2
Fig 5.4: Transposition method of draughting technique

5.4 CONSTRUCTION OF SCALES

In most cases, the object for which the drawing is to be prepared is bigger or smaller than its
actual size and it is necessary to draw them with suitable scales as per the drawing sheet
dimensions.
Scale factor (S.F) of a drawing or Representative Fraction (R.F) of a drawing: is the ratio of
the linear dimensions of an element of an object in the drawing to the actual linear dimension of
the same element of the object itself.

S.F or R.F = =

5.5 TYPES OF SCALE

There are two major types of scale; (i) Plain scale (ii) Diagonal scale
5.5.1 PLAIN SCALE
A plain scale is used to represent two consecutive units of measurement e.g metre and decimeter.
A plain scale is commonly used to measure dimensions usually length. The plain scales are
available commonly to measure the maximum length of 150mm, 300mm, and 100mm. Plain
scales represent two consecutive units or a unit and its subdivisions in 10s, 100s, etc. consider
the unit in the metric system to measure linear dimensions and always state the scale used on the
drawing.
Table 5.1: Conversion of dimensions in plain scale
Units Conversions
10 millimetres (mm) 1centimetre (cm)
10centimetres (cm) 1decimetre (dm)
10 decimetres (dm) 1 metre (m)
10 metres (m) 1 decametre (dam)

64
 10 decametres (dam) 1 hectometre (hm)
10 hectometres (hm) 1 Kilometre (Km)

To construct a plain scale of the given representative fraction (R.F) and maximum length to be
measured, the length of the scale is calculated.
Length of scale (L.S) = Representative fraction (R.F) x Maximum length to be measured (M.L)
 L.S = R.F x M.L
Length of scale (L.S) = Representative fraction (R.F) x Read up to (R.U)
 L.S = R.F x R.U
Length of scale (L.S) = Representative fraction (R.F) x Measure up to (M.U)
 L.S = R.F x R.U
GENERAL STEPS/ PROCEDURES FOR CONSTRUCTING SCALE
In every scale, the following key points should be remembered while constructing a scale;
(i) Find the representative fraction (R.F), if not given
(ii) Find the length of scale (L.S) = Representative fraction (R.F) x Maximum length to measures
(M.L). Note if the length of the scale is not mentioned in the question, then take it to be about
15cm or 150mm
(iii)The mark zero (0) should be placed at the end of the first main division
(iv) The main units should be numbered to the right and its sub-units to the left from the zero
mark
(v) The scale or and R.F should be mentioned along with the figure
(vi) The name of the main unit and its sub-units should be mentioned either below or at the
respective ends of the scale
EXP 1: Construct a plain scale of R.F = to read metre and decimeters. The maximum length

to be measured is 5metres. Mark on it a distance of 3.4m.

Solution
Given that Representative fraction (R.F) = and Maximum length to be measured (M.L) = 5m

Recall; Length of scale (L.S) = Representative fraction (R.F) x Maximum length to be measured
(M.L) = = 0.125m = 0.125 x 100 = 12.5cm = 12.5 x 10 = 125mm

Steps/Procedures

65
(i) Draw a horizontal line of length 125mm and divide it into 5 equal parts
(ii) Mark the height of the scale 50mm or 40mm upward and complete the rectangle
(iii)Divide the first division into 10 equal parts. The numbering of the parts should start from
zero i.e 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 , 9 & 10
(iv) The first part of the division will represent the decimeters
(v) Complete the construction and mark 3.4m from the 10 equal part division lines
3.4m

10 5 0

0 1 2 3 4
Decimetres

125mm
Metres
Fig 5.5: Construction of plain scale with a given representative fraction
EXP 2: Construct a plain scale of 2 centimetres equal 1 metres to read up to 6 metres in
decimeters. Locate a distance of 5.5m and 2.8m
Solution
Given that 2cm = 1m the 6 m =?
2cm =1m
x cm = 6m
 Length of scale (x)cm = 6 x 2 = 12cm = 12 x 10 = 120mm
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw a horizontal line of length 120mm and divide it into 6 equal parts
(ii) Mark the height of the scale 50mm or 40mm upward and complete the rectangle
(iii)Divide the first division into 10 equal parts. The numbering of the parts should start from
zero i.e 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 & 10
(iv) The first part of the division will represent the decimeters
(v) Complete the construction and mark a distance of 5.5m and 2.8m from the 10 equal part
division lines.

66
 2.8m

5.5m
10 5 0

0 1 2 3 4 5
Decimetres

120mm
Metres
Fig 5.6: Construction of plan scale without the representative fraction

5.5.2 DIAGONAL SCALE

The diagonal scale is used to represent three consecutive units of measurement e.g metre, centre
and decimeter. The linear dimension with the accuracy of 0.1mm can also be measured using the
diagonal scale. A diagonal scale is also used to measure distance in maps and are not commonly
used in practice.
EXP1: Construct a diagonal scale of R.F = to show metre and long enough to measure up to

300m. Show a distance of 287 on the scale.

Solution
Given; maximum length to be measured = 300m and representative fraction (R.F) =

Recall; Length of scale (L.S) = Representative fraction (R.F) x measure up to (M.U)

 L.S =

Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw a horizontal line of 120mm long and divide it into three(3) equal parts such that each
part represent 100mm
(ii) Draw the height (width ) of the scale with 50mm or 40mm and complete the rectangle
(iii) The first division is divided into 10 equal parts such that the smallest length on the diagonal
represents th of 10m

67
(iv) Also dived the height (width) of the rectangle into 10 equal parts and draw a horizontal line
on them
(v) Complete the construction and marked on the scale the required 287m

10 5 0
10
287m
Centimetres 5

0 0 100 200
Decimetres

120mm
Metres
Fig 5.7: Construction of a diagonal scale with a given representative fraction

EXP 2: Construct a diagonal scale of centimeters to read up to 11 centimetres to millimeters and

tenths of a millimeter. Mark on it 55.9mm and 78.2mm
Solution
Length of scale (L.S) = 11cm = 11 x 10 = 110mm
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw a horizontal line of 110mm long and divide it into 11 equal parts
(ii) Draw the height (width ) of the scale with 50mm or 40mm and complete the rectangle
(iii) Divide the first division into 10 equal parts and erect a perpendicular line on them
(iv) Also dived the height (width) of the rectangle into 10 equal parts and draw a horizontal line
on them
(v) Complete the construction and marked on the scale the required 55.9mm and 78.2mm

68
 10 5 0
10

Tenth of a 5 55.9mm
Millimeters 78.2 mm

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Millimetres

Centimetres

11cm
Fig 5.8: Construction of diagonal scale without representative fraction (a)
EXP 3: Construct a diagonal scale of 3 centimetres equals 1 metres to read up to 4 metres in
decimeters and centimeters. Mark on the scale 1.67m and 3.85m
Solution
Given that 3cm = 1m the 4m =?
3cm =1m
X cm = 4m
 Length of scale (X) cm = 3 x 4 = 12cm = 12 x 10 = 120mm
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw a horizontal line of 12 centimetres long and divide it into 4 equal parts
(ii) Draw the height (width ) of the scale with 50mm or 40mm and complete the rectangle
(iii) Divide the first division into 10 equal parts and erect a perpendicular line on them
(iv) Also dived the height (width) of the rectangle into 10 equal parts and draw a horizontal line
on them
(v) Complete the construction and marked on the scale the required 1.67m and 3.85m

69
 10 5 0
10
1.67m
Centimetres 5 3.85m

0 0 1 2 3
Decimetres
Metres

120mm

Fig 5.9: Construction of a diagonal scale without representative fraction (b)

ASSIGNMENT SIX (6)
(1) Construct a scale of 1cm = 1m to read metres and decimeters and long enough to measure up
to 14metres. Show on this scale a distance equal to 12.4 metres
(2) Draw a scale of 1:30 or representative fraction to show metres and decimeters and long

enough to measure up to 6 metres

(3) Draw a plain scale of representative fraction to show metres and decimeters and long

enough to measure up to 6 metres. Show a distance of 8 metres and 5 metres on this scale.
(4) Construct a plain scale of 2 centimetres equals 1 metres to read up to 6 metres in a decimeter.
Show on this scale a distance equal to 4.5 metres.
(5) Draw a plain scale of 3 centimetres equal 1 decimetres to read up to 5 decimetres in
centimeters
(6) Construct a plain scale to show metres and decimeters, when 3 centimetres are equal to 2
metres and long enough to measure up to 5 metres
(7) Construct a diagonal scale of centimeters to read up to 10 centimetres in millimeters and
tenth of millimeters. Show on this scale a distance equal to 54.9mm
(8) Construct a diagonal scale to read metres, decimeters and centimeters and long enough to
measure up to 5metres when one metre is represented by 3 centimetres. Find the
representative fraction (R.F) and indicate on the scale, a distance of 4 metres, 7 decimetres,
and 6 centimetres

70
(9) Construct an ellipse with a major diameter 100mm and a minor diameter 70mm using a
concentric circle method
(10) Using an auxiliary or concentric circle method, draw an ellipse with the following
dimensions; (a) major axis 80mm (b) Minor axis 50mm
(11) An ellipse has the following dimensions; major diameter 100mm and minor diameter
60mm. Construct the ellipse using the concentric circle method
(12) Write a short note on the following draughting techniques and illustrate with a drawing
(i) Projection method (ii) Transposition method

71
WEEK 8-10 ISOMETRIC AND OBLIQUE PROJECTION

6.1 OVERVIEW
The technical drawing is the universal graphic language by means of which the shape and size of
an object can be specified on a plane of the paper. In order to represent the true shape and size of
the object, different straight lines are drawn from the various points on the contour of the object
on to the plane of the paper. The image or figure, thus, formed on the paper by joining different
points in the correct sequence is known as a projection of that object. It is, therefore, necessary
for technical drawing students to acquire a good working knowledge of projection to express and
record the shape and size of the object.
Pictorial drawing is a means of producing a drawing more easily and quickly by a pictorial view
of an object. It is a practically useful facility for engineering students in visualizing with greater
ease the sequence of assembly, maintenance, and installation of machine parts.
Pictorial drawing falls into three main groups: isometric, oblique, and perspective drawing.
6.2 ISOMETRIC PROJECTION OR DRAWING
Isometric projection is a pictorial method of presenting drawing. It shows the three views of an
object very clearly but the sides of the object are shown to be shortened by equal amounts. It
involves the use of inclined and vertical lines to draw an object. The inclined lines are drawn at
an angle 300 to the horizontal. Its three principal axes are at 1200 apart as shown in the figure
below.

Vertical line
Left receding line 600 600 Right receding line
0 0
30 30
Projection plane
Fig 6.1: An isometric projection of a cube

An article or object drawn in isometric projection must conform to the following conventions;
(i) All vertical lines of the object will remain vertical in the drawing

72
(ii) All horizontal lines of the object will be represented by lines drawn at 300 to the horizontal
by means of 300 set square using the three isometric axes, one of which is vertical and the other
drawn to the right and left at an angle 300
(iii)Measurements are made along the axis. The measurement will be the same as those in the
object or orthographic drawing. Thus the word „Iso' means the same and 'Metric' means to
measure.

6.2.1 HOW TO DRAW AN OBJECT IN ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

(i) First draw a horizontal line and then a vertical line to cross it
(ii) At the point of intersection (of the horizontal and vertical line) draw two lines (receding
lines). One to the right and other to the left at an angle 300 to the horizontal (principal plane of
projection)
(iii)The actual length of the three sides is marked and the remaining views are computed by
drawing lines parallel to the receding lines through the marked points.
It should be noted that all lines to the left are parallel to the receding line to the left and lines to
the right are parallel to the receding line to the right
(iv) The actual length of each side is marked on the drawing
The construction lines (thin lines) are initially used before finally putting up the outlined line
(thick lines).

6.3 OBLIQUE PROJECTION OR DRAWING

Oblique projection or drawing is another form of the pictorial method of projecting object. The
object is presented in a face while the other two faces are drawn with lines at an angle 300, 450,
or 600.
In oblique projection, the front view of an object is drawn true to dimensions as the represented
face in the elevation; all other faces of the receding lines are drawn at an angle 300, 450, or 600.
Like in isometric projection where the projections from the object to the projection plane are
parallel and normal to the plane, in oblique projection they are parallel but oblique to the plane
and the object is positioned with a face parallel to the plane. This is in contrast to isometric
projection where no face of the object is parallel to the projection plane.

73
 Vertical line

900 450 Right receding line

0
45
Projection plane
Fig 6.2: An Oblique projection of a cube
6.4 CONSTRUCTION OF A SQUARE OR CUBE IN ISOMETRIC AND OBLIQUES
FORM
6.4.1 CONSTRUCTION OF A SQUARE OR CUBE IN ISOMETRIC FORM:
EXP: Construct a square or cube of side 40mm in isometric form.

40mm 40mm

40mm

Fig 6.3: Construction of an isometric cube

6.4.2 CONSTRUCTION OF A SQUARE OR CUBE IN OBLIQUE FORM:
EXP: Construct a square or cube of side 40mm in oblique form.
40mm

40mm 40mm

40mm

74
 Fig 6.4: Construction of an oblique cube
6.5 CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCLE IN ISOMETRIC AND OBLIQUE FORMS
6.5.1 CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCLE IN ISOMETRIC FORM (DIAGONAL METHOD)
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw a cube in isometric form
(ii) Let‟s take a side to be ABCD
(iii)Divide the square side into four parts that is 1, 2, 3 and 4
(iv) Draw diagonal AC
(v) Join 3 to B and 1 to D as shown below
(vi) 3B and AC will intersect at X while 1D and AC will intersect at Y
(vii) With centre Y and radius Y4, draw an arc to cut point 4 and 1
(viii) Also with centre X and radius X2, draw an arc to cut point 2 and 3
(ix) With centre B and radius B3, draw an arc to cut point 3 and meet the previous arc at 4
(x) Also with centre D and radius D1, draw an arc to cut point 1 and meet the previous arc at 2
(xi) The shape formed is the required circle in isometric form
(xii) Repeat the procedures for the remaining faces
EXP: Draw a circle of diameter 40mm in isometric form

C
3
D X 2

4 Y B
1
A
Fig 6.5: Construction of circle in an isometric cube
6.5.2 CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCLE IN OBLIQUE FORM (DIAGONAL METHOD)
Steps/Procedures
(i) Construct a cube in oblique projection using 450 receding line

75
(ii) Let‟s take a side to be ABCD
(iii)Bisect sides AB and AD of the square. The bisectors meet at point 1 outside the square side
(iv) Bisect side BC and CD. The bisectors will meet at point 2
(v) Point 3 and 4 are obtained inside the square where the bisectors meet
(vi) The four points are the centres for drawing the arcs of the circle

EXP: Draw a circle of diameter 40mm in oblique form

B
2

A C
1

D
Fig 6.6: Construction of circle in an oblique cube
6.6CONSTRUCTION OF ELLIPSE IN ISOMETRIC AND OBLIQUE FORM
6.6.1 CONSTRUCTION OF ELLIPSE IN ISOMETRIC FORM:
Steps /Procedures
(i) Draw the rhombus ABCD with side equal to the diameter of the circle
(ii) Locate EFGH which are the middle of sides AB, BC, CD, and DA respectively
(iii)Join ED and BH to locate J
(iv) Join BG and FG to locate K
(v) With J as centre and radius JE = JH, draw an arc to pass through E and H
(vi) With B as centre and radius BH = BG, draw an arc to pass through G and H
(vii) With K as centre and radius KG = KF, draw an arc to pass through G and K
(viii) With D as centre and radius DF = DE, draw an arc to pass through F and E
(ix) The shape formed is the required ellipse in isometric form

76
EXP: Draw an ellipse of diameter 50mm in isometric form

C
B F K G

E J D
H
A
Fig 6.7: Construction of ellipse in an isometric cube
6.6.2 CONSTRUCTION OF ELLIPSE IN OBLIQUE FORM:
Steps /Procedures
(i) Draw the rhombus ABCD with side equal to the diameter of the circle
(ii) Locate EFGH which are the middle of sides AB, BC, CD, and DA respectively
(iii)Join ED and BH to locate J
(iv) Join BG and FG to locate K
(v) With J as centre and radius JE = JH, draw an arc to pass through E and H
(vi) With B as centre and radius BH = BG, draw an arc to pass through G and H
(vii) Bisect AB and BC to get 1, the meeting point of the bisection lines
(viii) Also, bisect AD and CD to get 2
(ix) With radius 1F and 2H construct an arc to complete the ellipse
(x) The shape formed is the required ellipse in oblique form
EXP: Draw an ellipse of diameter 50mm in oblique form

C
F
2 K G
B D
E J H 1

A
Fig 6.8: Construction of ellipse in an oblique cube

77
6.7 CONSTRUCTION OF A POLYGON WITH MINIMUM OF EIGHT SIDES
ISOMETRIC AND OBLIQUE FORM
6.7.1 CONSTRUCTION OF HEHAGON IN ISOMETRIC FORM:
Steps /Procedures
(i) Draw a cube in isometric projection with the given diameter
(ii) Divide the sides into three equal parts both horizontally and vertically
(iii)Join the opposite points vertically and horizontally
(iv) Produce the hexagonal shape by joining the point of intersection between the vertical and
horizontal lines at the sides of the cube
(v) Complete the remaining face using the same procedures

EXP: Draw a hexagon of sides 50mm in isometric form

Fig 6.9: Construction of hexagon in an isometric cube

6.7.2 CONSTRUCTION OF HEHAGON IN OBLIQUE FORM:
Steps /Procedures
(i) Draw a cube in oblique projection with the given diameter
(ii) Divide the sides into three equal parts both horizontally and vertically
(iii)Join the opposite points vertically and horizontally
(iv) Produce the hexagonal shape by joining the point of intersection between the vertical and
horizontal lines at the sides of the cube
(v) Complete the remaining face using the same procedures

78
EXP: Draw a hexagon of sides 50mm in oblique form

Fig 6.10: Construction of hexagon in an oblique cube

6.8 ISOMETRIC PROJECTION OF PRISMS

EXP 1: Draw an isometric view of a pentagonal prism of base 60mm side, axis l00mm
long and resting on its base with a vertical face perpendicular to V.P.

Steps/procedures

(i) The front and top views of the prism are shown below
(ii) Enclose the prism in a rectangular box and draw the isometric view as shown below using the
box method.

Fig 6.11: Isometric Drawing of a Pentagonal Prism

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EXP2: A hexagonal prism of the base of side 30mm and height 60mm is resting on its base
on H.P. Draw the isometric drawing of the prism.

Steps/Procedures

(i) Draw the orthographic views of the prism as shown below

(ii) Enclose the views in a rectangle (i.e the top view -base- and front views).
(iii) Determine the distances (off-sets) of the corners of the base from the edges of the box.
(iv) Join the points and darken the visible edges to get the isometric view.

Fig 6.12: Isometric Drawing of a Hexagonal Prism

EXP 3: Make the isometric drawing of a cylinder of base diameter 20mm and axis 35mm
long.
Steps/Procedures
(i) Enclose the cylinder in a box and draw its isometric drawing.
(ii) Draw ellipses corresponding to the bottom and top bases by four centre method.
(iii) Join the bases by two common tangents.

80
 Fig 6.13: Isometric Projection of Cylinder

EXP 4: Draw the isometric drawing of a cone of base diameter 30mm and axis 50mm
long.

Steps/Procedures

(i) Enclose the base of the cone in a square

(ii) Draw the ellipse corresponding to the circular base of the cone.
(iii)From the centre of the ellipse draw a vertical centre line and locate the apex at a height of
50mm.
(iv) Draw the two outermost generators from the apex to the ellipse and complete the drawing.

Fig 6.14: Isometric Projection of Cone

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6.9 DIMENSIONING HOLES, CIRCLES, ARCS, AND ANGLES CORRECTLY ON
ISOMETRIC AND OBLIQUE PROJECTION OR DRAWING

Fig 6.15: Dimensioning of holes in an isometric drawing

6.10 TO MAKE AN ISOMETRIC DRAWING OF AN OBJECT WHICH IS NOT TRULY
RECTANGULAR
Non – rectangular objects must be enclosed in a rectangular box.

80mm
A
`
B 25mm

5mm
45mm
30mm 50mm

82
Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw an isometric box to the dimensions shown in the orthographic drawing above
(ii) Mark the offset A and B
(iii)Draw the non-isometric line 1-2, 3-4.

4
1

3
Fig 6.16: Conversion of an orthographic projection to an isometric projection
ASSIGNMENT SEVEN (7)
(1) Construct an isometric circle of diameter 50mm using an approximate circle or diagonal
method
(2) Construct a circle of 60mm diameter in oblique form
(3) Construct an ellipse of 44mm diameter in isometric and oblique form
(4) Construct a hexagon of 25mm side length in isometric and oblique form
(5) Draw full size of the following block in isometric projection

(1) (2)

83
(3) (4)

(5) (6)

(7) (8)

84
(9) (10)

(11) (12)

(13) (14)

85
(15) (16)

(17) (18

86
WEEK 11-12 SINGLE ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

7.1 PRINCIPLE OF ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

Any object has three dimensions i.e length, breadth, and height. The problem is to represent or
convey all these three dimensions, together with the other details of the object, on a sheet of
drawing paper which has only two dimensions.
The orthographic system of projection is a method of representing the exact shape of a three-
dimensional object on a two-dimensional drawing sheet in two or more views.
With the help of orthographic projection, we can exactly represent, a point, a line, a plane, or a
solid, situated in space. This is done with the help of three planes, known as a vertical plane
(V.P), horizontal plane (H.P), and profile plane (P.P).
7.2 PRINCIPAL PLANES OF PROJECTION
In the orthographic projection drawing, to obtain the different views of an object, two main
planes are usually used. One of these set up in a vertical position is called the vertical plane of
projection (V.P) or frontal plane (F.P). The second set up in horizontal position i.e perpendicular
to a vertical plane (V.P) is called horizontal plane (H.P).
Orthographic projection uses two main planes called the principal planes of projection. One is
horizontal, the other vertical and views on them are principal views. The horizontal and vertical
planes are called the planes and divide the whole space on one side of the profile plane (P.P) into
four parts called the four dihedral angles (quadrants). The line of intersection of H.P and V.P is
more commonly called “Reference line” and is denoted by XY.

Vertical plane
(V.P)

2nd 1st
Horizontal plane
rd
3 X (H.P)

4th

87
 The projection made on the first
(1st) quadrant is called first angle
projection while the one made on
the thirds (3rd) quadrant is called
the third angle projection while
the second (2nd) and fourth (4th)
quadrants are the second and
fourth angle projection
respectively.

Fig 7.1: Planes of projection

7.3 WHY THE FIRST AND THIRD ANGLES ARE USED AND THE SECOND AND
FOURTH ANGLES ARE NOT
If we place an object in the second quadrant, the front view will be on a vertical plane (V.P) and
the top (Plan) view will be on the horizontal plane (H.P). Now; by rotating the V.P in an
anticlockwise direction (as in other systems of projection), the front view and top (plan) view
will overlap each other. Thus, projections cannot be drawn. Similarly, by placing the object in
the fourth quadrant, the front view and top view will also overlap each other. For this difficulty,
we do not use the second and fourth angle projection methods.
7.4 SYSTEMS OF ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION (FIRST AND THIRD ANGLE
PROJECTION)
Orthographic views of any object can be represented by anyone of two systems of projection,
e.g; the first angle projection and the third angle projection. These are named according to the
quadrant in which the object is imagined to be placed for projection.
The shape and size of the views are the same in these two systems. The only difference lies in the
relative position of the various views
(A) FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION
This is the projection obtained when the object is placed on the first quadrant. We generally call
the front view as elevation and the top view as a plan.

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 FRONT 450 SIDE

450 FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION SYMBOL

PLAN
Fig 7.2: First (1st) angle projection
(B) THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION
This is the projection obtained when the object is placed on the third quadrant.

450

450 PLAN
THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION SYMBOL

SIDE FRONT
Fig 7.3: Third (3rd) angle projection
7.5 PROJECTED VIEWS OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL OBJECTS IN BOTH FIRST
AND THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION
EXP 1: Make the orthographic projection of the given object, positioned, or view from corner
marked A. Using the first and third angle projection.

Solution
(A) In first angle projection:

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 RIGHT SIDE FRONT LEFT SIDE

PLAN

(B) Third angle projection:

PLAN

LEFT SIDE FRONT RIGHT SIDE

EXP 2: Make an orthographic projection of the given object below, position, or view from
corner/direction of the arrow T.
35mm
10mm

20mm

10mm
15mm 60mm
10mm T

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Solution
(A) First angle projection:

RIGHT SIDE FRONT LEFT SIDE

PLAN

(B) Third angle projection:

PLAN

LEFT SIDE FRONT RIGHT SIDE

EXP 3: Make an orthographic projection of the figures below in first angle projection
looking in the direction of the arrow.

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Solution
First angle projection:

EXP 4: Make an orthographic projection of the figures below in first angle projection
looking in the direction of the arrow.

Solution
First angle projection:

92
EXP 5: Make an orthographic projection of the figures below in third angle projection viewing
in the direction of the arrow.

Solution
Third angle projection:

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94
Fig 7.4: Examples of conversion of an isometric drawing to orthographic drawing in first (1st)
and third (3rd) angle projections

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 ASSIGNMENT EIGHT (8)

(1) Draw the following block in first angle projection with the front elevation looking in the
direction of arrow A.

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(2) Draw the following block in third angle projection with the front view/elevation looking in
the direction of arrow A.

(1) (2)

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 (3) (4)

(5) (6)

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WEEK 13-15 INTERSECTION OF REGULAR SOLIDS

8.1 EXPLANATION OF INTERPRETATION OR INTERSECTIONS OF SOLIDS

When two solids intersect each other, their surfaces meet in a line called the line or curve of
intersection. The line is common to the surface of the intersecting solids. It may be considered to
be a line that would contain the points in which the elements of one surface would pierce the
other surface. To accurately complete a view of a working drawing or a view necessary for
developing the surfaces of intersecting geometric shapes, one frequently must find the line of
intersection between the surfaces. In sheet metal work, when these curves occur, these will have
to be obtained before the surfaces of the intersecting solids are developed to obtain an accurate
pattern for fabrication.

The line of intersection of two surfaces is found by determining the number of points common
to both surfaces and joining these points in the correct order. The resulting line may be straight,
curved, or straight and curved depending upon the nature of the intersecting surfaces. The
intersecting surfaces may be broadly classified under three categories;

(i) The intersection of plane surfaces

(ii) The intersection of two curved surfaces
(iii)The intersection of a plane surface and a curved surface

When two surfaces bounded by planes e.g, prism and prism or prism and pyramid intersect
each other, the line of intersection is made up of straight lines. When two solids have curved
surfaces e.g cone and cylinder or cone and cone, the line of intersection is a tortuous curve.
Lastly, when two solids, one bounded by planes and the other a solid having a curved surface,
e.g prism and cylinder or pyramid and cylinder or cone, intersecting each other, the line of
intersection is a curve.

Therefore, the geometric principles involved in the intersection of surfaces have many practical
applications in engineering such as sheet metal work used for fabricating tanks, boilers, pipe
joints, stacks, air conditioning, duct, chutes, bins, hoppers e.t.c.

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8.2 CONSTRUCTION OF TWO DISSIMILAR CYLINDERS MEETING AT RIGHT
ANGLE, THEIR CENTRE NOT BEING IN HE SAME VERTICAL PLANE

Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw the given plan and elevation
(ii) Draw a semicircle at any convenient distance away from the plan and elevation and divide
them into six (6) equal parts
(iii)Projects a horizontal lines from the points on the plan semicircle to touch the plan of the
cylinder A, and then project these points vertically to the elevation
(iv) Project horizontal lines from the points on the elevation semicircle to intersect the
corresponding vertical projection lines
(v) The point of intersection between the vertical lines from the plan and horizontal lines from
elevation are the required points to produce the curve of intersection

Fig 8.1: Construction of two dissimilar cylinders meeting at a right angle

8.3 CONSTRUCTION OF TWO DISSIMILAR CYLINDERS MEETING AT AN ANGLE

Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw the given plan and elevation
(ii) Draw a semicircle at any convenient distance away from the plan and elevation and divide
them into six (6) equal parts

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(iii)Projects a horizontal lines from the points on the plan semicircle to touch the plan of the
cylinder A, and then project these points vertically to the elevation
(iv) Project lines parallel to cylinder B from the points on the elevation semicircle to intersect the
corresponding vertical projection lines from the plan
(v) The point of intersection between the vertical lines from plan and parallel lines from
elevation are the required points to produce the curve of intersection

Fig 8.2: Construction of two dissimilar cylinders meeting at an angle

8.4 CONSTRUCTION OF TWO DISSIMILAR SQUARE PRISM MEETING AT RIGHT

ANGLE

Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw the three orthographic views of the solids in the given position and label different corner
points as shown
(ii) The faces of the vertical prism are projected edgewise in the top view, where it is easy to
locate the points of intersection of the horizontal prism with the vertical prism

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(iii)Lines 1-1 and 3-3 intersect the edge of the vertical prism, on one side, at point P1 and P3
which consider with the faces aabb and aadd at P2 and P4 respectively
(iv) These points are then projected to corresponding lines in the front view. For example, P2,
which is on line 2-2 in top view, is projected to P2 on line 21 -21 in front view and so on. Point
P41 coincides with point B
(v) Join these points in front view by straight lines in the same order as they are joined in top
view. Such as P11 with P21 and P21 with P31
(vi) Lines P11P41 which would have projected as dotted lines in the front view are overlapped by
the lines P11P21 and P21P31 on the front side
(vii) These lines show the line of intersection of one side of the prisms. Similar lines on the other
side are obtained proceeding on the same lines
(viii) The edges of the penetrating prism which are enveloped by the vertical prism that is
penetrated are shown as invisible lines. These portions of the edges of a vertical prism which do
not exist need to draw there.

Fig 8.3: Construction of two dissimilar square prism meeting at a right angle

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8.5 CONSTRUCTION OF TWO DISSIMILAR SQUARE PRISM MEETING AT AN
ANGLE

Steps/Procedures
(i) Draw the three orthographic views of the solids in the given position and label different corner
points as shown
(ii) The edges of the penetrating prisms intersect edge views of the faces of the vertical prism in
top view at points P11, P21, P31, and P41 on the side. Project these points to their respective
positions in front view
(iii) In addition to these points, it is as well necessary to locate the points at which any edges
(AA and CC here) of the vertical prism are intersected by the horizontal prism. These points can
be easily found in the side view where the faces of the horizontal prism appear as edge view.
These points are named 1, 2, 3, and 4 as shown in end view, from where they are projected to
their respective edge in front view as 1, 2, 3, and 4
(iv) Join these points in the correct order as shown taking the reference from the top and side
view
(v) The visible points should be joined by firm line and the points which are invisible should be
joined by dotted lines
(vi) Whether a point is to be on a firm or dotted portion of the intersection line can easily be
determined by examining the top and side views

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Fig 8.4: Construction of two dissimilar square prism meeting at an angle
8.6 CONSTRUCTION OF TWO DISSIMILAR HEXAGONAL PRISM MEETING AT
AN ANGLE

Steps/Procedures
(i) The front elevation provides the point of contact at the side of the hexagonal prism and this
point 1, 2 or 4,5 can be transferred to the end elevation 1,2 or 5,4
(ii) The points of intersection of the horizontal edges of the hexagonal prism intersect the vertical
faces of the square prism at 6, 1,5, 2,4 and 3 from plan view can be transferred to the end
elevation as 6, 1,5, 2,4 and 3 as illustrated
(iii)These points then joined in end elevation to complete the drawing

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 Fig 8.4: Construction of two dissimilar Hexagonal prism meeting at an angle
ASSIGNMENT NINE (9)
(1) Figure 1 and 2 below shows two dissimilar cylinders meeting at a right angle and an angle;
determine the line of intersection of the two solids.

(2) Figure 3 and 4 below show two dissimilar cylinders meeting at a right angle and an angle;
determine the line of intersection of the two solid

105
106
 REFERENCE
Giesecke Mitchell and Spener (1958). Technical drawing. Published by Macmillan Company
New York Collier-Macmillan Canada Limited, Toronto, Ontario. Fourth Edition
Gill P.S (2001). Engineering graphics and drafting. Published by S.K Katara and Sons 23 Ansari
road, Durya Ganji New Delhi India. First edition
Goetsch, Chalk, Nelson, and Rickman (2005). Technical drawing. Published by Thomas Delmar
Learning 5 Maxwell Drive Clifton Park, New York U.S.A. Fifth edition
Dhawan R.K (2009). A textbook of machine drawing in first angle projection. Published by
S.chand and Company Limited, 7361, Ram Nagar, New Delhi India. Revised Edition
Parkar M.A and Pickup F. (1981). Engineering drawing with worked examples. Published by
Nelson Thornes Limited. Volume 2 Third Edition
Unesco- Nigeria Technical and Vocational Education Revitalization project phase II (2008).
Technical drawing. Mechanical Engineering Technology Department, Kaduna Polytechnic
Kaduna state.
Venkata Reddy K. (2008). Textbook of engineering drawing. Published by BS publication
Giriraj lane, Sultan Bazar Hyderabad. Second edition

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