COMPUTER NETWORK (UNIT -1)

Data Communication – Definition, Components, Types, Channels

Human beings are the only creatures on the earth who are able to communicate with each
other through the medium of language. But humans take this gift to another extent.
Distance, time, and physical existence of the person don’t matter in communication these
days because they build a communication system through which they can communicate or
share data like images, videos, text, files, etc with their loved ones anytime anywhere.
Communication is defined as a process in which more than one computer transfers
information, instructions to each other and for sharing resources. Or in other words,
communication is a process or act in which we can send or receive data. A network of
computers is defined as an interconnected collection of autonomous computers.
Autonomous means no computer can start, stop or control another computer.
Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more
computers and a computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that
allows computers to exchange data. The physical connection between networked computing
devices is established using either cable media or wireless media. The best-known computer
network is the Internet.

Components of Data Communication

A communication system is made up of the following components:

1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one person
to another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.

2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer, mobile,
telephone, laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.

3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone mobile,

workstation, etc.

4. Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels are the

medium that connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be connected by
either wired media or wireless media.

5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be
understandable to the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless. For example, Sonali
sends a message to Chetan. If Sonali writes in Hindi and Chetan cannot understand
Hindi, it is a meaningless conversation.
Therefore, there are some set of rules (protocols) that is followed by every computer
connected to the internet and they are:
 TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is responsible for dividing messages into
packets on the source computer and reassembling the received packet at the destination
or recipient computer. It also makes sure that the packets have the information about the
source of the message data, the destination of the message data, the sequence in which
the message data should be re-assembled, and checks if the message has been sent
correctly to the specific destination.

 IP(Internet Protocol): Do You ever wonder how does computer determine which
packet belongs to which device. What happens if the message you sent to your friend is
received by your father? Scary Right. Well! IP is responsible for handling the address of
the destination computer so that each packet is sent to its proper destination.

Type of data communication

As we know that data communication is communication in which we can send or receive

data from one device to another. The data communication is divided into three types:
1. Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we can say that
unidirectional communication in which one device only receives and another device
only sends data and devices uses their entire capacity in transmission. For example, IoT,
entering data using a keyboard, listing music using a speaker, etc.

2. Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it is a

bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send and receive data but
not at the same time. When one device is sending data then another device is only
receiving and vice-versa. For example, walkie-talkie.

3. Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it is a

bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send and receive data at the
same time. For example, mobile phones, landlines, etc.
Data communications means the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.
For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and
software (programs).

Characteristics of Data Communications:

The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
1. Delivery:
The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the
intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy:
The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and
left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness:
The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the case
of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same
order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called
real-time transmission.

4. Jitter:
Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of
audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 3D ms.
If some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an uneven
quality in the video is the result.

Communication Channels

Communication channels are the medium that connects two or more workstations.
Workstations can be connected by either wired media or wireless media. It is also known as
a transmission medium. The transmission medium or channel is a link that carries messages
between two or more devices. We can group the communication media into two categories:
 Guided media transmission
 Unguided media transmission

1. Guided Media: In this transmission medium, the physical link is created using
wires or cables between two or more computers or devices, and then the data is
transmitted using these cables in terms of signals. Guided media transmission of the
following types:
1. Twisted pair cable: It is the most common form of wire used in communication. In a
twisted-pair cable, two identical wires are wrapped together in a double helix. The twisting
of the wire reduces the crosstalk. It is known as the leaking of a signal from one wire to
another due to which signal can corrupt and can cause network errors. The twisting protects
the wire from internal crosstalk as well as external forms of signal interference. Types of
Twisted Pair Cable :

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): It is used in computers and telephones widely. As the
name suggests, there is no external shielding so it does not protects from external
interference. It is cheaper than STP.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): It offers greater protection from crosstalk due to shield.
Due to shielding, it protects from external interference. It is heavier and costlier as
compare to UTP.

2. Coaxial Cable: It consists of a solid wire core that is surrounded by one or more foil or
wire shields. The inner core of the coaxial cable carries the signal and the outer shield
provides the ground. It is widely used for television signals and also used by large
corporations in building security systems. Data transmission of this cable is better but
expensive as compared to twisted pair.

3. Optical fibers: Optical fiber is an important technology. It transmits large amounts of

data at very high speeds due to which it is widely used in internet cables. It carries data as a
light that travels inside a thin glass fiber. The fiber optic cable is made up of three pieces:
1. Core: Core is the piece through which light travels. It is generally created using glass or
plastic.
2. Cladding: It is the covering of the core and reflects the light back to the core.
3. Sheath: It is the protective covering that protects fiber cable from the environment.

2. Unguided Media: The unguided transmission media is a transmission mode in which the
signals are propagated from one device to another device wirelessly. Signals can wave
through the air, water, or vacuum. It is generally used to transmit signals in all directions.
Unguided Media is further divided into various parts :

1. Microwave: Microwave offers communication without the use of cables.

Microwave signals are just like radio and television signals. It is used in long-
distance communication. Microwave transmission consists of a transmitter, receiver,
and atmosphere. In microwave communication, there are parabolic antennas that are
mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna. The higher the tower, the
greater the range.

2. Radio wave: When communication is carried out by radio frequencies, then it is termed
radio waves transmission. It offers mobility. It is consists of the transmitter and the
receiver. Both use antennas to radiate and capture the radio signal.

3. Infrared: It is short-distance communication and can pass through any object. It is

generally used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, etc
DATA REPRESENTATION: Information is represented in various forms such as text,
numbers, images, audio and video.

 Text: In data communication, it is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s

and 1s). Different sets of bit patterns, called code, have been designed to represent text
and symbols and the process of representing them is called coding. Characters can be
represented in Unicode by using the American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII).

 Numbers: They are also represented by bit patterns. To simplify mathematical

operations the number is directly converted to a binary number.

 Images: They are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is
composed of a matrix of pixels, where each pixel is a small dot. Resolution determines
the size of the pixel.

 Audio: It refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature

different from text, numbers, images. It is not discrete, but continuous.

 Video: It refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or a movie. It can either be

produced as a continuous entity, or can be a combination of images, each a discrete
entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.

Here are some data communication terminologies listed below:

1. Data Channel :
Channel simply means a path to carry or flow. Data channel means the flow of data or to
carry the data from one device to another. In other words, we can say the data channel is a
computer path or medium used to transfer the data from sender to receiver.
There are some data channel protocols:
 SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol) – Flow and Congestion Control
 DTLS (Datagram Transport Layer Security) – Provides Security
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol) / IP (Internet Protocol) – Connectionless
communication protocol, NAT (Network address translational) traversal

2. Baud :
It’s actually a common measurement unit of data transfer. Baud rate measures the
rate at which the data is transferred from the sender to the receiver in the data
channel. It can be expressed in terms of bps (bits per second). It simply determines
the speed of data transfer.

3. Bits Per Second (bps) :

Its symbol is “bit/s”. It can be present in two forms i.e. bps (bits per second) and
Bps (Bytes per second). It’s also a measurement unit of speed at which the data is
transferred. Some other forms are also present as shown in the table below:

S.No.Rate Denoted ByFull Form

1 Rate of thousand bits per second Kbps Kilobits per second
2 Rate of thousand bytes per second KBps Kilobytes per second
3 Rate of million bits per second Mbps Megabits per second
4 Rate of Million bytes per second MBps Megabytes per second
 4. Bandwidth :
It’s the range of frequencies over which a communication system works. It
generally measures the amount of data that can be transferred in a given amount of
time over a data channel. It’s the difference between the highest and the lowest
frequencies of a data channel. The measurement unit of frequency is cycles per
second i.e. hertz.

Type of the
S.No.Signal Range of Frequency in HertzBandwidth in Hertz
1 Voice signal 300-3400 3, 100
2 TV signal 0-5 MHz 5 MHz
3 Digital Data 300-3400 3, 100
4 Music Signal 20-15000 14, 980

5. DTR (Data Transfer Rates) :

It determines the rate of speed at which the data is transferred from one point to another. Its
measurement unit is bits per second (bps), Bytes per second (Bps), or baud. In computer,
data transfer is mainly measured in Bytes per second. Data transfer between devices such as
Hard disk and CD-ROM is usually measured in milliseconds.

What Does Dataflow Mean?

Dataflow is the movement of data through a system comprised of software, hardware or a

combination of both.

Dataflow is often defined using a model or diagram in which the entire process of data
movement is mapped as it passes from one component to the next within a program or a
system, taking into consideration how it changes form during the process.

What are the types of data flow in computer networks?

Communication networks have three different types or channels known as simplex, half-
duplex, and full-duplex. Simplex allows data to flow in one direction, similar to driving on a
one-way street

Types of Networks

7 Types of Computer Networks Explained

Technology made a huge breakthrough in 1936 when the first computer was invented.
However, it wasn’t until years later in 1969 that the first-ever computer-to-computer link was
established. This development was what ultimately paved the way for the Internet-driven
world we live in today.
So, what is a network? It’s the connection of two or more computers that are linked in order
to share files, resources, and allow communication. The type of network depends on the
number of devices, as well as the location and distance between each.

Do you know what network your home or business utilizes? If not, find out by checking out 7
different types of commonly utilized networks in the list below.

1. PERSONAL AREA NETWORK (PAN)

This is the smallest and most basic network that you’ll find. It’s meant to cover a very small
area (typically a single room or building). A PAN is most commonly used for one individual
and to connect just a handful of devices such as a computer, smart phone, and printer.
Probably the most well-known PAN technology is Bluetooth connection. So, next time you
connect your phone to your car to play music, you can thank your Personal Area Network!

2. LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

This is an extremely common and well-known type of network. Just as the name suggests, a
LAN connects a group of computers or devices together across a local area. This type of
network can be utilized to connect devices throughout one building or even 2-3 buildings
depending on the proximity to each other. Whether your office location utilizes wired or
wireless connection, it’s almost surely using a LAN connection. This brings us to the next
type of network…

3. WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWORK (WLAN)

A WLAN is simply a LAN that does not rely on cables to connect to the network. So, when
you’re using WiFi, you’re using a WLAN. WLANs are typically used in the same scenario as
LANs, it just depends on whether you’d prefer an on premises or remote cloud solution
(wires or wireless).

4. METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)

Larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, a MAN incorporates elements of both types of
networks. It connects multiple LANs together and spans an entire geographical area such as a
city or town (or sometimes a campus). Ownership and management can be handled by a
single person, but it’s more likely done by a larger company or organization.
5. WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
Like LANs, you very well may recognize the term “WAN.” WANs do the same thing as
LANs but across a larger area while connecting more devices. Even when miles apart, a
WAN can connect devices together remotely. In fact, the most basic example of a WAN is
the Internet which connects computers and devices worldwide. Since it’s much larger, this
type of network is typically maintained by multiple administrators and ownership is
distributed across various organizations.

6. STORAGE AREA NETWORK (SAN)

A SAN is another type of LAN that’s designed to handle large data transfers and storage.
This purpose of this network is to move larger, more complex storage resources away from
the network into a separate, high-performance atmosphere. Doing this not only allows for
easy retrieval and storage of the data but it also frees up space and improves overall
performance of the original network.

7. VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK (VPN)

The point of a VPN is to increase security and privacy while accessing a network. The VPN
acts as a middleman between you and the network by encrypting your data and hiding your
identity. This is a great option for sending and receiving sensitive information, however,
using a VPN is ideal anytime you connect to the Internet. Anytime you’re on a public
network, you run the risk of being targeted by a hacker, so using a VPN is you best bet at
ensuring your cybersecurity.

Computer Network Topologies

The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and
receiver is referred to as network topology. The various network topologies are:
Mesh Topology:
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. In
Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP
(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.

Figure 1: Every device is connected with another via dedicated channels. These channels
are known as links.

 Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology,
the total number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are 5
 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of ports required by each
device is 4. Total number of ports required=N*(N-1).
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then
the total number of dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In
Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of links
required is 5*4/2 = 10.
Advantages of this topology:
 Communication is very fast between at the nodes.
 It is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the
devices through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Problems with this topology:
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of
devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.

Star Topology:
In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is
the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be
passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time
the hub can be intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them.
Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many
popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access), etc.

Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection i.e.
hub.
Advantages of this topology:
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of
ports required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Problems with this topology:
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will
crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

Bus Topology:
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected
to a single cable. It transmits the data from one end to another in a single direction. No bi-
directional feature is in bus topology. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust
topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various
MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections like
TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Figure 3: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the
channel via drop lines.
Advantages of this topology:
 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is 1, which is known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are
required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus based networks that support up to
10 Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small
networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are
well known.
Problems with this topology:
 A bus topology is quite simpler , but still it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this,
various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha,
CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.

Ring Topology:
In this topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices.
A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then
the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data
loss repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e.., it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by
having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-
Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the
data.

Figure 4: A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.
The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
 Token passing : It is network access method in which token is passed from one node
ton another node.
 Token : It is a frame that circulates around network.
The following operations take place in ring topology are :
1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility to perform
the operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done,
the token is to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token
just after transmitting the data and Delay token release releases the token after the
acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
Advantages of this topology:
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
Problems with this topology:
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or removal of stations can disturb the whole
topology.
 Less secure.

Tree Topology :
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of
data. In Tree Topology, SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) protocols like DHCP
and SAC are used.

Figure 5: In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which
contains the repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the
secondary and then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub
and then to the central hub. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology
because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
Advantages of this topology :
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the
distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
 We can add new device to existing network.
 The Error detection and error correction is very easy in tree topology.
Problems with this topology :
 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

Hybrid Topology :
This topology technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have
studied above. It is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these can be
individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types of
topologies seen above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed
earlier.

Figure 6: The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains
a combination of all different types of networks.
Advantages of this topology :
 This topology is very flexible.
 the size of network can be easily expanded by adding new device.
Problems with this topology :
 It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as hybrid network requires a lot of cabling,
network devices.

Layers of OSI Model

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO –
‘International Organization for Standardization‘, in the year 1984. It is a Seven
layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform. All these 7
layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to another across the
globe.

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1) :

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in
the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and
send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.
The functions of the physical layer are as follows:
1. Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by
providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at bit level.
2. Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number
of bits sent per second.
3. Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
4. Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are
Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
* Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.
** Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known as Lower Layers
or Hardware Layers.
2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another,
over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL
to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the
frame size of NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s
MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)
request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply
with its MAC address.

The functions of the Data Link layer are :

1. Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
2. Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses
(MAC address) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
3. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it
detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
4. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get
corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before
receiving acknowledgement.
5. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices,
the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control
over the channel at a given time.
* Packet in Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.
** Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of
host machines.
*** Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP
addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
The functions of the Network layer are :
1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, the
network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are
placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device
uniquely and universally.
* Segment in Network layer is referred to as Packet.

** Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4) :
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for
the End to End Delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found.
At sender’s side: Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data
transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards
the segmented data to the Network Layer.
Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s
application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For
example, when a web application makes a request to a web server, it typically uses port
number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many applications
have default ports assigned.
At receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the
Data which it has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and
reassembling of the segmented data.
The functions of the transport layer are as follows:
1. Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session)
layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a
 header associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the
message.
2. Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to the correct process, the
transport layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port
address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the
message is delivered to the correct process.
The services provided by the transport layer :
A. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgement, back to the
source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable
and secure.
B. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this
type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach
allows for much faster communication between devices. Connection-oriented service is
more reliable than connectionless Service.
* Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.
** Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and
communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.
Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.
5. Session Layer (Layer 5) :
This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,
authentication, and also ensures security.
The functions of the session layer are :
1. Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
2. Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered
synchronization points into the data. These synchronization points help to identify the
error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
3. Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with
each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
**All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in the
TCP/IP model as “Application Layer”.
**Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also
known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.

Scenario:

Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger
application running in his browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer
which provides the user with an interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data
is compressed, encrypted (if any secure data), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it
can be transmitted.
6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application
layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the
network.
The functions of the presentation layer are :
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code.
The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain
text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
7. Application Layer (Layer 7) :
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer
which is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data,
which has to be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the
application services to access the network and for displaying the received information to
the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
**Application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.

The functions of the Application layer are :

1. Network Virtual Terminal
2. FTAM-File transfer access and management
3. Mail Services
4. Directory Services
OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the Internet because of its
late invention. The current model being used is the TCP/IP model.
OSI model in a nutshell
TCP/IP Model
The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model. It was designed to
describe the functions of the communication system by dividing the communication
procedure into smaller and simpler components. But when we talk about the TCP/IP model,
it was designed and developed by Department of Defense (DoD) in 1960s and is based on
standard protocols. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike
seven layers in the OSI model. The layers are:
1. Process/Application Layer
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access/Link Layer
The first layer is the Process layer on the behalf of the sender and Network Access layer on
the behalf of the receiver. During this article, we will be talking on the behalf of the receiver.

1. Network Access Layer –

This layer corresponds to the combination of Data Link Layer and Physical Layer of the OSI
model. It looks out for hardware addressing and the protocols present in this layer allows for
the physical transmission of data.
We just talked about ARP being a protocol of Internet layer, but there is a conflict about
declaring it as a protocol of Internet Layer or Network access layer. It is described as residing
in layer 3, being encapsulated by layer 2 protocols.

2. Internet Layer –

This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols
residing at this layer are :
1. IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the
source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP
has 2 versions:
IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most of the websites are using currently. But IPv6 is
growing as the number of IPv4 addresses are limited in number when compared to the
number of users.
2. ICMP – stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP
datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network
problems.
3. ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a
host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP,
Gratuitous ARP and Inverse ARP.

3. Host-to-Host Layer –

This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-
end communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications
from the complexities of data. The two main protocols present in this layer are :
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – It is known to provide reliable and error-free
communication between end systems. It performs sequencing and segmentation of data. It
also has acknowledgment feature and controls the flow of the data through flow control
mechanism. It is a very effective protocol but has a lot of overhead due to such features.
Increased overhead leads to increased cost.
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – On the other hand does not provide any such features.
It is the go-to protocol if your application does not require reliable transport as it is very
cost-effective. Unlike TCP, which is connection-oriented protocol, UDP is
connectionless.

4. Application Layer –

This layer performs the functions of top three layers of the OSI model: Application,
Presentation and Session Layer. It is responsible for node-to-node communication and
controls user-interface specifications. Some of the protocols present in this layer are: HTTP,
HTTPS, FTP, TFTP, Telnet, SSH, SMTP, SNMP, NTP, DNS, DHCP, NFS, X Window,
LPD. Have a look at Protocols in Application Layer for some information about these
protocols. Protocols other than those present in the linked article are :
1. HTTP and HTTPS – HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the
World Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS
stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It
 is efficient in cases where the browser need to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate and
carry out bank transactions.
2. SSH – SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet.
The reason SSH is more preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted
connection. It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
3. NTP – NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on
our computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank
transactions. Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you
carry out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server
records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.

Similarities between OSI and TCP / IP Reference Models

 Both the reference models are based upon layered architecture.
 The layers in the models are compared with each other. The physical layer and the
data link layer of the OSI model correspond to the link layer of the TCP/IP model. The
network layers and the transport layers are the same in both the models. The session
layer, the presentation layer and the application layer of the OSI model together form
the application layer of the TCP/IP model.
 In both the models, protocols are defined in a layer-wise manner.
 In both models, data is divided into packets and each packet may take the individual
route from the source to the destination.
Differences between OSI and TCP / IP Reference Models
 OSI model is a generic model that is based upon functionalities of each layer. TCP/IP
model is a protocol-oriented standard.
 OSI model distinguishes the three concepts, namely, services, interfaces, and
protocols. TCP/IP does not have a clear distinction between these three.
 OSI model gives guidelines on how communication needs to be done, while TCP/IP
protocols layout standards on which the Internet was developed. So, TCP/IP is a more
practical model.
 In OSI, the model was developed first and then the protocols in each layer were
developed. In the TCP/IP suite, the protocols were developed first and then the model
was developed.
 The OSI has seven layers while the TCP/IP has four layers.
The following diagram shows the corresponding layers of OSI and TCP/IP models −
Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model:
TCP/IP OSI

TCP refers to Transmission OSI refers to Open Systems

Control Protocol. Interconnection.

TCP/IP has 4 layers. OSI has 7 layers.

TCP/IP is more reliable OSI is less reliable

TCP/IP does not have very

strict boundaries. OSI has strict boundaries

TCP/IP follow a horizontal

approach. OSI follows a vertical approach.

TCP/IP uses both session and

presentation layer in the OSI uses different session and
application layer itself. presentation layers.
 TCP/IP developed protocols
then model. OSI developed model then protocol.

Transport layer in TCP/IP

does not provide assurance In OSI model, transport layer provides
delivery of packets. assurance delivery of packets.

TCP/IP model network layer Connection less and connection

only provides connection less oriented both services are provided by
services. network layer in OSI model.

While in OSI model, Protocols are

Protocols cannot be replaced better covered and is easy to replace
easily in TCP/IP model. with the change in technology.

Network Devices (Hub, Repeater, Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateways and Brouter)

1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal
over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the
length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An important point to
be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal. When the signal becomes
weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength. It is a 2 port
device.
2. Hub – A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming
from different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects
different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices.
In other words, the collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one.
Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path for data packets which leads
to inefficiencies and wastage.

Types of Hub
 Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their own power supply and can clean,
boost, and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as
a wiring center. These are used to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub :- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply
from the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and
boosting them and can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.
 Intelligent Hub :- It works like active hubs and includes remote management
capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an
administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port
in the hub.
3. Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the
functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of source and destination. It
is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single
input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.
Types of Bridges
 Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are completely
unaware of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from
the network, reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of
two processes i.e. bridge forwarding and bridge learning.
 Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is performed by the
source station and the frame specifies which route to follow. The host can discover the
frame by sending a special frame called the discovery frame, which spreads through the
entire network using all possible paths to the destination.
4. Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency(a large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data
link layer device. The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, which
makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good
packets selectively to the correct port only. In other words, the switch divides the collision
domain of hosts, but broadcast domain remains the same.

5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs
and WANs together and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they
make decisions on routing the data packets. Router divide broadcast domains of hosts
connected through it.

6. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks

together that may work upon different networking models. They basically work as the
messenger agents that take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another
system. Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer.
Gateways are generally more complex than switches or routers. Gateway is also called a
protocol converter.

7. Brouter – It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines features of
both bridge and router. It can work either at the data link layer or a network layer. Working
as a router, it is capable of routing packets across networks, and working as the bridge, it is
capable of filtering local area network traffic.

8. NIC – NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect the
computer to the network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It has a unique
id that is written on the chip, and it has a connector to connect the cable to it. The cable acts
as an interface between the computer and router or modem. NIC card is a layer 2 device
which means that it works on both physical and data link layer of the network model.

Difference between LAN and WLAN

A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share all form of
resources including communication. Both LAN and WLAN networks are interrelated and
share moreover common characteristics.
Let’s discuss about LAN and WLAN:
LAN WLAN

WLAN stands for Wireless Local Area

LAN stands for Local Area Network. Network.

LAN connections include both wired and

wireless connections. WLAN connections are completely wireless.

LAN network is a collection of computers WLAN network is a collection of computers

or other such network devices in a or other such network devices in a particular
particular location that are connected location that are connected together wirelessly
together by communication elements or by communication elements or network
network elements. elements.

LAN is free from external attacks like

interruption of signals, cyber criminal Whereas, WLAN is vulnerable to external
attacks and so on. attacks.

LAN is secure. WLAN is not secure.

LAN network has lost its popularity due to

the arrival of latest wireless networks. WLAN is popular.

Wired LAN needs physical access like

connecting the wires to the switches or Work on connecting wires to the switches and
routers. routers are neglected.

In LAN, devices are connected locally with

Ethernet cable. For WLAN Ethernet cable is not necessary.

Mobility limited. Outstanding mobility.

It varies due to external factors like

environment and quality of cables. Most of
It may or may not vary with external factors the external factors affect the signal
like environment and quality of cables. transmission.

LAN is less expensive. WLAN is more expensive.

Example: Computers connected in a Example: Laptops, cellphones, tablets

college. connected to a wireless router or hotspot.
Shannon's formula C = 12log(1+P/N)C = 12log(1+P/N) is the emblematic expression for
the information capacity of a communication channel.

Nyquist's theorem specifies the maximum data rate for noiseless condition,
whereas the Shannon theorem specifies the maximum data rate under a noise
condition. The Nyquist theorem states that a signal with the bandwidth B can be
completely reconstructed if 2B samples per second are used.

What is the Nyquist formula?

Specifically, in a noise-free channel, Nyquist tells us that we can transmit data at a
rate of up to. C=2Blog2M. bits per second, where B is the bandwidth (in Hz) and M
is the number of signal levels.