Ada for Software Engineers (Second Edition with Ada 2005)

Mordechai Ben-Ari

Ada for Software Engineers

(Second Edition with Ada 2005)

ABC

Mordechai Ben-Ari, BSc, MSc, PhD

Weizmann Institute of Science
Rehovot 76100
Israel

ISBN: 978-1-84882-313-6

e-ISBN: 978-1-84882-314-3

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Control Number: 2009921268
First published 1998
John Wiley & Sons 1998
Springer-Verlag London Limited 2009
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted
under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of
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statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information
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Preface

Albert Einstein once said everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler.
Einstein could have been talking about programming languages, as the landscape is strewn
with simple languages that, several versions later, have 500-page reference manuals!
The truth is that we expect a lot of our programming languages. We demand support for encapsulation and abstraction, type checking and exception handling, polymorphism and more.
Ada, unlike other languages which grew by the gradual addition of features, was designed
as a coherent programming language for complex software systems. Ada for Software Engineers
(ASE) is written to equip you with the knowledge necessary to use the Ada programming language to develop software systems.
Although Ada never achieved the popularity of Java and the C-something languages, it
remains the programming language of choice for reliable software. Every time you step on an
airplane or a fast train, you are quite literally trusting your life to software written in Ada.
Given the low level of reliability of much of the software we use daily, I can only regret that the
use of Ada is not more widespread, and I hope that this book will encourage more software
engineers to give Ada a chance.

Intended audience
The book is intended for software engineers making the transition to Ada, and for upper-level
undergraduate and graduate students, including those who have had the good fortune to study
Ada as their first programming language. No specific knowledge of Ada is assumed; the prerequisites are a basic knowledge of computer science and computer systems, and at least two
years of programming experience. As the title implies, if you are a software engineer or training
to become one, this book is for you.

vi

Preface

Structure of the book

The complexity of modern programming languages leaves textbook writers with a painful
dilemma: either gloss over the gory details, or write books that are heavy enough to be classified as lethal weapons. Is there another way? A concise description of Ada is freely available:
the Ada Reference Manual (ARM) [7], which is the document defining the language standard.
The ARM has a reputation for being ponderous reading meant for language lawyers. Nevertheless, I believe thatwith a bit of guidancesoftware engineers can learn to read most of the
ARM. ASE is based upon two premises: (a) it is best to learn the individual language constructs
within the context of actual programs, and (b) if the learning is based upon the terminology
and concepts used in the language standard, you will be able to use the ARM as your primary
reference manual.
The Ada language will be taught using a few relatively large case studies, rather than a
large number of small examples each crafted to demonstrate a particular construct or rule. Experienced programmers know that the key to mastering a programming language is not to
memorize the syntax and semantics of individual constructs, but to learn how to integrate the
constructs into language-specific paradigms. We will need to gloss over details when explaining a case study; rest assured that everything will eventually be explained. Certain sections are
marked with an asterisk and can be omitted during your initial study of Ada. This material is
not necessarily more difficult, but you cant learn everything at once, and these are topics that
can be left for your second reading of the book.
The chapters in the book can be divided into five parts and three appendices. The first two
parts contain the core concepts of Ada and should probably be read first and in sequence (skipping the starred sections, of course). The others chapters can be read as necessary.
1. After an introductory chapter, Chapters 25 quickly cover elementary language constructs
such as statements, subprograms, arrays, records and pointers that should be familiar from
your previous programming experience.
2. The second part is based upon the progressive development of a case study demonstrating
the Ada constructs for programming-in-the-large (including object-oriented programming):
packages and private types (Chapter 6), type extension, inheritance, class-wide types and
dynamic polymorphism (Chapter 78), and generics (Chapter 9).
3. Chapters 1014 cover other topics and are more or less independent of the previous ones:
exceptions, the type system in depth, access types (pointers), numerics and inputoutput.
4. The fourth part contains material on program structure (Chapter 15), the container library
(Chapter 16), and interfaces (Chapter 17).
5. Chapters 1822 include topics broadly covered by the term systems programming: multitasking, hardware interfaces, and real-time and distributed systems.
A special feature of the book is the comprehensive Glossary (Appendix A), which explains
the ARM terminology with examples. In addition, discussions in the text always contain references to the relevant paragraphs in the ARM. The Index of ARM Sections will be invaluable
when you begin to use the ARM as a reference manual.

Preface

vii

At the end of each chapter are Projects and Quizzes. Projects are non-trivial programming
exercises, many of which ask you to extend the case studies in the text. Quizzes are not routine
exercises as the term is usually used; they are intended help you understand the finer points
of the Ada language, and can be skipped until you have significant experience programming
with Ada. Each quiz is a small Ada program; you are to examine it and decide what will happen when the program is compiled, andif the program contains executable statements and
compiles successfullythe result of the execution. Appendix B Hints refers you to the relevant clauses of the ARM from which you should be able to find the answers to the quizzes
before looking at Appendix C Answers. (To save space, with and use clauses for Ada.Text_IO,
Ada.Integer_IO and Ada.Exceptions are omitted.)

Supplementary material and links

All the case studies, quizzes and programs in the book were compiled and executed. The full
source code is available in the software archive at:
http://www.springer.com/978-1-84882-313-6.
The programs were developed using the
mercial, academic and free versions; see:

GNAT

compiler for Ada 2005. It is available in com-

https://libre.adacore.com.
There are two comprehensive websites on Ada:
ACM Special Interest Group on Ada (SIGAda), http://www.sigada.org,
Ada Resource Association (ARA), http://www.adaic.com.
From these websites you can download documents such as the ARM, and find links to compiler
vendors, support software, relevant conferences, and other resources.

Ada 2005
This book was original written for the Ada 95 version of the language. That edition is out of
print and I have used the occasion of the publication of a new version of Ada, Ada 2005, to
expand and improve the book. Constructs of Ada 2005 are freely used, but sections that use
them are annotated to indicate which constructs are new. The software archive for the previous
edition of the book will remain freely available.

viii

Preface

Acknowledgments
First edition: I would like to thank Michael Feldman, Kevlin Henney, Richard Riehle, Reuben
Sumner, Tucker Taft and Peter Wegner for reviewing the manuscript, and Simon Plumtree of
John Wiley for his support and assistance.
Second edition: I am grateful to Edmond Schonberg for his constant help as I learned Ada 2005.
I am indebted to Robert Duff for his comprehensive review that enabled me to correct many
bugs in the text. The staff at AdaCore has been extremely helpful answering my queries on the
GNAT compiler. I would like to thank Beverley Ford and the staff at Springer for their friendly
and efficient handling of the publishing issues that I raised.

Mordechai (Moti) Ben-Ari

Rehovot, 2008

Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Language for a Complex World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1
1.1
Programming or software engineering? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1.2
Reliable software engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1.3
Programming languages for software engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
1.4
Ada for software engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
1.5
The development of Ada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
1.6
The Ada Reference Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
1.7
Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

First Steps in Ada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1
Case study: country of origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
Library units and context clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3
Inputoutput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4
Attributes for string conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5
Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6
Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7
Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8
Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.9
Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.10 Subtypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.11 Lexical elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Subprograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1
Parameter modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2
Overloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3
Parameter associations and default expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.4
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

13
13
15
15
15
16
18
19
23
23
25
28

ix

Contents

3.5
3.6

Block statement* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Implicit dereferencing* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1
Case study: fill and justify text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2
Array types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3
Constrained array subtypes and objects* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4
Type conversion for arrays* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5
Operations on one-dimensional arrays* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6
The context of array aggregates* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41
41
46
54
55
55
56

Elementary Data Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

5.1
Case study: array priority queue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.2
Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.3
Case study: tree priority queue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.4
Access types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Packages and Abstract Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.1
Modularization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2
Case study: priority queue packageversion 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3
Case study: priority queue packageversion 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4
Case study: priority queue packageversion 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5
Case study: priority queue packageversion 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6
Case study: priority queue packageversion 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7
Case study: priority queue packageversion 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.8
Nonlimited private types* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.9
Limited types that are not private* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.10 Initialization of limited types* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

73
73
74
79
81
82
86
88
89
94
95

Type Extension and Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.1
Case study: discrete event simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2
Tagged types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3
Primitive operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4
Overriding an operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5
The package bodies of the case study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6
Class-wide types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.7
Dynamic dispatching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.8
Types and packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.9
Encapsulation and child packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

99
100
101
105
106
107
109
113
117
118

Contents

xi

Type Extension and Inheritance (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.1
Designated receiver syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2
Type conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3
Extension aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4
Abstract types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5
Null procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6
Overriding indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.7
Objects of class-wide type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.8
View conversion and redispatching* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.9
Multiple controlling operands* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.10 Dispatching on the function result* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.11 Indirect derivation* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.12 Freezing* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.13 Implementation of dispatching* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

125
125
126
127
129
130
132
133
134
135
136
138
138
139

Generics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1
Generic declaration and instantiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2
The contract model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3
Generic formal subprogram parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4
Generic formal array types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.5
General access types* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.6
Generic formal objects* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.7
Indefinite type parameters* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.8
Formal package parameters* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.9
Generic children* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.10 The fine print in the contract model* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

143
144
146
148
150
152
153
154
155
162
163

10

Exceptions and Run-Time Checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.1 Declaring and raising exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 Handling exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Propagating exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4 Package Exceptions* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5 Re-raising exceptions* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6 Saving exceptions* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7 Suppressing checks* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8 Assertions* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

171
171
173
174
176
178
181
184
186

11

Composite Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1 Characters and strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Multibyte characters and strings* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Case study: dot2dot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 Discriminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

189
189
190
193
202

xii

Contents

11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10

Variant records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unconstrained types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Discriminants of private types* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inheriting discriminants* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Untagged derived types* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Untagged derived types and discriminants* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

204
207
208
209
211
212

12

Access Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1 General access types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2 Access-to-subprogram types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3 Null exclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4 Accessibility rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.5 Anonymous access types* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.6 Access parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.7 Access discriminants* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.8 Storage pools* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.9 Controlled types* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.10 Mutually dependent types* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

217
217
219
221
223
225
226
230
232
232
236

13

Numeric Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1 Basic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2 Signed integer types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 Types versus subtypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4 Modular types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.5 Real types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.6 Floating point types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.7 Ordinary fixed point types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.8 Decimal fixed point types* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.9 Fixed point multiplication and division* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.10 Complex numbers* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.11 Advanced concepts* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

245
245
248
249
250
253
254
257
258
262
263
267

14

InputOutput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.1 Libraries for inputoutput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2 Interface with the operation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3 Streams* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4 Generic dispatching constructors* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

277
277
279
279
283

15

Program Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.1 Compilation and execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2 Compilation and the environment of compilation* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.3 Subunits* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.4 Pragmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

287
287
288
289
292

Contents

15.5
15.6
15.7
15.8
15.9

xiii

Elaboration* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Renamings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Use type clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Visibility rules* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Overloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

292
295
297
298
301

16

Containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.1 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3 Doubly-linked lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4 Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.6 Indefinite containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

307
308
312
313
314
317
318

17

Interfaces and Multiple Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17.1 Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.2 Case study: displayable events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.3 Case study: storable interface* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.4 Synchronized interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.5 Generic formal tagged private types* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.6 Generic formal derived types* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

323
324
326
329
336
339
341

18

Concurrency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.1 Tasks and protected objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2 Rendezvous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.3 Implementation of entry calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.4 Case study: synchronization with rendezvous and protected objects . . . . . . . . . .
18.5 Entry families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.6 Protected subprograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.7 The requeue statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.8 Additional rules for protected types* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

345
346
352
357
358
363
364
364
367

19

Concurrency (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.1 Activation and termination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2 Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3 Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.4 Time formatting and time zones* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.5 Representation of Time and Duration* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.6 Timed and conditional entry calls* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.7 Asynchronous transfer of control* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.8 Alternatives for selective accept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.9 Case study: concurrent simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.10 Tasks as access discriminants* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

375
375
379
380
382
383
384
387
389
389
393

xiv

Contents

20

Systems Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.1 Implementation dependences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2 Representation items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3 Interfaces to other languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.4 Annex C Systems Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.5 Machine code* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.6 Interrupts* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.7 Shared variables* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.8 Task identification and attributes* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.9 Detecting task termination* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

401
401
402
404
409
410
411
413
414
417

21

Real-Time Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.1 Annex D Real-Time Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.2 Scheduling and priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.3 Task dispatching policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.4 Base and active priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.5 Entry queuing policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.6 Dynamic priorities* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.7 Priority ceiling locking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.8 Monotonic time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.9 Execution time* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.10 Preemptive abort* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.11 Synchronous task control* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.12 Asynchronous task control* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.13 Tasking restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.14 The Ravenscar profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

423
423
423
425
428
430
431
431
433
435
437
438
438
438
439

22

Distributed and High Integrity Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451

22.1 Distributed systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
22.2 High integrity systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456

Glossary of ARM Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459

Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477

Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Index of ARM Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495