Paraphrasing, Summarising & Quoting

This guide will introduce you to some techniques that can be used to make your use of academic
literature more effectively in your written assignments. Please note that this guide has been
produced in accordance with the APA Referencing guidelines, so please consult your referencing

style guide for all other referencing conventions.

Paraphrasing
What is paraphrasing?
Paraphrasing is the expression of meaning or ideas using different words, especially in order to

achieve greater clarity. In academic writing, paraphrasing is a technique that should be employed
regularly, as we use the ideas of others, but need to present them in a way that emphasises our

argument or purpose, whilst not detracting from the content. If you paraphrase in your academic
work, you still need to include a reference, as although the words have changed, the underlying

idea or concept is still the intellectual property of the original author. The majority of evidence
from the literature used in your essays should be paraphrased: you should reserve direct quotes

for those key points that you need to use for emphasis or other specific purposes.

Components of a good paraphrase

Retains and honours the original meaning

Demonstrates your subject synthesis

Always acknowledges the original source

How to paraphrase
Here are some techniques you can use to craft a good paraphrase. Remember, a good paraphrase

honours the original meaning of the source, so you may find that you need to use a combination
of all three techniques to make your paraphrase more effective, and a lot different to the original

quote.

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Use synonyms
Synonyms are words that have similar meanings, so can be used interchangeably. It is worth
consulting a Thesaurus for this technique, to look at a variety of alternative words, and to ensure
that the replacements are suitable to the style and tone of the essay.

Example 1.1

Soller (2010, p. 12) states that ‘Companies that show a genuine interest in charitable activities can
earn the respect of the buying public.’

Paraphrased:

Businesses that demonstrate a real interest in not-for-profit activities can gain the respect of
consumers (Soller, 2010).

(Example taken from Harrison, Jakeman & Paterson, 2016)

Change the form of words

In the English language, certain words can be expressed as nouns, adjectives, verbs or adverbs;
depending on their morphology. You can change the form of a word to enable an effective
paraphrase.

Example 1.2

Michaels (2009, p. 100) states that: ‘Some charities owe their success to the selective use of
consultants.’

Paraphrased:

Some charities are more successful as consultants are employed selectively (Michaels, 2009).

(Example taken from Harrison, Jakeman & Paterson, 2016)

Change the grammatical structure of the original

This includes changing positive constructions into negative constructions (as below), swapping the
order of information, changing active sentences into passive sentences or varying clause structure.
It is worth noting that the tense might change in your paraphrase, but you should always make
sure that the tense in use is appropriate for your purposes.

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Example 1.3

Polson (2009, p.34) states: ‘Persuading the public to sign up to monthly donations is a more cost-
effective policy than collecting single contributions.’

Paraphrased:

Collecting single contributions is not as effective as persuading the public to sign up to monthly
donations (Polson, 2009).

(Example taken from Harrison, Jakeman & Paterson, 2016)

Combine all three

An effective paraphrase will combine all three techniques, so that the words and structure of the
original text is changed, but the essence and the meaning of the original text is still intelligible. You
will not need to make substitutions for subject-specific terminology when you paraphrase, as you
are expected to demonstrate your use of these terms and apply them in the essay writing context.
Here is an example of a good paraphrase, that makes use of all the aforementioned techniques.
You will note that certain words have not been substituted to retain subject-specific vocabulary or
collective terminology (underlined):

Example 1.4

“The police already use social media as a direct channel for engagement with the public. It is
currently being used as a constant and reassuring contact, sharing accurate information and
dispelling rumours. It can also allow citizens and the police to work together to make society
safer” (DEMOS, 2013, p.6).

Paraphrased

The police force utilises social media as a way of communicating directly with citizens. At
present, this tool is used for many purposes, such as the reinforcement of community support,
the distribution of information essential to the public, and the dismissal of potential
disinformation. It also encourages a partnership between the police and the public, to achieve
community safety (DEMOS, 2013, p. 6).

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Summarising
What is a summary?
A summary is a technique used in academic writing that takes a large amount of information, and
reduces it to a small number of phrases, to paint a picture of the original text for the reader.
Summaries are not used to detail or expand; they are used to succinctly capture important
information in a manageable way; so that the reader doesn’t have to sift through irrelevant
information. Summarising is like paraphrasing, so it still requires a reference when conducted in
your academic work. It is an excellent technique to apply when you want to avoid being too
descriptive in your essay writing (Day, 2018).

Components of a good summary

Transforms a large amount of information into a smaller volume
Captures the points that are salient to your argument
Demonstrates your understanding of a concept in a succinct way

How to summarise
Here are a few techniques to use to create a good summary. It is important to note that
summarising can be applied in your essays in order to provide your reader with a brief background
on a concept, theory or study. However, these techniques can also be applied when you have been
asked to write a summary on a topic, text or theme.
Map a concept with bullet points
Try reading a chunk of text (or an entire research paper) without taking notes. Once complete,
write the three main things that you have remembered about the reading, and use that to craft
your summary, or use the suggested framework below.

Example 2.1

Introduction Sentence: In [name of book], [author] explains [insert main idea]

Supporting Arguments: [Author] supports this view by pointing out [insert author's supporting
arguments].

Final Point: In addition, [insert author's overarching argument and point].

Summary:

In "My Favorite Shoe," Treyvon Jones explains that Nike shoes are the best brand of running shoe
for serious track athletes. Jones supports this view by pointing out that Nike shoes are more
comfortable, last longer, and provide more cushioning for the feet. In addition, Jones points out
that most professional runners use Nike (2006, p. 45).

(Example taken from Kearny, 2018)

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True Summary or Interpretive Summary?
The difference between true summary and interpretive summary is as follows:

True summary concisely recaps the main point and key supporting points of an analytical
source or the main subject and key features of a visual source. . . Interpretive summary
simultaneously informs your reader of the content of your source and makes a point
about it . . . giving the reader hints about your assessment of the source. . .It is thus best
suited to descriptions of primary sources that you plan to analyse.
(The Harvard Writing Center, 2000)

Example 2.1 demonstrates a true summary. When writing an essay, it is likely that you will need to
use one, if not both kinds of summary techniques; particularly to achieve a balance between
description, analysis and evaluation. The interpretive summary is a critical summary, as you
condense and assess a source as a whole. This can be particularly helpful when you need to
critique or discuss a theory, as you can outline the main features, whilst highlighting any flaws or
areas for further discussion. However, it is important to note that if you produce an interpretive
summary, you should be mindful when placing this kind of ‘spin’ on the summary, as there is the
potential for the original meaning to become distorted (The Harvard Writing Center, 2000).
Example 2.2 demonstrates an interpretive summary:

Example 2.2

According to McLeod (2018), the purpose of Zimbardo’s (1973) prison experiment was to
determine whether brutality amongst US prison guards was due to personality traits or
environmental factors. To obtain realism, Zimbardo created a prison simulation in the basement of
Stanford University; although it could be argued that any simulation of prison can never equate to
a true experience, and is therefore, not applicable. 24 participants were randomly assigned to the
role of guard or prisoner, which indicates some potential for bias in the assignment of roles.
Prisoners were taunted, insulted, and subjected to physical punishment; resulting in a prisoner
rebellion against the guards. The experiment was terminated after just six days, due to ethical
concerns about the well-being of the participants. The findings of the study suggested support for
the effects of the environment on behaviour, but it could still be argued that personality still
contributed to some extent.

Take advantage of size

Summarising can be a useful tool for condensing large amounts of information. In an academic
reading and writing context: if you come across an entire chapter that covers a topic to perfection,
then summarising it will not only allow you to absorb a major chunk of information, but also
present that information to your reader, should they wish to peruse it. You can help your reader
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out even further by indicating the exact information you are summarising, by including the page
numbers, as in Example 2.3.

Example 2.3

In “An Anthropologist on Mars,” Sacks notes that although there is little disagreement on the chief
characteristics of autism, researchers have differed considerably on its causes. (pp. 22-48).

(Example adapted from University of Toronto, 2019)

Quoting
What is a quote?
A quote is a direct copy of words, exactly as they appear in an original source. When used in your
essay, they should always contain a name, a date and a page number (where possible). The focus
of an academic essay is on your understanding of your subject so quotes should be used sparingly.
Your lecturer will want to see how you understand material; not that you can copy words from a
book! When used effectively, quotes can be a useful tool in academic writing. For instance, if the
language used in the original source is particularly elegant, powerful or memorable; if the text
requires further analysis, or you are conducting a detailed argument (University of Toronto, 2019).

Components of a good quote

Consistent formatting

Edited to enhance the meaning

Short and succinct

Includes a page number

How to quote
You should aim to quote verbatim from original sources; but this isn’t always possible. There will
be circumstances when you need to edit a quote in order to fit your purposes. These reasons can
be stylistic, grammatical or emphatic, as demonstrated in the following examples.

Insert words into quotes

Sometimes it is difficult to insert a quote into the running text of an essay, as the original words
don’t necessarily match the tense, perspective or voice of your essay. You can amend your quotes,
so they match your essay’s style, for instance, through the insertion of words or punctuation in
order to achieve grammatical agreement. It is important that any insertions are denoted in square
brackets. Example 3.1 demonstrates how you can change a parenthetical citation to the main focus
of the sentence in the running text:

Example 3.1

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“Reading is also a process and it also changes you” (Atwood, 2008, p. 30).

Edited Quote:

Margaret Atwood wanted her readers to realize that “reading is also a process and it also changes
[them]” (2008, p. 30).

(Example taken from University of Washington, 2019)

Quote: warts and all

Editing and proof-reading is more of an art than an exact science. Therefore, you might notice a
typo or an incorrect spelling in a book, or a journal. This doesn’t mean you can’t quote that text;
but you shouldn’t attempt to correct the error either! You should indicate that the error is in the
original source by using sic, which is the universal indicator that something has been quoted
exactly as it appears in the original source. This can also be used for non-standard spellings or any
other transcription errors, as demonstrated in Example 3.2.

Example 3.2

"Do to the current market situation, several gas stations ask their customers to pre-pay”
(Madeupimus, 2018).

Edited Quote:

As the Seattle Weekly reports, "Do [sic] to the current market situation, several gas stations ask
[emphasis added] their customers to pre-pay.” (Madeupimus, 2018).

(Example adapted from University of Washington, 2019)

Omit information from your quote

You may want to quote two pieces of information from a lengthy paragraph. You can edit your
quotes to just contain the necessary information, by replacing the missing words with an ellipsis
(. . .). This demonstrates to your reader that you have not included the full quote, but provides
them with the opportunity to go and find the full quote if they need to.

Example 3.3

"In a book of that title, Anderson observes that with the possible exception of what he calls
'primordial villages,' human communities exist as imagined entities in which people 'will never
know most of their fellow-members, meet them or even hear of them, yet in the mind of each
member lives the image of their communion’” (Pratt, 2008, p. 582).

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Edited Quote:

As Pratt notes, "Anderson observes that . . . human communities exist as imagined entitles in
which people 'will never know most of their fellow-members . . . ,' yet in the mind of each member
lives the image of their communion’” (2008, p. 582).

(Example adapted from University of Washington, 2019)

Add emphasis
You may wish to draw your reader’s attention to a particular word or phrase in a quote, in order to
develop an argument, or denote a particular perspective. This can be done by adding emphasis;
but you must indicate to your reader that this has been added by you as the essay writer and does
not feature in the original source.

Example 3.4

“Due to the rise in popularity of ‘designer dogs’, prospective new dog-owners are spending more
money on puppies that have been badly bred, and raised in poor conditions” (Barker, 2013, p. 56).

Emphasis Added:

“Due to the rise in popularity of ‘designer dogs’, prospective new [emphasis added] dog-owners
are spending more money on puppies that have been badly bred, and raised in poor conditions”
(Barker, 2013, p. 56).

Shared language
Some language is used and shared so often that it can be difficult to paraphrase and might not be
necessary to reference. There will be instances in your writing where you wish to use the words of
another person, but you aren't sure how you can paraphrase it without losing the meaning or
making the words unnecessarily cumbersome. Context is very important here, as what is obvious
to a subject-specialist, might not be apparent to other audiences. Here are some examples:

Common knowledge
If something is known to the general public and can be verified by multiple sources in the public
domain, then it can be considered as common knowledge. This includes broad historical and
societal knowledge. Typically, common knowledge doesn't require a reference, but if you wish to
use the exact wording a source has used to describe common knowledge, then this would need to
be included as a quote or paraphrased with a reference. For example:

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Your own thoughts or ideas
In your writing, you will need to present the research in your field to build an argument. However,
you need to evaluate the evidence to build your argument, which means putting across your
thoughts, perspectives and voice. Many students have thoughts on the evidence they have read
and then won't include these evaluations and analyses as 'they don't have a reference for them'.
Let's be clear on this: your own voice requires no reference. And yes, you are allowed your own
voice! A good, critical argument involves analysis and evaluation of evidence. You can think of
whether something needs a reference or not by applying the 'They Say, I say' rule:

Technical terms and phrases of a discipline or genre

Each discipline will have set terminology or phrases used to describe specific phenomena. It is
difficult to paraphrase these words or phrases without losing some of the specificity or detracting
from the meaning. Therefore, you are permitted to use these words without referencing them in
the context of your own writing. Take a look at this example to note when a reference is needed:

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Common vocabulary
• Collocations are words that appear together frequently to form fixed relationships. This
means they are quite restricted in use and are difficult to paraphrase. For example, ‘find a
replacement’, ‘close a deal’, or ‘go to great lengths’. You can use these collocates in your
academic writing without referencing.
• Signposts are words that are used to indicate the direction, flow or links in a piece of writing
and is a common feature of academic writing. For example, ‘however’, ‘on the other hand’,
and ‘in conclusion’. These can be used in your academic writing without referencing.
• Common terms of reference that have origins in specific disciplines but are used by most
people to denote specific societal issues, or terms coined to describe specific phenomena.
For example, ‘young offenders’, ‘climate change’, and ‘no-deal Brexit’. However, you may
wish to clarify your use of these terms if you are using them to describe a specific context,
or if you are explaining the background to someone who might not be familiar with the
word.

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References
Day, T. (2018). Success in Academic Writing. (2nd ed.). London, United Kingdom: Palgrave.

Harrison, M., Jakeman, V. & Paterson, K. (2016). Improve your grammar: The essential guide to
accurate writing. (2nd ed.). London, United Kingdom: Palgrave.

Kearny, V. (2018). How to write a summary of an article [Blog]. Retrieved from

https://owlcation.com/academia/How-to-Write-a-Summary

The Harvard Writing Center. (2000). Summary [Online]. Retrieved from

https://writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/pages/summary

University of Toronto. (2019) Using quotations [Online]. Retrieved from

https://advice.writing.utoronto.ca/using-sources/quotations/

University of Washington. (2019). ‘How to integrate direct quotations into your writing’ [Online].
Retrieved from: https://depts.washington.edu/engl/askbetty/changing_quotations.php

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