ASSIGMENT NO: 01

SUBMITTED TO: DR SAEED

SUBMITTED BY: SAMREEN FATIMA

REGISTRATION NO: BSCHEM01191047

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
NANOMATERIALS

1. Nanomaterials are commonly defined as materials with an average grain size less than 100
nanometers
2. Nanomaterials have extremely small size which having at least one dimension 100 nm
3. One billion nanometers equals one meter
4. The average width of a human hair is on the order of 100,000 nanometers
5. A single particle of smoke is in the order of 1,000 nanometers

NANOMATERIAL SHAPES
 nanomaterials can be nanoscale in one dimension ( surface films )
 Two dimensions ( strands or fiber)
 Three dimensions ( particles )
 They can exist in single or fused forms with spherical, tubular, and irregular shapes.

APPROACHES

Top-down – Breaking down matter into more basic building blocks. Frequently uses
chemical or thermal methods.

Bottoms-up – Building complex systems by combining simple atomic-level components.

METHODS FOR CREATING NANOSTRUCTURES

1. Mechanical grinding example of ( top-down ) method

2. Wet Chemical example of both ( top-down) & ( bottom up )
3. Sol-gel process Methods for creating nanostructures
4. Gas Phase ( furnace ) Methods for creating nanostructures

DIFFERENT TYPES OF NANOMATERIAL

Nanopowder
Nanotube : tiny strips of graphite sheet rolled into tubes

Why are nanomaterials important

These materials have created a high interest in recent years by their high mechanical,
electrical, optical and magnetic properties.

APPLICATIONS OF NANOMATERIALS
• nanophase ceramics
• nanostructured semiconductors
• Nanosized metallic powders
• Single nanosized magnetic particles
• Nanostructured metal-oxide thin films
HISTORY OF NANOMATERIAL:

NANOMATERIAL IN 4TH CENTURY AD:

Nanoparticles and structures have been used by humans in fourth century AD, by the Roman,
which demonstrated one of the most interesting examples of nanotechnology in the ancient
world.

LYCURGUS CUP: THE OLDEST SYNTHETIC NANOMATERIAL

The Lycurgus cup, from the British Museum collection, represents one of the most outstanding
achievements in ancient glass industry. It is the oldest famous example of dichroic glass.
Dichroic glass describes two different types of glass, which change color in certain lighting
conditions. This means that the Cup have two different colors: the glass appears green in direct
light, and red-purple when light shines through the glass.

In 1990, the scientists analyzed the cup using a transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to
explain the phenomenon of dichroism . The observed dichroism (two colors) is due to the
presence of nanoparticles with 50–100 nm in diameter. X-ray analysis showed that these
nanoparticles are silver-gold (Ag-Au) alloy, with a ratio of Ag:Au of about 7:3, containing in
addition about 10% copper (Cu) dispersed in a glass matrix. The Au nanoparticles produce a red
color as result of light absorption (~520 nm). The red-purple color is due to the absorption by the
bigger particles while the green color is attributed to the light scattering by colloidal dispersions
of Ag nanoparticles with a size > 40 nm. The Lycurgus cup is recognized as one of the oldest
synthetic nanomaterials . A similar effect is seen in late medieval church windows, shining a
luminous red and yellow colors due to the fusion of Au and Ag nanoparticles into the
glass.Figure shows an example of the effect of these nanoparticles with different sizes to the
stained glass windows

9TH -17TH CENTURY:

During the 9th–17th centuries, glowing, glittering “luster” ceramic glazes used in the Islamic
world, and later in Europe contained Ag or copper (Cu) or other nanoparticles. The Italians also
employed nanoparticles in creating Renaissance pottery during 16th century . They were
influenced by Ottoman techniques: during the 13th–18th centuries, to produce “Damascus” saber
blades, cementite nanowires and carbon nanotubes were used to provide strength, resilience, and
the ability to hold a keen edge. These colors and material properties were produced intentionally
for hundreds of years. Medieval artists and forgers, however, did not know the cause of these
surprising effects.
IN 1857:
In 1857, Michael Faraday studied the preparation and properties of colloidal suspensions of
“Ruby” gold. Their unique optical and electronic properties make them some of the most
interesting nanoparticles. Faraday demonstrated how gold nanoparticles produce different-
colored solutions under certain lighting conditions.
The progression in nanotechnology due to the blessings of nanoscience are summarized in
the Figure

MODERN ERA OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

There was a progress in nanotechnology since the early ideas of Feynman until 1981 when the
physicists Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer invented a new type of microscope at IBM Zurich
Research Laboratory, the Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM). The STM uses a sharp tip that
moves so close to a conductive surface that the electron wave functions of the atoms in the tip
overlap with the surface atom wave functions. When a voltage is applied, electrons “tunnel”
through the vacuum gap from the atom of the tip into the surface (or vice versa).

In 1983, the group published the first STM image of the Si(111)-7 × 7 reconstructed surface,
which nowadays can be routinely imaged as shown in Figure

IN 1990:

A few years later, in 1990, Don Eigler of IBM in Almaden and his colleagues used a STM to
manipulate 35 individual xenon atoms on a nickel surface and formed the letters of IBM logo
(Figure). The STM was invented to image surfaces at the atomic scale and has been used as a
tool with which atoms and molecules can be manipulated to create structures. The tunneling
current can be used to selectively break or induce chemical bonds.

In 1986:
In 1986, Binnig and Rohrer received the Nobel Prize in Physics “for their design of the STM”.
This invention led to the development of the atomic force microscope (AFM) and scanning probe
microscopes (SPM), which are the instruments of choice for nanotechnology researchers today.
At the same time, in 1985, Robert Curl, Harold Kroto, and Richard Smalley discovered that
carbon can also exist in the form of very stable spheres, the fullerenes or buckyballs.
The carbon balls with chemical formula C60 or C70 are formed when graphite is evaporated in
an inert atmosphere. A new carbon chemistry has been now developed, and it is possible to
enclose metal atoms and create new organic compounds.
IN 1991:
A few years later, in 1991, Iijima et al. observed of hollow graphitic tubes or carbon nanotubes
by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) which form another member of the fullerene
family. The strength and flexibility of carbon nanotubes make them potentially useful in many
nanotechnological. Currently, Carbon nanotubes are used as composite fibers in polymers and
beton to improve the mechanical, thermal and electrical properties of the bulk product. They also
have potential applications as field emitters, energy storage materials, catalysis, and molecular
electronic components.

In 2004,
Anew class of carbon nanomaterials called carbon dots (C-dots) with size below 10 nm was
discovered accidentally by Xu et al. during the purification of single-walled carbon nanotubes.
C-dots with interesting properties have gradually become a rising star as a new nanocarbon
member due to their benign, abundant and inexpensive nature. Possessing such superior
properties as low toxicity and good biocompatibility renders C-dots favorable materials for
applications in bioimaging, biosensor and drug delivery.Based on their excellent optical and
electronic properties, C-dots can also offer exciting opportunities for catalysis, energy
conversion, photovoltaic devices and nanoprobes for sensitive ion detection.After the discovery
of “graphene” in 2004, carbon-based materials became the backbone of almost every field of
science and engineering.
In the meantime, nanoscience progressed in other fields of science like in computer science, bio
and engineering. Nanoscience and technology progressed in computer science to decrease the
size of a normal computer from a room size to highly efficient moveable laptops. Electrical
engineers progressed to design the complex electrical circuits down to nanoscale level. Also,
many advances are noticed in smart phone technology and other modern electronic devices for
daily uses.
At the beginning of 21st century, there was an increased interest in the nanoscience and
nanotechnology fields. In the United States, Feynman’s concept of manipulation of matter at the
atomic level played an important role in shaping national science priorities. During a speech at
Caltech on 21 January 2000, President Bill Clinton advocated for the funding of research in the
field of nanotechnology. Three years later, President George W. Bush signed into law the 21st
century Nanotechnology Research and Development Act. The legislation made nanotechnology
research a national priority and created the National Technology Initiative (NNI).
Recently, a number of studies highlighted the huge potential that nanotechnologies play in
biomedicine for the diagnosis and therapy of many human diseases. In this regard, bio-
nanotechnology is considered by many experts as one of the most intriguing field of application
of nanoscience.During recent decades, the applications of nanotechnology in many biology
related areas such as diagnosis, drug delivery, and molecular imaging are being intensively
researched and offered excellent results. Remarkably, a plethora of medical-related products
containing nanomaterials are currently on the market in the USA. Examples of
“nanopharmaceuticals” include nanomaterials for drug delivery and regenerative medicine, as
well as nanoparticles with antibacterial activities or functional nanostructures used for biomarker
detection like nanobiochips, nanoelectrodes, or nanobiosensors.
IN 2006:
One of the most important applications of nanotechnology to molecular biology has been related
to nucleic acids. In 2006, Paul Rothemund developed the “scaffolded DNA origami”, by
enhancing the complexity and size of self-assembled DNA nanostructures in a “one-pot”
reaction. The conceptual foundation for DNA nanotechnology was first laid out by Nadrian
Seeman in 1982: “It is possible to generate sequences of oligomeric nucleic acids, which will
preferentially associate to form migrationally immobile junctions, rather than linear duplexes, as
they usually do”. DNA nanotechnology has already become an interdisciplinary research area,
with researchers from physics, chemistry, materials science, computer science, and medicine
coming together to find solutions for future challenges in nanotechnology. Notably, years of
extensive studied made possible to use DNA and other biopolymers directly in array
technologies for sensing and diagnostic applications.
Remarkable progresses have been made also in the field of nano-oncology by improving the
efficacy of traditional chemotherapy drugs for a plethora of aggressive human cancers.These
advances have been achieved by targeting the tumour site with several functional molecules
including nanoparticles, antibodies and cytotoxic agents. In this context, many studies showed
that nanomaterials can be employed itself or to deliver therapeutic molecules to modulate
essential biological processes, like autophagy, metabolism or oxidative stress, exerting
anticancer activity.
Hence, nano-oncology is a very attractive application of nanoscience and allows for the
improvement of tumour response rates in addition to a significant reduction of the systemic
toxicity associated with current chemotherapy treatments.
Nanotechnology has been used to improve the environment and to produce more efficient and
cost-effective energy, such as generating less pollution during the manufacture of materials,
producing solar cells that generate electricity at a competitive cost, cleaning up organic
chemicals polluting groundwater, and cleaning volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from air.
However, the application of computational approaches to nanomedicine is yet underdeveloped
and is an exigent area of research. The need for computational applications at the nano scale has
given rise to the field of nanoinformatics.
Powerful machine-learning algorithms and predictive analytics can considerably facilitate the
design of more efficient nanocarriers. Such algorithms provide predictive knowledge on future
data, have been mainly applied for predicting cellular uptake, activity, and cytotoxicity of
nanoparticles.
Data mining, network analysis, quantitative structure-property relationship (QSPR), quantitative
structure–activity relationship (QSAR), and ADMET (absorption, distribution, metabolism,
excretion, and toxicity) predictors are some of the other prominent property evaluations being
carried out in nanoinformatics.
Nanoinformatics has provided a major supplementary platform for nanoparticle design and
analysis to overcome such in vitro barriers. Nanoinformatics exclusively deals with the
assembling, sharing, envisaging, modeling, and evaluation of significant nanoscale level data and
information. Nanoinformatics also facilitates chemotherapy by improving the nano-modeling of
the tumor cells and aids detection of the drug-resistant tumors easily. Hyperthermia-based
targeted drug delivery and gene therapy approaches are the latest nanoinformatics techniques
proven to treat cancer with least side effects.
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