MODULE 1:

DC Circuits and Network Theorems

Weightage:25%
TOPICS TO BE COVERED:

Ohm’s Law
Resistances in Series
Resistances in Parallel
Voltage Divider and Current Divider Rule
Different Types of Sources
Source Transformation
Kirchoff’s Laws
Superposition Theorem
Thevenin’s Theorem
Norton’s Theorem
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Star/Delta Transformations
 Ohm’s Law
The ratio of potential difference (V) between the ends of a conductor to the current (I)
flowing between them is constant, provided the physical conditions (e.g. temperature etc.) do
not change i.e.

V/I= Constant = R
where R is the resistance of the conductor between the two points considered.

For Example if in fig below the voltage between points A and B is V volts and current flowing
is I amperes, then V/I will be constant and equal to R, the resistance between points A and B.

Ohm’s law can be expressed in three forms viz.

I = V/R ; V = IR ; R = V/I
RESISTANCE IN SERIES:

When the resistances in a circuit are connected end to end then they are called to be in series.
By Ohm’s law, for fig(i) voltage across the various resistances is

V1 = I R1 ; V2 = I R2 ; V3 = I R3
Now V = V1 + V2+ V3
= I R1 + I R2 + IR 3
= I (R1 + R2 + R3)
or VI
= R1 + R2 + R3
But V/I is the total resistance RS between points A and B. Note that RS is called the *total or equivalent resistance of
the three resistances.
RS = R1 + R2 + R3
Hence when a number of resistances are connected in series, the total resistance is equal to the sum of the
individual resistances.

The total conductance GS of the circuit is given by ;

Gs=1/Rs
The main characteristics of a series circuit are :

(i) The current in each resistor is the same.

(ii) The total resistance in the circuit is equal to the sum of individual resistances.
(iii) The total power dissipated in the circuit is equal to the sum of powers dissipated in
individual resistances.
RS = R1 + R2 + R3
or I2RS = I2R1 + I2R2 + I2R3
or PS = P1 + P2 + P3
RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL:

When Resistances in circuit are connected such that their one end is joined to a common point and
other end of each resistance is joined to another common point so that there are as many paths for
current flow as there are resistances then they are called to be in parallel.
By Ohm’s law, For Fig(i) current through each resistance is

I1 = V/R1 ; I2 = V/R2 ; I3 = V/R3

Now, I = I1 + I2 + I3

Hence when a number of resistances are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of total
resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.

Also GP = G1 + G2 + G3
Hence total conductance GP of resistors in parallel is equal to the sum of their individual
conductances.
The following are the characteristics of a parallel circuit :

(i) The voltage across each resistor is the same.

(ii) The current through any resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance.
(iii) The total current in the circuit is equal to the sum of currents in its parallel branches.
(iv) The reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
resistances.
(v) The conductances are additive.
(vi)The total power dissipated in the circuit is equal to the sum of powers dissipated in the
individual resistances.

PP = P1 + P2 + P 3
VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE:

Voltage Divider Circuits are useful in providing different voltage levels from a common supply
voltage.
CURRENT DIVIDER RULE:

Current dividers or current division is the process of finding the individual branch currents in a
parallel circuit were each parallel element has the same voltage.
Proof:
Current Divider Rule
Few Problems:

Q. Calculate the current flow for below fig.

Ans.3.51mA
Q. Find the equivalent resistance between points A and B.

Soln.
Q. Find the branch currents using the current divider rule for parallel conductances.

Soln.
Q. Find the three branch currents and potential difference between points A and B.

Soln. The circuit can be redrawn like

Q. Fig below shows a 50 V source connected to three resistances : R1 = 5 kΩ; R2 = 25 kΩ and R3 = 10 kΩ.
Calculate (i) branch currents (ii) total current for the given figure.

Ans. [(i) I1 = 10 mA ; I2 = 2 mA; I3 = 5 mA (ii) I = 17 mA]

Q. Find the voltage across and current through 4 kΩ resistor in the circuit shown in Fig below.

Ans.
Kirchhoff's Current Law(KCL):

The algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a junction in an electrical circuit is zero.

If we take the signs of currents flowing towards point O as positive, then currents flowing away
from point O will be assigned negative sign. Thus, applying Kirchhoff’s current law to the junction O in Fig. above, we
have,

(I1) + (I4) + (− I2) + (− I3) = 0

or I1 + I4 = I2 + I3
i.e., Sum of incoming currents = Sum of outgoing currents

Hence, Kirchhoff’s current law may also be stated as under :

The sum of currents flowing towards any junction in an electrical circuit is equal to the sum of currents flowing away
from that junction. Kirchhoff’s current law is also called junction rule.
Kirchoff’s voltage Law(KVL):

In any closed electrical circuit or mesh, the algebraic sum of all the electromotive forces(e.m.fs) and
voltage drops in resistors is equal to zero, i.e., In any closed circuit or mesh,
Algebraic sum of e.m.fs + Algebraic sum of voltage drops = 0

KVL can also be stated as

In any closed circuit or mesh,
Algebraic sum of e.m.fs + Algebraic sum of voltage drops = 0
Sign Convention in KVL:
A rise in potential should be considered positive and fall in potential should be
considered negative.

For fig (i) above E is taken with minus sign. Direction of

For fig(ii) above E is taken with plus sign. movement while
applying KVL in
circuit.
+ - - + I
I

For fig (i) above voltage drop IR is taken with minus sign.
For fig(ii) above voltage drop IR is taken with plus sign.
Q. Use Kirchoff’s voltage Law and determine voltage Vab in fig below.

Soln:Total circuit resistance, RT = 2 + 1 + 3 = 6 kΩ

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to loop ABCDA, we have,

24 – 4 mA × 2 kΩ – *Vab = 0
or 24 – 8 – Vab = 0
Vab = 24 – 8 = 16 V
 Types of sources

Independent Sources
1. Voltage Source

2. Current Source

Dependent Sources
1. Voltage Dependent Voltage Source

2. Current Dependent Voltage Source

3. Voltage Dependent Current Source

4. Current Dependent Current Source

1.Ideal voltage Source
An ideal voltage source (also called constant-voltage source) is one that maintains a constant
terminal voltage, no matter how much current is drawn from it.
An ideal voltage source has zero internal resistance. (R = 0)

2.Real Voltage source

A real voltage source can be represented as an ideal voltage source in series with a resistance equal to its internal
resistance (Rint) as shown in Fig.
ideal voltage source has finite
internal resistance (R = finite value).
Vo = E – IL Rint
3.Ideal Current Source:
An ideal current source or constant current source is one which will supply the same current to any resistance
(load) connected across its terminals.
An ideal current source has infinite internal resistance.

4. Real Current Source:

A real current source can be represented by an ideal current source (I) in parallel with its internal resistance
(Rint) as shown in Fig.

IL=I-V/Rint
where V = P.D. between output terminals
Source Transformation

A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage

source vs in series with a resistor R by a current source is in
parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.
 vs
vs = is R or is =
R
Note:
1. Arrow of the current source is according to the positive terminal of voltage source.
2. Impossible source Transformation
ideal voltage source (R = 0)
ideal current source (R=)
Q. Find the current in 3Kohm resistor by converting current source to voltage source.

Soln. Converting current source to voltage source

Q. Use source transformation to find vo in the circuit in Fig below.
Soln. Using Source Transformation
we use current division in Fig.(c) to get
2
i= (2) = 0.4A
2+8
and

vo = 8i = 8(0.4) = 3.2V
 MESH ANALYSIS:

In this method, Kirchhoff’s voltage law is applied to a network to write mesh equations in terms of mesh
currents instead of branch currents.

Mesh ABDA.
– I1R1 – (I1 – I2) R2 + E1 = 0
or I1 (R1 + R2) – I2R2 = E1 ...(i)

Mesh BCDB.
– I2R3 – E2 – (I2 – I1) R2 = 0
or` – I1R2 + (R2 + R3) I2 = – E2 ...(ii)
Solving eq. (i) and eq. (ii) simultaneously, mesh currents I1 and I2 can be found out. Once the
mesh currents are known, the branch currents can be readily obtained.

The advantage of this method is that it usually reduces the number of equations to solve a network
problem.
Q.Find Current through each resistance in circuit below.
After solving equation (i) and (ii), we get I1 = 1·886 A, I2 = – 0·341A
Current from B to D is I1-I2=1.886-(-0.341)=2.127A
NODAL ANALYSIS:

In this method one of the node is chosen as reference node and then with respect to that node
unknown voltages at independent nodes are found by applying KCL.
Q. Find current through 4ohm resistance in circuit below.

After solving equations (i) and (ii),

𝑽𝑨 −𝑽𝑩 𝟒−𝟖 −𝟒
𝑰𝟐 = = = = -1 A
𝟒 𝟒 𝟒
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
STATEMENT:
The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear
circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element due to each
independent source acting alone with all other independent ideal voltage sources replaced by
short circuits and all other independent ideal current sources replaced by open circuits
(non-ideal sources are replaced by their internal resistances).
Note that
Turn off inactive source:
● independent ideal voltage source: 0 V (short circuit)
● independent ideal current source: 0 A (open circuit)
Dependent sources are left intact.
 Steps to apply superposition principle:
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source.
Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active
source .
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the independent sources.
Q. Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit in Fig below.
Soln: Since there are two sources, let

V = V1 + V2

STEP 1:Taking 6V source only current source being other

source is open circuited.(Fig a)
4
Applying Voltage divider we get V = (6) = 2V
4+8
1

STEP 2:Taking current source now other source being

voltage source is short circuited(fig b)
Applying Current division rule
we get 8
i3 = (3) = 2A
4+8
And we find v2 = 4i3 = 8V
Step 3:Hence by superposition
v = v1 + v2 = 2 + 8 = 10V ans
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can

be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source
VTh in series with a resistor RTh where VTh is the open circuit voltage
at the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at
the terminals when the independent source are turn off.
How to Find Thevenin’s Voltage
Equivalent circuit: same voltage-current relation at the terminals.

VTh = voc : open circuit voltage at a − b

How to Find Thevenin’s Resistance
RTh = Rin :
input − resistance of the dead circuit at a − b.
• a − b open circuited
• Turn off all independent sources
From Thevenin’s equivalent circuit the load
current can be obtained as below
VTh
IL =
RTh + RL

RL
VL = RL I L = VTh
RTh + RL

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of Fig a

 NORTON’S THEOREM

Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal

circuit can be replaced by equivalent circuit consisting of a current
source IN in parallel with a resistor RN where IN is the short-circuit
current through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent
resistance at the terminals when the independent source are turn off.
Original Circuit

NORTON’S Equivalent Circuit

 How to Find Norton Current:
Thevenin and Norton resistances are equal:

RN = RTh
Short circuit current from a to b :

VTh
I N = isc =
RTh
Q. Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig below.
Soln. To find RN
RN = 5 || (8 + 4 + 8)
20  5
= 5 || 20 = = 4
25
To find iN
short − circuit terminals a and b .

Mesh :
i1 = 2A, 20i2 − 4i1 − i2 = 0

i2 = 1A = isc = IN
Hence,
VTh
IN = = 4 / 4 = 1A
RTh

Ans.
 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
THEOREM
STATEMENT:
Maximum power is transferred to the load from the source when the load resistance equals the
Thevenin’s resistance as seen from the load i.e
(RL = RTH).
PROOF:
i=Vth/(Rth+RL)
P=i2RL=Vth2RL/(Rth+Rl)2

dp  ( R + R ) 2
− 2 RL ( RTH + RL ) 
= VTH 
2 TH L

dRL  ( R TH + RL ) 4

 ( RTH + RL − 2 RL ) 
=V  2
 =0
 ( RTH + RL )
TH 3

0 = ( RTH + RL − 2 RL ) = ( RTH − RL )
RL = RTH
2
VTH
pmax =
4 RTH
Q. Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the
circuit of Fig below. Find the maximum power.
Soln.

6  12
RTH = 2 + 3 + 6 12 = 5 + = 9
18
− 12 + 18i1 − 12i2 , i2 = −2 A
− 12 + 6ii 1 + 3i2 + 2(0) + VTH = 0  VTH = 22V
RL = RTH = 9
2 2
V 22
pmax = TH
= = 13.44W
4 RL 4  9
Delta/Star and Star/Delta Transformation
Delta/Star Transformation
Star/Delta Transformation
Q. Using delta/star transformation, find the galvanometer current in the Wheatstone bridge
shown in Figure below (i)
Q. With the help of star/delta transformation, obtain the value of current supplied by the battery in the
circuit shown in Fig below
Soln.