ubbles and fizz.

That is what you get when you drop an antacid tablet into a
B glass of water. Why the fizz? The tablet contains two chemicals that dissolve on
contact with water. The chemicals react with each other to produce carbon dioxide,
a gas that helps break down the tablet, and sodium citrate, a compound that
neutralizes stomach acids. In just a few seconds, the two chemicals have been
transformed into something new. Chemical change is happening all around you, as
elements combine to produce compounds.

74 MHR • Unit 1 Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

 FOLDABLES TM
Reading & Study
Skills

Make the following Foldable and use it to take

notes on what you learn in Chapter 3.

STEP 1 Fold a sheet of copy

What You Will Learn paper in half lengthwise
(hot dog fold).
In this chapter, you will
• distinguish between covalent and ionic STEP 2 Fold in half to form
compounds two equal sections,
• demonstrate understanding of chemical fold in half again to
names and formulas of ionic compounds form four equal sections, and in half
• differentiate between chemical and again to form eight equal sections.
physical change
• describe applications of chemical
technology
Fold here

Fold here
Why It Is Important Fold here

Almost everything in our world is made of

compounds and mixtures of compounds. Our STEP 3 Open the folded paper
whole society depends on the production and and cut along the fold
wise use of compounds. lines of one side only to
form eight tabs.

Skills You Will Use Covalent

STEP 4 Label the tabs Compounds

as illustrated. Both

In this chapter, you will Draw two

Ionic
Compounds
Chemical
• write chemical formulas given the names, circles as Names
Chemical
Formulas
and chemical names given the formulas shown. Chemical
Change
• observe changes in matter Both
Physical
• communicate your understanding of how Change

substances are altered during chemical and

physical changes Similarities and Differences As
you read this chapter, use your Foldable to find
similarities and differences between covalent
and ionic compounds and to differentiate
between chemical and physical change.

Chapter 3 Elements combine to form compounds. • MHR 75

 3.1 Compounds

A compound is a pure substance made up of two or more kinds of elements that are
chemically combined. When they combine, the atoms of one element make
connections with the atoms of another element in very specific ways. Compounds
are either covalent or ionic. In covalent compounds, atoms join together by sharing
electrons. In ionic compounds, oppositely charged ions attract each other. Polyatomic
ions are groups of atoms that are joined to each other by covalent bonds and, as a
group, have an ion charge.

Words to Know
covalent compound
ionic compound
ionic lattice
molecule
polyatomic ion

Did You Know?

The elements magnesium and
oxygen can combine to form a
compound simply by being
heated together. As they react,
magnesium atoms give electrons
to oxygen atoms. In the new
compound, there is one ion of Figure 3.1 In this model of common table sugar (C12H22O11), the carbon atoms are blue, oxygen
magnesium for every one ion of atoms are red, and hydrogen atoms are white.
oxygen. As the photograph
shows, this process releases a lot
Imagine if you could see deep into the atomic structure of objects. You
of light and heat.
would see that a relatively simple substance, like table sugar, is composed
of only one type of compound (Figure 3.1). A more complex example,
such as a butterfly, might have between 100 000 and 1 million different
kinds of compounds.
A compound is a pure substance made of more than one kind of
element in which the atoms of the elements are joined together. By
combining in compounds, elements can form more complex substances.
Compounds form through chemical bonds, which are links between two
or more atoms that hold the atoms together.
Although scientists have identified only some of the compounds that
are found in nature, we do know that most compounds are one of two
basic types: covalent compounds and ionic compounds.

76 MHR • Unit 1 Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

 3-1A The Synthesis of Oxygen Find Out ACTIVITY

Hydrogen peroxide is a compound that can be made to 3. Light a candle.

quickly decompose into the element oxygen and another 4. Use a scoopula to obtain about 1 mL (the size of a
compound, water. In this activity, you will decompose pea) of potassium iodide (KI) crystals and drop them
hydrogen peroxide by adding a catalyst, which is a into the test tube. You should see bubbles appear,
chemical that helps speed up the process. making a foam as oxygen collects in the soapy water.

Safety 5. Light a wooden splint and blow it out, leaving a few

embers glowing.
6. Place the glowing splint in the soap bubbles, keeping
• Hydrogen peroxide solution is corrosive. it above the solution. Observe.
• Be careful around open flames. 7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 several times.
• Tie back long hair. 8. Clean up and put away the equipment you have
used.
Materials
• liquid dish soap What Did You Find Out?
• medium test tube in a test tube rack 1. What happens to a glowing splint when it is placed
• hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) solution in pure oxygen?
• candle and lighter 2. If you have practised the burning splint test for
• scoopula hydrogen in a previous investigation, compare the
• potassium iodide (KI) crystals test for oxygen with the test for hydrogen, using a lit
• 2 wooden splints splint for both.
(a) How are the procedures different?
What to Do (b) How do the observations differ?
1. Put one drop of dish soap into the test tube.
2. Carefully pour hydrogen peroxide solution into the
test tube until it is no more than 13 full.

Covalent Compounds
In covalent compounds, atoms combine by sharing electrons to form
molecules. A molecule is a group of atoms in which the atoms are bound
together by sharing one or more pairs of electrons. The shared pairs of
electrons form covalent bonds that keep the atoms together. Carbon
dioxide and water are examples of covalent compounds.
The smallest possible particle of water is a single molecule. A water
molecule is composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The
formula for water shows this two-to-one relationship using element
symbols and a subscript number: H2O. Figure 3.2 on the next page shows
three common ways of modelling a water molecule. In all three cases, the
covalent bonds that hold the water molecule together are formed by the
atoms of oxygen and hydrogen sharing pairs of electrons.

Chapter 3 Elements combine to form compounds. • MHR 77

 Figure 3.2B A ball and stick model of a Figure 3.2C A space-filling model of a
water molecule. The sticks represent covalent water molecule. Each overlap represents one
bonds. shared pair of electrons.

Figure 3.2A A Bohr model diagram

of a water molecule. Notice how
electrons in the valence shells of
When a jar is filled with water, trillions and trillions of molecules
oxygen and hydrogen atoms are being bump into each other constantly, but the atoms in one molecule are not
shared. bonded to atoms in other water molecules. Each molecule is separate
from the other. Liquid water flows because the water molecules can move
past each other.

Ionic Compounds
In ionic compounds, atoms gain or lose electrons to form ions. For
example, table salt is made from the elements sodium and chlorine. When
the atoms of each element first come together, both are electrically
neutral. When they get close enough, an electron transfers from the
sodium to the chlorine. This makes a positive sodium ion, Na
, and a
negative chloride ion, Cl. The process is shown in Figure 3.3.

+1 -1

Na atom Cl atom Na Cl Na+ Cl-

11 p 17 p 11 p 17 p
11 e 17 e 10 e 18 e

Figure 3.3 An ionic compound forms when an electron on a metal atom transfers to a non-metal atom, creating oppositely charged ions.

Ionic compounds exist as a solid in the form of an ionic lattice. An

ionic lattice is a repeating pattern of positive and negative ions. Ionic
compounds can be modelled by arranging striped and solid-coloured balls.
Striped balls would repel other striped balls. Solid-coloured balls would
repel other solid-coloured balls. But striped balls and solid-coloured balls
would strongly attract each other. What would happen to real balls if they
had this property? They would assemble into a pattern that looks like
Figure 3.4. This type of pattern happens when a crystal of table salt forms
(Figure 3.5 on the next page). In an ionic compound, all the positive ions
Figure 3.4 Striped and solid- attract all the negative ions everywhere in the same crystal.
coloured balls arranged alternately
can model the arrangement of ions
in an ionic compound.

78 MHR • Unit 1 Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

 Reading Check
1. Name two ways in which elements can combine into compounds.
2. How are atoms connected to each other in covalent compounds?
3. Give one example of a covalent compound.
4. Give one example of an ionic compound.
5. What needs to happen to atoms of different elements to allow them
to combine to form an ionic compound?

Molecules, Ions, and Polyatomic Ions

Covalent and ionic bonds can be found in the same compound. It is
possible for some molecules to gain or lose one or more electrons as their
atoms combine to form a molecule. In so doing, they become a molecular
ion, usually called a polyatomic ion. The prefix “poly-” means many.
Figure 3.5 Table salt is an ionic crystal.

Figure 3.6B The

orange chemical
contains the
dichromate ion. It turns
green in the presence
of alcohol on a person’s
breath.

Figure 3.6A British Columbia’s

roadside CounterAttack uses chemical
tests to detect alcohol.

Police officers in British Columbia run a roadside CounterAttack

program that checks drivers to ensure that they do not drink and drive
(Figure 3.6A). In one of the checks, a test chemical turns from orange to
green in response to alcohol on a driver’s breath (Figure 3.6B). This test
chemical is potassium dichromate. It contains potassium ions and an ion
named dichromate. The dichromate ion has the formula Cr2O72. This
polyatomic ion is made from two atoms of chromium and seven atoms of
oxygen and has a charge of 2 (Figure 3.7).

Figure 3.7A Ball and stick model of the dichromate ion Figure 3.7B Space-filling model of the dichromate ion

Chapter 3 Elements combine to form compounds. • MHR 79

 In a polyatomic ion, the atoms are connected by covalent bonds,
which involve the sharing of electrons. In the dichromate ion, the atoms
are the elements oxygen and chromium. The negatively charged
dichromate ion is connected by ionic bonds to positive potassium ions in
the potassium dichromate that is used in breathalyzer tests (Figure 3.8).

Many Kinds of Polyatomic Ions

Polyatomic ions are an important part of many materials. One kind,
carbonate (CO32), helps form the delicate shell of a robin’s egg, as well
as the enamel of your teeth, one of the hardest substances known.
Another polyatomic ion, phosphate, is a major component in your bones
and in your DNA, from which chromosomes are made. Ammonium
nitrate is a compound made of two polyatomic ions: ammonium (NH4
)
Figure 3.8 A model of the ionic and nitrate (NO3). This compound, ammonium nitrate, is one of the
lattice of potassium dichromate, most important fertilizers in the world. Figure 3.9 shows diagrams of all
which contains potassium ions and four ions.
dichromate ions
In the next section, you will learn to write names and formulas for a
number of important ionic compounds.

Figure 3.9 There are many

Suggested Activity kinds of polyatomic ions but
Conduction an Investigation only a few basic shapes.
3-1B on page 81

Reading Check
1. What is the meaning of the prefix “poly-” in the term “polyatomic
ion”?
Sodium hydroxide is a
substance that contains
2. How are the atoms in a polyatomic ion connected together?
the polyatomic ion 3. What kind of bond can a polyatomic ion form in a compound?
hydroxide (OH). Find out 4. Give the name and formula of the polyatomic ion used in some
about the uses of roadside-check equipment that tests for alcohol on drivers’ breath.
substances containing 5. Give one example of how the polyatomic ion ammonium is used.
hydroxide. Begin your
search at
www.bcscience9.ca.

80 MHR • Unit 1 Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

 3-1B The Synthesis and Detection Conduct an INVESTIGATION
of Copper
Inquiry Focus
SkillCheck
• Observing In this activity, you will transform copper(II) chloride into pure copper metal. This is
• Predicting similar to how copper ore is processed into metallic copper in smelting operations.
• Evaluating information Question
• Working co-operatively How can copper be extracted from a compound of copper, purified, and then tested
to verify success?

Procedure
Safety 1. Carefully pour 100 mL of copper(II) chloride solution into a 400 mL beaker.
2. Roll a 10 cm by 10 cm piece of aluminum foil into a small cylinder (try rolling
it around a pencil). Place it in the solution. Wait and observe.
• Wear protective clothing and 3. After the reaction has slowed down, or no longer than 5 min later, pick out
safety goggles. the larger pieces of aluminum foil, using crucible tongs.
• Hydrochloric acid is
4. Add about 30 mL of water to the solution and let the brown solid settle for
corrosive.
about 1 min. Pour the top part of the liquid into the other 400 mL beaker.
• Be careful around open
flames. 5. Pour the contents of the second beaker and all waste materials into the
waste container provided by your teacher. Do not pour it down the sink.
Materials 6. Fill the first beaker again with water until it nearly reaches the top. Let the
• copper(II) chloride solution solids settle again for 1 to 2 min. Be patient. Then pour out the top part of
• two 400 mL beakers the water. This process washes the copper, which is collecting at the bottom
• aluminum foil of the first beaker. Repeat until your copper product appears clean.
• crucible tongs 7. Add about 25 mL of hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) to the copper in the first
• waste container beaker, and let it sit for about 1 min. Then begin rinsing again with water, as
• dilute hydrochloric acid in steps 4 and 6. The hydrochloric acid helps to clean the copper.
solution (HCl) 8. Pour out as much water as you can, then pour your copper product onto a
• wooden splint paper towel, using a wooden splint as needed to make the transfer.
• paper towel 9. Light a Bunsen burner. Pick up a piece of copper with crucible tongs and
• Bunsen burner place it in the Bunsen burner flame. Observe the colour of the flame.
10. Wash all materials into the waste container provided.
11. Clean up and put away the equipment you have used.

Analyze
1. What colour changes showed that a chemical change took place when
aluminum was placed in the copper(II) chloride solution?
2. Describe what happens when copper is placed in a Bunsen burner flame.

Conclude and Apply

1. List several properties of copper that distinguish it from another metal, such
as iron.

Chapter 3 Elements combine to form compounds. • MHR 81

 Career Connect

Avalanche Technician Q. How do you trigger an avalanche?

A. For my crew, the most common method is by
dropping explosives out of a helicopter. However,
helicopter work depends on good weather and
daylight. On some of our roads, we have the
option of launching explosives from the roadside.
For shorter slopes, we detonate large charges at
the side of the road that send a concussion wave
through the air.
Q. Why is it important to know about chemistry?
A. We assemble the charges using ANFO (ammonium
nitrate fuel oil) explosives just before we go up in
the helicopter. The ANFO is detonated by a
booster made of PETN (pentaerythritoltetranitrate).
The booster is detonated by a safety fuse assembly
that has a high strength blasting cap. The
helicopters we use are capable of carrying up to
10 charges. We use up to 30 charges per mission.
Q. How long does it take to prepare once you have
determined a need for avalanche control?
A. It can take up to a couple of hours to get the
Tony Moore entire crew in place and ready. We have the pilot,
the avalanche technician, and an assistant in the
helicopter. On the ground, we have a flag person
Q. How did you become an avalanche technician?
at each end of the closure area stopping traffic, a
A. I was employed as a surveyor when I had the person to check the closure area to make sure no
opportunity to spend a day skiing and taking one is on the road, and an equipment operator to
snow profiles with the local avalanche technician. clean avalanche debris from the road.
I thought it was a pretty interesting line of work.
I took courses from the Canadian Avalanche
Questions
Association, earned a blasting certificate and a
first aid certificate, and learned about weather and 1. What are the three ways avalanches are
weather forecasting. controlled?
Q. What does an avalanche technician do? 2. What are four things that avalanche
technicians do?
A. We provide safety from avalanches for people. We
forecast avalanche activity, implement closures, 3. Why would learning about compounds and
and do control work to make the slopes safe. By chemical reactions be important to an
watching the weather and looking for weak layers avalanche technician?
of snow, we can recognize when we need to close
a road and trigger an avalanche.

82 MHR • Unit 1 Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

Checking Concepts Understanding Key Ideas
1. What is a chemical bond? 10. Ionic compounds melt at high temperatures.
2. What are the two kinds of compounds? For example, table salt is an ionic compound
3. How are two atoms held together in a covalent that melts at 800°C. Why is it so difficult to
bond? melt ionic compounds?
4. What causes ions to come together in an ionic 11. In a compound that contains a polyatomic
compound? ion, there are both covalent bonds and ionic
5. When sodium and chlorine combine, one bonds. Where are the covalent bonds, and
electron transfers from each sodium atom onto where are the ionic bonds?
each chlorine atom. Explain why the new ions 12. How many oxygen atoms are connected to
of sodium and chlorine will arrange themselves each chromium atom in the dichromate ion?
into an alternating fashion inside a crystal
lattice.
6. (a) When lithium reacts with fluorine, one
electron from a lithium atom transfers onto
P ause and R eflect
a fluorine atom, forming ions. Which ion
has a positive charge, and which ion has a Many compounds are composed of just two
elements. Below is a list of pairs of elements
negative charge?
and the type of compounds they form. Suggest
(b) Write the symbol for each ion.
a pattern that could be used to determine
7. In a water molecule, how many atoms are
whether lead and chlorine combine to form a
connected to each
molecular compound or an ionic compound.
(a) oxygen atom?
(b) hydrogen atom?
8. Give the name and the formula of each of the First Second Type of
following: Element Element Compound
(a) a polyatomic ion present in eggshells as sodium oxygen ionic
well as in teeth magnesium sulphur ionic
(b) a polyatomic ion present in your bones
carbon fluorine covalent
(c) two polyatomic ions that contain the
sulphur oxygen covalent
element nitrogen, one positive and one
iron iodine ionic
negative
9. Use the diagram of the phosphate ion shown phosphorus bromine covalent
below to answer the following questions.
(a) What kind of chemical bond holds each
oxygen atom to the phosphorus atom?
(b) How many atoms does the phosphorus
atom connect to?
(c) What is the general term for an ion such as
phosphate, which is a molecule that has an
overall electric charge?

Chapter 3 Elements combine to form compounds. • MHR 83