Time and Motion studies

Abas Khan, Senior Resident, hospital Adminstration, SKIMS

Mohd Sarwar Mir, Resident Medical Officer, SKIMS
Ruksana Hamid, Medical officer and Anesthesiologist, JK health
Rayees ul Hamid Wani, Senior Resident, Emergency medicine, SKIMS

Corresponding author
Ruksana Hamid, Medical officer and Anesthesiologist, JK health

ABSTRACT
A time and motion study (or time-motion study) is
a business efficiency technique combining the Time Study work of Frederick
Winslow Taylor with the Motion Study work of Frank and Lillian Gilbreth (the
same couple as is best known through the biographical 1950 film and
book Cheaper by the Dozen). It is a major part of scientific
management (Taylorism).

Background
A time and motion study (or time-motion study) is
a business efficiency technique combining the Time Study work of Frederick
Winslow Taylor with the Motion Study work of Frank and Lillian Gilbreth (the
same couple as is best known through the biographical 1950 film and
book Cheaper by the Dozen). It is a major part of scientific
management (Taylorism). After its first introduction, time study developed in the
direction of establishing standard times, while motion study evolved into a
technique for improving work methods. The two techniques became integrated and
refined into a widely accepted method applicable to the improvement and
upgrading of work systems. This integrated approach to work system improvement
is known as methods engineering and it is applied today to industrial as well as
service organizations, including banks, schools and hospitals.

Time studies
Time study is a direct and continuous observation of a task, using a timekeeping
device (e.g., decimal minute stopwatch, computer-assisted electronic stopwatch,
and videotape camera) to record the time taken to accomplish a task and it is often
used when:

 there are repetitive work cycles of short to long duration,

 wide variety of dissimilar work is performed, or
 process control elements constitute a part of the cycle.
The Industrial Engineering Terminology Standard, defines time study as "a work
measurement technique consisting of careful time measurement of the task with a
time measuring instrument, adjusted for any observed variance from normal effort
or pace and to allow adequate time for such items as foreign elements, unavoidable
or machine delays, rest to overcome fatigue, and personal needs."
The systems of time and motion studies are frequently assumed to be
interchangeable terms, descriptive of equivalent theories. However, the underlying
principles and the rationale for the establishment of each respective method are
dissimilar, despite originating within the same school of thought.
The application of science to business problems, and the use of time-study
methods in standard setting and the planning of work, was pioneered by Frederick
Winslow Taylor. Taylor liaised with factory managers and from the success of
these discussions wrote several papers proposing the use of wage-contingent
performance standards based on scientific time study. At its most basic level time
studies involved breaking down each job into component parts, timing each part
and rearranging the parts into the most efficient method of working. By counting
and calculating, Taylor wanted to transform management, which was essentially an
oral tradition, into a set of calculated and written techniques.
Taylor and his colleagues placed emphasis on the content of a fair day's work,
and sought to maximize productivity irrespective of the physiological cost to the
worker. For example, Taylor thought unproductive time usage (soldiering) to be
the deliberate attempt of workers to promote their best interests and to keep
employers ignorant of how fast work could be carried out. This instrumental view
of human behavior by Taylor prepared the path for human relations to supersede
scientific management in terms of literary success and managerial application
Direct time study procedure
Following is the procedure developed by Mikell Groover for a direct time study:

1. Define and document the standard method.

2. Divide the task into work elements.
These first two steps are conducted prior to the actual timing. They
familiarize the analyst with the task and allow the analyst to attempt to
improve the work procedure before defining the standard time.

3. Time the work elements to obtain the observed time for the task.
4. Evaluate the worker's pace relative to standard performance (performance
rating), to determine the normal time.
Note that steps 3 and 4 are accomplished simultaneously. During these steps,
several different work cycles are timed, and each cycle performance is rated
independently. Finally, the values collected at these steps are averaged to get
the normalized time.

5. Apply an allowance to the normal time to compute the standard time. The
allowance factors that are needed in the work are then added to compute the
standard time for the task.
Conducting time studies
According to good practice guidelines for production studies a comprehensive
time study consists of:

1. Study goal setting;

2. Experimental design;
3. Time data collection;
4. Data analysis;
5. Reporting.
Easy analysis of working areas
The collection of time data can be done in several ways, depending on study goal
and environmental conditions. Time and motion data can be captured with a
common stopwatch, a handheld computer or a video recorder. There are a number
of dedicated software packages used to turn a palmtop or a handheld PC into a time
study device. As an alternative, time and motion data can be collected
automatically from the memory of computer-control machines (i.e. automated time
studies).

Criticisms
In response to Taylor's time studies and view of human nature, many strong
criticisms and reactions were recorded. Unions, for example, regarded time study
as a disguised tool of management designed to standardize and intensify the pace
of production. Similarly, individuals such as Gilbreth (1909), Cadbury and
Marshall heavily criticized Taylor and pervaded his work with subjectivity. For
example, Cadbury in reply to Thompson stated that under scientific management
employee skills and initiatives are passed from the individual to management, a
view reiterated by Nyland. In addition, Taylor's critics condemned the lack of
scientific substance in his time studies, in the sense that they relied heavily on
individual interpretations of what workers actually do. However, the value in
rationalizing production is indisputable and supported by academics such as Gantt,
Ford and Munsterberg, and Taylor society members Mr C.G. Renold, Mr W.H.
Jackson and Mr C.B. Thompson. Proper time studies are based on repeated
observation, so that motions performed on the same part differently by one or
many workers can be recorded, to determine those values that are truly repetitive
and measurable.

Motion studies
In contrast to, and motivated by, Taylor's time study methods, the Gilbreths
proposed a technical language, allowing for the analysis of the labor process in a
scientific context. The Gilbreths made use of scientific insights to develop a study
method based upon the analysis of "work motions", consisting in part of filming
the details of a worker's activities and their body posture while recording the
time. The films served two main purposes. One was the visual record of how work
had been done, emphasizing areas for improvement. Secondly, the films also
served the purpose of training workers about the best way to perform their work.
This method allowed the Gilbreths to build on the best elements of these
workflows and to create a standardized best practice.

Taylor vs. the Gilbreths

Although for Taylor, motion studies remained subordinate to time studies, the
attention he paid to the motion study technique demonstrated the seriousness with
which he considered the Gilbreths’ method. The split with Taylor in 1914, on the
basis of attitudes to workers, meant the Gilbreths had to argue contrary to the trade
unionists, government commissions and Robert Hoxie who believed scientific
management was unstoppable. The Gilbreths were charged with the task of
proving that motion study particularly, and scientific management generally,
increased industrial output in ways which improved and did not detract from
workers' mental and physical strength. This was no simple task given the
propaganda fuelling the Hoxie report and the consequent union opposition to
scientific management. In addition, the Gilbreths credibility and academic success
continued to be hampered by Taylor who held the view that motion studies were
nothing more than a continuation of his work.
While both Taylor and the Gilbreths continue to be criticized for their respective
work, it should be remembered that they were writing at a time of industrial
reorganization and the emergence of large, complex organizations with new forms
of technology. Furthermore, to equate scientific management merely with time and
motion study and consequently labor control not only misconceives the scope of
scientific management, but also misinterprets Taylor's incentives for proposing a
different style of managerial thought.

Health care time and motion study

A Health care time and motion study is used to research and track the efficiency
and quality of health care workers. In the case of nurses, numerous programs have
been initiated to increase the percent of a shift nurses spend providing direct care
to patients. Prior to interventions nurses were found to spend ~20% of their time
doing direct care. After focused intervention, some hospitals doubled that number,
with some even exceeding 70% of shift time with patients, resulting in reduced
errors, codes, and falls.
Methods

 External observer: Someone visually follows the person being observed, either
contemporaneously or via video recording. This method presents additional
expense as it usually requires a 1 to 1 ratio of research time to subject time. An
advantage is the data can be more consistent, complete, and accurate than with
self-reporting.
 Self-reporting: Self-reported studies require the target to record time and
activity data. This can be done contemporaneously by having subjects stop and
start a timer when completing a task, through work sampling where the subject
records what they are doing at determined or random intervals, or by having the
subject journal activities at the end of the day. Self-reporting introduces errors
that may not be present through other methods, including errors in temporal
perception and memory, as well as the motivation to manipulate the data.
 Automation: Motion can be tracked with GPS. Documentation activities can be
tracked through monitoring software embedded in the applications used to
create documentation. Badge scans can also create a log of activity.

Further reading

1. ^ Zandin 2001, Section 4, Chapter 1, p.2

2. ^ Ben-Gal et. al 2010
3. ^ Groover 2007
4. ^ Salvendy 2001, Section IV.C, Chapter 54
5. ^ IIE, ANSI 1982