MT171: One Variable Calculus and DEs for non-majors-2008/2009

Lecture 4 – Integrations by Substitutions

Make an appropriate substitution to get a known integral.
Example 3: Find 1+dx√x
R

Solution: Put x = t2 then dx

dt
= 2t, thus
Z Z
dx 2t
√ = dt
1+ x 1+t
dt
Put t = u − 1 then du
= 1, thus

2(u − 1)du
Z Z Z
dx 2t
√ = dt =
1+ x 1+t u
Z
= (2 − 2u−1 )du

= 2u − 2 ln u + C
= 2(t + 1) − 2 ln(t + 1) + C
√ √
= 2(1 + x) − 2 ln(1 + x) + C

If an integrand involves fractional powers of a variable x, the integrand can be simplified

by the substitution of
x = zn
where n is the LCM of the denominators of the exponents.
Example 4: Find Z √
x
√ dx
1+ 3x
Solution: We let x = z 6 , then dx = 6z 5 dz, so
√ Z 3 5
z8
Z Z
x z (6z dz)
√ dx = = 6 dz
1+ 3x 1 + z2 z2 + 1
Z  
6 4 2 1
=6 z −z +z −1+ dz
1 + z2
 
1 7 1 5 1 3 −1
= 6 z − z + z − z + tan z
7 5 3
6 6
= x7/6 − x5/6 + 2x1/2 − 6x1/6 + 6 tan−1 x1/6 + C
7 5
Example 5 (trigonometric substitution): Evaluate
Z 2
dx
2 3/2
1 (6 − x )
√
Solution: Let x √= 6 sin θ, in this case we restrict 0 < θ < π/2, because x > 0 i.e. x is
in [1,2]. So dx = 6 cos θdθ, furthermore

(6 − x2 )3/2 = (6 − 6 sin2 θ)3/2

√
= 6 6(1 − sin2 θ)3/2
√ √
= 6 6(cos2 θ)3/2 = 6 6 cos3 θ

1
Hence, let us evaluate the indefinite integral first
Z Z √
dx 6 cos θdθ
2 3/2
= √
(6 − x ) 3
Z6 6 cos θ
1 dθ 1
= 2
= tan θ + C
6 cos θ 6
√ √
From x = 6 sin θ we see that tan θ = x/ 6 − x2 and so we have
Z
dx x
2 3/2
= √ +C
(6 − x ) 6 6 − x2
therefore
Z 2 2
dx x
2 3/2
= √
1 (6 − x ) 6 6 − x2 1
1 1
= √ − √
3 2 6 5
√ √
2 5− 2
= √
6 10
3. Integration of Rational fractions by Partial fractions
Integrand has the form of Z
P (x)
dx
Q(x)
where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomial functions of x.
Decomposition into partial fractions
case 1: The factors of Q(x) are all linear and none is repeated, that is Q(x) = (x −
a1 )(x − a2 ) . . . (x − an ), where no two ai identical. Then
P (x) A1 A2 An
≡ + + ... +
Q(x) x − a1 x − a2 x − an
case 2: The factors of Q(x) are all linear, and some repeated. Suppose that (x − ai ) is a
p-fold factor. Then corresponding to this factor we have the sum of p partial fractions
A1 A2 Ap−1 Ap
p
+ p−1
+ ... + 2
+
(x − ai ) (x − ai ) (x − ai ) x − ai
case 3: The factors of Q(x) are linear and quadratic, and none of the quadratic factors
is repeated.
Corresponding to the quadratic factor x2 +px+q in the denominator is the partial fraction
of the form
Ax + B
x2 + px + q
R x−1
Example 6: Find x3 −x2 −2x dx
Solution: First we write the quotient into partial fractions
x−1 x−1 A B C
≡ ≡ + +
x3 − x2 − 2x x(x − 2)(x + 1) x x−2 x+1
Then we get
x − 1 ≡ A(x − 2)(x + 1) + Bx(x + 1) + Cx(x − 2)

2
This is an identity which is true for all x; substitute x = 0, 2, −1 to solve for A, B and
C: The solutions are A = 12 , B = 16 and C = − 32 , now the quotient can be written as
1 1
x−1 2 6
− 23
≡ + +
x3 − x2 − 2x x x−2 x+1
We are ready to integrate;
x−1
Z Z Z Z
1 dx 1 dx 2 dx
3 2
dx = + −
x − x − 2x 2 x 6 x−2 3 x+1
1 1 2
= ln |x| + ln |x − 2| − ln |x + 1| + K
2 6 3
1
= (3 ln |x| + ln |x − 2| − 4 ln |x + 1| + ln C)
6
1 Cx3 (x − 2)
= ln
6 (x + 1)4