2.

How to collect the data

DATA
3. Who will collect the data
• figures collected in a systematic manner
for a pre-determined purpose. 4. When to collect the data
• can be define as the quantitative and
qualitative value of a variable (e.g. Methods of Collecting Primary
number, images, words, figures, facts or
Data
ideas)
1. Observation Method
• one of the most important and vital
2. Interview Method
aspect of any research study.
3. Questionnaire
4. Survey/Schedule Method
Types of Data Observation Method
1.Quantitative Data Observation involves collecting information
• are measures of values or counts and are without asking questions. This method is
expressed as numbers. more subjective, as it requires the
2.Qualitative Data researcher, or observer, to add their
• are measures of 'types' and may be judgment to the data.
represented by a name, symbol, or a Advantages:
number code. Also about categorical • No bias information
variables. • Information researcher gets is current
information
Sources of Data • Independent to respondent’s variable
1. Primary Data -are those which are
collected a fresh and for the first time Disadvantages
and thus happen to be original in • It is expensive (time requires more)
character. Collected from first-hand • Unforeseen factors may interfere with
experiences. It has more reliable, observational task
authentic and not been published • Respondents opinion can not be recorded
anywhere. on certain subject
2. Secondary Data - are those which have
been collected by someone else and Types of Observation
which have already been passed through • Structured & unstructured
the statistical process. Data that have • Participant & non-participant
already been collected by others. • Controlled & uncontrolled

Data Collection Structured & unstructured

process by which the researcher collects the • When observation is done by

information needed to answer the research characterizing style of recording
problem. the observed information,
standardized conditions of
In collecting the data, the researcher must observation, definition of the units
decide: to be observed, selection of
pertinent data of observation then
1. Which data to collect
it is structured observation
 • When observation is done without Disadvantages:
any thought before observation • Expensive method
then it is unstructured observation. • Respondent may give bias information
• Takes more time when samples are more
Participant & Non-Participant
Other types of Interview:
• When the observer is member of • Structured & unstructured
the group which he is observing • Focused
then it is participant observation. • Clinical
• Group
• When observer is observing • Qualitative and quantitative
people without any information to • Individual
them then it is non participant • Selection
observation. • Depth
Controlled & Uncontrolled
• When the observation takes place
in natural condition. It is done to Questionnaire Method
get spontaneous picture of life and
persons. • This method of data collection is quite
popular, particularly in case of big
• When observation takes place enquiries.
according to definite pre arranged • In this method, a questionnaire is
plans, with experimental prepared and sent to respondent by post.
procedure then it is controlled It is a set of questions.
observation.
Advantages:
• Low cost even the geographical area is
large to cover.
Interview Method • Answers are in respondents word so free
from bias.
• Direct method of collection of data, • Adequate time to think for answers
which is based on interview. • Non approachable respondents may be
• Most important method of collection of conveniently contacted
data. • Questionnaire Method
Disadvantages:
• Through this method we can know the • Low rate of return
views and ideas of other persons. Method • Can be used when respondent is
of social interaction. educated and cooperative
• Can be conducted through personal or • Difficult to know the expected
phone. respondent have filled the form or it is
filled by someone else
Advantages: • Slowest method of data collection
• Information at greater depth
• Flexibility of restructuring questionnaire Different types of questions:
• Personal information can be obtained • Direct Question
• Indirect Question
• Open Form Questionnaire
• Closed Form Questionnaire
• Multiple Choice Questions

Survey/ Schedule Method

• One of the most important methods for

the study of social problems.
• It is a document containing set of
questions filled by enumerators who are
specially identified for the purpose. The
enumerators are persons acting under the
direction of researchers. Enumerators
explain the aim and objective to Secondary Data Collection
respondent and fill the answers in
provided space. Sources of Data:
• In the words of Thomas Carson • Publications of Central, state or local
Macormic, “The schedule is nothing government
more than a list of questions which it • Technical and trade journals
seems necessary to test the hypothesis.” • Books, magazines, newspapers
• Reports and publication of industry,
bank, stock exchange
• Reports by research scholars,
Universities, economists
• Public records
Factors to be considered before using
secondary data:
• Reliability of data
• Suitability of data
• Adequacy of data

Other Methods of Data Collection

• Warranty Cards
• Distributor or Store Audits
• Pantry Audits
• Consumer Panels
• Transitory Consumer Panels
• Use of Mechanical Device
• Depth Interview
• Content Analysis

Selection of Proper Method for

Collection of Data

• Nature, Scope and object of inquiry

 • Availability of Funds questioning every employee at the company,
• Time Factor since going to other offices might take more
• Precision Required time and effort. Convenience sampling can
also involve using whatever data is readily
Sampling Methods in Data Collection available.

• Sampling is the process of identifying a Clustered Sampling

subset of a population that provides an
accurate reflection on the whole. With clustered sampling, a researcher uses
• There are five generally accepted the subgroups of a population instead of
sampling methods. Namely: individuals. Clusters are often predefined,
such as municipalities in a study about the
• Random Sampling effect of a particular phenomenon across the
country.
• Systematic Sampling
The main benefit of clustered sampling is
• Convenience Sampling that some of the work is already done: A
• Clustered Sampling group is already clearly defined. Therefore,
it can be more efficient than other methods.
• Stratified Sampling However, there can be bias in the study if
the clusters do not accurately represent the
Random Sampling population as a whole.

Just as its name indicates, random sampling Stratified Sampling

involves picking respondents with no design
or order, like picking names out of a hat. Another method that uses subgroups is
While randomness may seem unscientific, stratified sampling. This data collection
this method can be valuable in research, and method involves dividing a population into
in fact, is the preferred way of sampling, as a subgroups that share similar characteristics.
truly random sample eliminates elements
that can affect the validity of a study. Stratified and cluster sampling may sound
similar. Here’s the critical difference: In
Sytematic Sampling stratified sampling, individuals are randomly
selected from each group (or strata). In
Easier than random sampling, systematic cluster sampling, only certain clusters are
sampling follows a set of rules to create used.
regularity in sampling. An example is
interviewing every tenth customer. As long
as you follow the counting system, you’ll
know that there’s some order to the process.

Convenience Sampling
This is the easiest sampling method but also
the least reliable. Convenience sampling
involves gathering information from
whoever is closest and easiest to reach. An
example would be asking coworkers in the
same office a question, rather than
 Histogram – graphical representation of
TERMINOLOGIES frequency table for quantitative data;
constructed by creating adjoining rectangles
Frequency Table – a systematic arrangement
whose widths are widths of class interval they
of values grouped into class intervals; used to
represent and whose heights represent either
summarize data so frequency of each interval is
frequency, relative frequency or percentage
clearly displayed and relative frequency of each
interval can be easily computed
Class Interval – range of numbers defined by
highest and lowest numbers in class
Frequency – number of times a particular value
of phenomenon occurs
Relative Frequency – proportion of all given
values that fall within the interval

SURVEY
A survey is a way to ask a lot of people a
few well-constructed questions. The survey
is a series of unbiased questions that the
subject must answer.
DESIGNING SURVEY
Bar Graph – graphical representation of
frequency table for qualitative data Steps in designing a survey
1. Determine the goal of your survey
2. Identify the sample population
3. Choose an interviewing method
4. Decide what questions you will
ask in what order, and how to
phrase them.
5. Conduct the interview and collect
the information.

6. Analyze the results by making

graphs and drawing conclusions.
 CONSTRUCTING SURVEY
PROBLEM :
Martha wants to construct a survey that
shows which sports students at her school like
to play the most.
A. List the goal of survey
Ans: The goal of the survey is to find the
answer to the question: “Which sports do
students at Martha’s school like to play the
most?”
B. What population sample should she
know?
Ans: A sample of the population would include
a random sample of the student population in
Marth’s school.
Make a bar graph of the results showing the
C. How should she administer the survey? percentage of each student in each category.
Ans: Face to face interviews are a good choice
in this case. Interviews will be easy to conduct
since the survey consist of only one question
which can be quickly answered and recorded.
Asking face to face will help eliminate non-
response bias.
D. create a data collection sheet that can use
to record her results.

DISPLAY, ANALYZE AND

INTERPRET STATISTICAL DATA
 EXPERIMENT
refers to any process that generate sets of
data.
an experiment involves a test or series of test
in which purposeful changes are made to the
input variables of a process or system so that
changes in the output responses can be
observed and identified.
TERMINOLOGIES
Response - a measurable outcome of interest ,
e.g. yield, strength, etc.
Factors - controllable variables that are
deliberately manipulated to determine their
individual and joint effects on the responses.
Also those quantities that affect the outcome of Trueness - closeness of the mean of a set of
an experiment. e.g. time, temperature, etc. measurement results to the actual (true) value.
Treatment - A set of specified factor levels for Control Group - used as a baseline measure.
an experimental run Identical to all other items or subjects that you
Replications - a systematic duplication of are examining with the exception that it does
series of experimental runs. Provides means of not receive the treatment or the experimental
measuring precision by the experimental error. manipulation that the treatment group receives.

Hypothesis - a supposition or proposed Treatment Group - item or subject that is

explanation mode on the basic of limited manipulated.
evidence as a starting point for further PLANNING AND DESIGNING
investigation. EXPERIMENT
Accuracy - degree to which the result of a To plan an experimental study, here is a list of
measurement, calculation, or specification considerations that should be taken into
conforms to the correct value or a standard. account:
Precision - description of random errors, a  Determine the specific objective of the
measure of statistical variability to the actual experiment.
(true) value.  Determine the response variables and the
ways of measuring these measurements.
 Identify factors that are potentially
influential to the response measurements.
 Determine which factors to vary and
controlled in the experiment and which
to be held at constant or its influence
should be minimized.
  Determine the specific design and
procedure for conducting the experiment.
 Determine the number of replications of
the basic experiment to conduct.
 Identify and secure available resources,
material and facility needed.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A WELL-
DESIGNED AND WELL CONDUCTED
EXPERIMENT
o CONTROL
o REPLICATE
o RANDOMIZE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
o Completely Randomized Design
o Block Randomization -Backbone of any experiment
-It is a process for experimentation that is used
to explore observations and answer questions.
COMPLETELY RANDOMIZED DESIGN
-It is a step-by-step scientific procedure in order
If all the experimental units (subjects) of the to discover cause and effect relationships by
experiment) are randomly assigned to either the asking questions, carefully gathering and
control group or to the treatment group, then the examining the evidence, and seeing if all the
experiment has a completely randomized available information can be combined into a
design. logical answer.

BLOCK RANDOMIZATION
Placing subjects into groups of similar
individuals. The random assignments into
treatment groups is carried out separately within
each block.
 STATISTICAL METHOD Involves having more than one independent
variable, or factor, in a study. It allow
Different Statistical Method used in Experiment
researchers to look at how multiple factors
Design:
affect a dependent variable, both independently
o Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) together.
o Linear Regression ARITHMETICS INVOLVED IN
o Factorial Design EXPERIMENTATION
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)
Used to determine whether there are ARITHMETIC MEAN, ERROR, PERCENT
statistically significant differences between ERROR AND PERCENT DEVIATION
the samples (treatments). In cases, that
experiment contains two samples only, and then Mean - average of a set of numerical values,
t-test is good enough to check whether there are calculated by adding them together and dividing
statistically significant differences between the by the number of terms in the set.
means of treatments. Error - (unknown) difference between the
retained value and the true value. Subtract the
theoretical value from your experimental data
point.
Percent Error - measure of how inaccurate a
LINEAR REGRESSION measurement is, standardized to how large the
measurement is.
Linear approach to modeling the relationship
between a dependent variable and Deviation - measure of difference between the
independent variable(s). The case of one observed value of a variable and some other
independent variable is called simple linear value, often that variable’s mean. Subtract the
regression. For more than one independent mean from the experimental data point.
variable, the process is called multiple linear
Percent Deviation - measures the degree to
regression.
which individual data points in a statistic
deviate from the average deviation by the mean,
then multiply by 100.

FACTORIAL DESIGN
SAMPLE EXERCISE
Example 1: in the lab, the boiling point of a
liquid, which has a theoretical value of 54.0° C,
was measured by a student four (4) times.
Determine, for each measurement, the error,
percent error, deviation, and percent deviation.

Example 2: A test was conducted to determine

the potential accuracy of a new service rifle.
The requirements for the new service rifle was
that it must be able to put a no more than 2”
groups at100 yards. The test consisted of the
rifle bench-rested at an indoor range (to cancel
out the wind variable) and is made to fire at an
18” man-sized target out to 100 yards with five
shots per group. A total of 6 groups were
measured after the test and the following results
were recorded.
PROBABILITY Is any collection of sample points called subset
of sample space.
 Is a numerical description of how likely
an event is to occur or how likely it is Example #3: An experiment that tosses a coin 3
that proposition is true. times.
 Is a number between 0 to 1, where, S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT,
roughly speaking, 0 indicates TTH, TTT}
impossibility and 1 indicates certainty.
 The higher the probability of an event, A = event that has at least 1 head
the more likely it is that event will occur. B = event that has at most 1 head
Ea = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT,
TTH}
Eb = {HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
PROBABILITY | Basic Rules
1. The complement of an event A with
respect to S is the subset of all elements
SAMPLE SPACE of S that are not in A. We denote the
The setoff all possible outcomes of a statistical complement of A by the symbol A’.
experiment represented by the symbol “S”. 2. The intersection of two events A and B,
ELEMENT denoted by the symbol A ∩ B is the
event containing all elements that are
Each outcome in a sample space or a member of common to A and B.
the sample space.
3. Two event A and B are mutually
Example: exclusive, or disjoint, if A ∩ B = Ø that
Consider the experiment of tossing a die. If we is, A and B have no elements in
are interested in the number that shows on the common.
top face, the sample space would be 4. The union of events A and B, denoted by
S = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} A∪B, is the event containing all the
elements that belong to A or b or both.
Example #2:
An experiment consists of flipping a coin and
then flipping it a second time if a head occurs. If
a tail occurs on the first, flip, then a die is tossed VENN DIAGRAMS
once. To list the elements of the sample space
providing the most information, we construct
the tree diagram
S = {HH, HT, T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6}
EVENT
 How many ways can 8 cadets stand in a row?
In how many ways the word SURVEYING can
be arranged?

3rd Rule: The number of permutation of n

distinct object taken r at a time is
n!
nPr=
( n−r ) !

Example:
A∩B=
In one year, three awards (research, teaching,
B∩C = and service) will be given for a class of 25
graduate students in a statistics department. If
A∪C=
each student can receive at most one award,
B’ ∩ A = how many possible selections are there?
A ∩B∩C= Counting Sample Points

(A ∪ B) ∪ C = Example:
A president and a treasurer are to be chosen
from a student club consisting of 50 people.
1st Rule : If operations can be performed in n How many different choices of officers are
ways, and if for each of these ways a second possible if
operation can be performed in n2 ways, then
two operations can be performed in n1n2 ways. (a) There are no restrictions;

Example: (b) (b) A will serve only if he is president;

How many even numbers of four digits can be (c) B and C will serve together or not at all;
formed with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 no digit being Example:
used more?
permutation lock will open when the right
How many 4-digit even number can be formed choice of three numbers (from 1 to 30 inclusive)
from 0, 1,2, 5, 6 and 9 if each digit can be used is selected. How many different lock
only once? permutations ae possible assuming no number is
repeated?

2nd Rule: the number of permutations of n Cyclic Permutation

objects is n! The permutation of n objects in a circle
**A permutation is an arrangement of all part of is:
a set of objects. N= ( n−1 ) !
Example: Example:
The number of permutation of letters a, b, c, d.
In how many ways can 6 people be seated at a 5th Rule: The number of combinations of n
round table? distinct objects taken r at a time is
Find the number of ways in which 5 people A, n!
= nCr
B, C, D, E can be seated at a round table such r ! ( n−r ) !
that (a) A and B must sit together. (b) C and D
Example#6: A young boy asks his mother to get
must not sit together.
five Game-BoyTM cartridges from his
Example: collection of 10 arcade and 5 sports games.
How many ways are there that his mother will
In how many ways can 2 boys and 1 girl can be
get 3 arcade and 2 sports games, respectively?
seated around a table?
Counting Sample Points
How many ways are there to seat 4 people
around a round table for lunch ? Example:
a. If all diners shift one chair clockwise? There are seven boys and three girls on a school
tennis team. The coach must select four people
b. If one seat is a blue throne and it matters
from this group to participate in the county
who is sitting in the blue throne?
championship.
a. How many four-person teams can be
th
4 Rule: The number of distinct permutations formed from the group of ten students?
of n things of which n1 are one of a kind, n2 of
b. How many ways can two boys and two
a second kind, . . . . Nk of nth kind is
girls be chosen to participate in the
n! county championship?
n 1! n 2 ! … nk !
Counting Sample Points
Example#5: In a college football training
session, the defensive coordinator needs to have Example:
10 players standing in a row. Among these 10 On a circle there are 9 points selected. How
players, there are 1 freshman, 2 sophomores, 4 many triangles with edges in theses points
juniors, and 3 seniors, respectively. How many exist?
different ways can they be arranged in a row if
To win a particular lottery game, a player
only their class level will be distinguished?
chooses 6 numbers from 1 to 47. Each number
Example #6: can only be chosen once. If all 6 numbers match
In how many words can the letters of the word the 6 winning numbers, regardless of the order,
ENGINEERING be arranged? the player wins. What is the probability of
winning?
In how many ways can the letters of the word
MATHALINO be arranged if the vowels are to In how many ways can 10 cards be drawn from
come together? a deck of 52 cards?

In how many ways can the letters Conditional Probability

MATHEMATICS be arranged if the consonants The probability that event B occurs given that A
are to come together? has occurred is denoted by P(B/A). This is
called the conditional probability
 Types of Events What is the probability that it is a king or a
black card?
Dependent and Independent Events
A single 6-sided die is rolled. What is the
If the probability of one event does not affect
probability of rolling a 2 or a 5?
the probability of another event, then, the events
are said to be independent, otherwise, the events Example:
are dependent.
A Spinner has 4 equal sectors colored yellow,
Mutually Exclusive Events blue, green, and red. What is the probability of
landing on red or blue after spinning the
Two or more events are said to be mutually
spinner?
exclusive if each event cannot happen in a
single moment. A glass jar contains 1 red, 3 green, 2 blue and 4
yellow marbles. If a single marble is chosen at
Probability
random from the jar, what is the probability
Compute the probability that a ‘6’ will come up that it is yellow or green?
on at least one of the two dice.
In a Math Class of 30 students, 17 are boys and
Two dice are tossed. What is the probability of 13 are girls. On a unit test, 4 boys and 5 girls
getting on the faces of the two dice a sum of 7? made an A grade. If a student is chosen at
random from the class, what is the probability
Two coins are tossed. What is the probability
of choosing a girl or an A student?
that they will both turn up heads?
Probability
Multipication Rule
A card is drawn from a deck of cards, what is
the probability that it is a face card? This is also called the AND Rule from which
dependent and independents can be calculated.
A card is selected from a deck, what is the
The probability that two events a and B will
probability that it is a queen if it is a red card?
occur in sequence is
From 42 students. 25 like Calculus and 15 like
Algebra. P ( A ⋂ B )=P ( A ) x P ( BA )
Addition Rule
P ( A ⋂ B )=P ( B ) x P ( )
A
This is also called the OR Rule from which B
mutually exclusive events can be calculated.
P ( A∧B ) =P ( A ) x P ( )
B
The probability that events A or B will occur is
A
given by:
P ( A∧B ) =P ( B ) x P ( )
A
P ( A ⋃ B )=P ( A ) + P ( B )−P ( A ⋂ B )
B
P ( A∨B ) =P ( A )+ P ( B )−P ( A∧B )
Example:
You select two cards from a deck, in
Example: succession. What is the probability that you get
2 Kings? (a) w/ replacement (b) w/o
You draw a card from the deck, what is the
replacement
probability that it is a KING or an EIGHT?
You have a cowboy hat, a top hat and an The probability of winning a match for team A
Indonesian hat called songkok. You also have is 0.6. Find the probability of winning 3
four shirts: white, black, green and pink. If you matches out of 5.
choose one hat and shirt at random, what is the
If a coin is tossed thrice, find the probability of
probability that you choose the songkok and
getting head at least two times.
black shirt?
If only 5 percent kids can secure A grade in
Example:
paper, find the probability of a most 2 out of 10
Suppose you take out two cards from a standard kids getting A grade in that paper.
pack of cards one after another, without
replacing the first card. What is probability that
At Least One Condition
the first card is the ace of spades, and the
second card is a heart? The probability of an event to happen at least
once is
Suppose you have a box 3 blue marbles, 2 red
marbles, and 4 yellow marbles. You are going P=1–Q
to pull out one marble, record its color, put it
Where Q is the probability to fail.
back in the box and draw another marble. What
is the probability of pulling out a red marble
followed by a blue marble? At Least One Condition
Binomial Distribution A basketball player has a 70’5 free throw
shooting percentage. If he shoots 3 free throws,
Probability of success in a sequence of n
what is the probability that he makes at least
independent experiments.
one?
P ( x )=nCx . p x . qn− x
Topford supplies X-Data in lots of 50, and they
n = number of trials have reported defect rate of 0.5%. What is the
probability of getting at least one defective disk
x = number of successes in trials
in a lot of 50?
p = probability of success of a single trial
Set A: [A, B, C, D, E]
q = probability of failure of a single trial
Set B: [K, L, M, N, O, P]
Binomial Distribution
There are these two sets of letters, and you are
Example: going to pick exactly one letter from each set.
What is the probability of at least one vowel
In a 5 item exam, with 4 choices on each item .
being picked?
What is the probability that you get:
a. Exactly 3 correct answers
b. At least 3 correct answers
c. A perfect score
Binomial Distribution