FOUNDATION OF

SPECIAL AND
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
 AIZA L. CASENAS
1
Faculty, CTE Department
1st Semester, AY 2021-2022

Communication becomes easy and accessible to people with

 the presence of technologies. With the influx of its usage, many
experiences technology interferences like those we had when we
listen and watch radio, television, computer, mobile phones, and
other electronic gadgets. Technology interferences hamper
incoming and outgoing delivery and understanding of information
when perceived to eyes and ears and affect brain interpretation.
This scenario simply explains the life of an individual with learning
disability.

Learning Disability (LD) is a disorder common to individuals

having normal or above average intelligence, affecting their ways of
taking in, retaining, and expressing information like an interference
on the radio or a fuzzy TV picture, incoming or outgoing information
may become scrambled as it travels between the eye, ear or skin,
and the brain.

It is often confused with other non-visible handicap cases like

mental retardation and other emotional anxieties. Persons with
learning disabilities often dealt with not only functional limitations,
but also with the sentiments of always proving their invisible
disabilities that are handicapping already to them.

Children often have fortunate and exciting energy about them.

Most of the time, parents complain about their energy level but it
seems that these youngsters are more controlled by their behavior
than the other way around. There might going on more to them than
just having that youthful energy. Oftentimes, the child could be
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suffering a learning disability that parents fail to notice which can

be observed from the famous Bollywood movie produced by Amir
Khan, “Like Star on Earth”.

Learning Disabilities are frequently inconsistent. A student

who is highly verbal with an excellent vocabulary may have
difficulty in spelling simple words. A student who learns very well
in lecture cannot complete the reading assignments. A student who
 is strong and fit may not execute well simple gestures according to
his/ her age. These striking contrasts in abilities and learning style
were even evident in many famous individuals we look up to. For
example, Thomas Edison had a dyslexia, a severe reading disability,
and yet he became famous in the field of science. Albert Einstein
who is famous on his theory relativity and one of the most acclaimed
physicist also had dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia.

This module includes Lesson 1 about the Types of Learning

Disabilities- Dyslexia, Dyscalculia, Dysgraphia, Dyspraxia, Auditory
Processing Disorder, ADHD, etc. Each type covers discussion on its
nature/ characteristics, symptoms, causes, and treatment.
Moreover, Lesson 2 highlights the different Principles and
Strategies of Teaching for Learners with Difficulty Remembering
and Focusing (Learning Disabilities) which educator and
administrator could apply for these type of learners.

The contents of the module specify learning objectives that

are attainable for the students supported with its discussion and
learning/ enrichment activities.

LESSON 1
TYPES OF LEARNING DISABILITIES
(Learners with Difficulty Remembering and Listening)

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

• Create a personal portfolio of at least 5 famous

personalities/celebrities with descriptions about their learning
disability;
• Write a learning journey journal using the childhood and
present experiences;
• Categorize the different characteristics of learning disabilities
as to what specific type they belong;
• Analyze the cases about learners with learning disability and
ADHD by examining its features and characteristics.

INTRODUCTION
A learning disability is a neurological disorder. In simple terms,
a learning disability results from a difference in the way a person's
brain is "wired." Children with learning disabilities are as smart as or
smarter than their peers. But they may have difficulty reading, writing,
spelling, and reasoning, recalling and/or organizing information if left
to figure things out by themselves or if taught in conventional ways.

This lesson discusses about learning disability and its types. The
seven types of learning disabilities covered in this lesson are dyslexia,
dysgraphia, dyscalculia, dyspraxia, language processing disorder,
auditory processing disorder, and visual perceptual disorder. Each type
of learning disability presents definition, nature/ characteristics/
symptoms, and treatment.

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 Let’s Get Started (Activity)
a. Activity 1
Direction: Below are pictures of famous people or celebrities.
Try naming each of them.

1.__________________________________ 2.________________________________

3. _________________________________ 4._________________________________

5
 5._________________________________ 6._________________________________

7._________________________________ 8._______________________________

Let’s think it deeply (Analysis)

Were there times that you’re attending to someone talking but

seem to not understand them? Share your experiences about it.
Answer:
 ________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________.
Have you heard about learning disabilities? What do you know
about them?
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Answer:
________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

Is it possible that a person who is not deaf would not understand

what he/she hears? Would you consider it as a disorder?

Answer:
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________.

Let’s Learn It (Abstraction)

1. AUDITORY PROCESSING DISORDER (APD)

It is a disorder of the auditory system that causes disruption in
the way how an individual brain perceive what they are hearing.

Auditory processing disorder (APD), also known as Central

Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD) is a hearing problem affecting
about 5% of school-aged children. Kids can't process what they hear in
the same way other kids do because their ears and brain don't fully
coordinate. Something interferes with the way the brain recognizes and
interprets sounds, especially speech.
 It is a condition that adversely affects how sound that travels
unimpeded through the ear is processed or interpreted by the brain.
Individuals with APD do not recognize subtle differences between
sounds in words, even when the sounds are loud and clear enough to be
heard.

People with this learning disability find it difficult to tell where

sounds are coming from, to make sense of the order of sounds, or to
block out competing background noises. They have normal hearing, but
the struggle to process and make meaning of sounds especially when
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there are background music. It means your brain doesn't "hear" sounds
in the usual way. It's not a problem with understanding meaning.
People of all ages can have APD. It often starts in childhood, but
some people develop it later. Between 2% and 7% of kids have it, and
boys are more likely to have it than girls. The disorder can lead to
learning delays, so kids who have it may need a little extra help in school.

APD may be linked to other things that cause similar symptoms.

In fact, it may be part of the reason some people have dyslexia. And some
experts think children are sometimes diagnosed with ADHD when they
actually have APD.

Characteristics/ Nature

APD can affect the way your child speaks as well as his ability to
read, write, and spell. He may drop the ends of words or mix up similar
sounds. It also can be hard for him to talk with other people. He may not
be able to process what others are saying and come up with a response
quickly.

Your child also may find it hard to:

• Does not pick up nursery rhymes

• Has trouble learning to read and spell

• Finds it hard to follow conversation

• Often mistakes two similar-sounding words

• Frequently ask people to repeat what they have said

 • May be confused by figurative language (metaphor, similes) or

misunderstand puns and jokes; interprets words too literally

• Often distracted by background sounds/noises

• Misspells and mispronounces similar-sounding words or omits

syllables; confuses similar-sounding words (celery/salary;

belt/built; three/free; jab/job; bash/batch)

• Has difficulty processing and remembering language-related

tasks but may have no trouble interpreting or recalling non

verbal environmental sounds, music, etc.

• May process thoughts and ideas slowly and have difficulty

explaining them.

• May misinterpret or have difficulty remembering oral

directions; difficulty following directions in a series.

• Has difficulty comprehending complex sentence structure or

rapid speech.
 • “Ignores” people, especially if engrossed.

• Says “What?” a lot, even when has heard much of what was said.

Causes:

The exact cause of APD are still unknown. Researchers suggest

possible links to several factors:

• Lead poisoning

• Premature birth

• Low birth weight

• Chronic ear infection

• Genes

• Head injury

Treatment

There's no cure for APD, and the treatment is specific to each

person. But it usually focuses on the following areas:

Classroom support: Electronic devices, like an FM (frequency

modulation) system, can help your child hear the teacher more clearly.
And his teachers can suggest ways to help him focus his attention, like
sitting toward the front of the class and limiting background noise.

Making other skills stronger: Things like memory, problem

solving, and other learning skills can help your child deal with APD.

Therapy: Speech therapy can help your child recognize sounds

and improve conversational skills. And reading support that focuses on
 specific areas where your child has trouble can be helpful as well.

2. DYSCALCULIA

A specific learning disability that affects a person's ability to

understand numbers and learn math. Dyscalculia is a math learning
disability that impairs an individual’s ability to represent and process
numerical magnitude in a typical way. Some people call it “math
dyslexia.” They have poor comprehension of math symbols, may
struggle with memorizing and organizing numbers, have difficulty
telling time, or have trouble with counting.

Characteristics/ Symptoms:

• Difficulty counting backwards

• Slow to perform calculations

• Shows difficulty understanding fractions

• Has difficulty putting language to math process

• Great anxiety when dealing mathematics

• Difficulties with processing numbers and quantities, including:

Connecting a number to the quantity it represents (the number

2 to two apples)

• Comparing two amounts

• Trouble with subtilizing (recognize quantities without

counting)

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• Trouble recalling basic math facts (like multiplication tables)

• Difficulty linking numbers and symbols to amounts

• Trouble with mental math and problem-solving

 • Difficulty making sense of money and estimating quantities

• Difficulty with telling time on an analog clock

• Poor visual and spatial orientation

• Difficulty immediately sorting out direction (right from left)

• Troubles with recognizing patterns and sequencing numbers

Causes:

•Fetal alcohol syndrome

•Low birth weight

Types of Dyscalculia
2.1. Sequential -the disorder makes it difficult for the disabled
to count numbers in sequence.

2.2. Developmental-find difficult to count and recognize

mathematical signs.

2.3. Operational -problem is associated with remembering or

memorizing mathematics rules.

2.4. Acalculia-difficult to carry out simple mathematic

functions

Classification of Dyscalculia

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 ➢ Quantitative dyscalculia- a deficit in the skills of counting and
calculating.

➢ Qualitative dyscalculia- a result of difficulties in comprehension of

instructions or the failure to master the skills required for an
operation. When a child has not mastered the memorization of
number facts, he cannot benefit from this stored “verbalizable
information about numbers” that is used with prior associations to
solve problems involving addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and square roots.

➢ Intermediate dyscalculia- involves the inability to operate with

symbols, or numbers. On the basis of his experience with arithmetic
learning problems.

➢ Verbal dyscalculia- which refers to problems in naming the amount

of things.

➢ Practognostic dyscalculia- which refers to problems in

manipulating things mathematically — for example, comparing
objects to determine which is larger.

➢ Lexical dyscalculia -which refers to problems in reading

mathematical symbols, including operation signs (+, –) and
numerals.

➢ Graphical dyscalculia - which refers to problems in writing

mathematical symbols and numerals.

➢ Idiognostical dyscalculia - refers to problems in understanding

mathematical concepts and relationships.

➢ Operational dyscalculia -refers to problems in performing

arithmetic operations.

Treatment

Under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA),

students with dyscalculia are eligible for special services in the
classroom. Dyscalculia accommodations in the classroom may
include11:
• allowing more time on assignments and tests
 • allowing the use of calculators
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• adjusting the difficulty of the task

• separating complicated problems into smaller steps

• using posters to remind students to basic math concepts

• tutoring to target core, foundational skills

• providing supplemental information via

-computer-based interactive lessons
-hands-on projects

If left untreated, dyscalculia persists into adulthood,

leaving many at a disadvantage when it comes to higher
education and workplace success.

Known Personality with Dyscalculia

• Thomas Edison

• Albert Einstein

• Cher

3. DYSGRAPHIA

A specific learning disability that affects person's handwriting

and fine motor skills. It interferes with spelling, word spacing, and the
general ability to put thoughts on paper. It makes the process of writing
laboriously slow, and the written product difficult to read.

They may have problems including illegible handwriting,

inconsistent spacing, poor spatial planning on paper, poor spelling, and
difficulty composing writing as well as thinking and writing at the same
time.

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Ch
ara
cte
rist
ics:

• May have illegible

printing and cursive

writing (despite
appropriate time and
attention given the task)

• Shows inconsistencies:

mixtures of print and

cursive, upper and lower
case, or irregular sizes,
shapes or slant of letters

• Has unfinished words or letters, omitted words

• Inconsistent spacing between words and letters

 • Exhibits strange wrist, body or paper position

• Has difficulty pre-visualizing letter formation

• Copying or writing is slow or labored

• Shows poor spatial planning on paper

• Has cramped or unusual grip/may complain of sore hand

• Has great difficulty thinking and writing at the same time

(taking notes, creative writing.)

Causes:

• If it appears on childhood, it’s usually the result of a problem

with orthographic coding. This is an aspect of working

memory that allows you to permanently remember written
words, and the way your hands or fingers must move to write
those words.

• If it develops in adults, the cause is usually a stroke or other

brain injury. In particular, injury to the brain’s left parietal

lobe may lead to dysgraphia.

• Multiple mental images

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• Disorientation

• Physical illness or deformity

Treatment

Accommodations at work or school, occupational therapy, and

at-home exercises can make a big difference when treating dysgraphia
in children or adults.

If you or your child has just been diagnosed with dysgraphia, a

learning disability that affects handwriting and fine motor skills, your
next step is to pursue accommodations at home or in the workplace.
Depending on the type of dysgraphia — spatial, motor, or dyslexic —
occupational therapy can also be helpful.

There is no cure for dysgraphia, and medication will not help. But
problems associated with writing and fine motor skills can be improved
— especially if you start early. Plus, understanding parents, teachers,
bosses, and friends can be critical for rebuilding damaged self-esteem
and providing the support adults and children living with dysgraphia
need to find success.

1. Academic Interventions for Dysgraphia

The most important thing your child’s school can do to help her
manage her symptoms of dysgraphia is to take pressure off the act of
writing, either by requiring less writing overall or by allowing
alternatives like typing or speaking. Some helpful changes in the
classroom may include:

– Allow the student to take extra time on tests.

Students with dysgraphia take longer to form words and letters
— or even fill in bubbles on a multiple choice exam — meaning
that extra time will reduce stress and allow them to more
successfully demonstrate what they know.

– Provide worksheets. Rather than requiring children to

copy down problems from the board — which can put students
with dysgraphia at a disadvantage — teachers should print out
worksheets beforehand to distribute to the whole class.

– Remove neatness as a grading criterion. Low marks

for messy handwriting can frustrate a child with dysgraphia and
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make him feel as though his effort was worthless. If a child’s

handwriting is absolutely illegible, it may be necessary for him to
switch to word processing software.

– Reduce the length of written assignments. In math or

science classes, reduce the number of problems required.
 – Provide the student with the “teacher’s copy” of the
notes. If this isn’t possible, teachers can allow another student
to buddy up and share notes.

– Allow students to substitute “key words” for full

sentences, whenever possible. This cuts unnecessary time
struggling with handwriting, while still providing the student
with an opportunity to answer the question correctly.

– Create oral alternatives to writing assignments. This

can mean allowing an oral version of full exams, or replacing a
short worksheet with a quick oral lesson summary at the end of
the day.

– Allow for some spelling errors. When possible,

teachers should permit the use of a dictionary or spell-checking
device.

– Use physical accommodations. These can include

pencil grips, erasable pens, and paper with raised lines, all of
which help students with dysgraphia work on handwriting skills.
Graph paper, which provides visual guidance for spacing letters
and numbers, is also useful.

– Allow students to use computers with word

processing software, whenever possible. Alternatively,
teachers should allow students to use planning software before
writing a long answer by hand.

2. At-Home Interventions for Dysgraphia

In the early grades, especially, it’s important that you

work in tandem with your child’s educational team to help
improve handwriting at home, as well as at school. Here are
several ways you can accomplish that:

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– Teach typing. This is an absolutely life-saving strategy

for any child with dysgraphia. Invest in a well-regarded
children’s typing program. Reward your child for practicing on
the computer — even for as little as ten minutes a day.
 – Help your child get a good grip on the pencil or pen.
In situations where typing isn’t possible, it’s important for your
child to hold her pencil correctly. Though she might not see the
point of changing her grip, the correct grip will reduce hand
fatigue and pencil pressure — meaning writing will be easier and
less painful.

– Encourage your child to dictate sentences into a tape

recorder before writing them down. This will take advantage
of his speaking skills and allow him to focus solely on letter
formation — without getting wrapped up in grammar and
syntax.

– Be a scribe for your child. Almost every child with

dysgraphia resists any homework that involves writing — and as
a result, even simple assignments can take hours to complete. To
increase your child’s willingness to write, take some of the
pressure off him by agreeing to write for him — in a limited
capacity, of course. When writing a paragraph, for example, you
can write down the first sentence as your child dictates it, and
your child can write the next sentence — and so on and so forth,
until the assignment is complete. This shortens homework time,
takes stress off your child, and forces him to look ahead to the
next sentence and plan his thoughts accordingly.

– Prompt your child to say the words as he writes

them. Auditory feedback engages various areas of the brain,
helping students stay focused and monitor their efforts.

– Do letter-formation drills (print and cursive). Letters

don’t have to be perfect. They should, at a minimum, be fairly
consistent and readable. Make sure your child always forms
letters from the top instead of the bottom — a common pitfall for
new writers with dysgraphia.

– Engage in multi-sensory exercises. Ask your child to

write in the air, in sand, or in paint, using his finger. This enables

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a tactile learner to “feel the letter” and form a memory based on

its shape.
 – Keep letters inside the lines by writing on raised
line paper (therapyshoppe.com). This type of sensory-friendly
paper will help your child get a sense of how far apart the lines
are — making it easier to write on regular lined paper in the
future.

– Build muscle memory in fingers. Kendra Wagner, a

learning specialist, recommends this occupational therapy trick:
“Have your child walk her thumb, index, and middle finger up
and down a chopstick, placed on a flat surface, as fast as possible.
Only the three ‘grip’ fingers should touch the chopstick.”

3. Workplace Interventions for Dysgraphia

Even if you’ve learned to compensate for dysgraphia by

the time you reach adulthood, accommodations at work can still
make a big difference in your productivity and overall job
satisfaction. Possible accommodations include:

– Allow use of reference materials. A dictionary or

thesaurus — or advanced spell-checking or word-predicting
software — can make everyday compositions easier and more
readable.

– Have a coworker or supervisor proofread important

written material before it’s sent out. In instances where
spelling or grammatical errors would be perceived as
“unprofessional,” having someone else check over your writing
before it’s distributed can help someone with dysgraphia
manage writing-related anxiety.

– Use text-to-speech software.

– Allow the employee to respond to questions or

instructions verbally. Whenever possible, oral communication
should be prioritized over written communication.

– Supply writing aids. Pencil grips, bold-lined paper, or

other tools can help adults with dysgraphia manage the physical
process of writing.

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– Create computerized versions of common forms. If a

 person with dysgraphia is required to fill out paperwork
frequently, ask if it can be transferred to a fillable PDF and typed
into instead of hand written.

Treating Dysgraphia with Therapy

You or your child may also benefit from working with an

occupational therapist, particularly if you struggle extensively
with the fine motor skills involved in writing. Occupational
therapy (OT) is most often used in treating dysgraphia in
children, but some OTs work with adults as well.

Occupational therapy might include manipulating

different materials to build hand and wrist strength, running
letter formation drills, and practicing cursive writing, which can
be easier than printing. Simple repetitive movements, like taking
pegs out of a pegboard and putting them back in, can help
someone with dysgraphia gain finger strength that will make
writing easier and more intuitive.

Adults with dysgraphia who went through childhood

undiagnosed may have unresolved feelings of shame or anger
related to the condition, and may benefit from seeing a
psychotherapist to talk through these complex emotions.
Regardless of age, it’s important for people with dysgraphia to
recognize that the condition is nothing to be ashamed of, and
psychotherapy can be beneficial for dealing with unresolved
anger and building self-esteem.

Known Personality with Dysgraphia

▪ Albert Einstein

▪ Agatha Christine

▪ Thomas Edison

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4. DYSPRAXIA

A disorder that is characterize by difficulty in muscle control,

which causes problems with movement and coordination. Affects
balance, body movements and fine and gross motor skills.

Dyspraxia is a neurological disorder that impacts an individual's

ability to plan and process motor tasks. Individuals with dyspraxia often
have language problems,
and sometimes a degree
of difficulty with thought
and perception.

Dyspraxia, however, does

not affect the person's
intelligence, although it
can cause learning
problems in children. Developmental dyspraxia is an immaturity of the
organization of movement. The brain does not process information in a
way that allows for a full transmission of neural messages. A person with
dyspraxia finds it difficult to plan what to do, and how to do it.

According to the National Center for Learning Disabilities,

individuals with dyspraxia have difficulties in planning and
completing fine and gross motor tasks. This can range from
simple motor movements, such as waving goodbye, to more
complex ones like sequencing steps to brush one’s teeth.

Characteristics:
• Poor hand-eye coordination
• Lack of rhythm when dancing
• Tendency to fall, trip, bump into things and people
• Exaggerated 'accessory movement' such as flapping arms
when running
• poor balance
• poor posture
• fatigue
• differences in speech
• perception problems
 20

Causes:

Scientists do not know what causes dyspraxia. Experts

believe the person’s nerve cells that control muscles (motor
neurons) are not developing correctly. If motor neurons cannot
form proper connections, for whatever reason, the brain will
take much longer to process data.

Experts at the Disability and Dyslexia Service at the Queen

Mary University of London, U.K., say that studies suggest
dyspraxia may be caused by an immaturity of neuron
development in the brain, rather than any specific brain damage.

A report from the University of Hull in England says that

dyspraxia is “probably hereditary: several genes have been
implicated. Often, there are many members within a family who
are similarly affected.”

Symptoms:

Very early childhood:

The child may take longer than other children to:

• Sit.
 • Crawl
• Walk.
• Speak – according to the Children’s Hospital at
Westmead, Australia, the child may be slower in
answering questions, find it hard to make sounds,
or repeat sequences of sounds or words; they may
also have difficulty in sustaining normal intonation
patterns, have a very limited automatic
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vocabulary, speak more slowly than other

children, and use fewer words with more pauses.
• Stand.
• Become potty trained (get out of diapers).
• Build up vocabulary.

Early Childhood
• Problems performing subtle movements, such as
tying shoelaces, doing up buttons and zips, using
cutlery, and handwriting.
• Many will have difficulties getting dressed.
• Problems carrying out playground movements,
such as jumping, playing hopscotch, catching a
ball, kicking a ball, hopping, and skipping.
• Problems with classroom movements, such as
using scissors, coloring, drawing, playing jigsaw
games.
• Problems processing thoughts.
• Difficulties with concentration. Children with
dyspraxia commonly find it hard to focus on one
thing for long.
• The child finds it harder than other kids to join in
playground games.
• The child will fidget more than other children.
• Some find it hard to go up and down stairs.
 • A higher tendency to bump into things, to fall
over, and to drop things.
• Difficulty in learning new skills – while other
children may do this automatically, a child with
dyspraxia takes longer. Encouragement and
practice help enormously.

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• Writing stories can be much more challenging for

a child with dyspraxia, as can copying from a
blackboard.

Pre-School Age

• Finds it hard to keep friends.

• Behavior when in the company of others may
seem unusual.
• Hesitates in most actions, seems slow.
• Does not hold a pencil with a good grip.
• Such concepts as ‘in’, ‘out’, ‘in front of’ are hard to
handle automatically.

Late Childhood
• Tries to avoid sports.
• Learns well on a one-on-one basis, but nowhere
near as well in class with other children around.
• Reacts to all stimuli equally (not filtering out
irrelevant stimuli automatically)
• Mathematics and writing are difficult.
• Spends a long time getting writing done.
• Does not follow instructions.
• Does not remember instructions.
 • Is badly organized.

Adults

• Poor posture and fatigue.

• Trouble completing normal chores.

• Less close control – writing and drawing are difficult.

• Difficulty coordinating both sides of the body.

• Unclear speech, often word order can be jumbled.

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• Clumsy movement and tendency to trip over.

• Grooming and dressing more challenging – shaving,

applying makeup, fastening clothes, tying shoelaces.

• Poor hand-eye coordination.

• Difficulty planning and organizing thoughts and

tasks.

• Less sensitive to non-verbal signals.

• Easily frustrated.

• Low self-esteem.

• Difficulty sleeping.

• Difficulty distinguishing sounds from background

noise.

• Notable lack of rhythm when dancing or exercising.

5. DYSLEXIA

Dyslexia has been studied

for some time and each study has
defined it different ways. For
example, in 1968, the World
Federation of Neurologists
defined it as "a disorder in
children who, despite
conventional classroom
experience, fail to attain the
language skills of reading, writing,
and spelling commensurate with
their intellectual abilities."
The International Dyslexia Association offers the following
definition of dyslexia:

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"Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological

in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent
 word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These
difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component
of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive
abilities and the provision of Dyslexia is a language disability. This
condition, which is remedial, makes it difficult for a person to read,
write, spell, compute, organize and comprehend, despite adequate
intelligence and conventional instruction.”
“Secondary consequences may include problems in reading
comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede
growth of vocabulary and background knowledge."
Dyslexia is a common learning disability in children that may
continue throughout life. The degree of this disability can vary from mild
to severe. The earlier it is treated, the more favourable the result.
However, it is never too late for people with dyslexia to learn to improve
their language skills.
This can go unnoticed in the early years of schooling. Children
most often becomes very frustrated with their experience in learning to
read. It is important to remember that other problems can hide dyslexia
through:

• Show signs of depression and low self-esteem

• Have behaviour problems at home, as well as at

school that often manifest

• Become unmotivated and develop a dislike for

school, and their success may be jeopardized if the

problem remains untreated.
The following are the characteristics of dyslexia:

1. Difficulty in learning to read, write, spell, and do

arithmetic
2. Difficulty in following oral and written instruction
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 3. Cramped or illegible handwriting
4. Difficulty in staying on task
5. Easily distracted
6. Confusion in sequence of letters and symbols
7. Delayed spoken language
8. Confusion about direction in space, time, right and left, up
and down, north and south, yesterday and tomorrow
9. High level of frustration
10. Difficulty in retaining information
11. More than average test-taking anxiety
12. Increased or reduced energy level
13. Immaturity

Causes of Dyslexia

• It’s linked to genes, which is why the condition often runs in

families. You have more likely to have dyslexia if your

parents, siblings, relatives or other members of your family
have it.

• Children with dyslexia have difficulty in learning to read

despite traditional instruction, at least average intelligence,

and adequate motivation and opportunity to learn. It is
thought to be caused by impairment in the brain's ability to
process phonemes (the smallest units of speech that make
words different from each other). It does not result from
vision or hearing problems. It is not due to mental
retardation, brain damage, or a lack of intelligence.
What are the different types of Dyslexia?

• Phonological Dyslexia

• Surface Dyslexia

• Rapid Automatic Naming Dyslexia

• Double Deficit Dyslexia

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 • Dysgraphia

• Left Right Confusion

❖ Phonological Dyslexia

✓ Some people with dyslexia may have difficulty with

phonemic awareness, which is the ability to recognize

individual letter sounds in a word into syllables and to
connect letters and words to the sounds they correspond
to.

❖ Surface Dyslexia

✓ Surface Dyslexia is described as the inability to read

words that are spelled differently from how they

pronounced. Words that can prove challenging to people
with surface dyslexia might include “yacht,” “through,”
and “subtle.”

✓ Surface dyslexia is sometimes referred to as visual

dyslexia because individuals with this condition have

difficulty recognizing words by sight. It’s important to
keep in mind, though, that dyslexia doesn’t usually
involve a problem with vision or eyesight- it’s caused by a
difference in the way a person’s brain recognizes letters,
numbers, and words.

❖ Rapid Automatic Naming Dyslexia

✓ For those living with this type of dyslexia, recognition of

letters and numbers doesn’t happen quickly.

✓ It may take longer for the person’s brain to process the

 information, which may lead to slower reading times.

❖ Double Deficit Dyslexia

✓ It’s not uncommon to have more than one kind of dyslexia.

The two types that frequently appear together are

phonological dyslexia and rapid naming deficit dyslexia.

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When a person has both of these, it’s known as double

deficit dyslexia.

What other learning disabilities may occur with dyslexia?

There are several learning disabilities that may occur
with dyslexia that are not dyslexia. For example, a person may be
diagnosed with dyslexia, but also have:

• Dyscalculia, or difficulty with math

• Dysgraphia, or difficulty writing

• Left-right disorder, or trouble telling left from right

Scientist are still trying to determine what causes these

disorders, but some research suggests that, at least in some
cases, they may be neurological in origin.

❖ Math Dyslexia

✓ What people call math dyslexia is actually a disorder

called dyscalculia, which occurs when a person has

difficulty computing numbers. Dyscalculia may appear in
a person with dyslexia, but it is not a form of dyslexia. The
disorder affects approximately 3 to 6 percent of children.

✓ Symptoms can vary, but in many case a person may have

 difficulty remembering and recognizing numbers, or they
may have trouble telling time. As with dyslexia,
individuals may avoid situations were math may be
involved.
Other symptoms may include difficulty with:

• word problems

• carrying and borrowing numbers

• managing money

• understanding quantity

• understanding positive and negative values

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• understanding time (such as days of the week)

• understanding charts and graph

For example, a pre-schooler who has symptoms of

dyscalculia may have trouble counting, or they have not grasp the
concept of counting, according to understood.

❖ Dysgraphia

A person with dysgraphia has handwriting that may

display several irregularities, such as:

• Inconsistent spacing of letters and words

• Missing or transposed letters

• Missing words

• Odd spelling
 • Differently shaped or sized letters

• Illegibility

❖ Left-Right Confusion

✓ In left-right confusion, a person has troubled

distinguishing right from left. Individuals with this

disorder may have troubled with directions or reading
maps. This is sometimes called directional dyslexia, but
that’s inaccurate. As with dyscalculia, it may appear with
dyslexia, but it’s not a form of dyslexia.

According to Understood, it’s frequently related to the

other learning difficulties, such as:
• Dyslexia

• Dyscalculia

• Dysgraphia

• Nonverbal learning disabilities, which affect physical

coordination, social interaction, and executive functioning

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Treatment
 As the research shows, there are a number of elements of
effective intervention and treatment for dyslexia and other language
processing disorders, including:

✓ Direct instruction (clear, explicit, systematic, step-by-step

instruction with full explanations).

✓ A multiple-linguistic approach (language components –

speech sounds, letter symbols, word meanings – are

explicitly identified and connected to one another).

✓ Simultaneous involvement of four language systems:

listening comprehension, oral expression, reading

comprehension, and written expression.

✓ Learning the building blocks of both spoken and written

words (vowels, consonants, phonemes, graphemes,

syllables).

✓ Reciprocal reading and spelling skills (phonics, fluency,

nonsense words, sight words, spelling) to support upper

level literacy.

✓ Explicit teaching of morphology (word parts, i.e., base,

suffix, prefix, word sums).

✓ Direct instruction approach for vocabulary.

✓ Sentence practice and construction (parts of speech,

capitalization, punctuation).

✓ Listening for comprehension.

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✓ Transcription skills, such as handwriting and spelling.

6. LANGUAGE PROCESSING DISORDER

Language Processing Disorder (LPD) is an impairment that

negatively affects
communication
through spoken
language. It is a
difficulty in receiving,
recognizing and
understanding
language; it also
involves difficulty
expressing language.
One person with a language disorder might find it difficult to
speak extemporaneously or outline what they are thinking, while
another person might struggle to understand what others are saying, to
follow directions, or to maintain attention.

How to spot LPD?

You know the feeling: You’re in the middle of telling a great story
when suddenly the word you’re looking gets stuck “on the tip of your
tongue.” Or you’re 10 minutes into a conversation before you realize you
haven’t taken in a word the other person is saying. For most people,
these brief mental slipups can be annoying, but for someone with an
expressive or receptive language disorder, they can be a constant
reality. And the cumulative effect of a lifetime of communication
difficulties can be devastating.
Characteristics of LPD:

• Following multi-step directions

• Paying attention in noisy environments

• Following spoken directions

• Rhyming, reading, spelling, and writing

• Understanding and participating in conversations with peers

and adults

• Vocabulary and sentence structure

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 What causes LPD?

LPD is a neurological problem, but the exact cause if often

unknown. LPD affects the skills that are needed to deal with
auditory information. Those skills include attention, memory,
following directions, learning, and hearing.
.
Types of Language Processing Disorders
Expressive- people with this language disorder have a
difficult time expressing their thoughts.

Receptive- people with language disorders struggle to

understand what others are saying or to follow a
conversation
Note: It’s also possible to suffer from a combination of
expressive and receptive language disorders.

Symptoms of Language Processing Disorders

While language disorders vary widely from person to person,

the condition usually follows general developmental patterns and
guidelines. For starters, when a child is born with a language
disorder, he or she is often a “late talker,” with other symptoms
usually appearing before age 4. Though language disorders are
sometimes diagnosed in those with intellectual disabilities, they most
often appear in those with average or above-average intelligence —
though those with language disorders may find they have trouble
demonstrating that intelligence to the outside world.

If a language disorder is mild, its symptoms may be difficult to

detect. The person may just appear a little “spacey” or even shy. Look
for the following basic symptoms that may indicate a language
disorder. If you notice these symptoms in yourself or your child, talk
with your doctor or the staff at your child’s school.

Someone with an expressive language disorder will:

✓ Have a limited vocabulary for their age

✓ Use a lot of filler words like “um,” or use “stuff” and

“things” instead of more specific words

✓ Confuse verb tenses

✓ Repeat phrases when telling a story or answering

a question

✓ Frequently say sentences that don’t make sense

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 ✓ Have trouble learning new words

✓ Feel like words are constantly stuck “at the tip of

their tongue”

✓ Often seem frustrated by their inability to

communicate thoughts

✓ Someone with a receptive language disorder

might:

✓ Seem disinterested in conversations or social

situations

✓ Have difficulty following directions

✓ Often misunderstand what is asked and answer or

act inappropriately

✓ Have difficulty getting jokes

✓ Seem shy or withdrawn

✓ If someone exhibits symptoms from both lists, it’s

possible he or she has a combination

expressive/receptive language disorder.

Treating Language Processing Disorders with Speech Therapy

Many parents of children with language disorders choose to

pursue speech and language therapy through the public school system.
Depending on the district, your child’s school may offer you a few
options:

– Individual therapy: This is best for severe language disorders

that need one-on-one attention. Children with related conditions like
ADHD or learning disabilities may also benefit most from individual
therapy. This also works well for families with complex schedules that
won’t allow for the more strictly scheduled group therapy session.
 – Group therapy: Group therapy can be the most helpful and
productive option for many young children with language disorders.
Since no two children with language disorders are the same, group
therapy allows children to understand the challenges of others and
work with people whose strengths and weaknesses differ from their
own. It’s important that children work with others of their own age in
group therapy — going to therapy with children significantly younger
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or older could damage a child’s self-esteem, cause him to become

withdrawn, or be otherwise counterproductive.

– In-class therapy: If you’re worried that your child will be

bullied or miss valuable classroom time by going to speech therapy, talk
to the school about in-class therapy options. Depending on the school’s
size and resources, it may be possible for the speech therapist to come
into your child’s classroom on a periodic basis and “team teach”
alongside the teacher, tailoring lessons to help children with speech and
language disorders.

Academic Interventions for Language Processing Disorders

– Help the child plan ahead. Children with expressive language
disorders often struggle to answer questions on the spot. Teachers can
help by warning the child in advance when he’ll be called on, so as to
give him an opportunity to mentally prepare an answer.

– Ask fewer open-ended questions. Giving a child either/or

questions can help her demonstrate what she knows without having to
interpret specifically what is being asked of her.

– Model proper sentence structure, without correcting. If

your child mixes up words or uses improper verb tenses, ask his teacher
to get in the habit of repeating back answers using the correct form,
instead of embarrassing the child by publicly pointing out mistakes.

At-Home Interventions for Language Processing Disorders

Alongside speech therapy, these simple things can help a child
develop and retain language skills:

– Talk or sing to your child as much as you can. Giving him

plenty of opportunity to practice his language skills is the key to putting
your child on a normal developmental track.

– If he struggles to find words, resist the urge to finish his

sentences for him. This will help your child build confidence and learn
that he can’t rely on you to communicate for him.
 – Educating yourself about your child’s difficulties is a huge
first step, and can go a long way toward helping her adapt to and
conquer her language difficulties.

Workplace Interventions for Language Processing Disorders

Language disorders can make it difficult for adults to know

what’s expected of them at work or to communicate with their
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colleagues. If you have a language disorder, your employer can assist

you by providing accommodations, including:

– Provide meeting agendas ahead of time. Receiving the

meeting agenda in advance will help you mentally prepare and avoid
feeling blindsided by a question from
your supervisor.

– Give notice
when the employee will
be required to speak. If
it’s necessary for you to
give a presentation, ask
that your boss give you a
warning ahead of time so
you can prepare your
remarks and anticipate any questions that might come your way.

- Allow written responses instead of verbal responses.

Whenever possible, ask that your boss send you questions over email,
instead of approaching your desk, so you can compose a well thought
out written response.

7. VISUAL PERCEPTUAL / VISUAL MOTOR DEFICIT

Visual Perceptual or Visual Motor Deficit learning disability is a

disorder that affects the understanding of information that a person
sees, or the ability to draw or copy. VPD affects a child’s ability to
understand visual information. The way a person’s eyes move plays an
integral role in how well they attain and comprehend sensory data;
when they’re suffering from visual perceptual disorder, they can
experience difficulty with reading comprehension, paying attention in
class, and retaining information (specifically when it comes to reading a
board and taking notes).

When we think of someone with good vision, we generally

assume they don’t need glasses, or that they have 20/20 eyesight. But
eyesight is so much more than that—a child with visual perceptual
disorder may not even need glasses, but that doesn’t necessarily mean
they can visually perceive the world around them like you’d expect
someone with good vision to be able to.

A child’s learning ability is largely contingent on how well they

can interpret visual information: reading, writing, solving math

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problems, and social interactions with other children can all be heavily
affected if a custom learning strategy isn’t put in place. We’ve outlined
common symptoms, characteristics, and learning plans to help make
sure that your child receives the support that they need for navigating
visual perceptual disorder.

SYMPTOMS OF VISUAL PERCEPTUAL DISORDER

Parents and teachers alike need to be on the lockout for
symptoms including:

• Inability to accurately copy down information

• Difficulty navigating school grounds or other larger

areas
• Frequent complaints about eye pain and itchiness

• Struggles with cutting and pasting

• May have reversals: b for d, p for q or inversions: u

for n, w for m
 • Has difficulty negotiating around school campus,
neighbourhood, shopping malls, etc.
• Complains eyes hurt and itch, rubs eyes, complains
print blurs while reading
• Turns head when reading across page or holds paper
at odd angles
• Closes one eye while working, may yawn while
reading
• Loses place frequently

• Does not recognize an object/word if only part of it is

shown
• Holds pencil too tightly; often breaks pencil
point/crayons

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• Misaligns letters; may have messy papers, which can

include letters colliding, irregular spacing, letters not
on line

STRATEGIES FOR LEARNERS WITH VPD

• Avoid focusing on stylistic/neatness aspects of
handwriting
• Allow students to orally dictate creative stories

• Provide alternative for written assignments

• Suggest use of pencil grips and specially designed

pencils and pens
• Allow use of computer or word processor

• Restrict copying tasks

• Provide tracking tools: ruler, text windows

 • Use large print books

• Plan to order or check out books on tape

EIGHT TYPES OF VISUAL PROCESSING DISORDER

There are eight different types of visual processing difficulties,
each with its own symptoms. An individual can have more than one type
of visual processing difficulty.

VISUAL DISCRIMINATION ISSUES:

• Trouble seeing the difference between similar letters,
shapes, or objects.

VISUAL FIGURED-GROUND DISCRIMINATION ISSUES:

• Struggle to distinguish a shape or letter from its
background.

VISUAL SEQUENCING ISSUES:

• Find it difficult to see shapes, letters or words in the
correct order; may skip lines or read the same line over
and over.

VISUAL-MOTOR PROCESSING ISSUES:

• Trouble using what they see to coordinate with the way
they move; may struggle to write within lines or bump
into objects while walking.

LONG OR SHORT-TERM VISUAL MEMORY ISSUES:

• Struggle to remember shapes, symbols, or objects
they’ve seen, causing issues with reading and
spelling.

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VISUAL-SPATIAL ISSUES:
• Trouble understanding where objects are in space;
unsure how close objects are to one another.

VISUAL CLOSURE ISSUES:

• Difficulty identifying an object when only parts of it are
showing.
 LETTER AND SYMBOL REVERSAL ISSUES:
• Switch numbers or letters when writing, or may mistake
“b” for “d” or “w” for “m.”

8. ATTENTION-DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD)

ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder of childhood that is

characterized by developmentally inappropriate levels of Hyperactivity,
Impulsivity, and Inattention.

About 3-9% of the elementary school population more often in

males than females, with the sex ratio being about 3:1 to 9:1most
common disorders of childhood accounting for a large number of
referrals to pediatricians, family physicians and child mental health
professionals

Children with ADHD may be hyperactive and unable control

their impulses or they may have trouble paying attention. These
behaviors interfere with school and home life.

Adults with ADHD may have trouble managing time, being

organized, setting goals, and holding down a job. They may also have
problems with relationships, self-esteem, and addiction.

CAUSES OF ADHD:
• Heredity- ADHD tends to run in families

• Chemical imbalance- Brain chemicals in people with ADHD may

be out of balance
• Brain changes- Areas of the brain that control attention are less
active in children with ADHD

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• Poor nutrition, infections, smoking, drinking, and substance

 abuse during pregnancy. These things can affect a baby’s brain
development.
• Toxins, such as lead-They may affect a child's brain development.

• A brain injury or a brain disorder- Damage to the front of the

brain, called the frontal lobe, can cause problems with
controlling impulses and emotions.

TYPES OF ADHD
Impulsive-hyperactive Type (Predominantly Impulsive/Hyperactive)
Inattentive Type (Predominantly Inattentive)
Combined Type (Combined Presentation)

1. A. Hyperactive
• Often fidgets with hands or feet, squirms in seat

• Often leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which

remaining seated is expected
• Often runs about or climbs excessively in situations in which it is
inappropriate
• Often has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities
quietly
• Is often "on the go" or often acts as if "driven by a motor”

• Often talks excessively when inappropriate to the situation

*Children with ADHD are more active, restless, and fidgety than normal
children during the day and during sleep.

There are different types of hyperactivity:

• Gross Motor Activity
• Restless/Squirmy
• Verbal hyperactivity

Hyperactivity often varies according to situation. Degree of

hyperactivity may vary with age.

1. B. Impulsive
• Often blurts out answers before questions have been completed

• Often has difficulty awaiting turn

• Often interrupts or intrudes on others

2. Inattention
• Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless
mistakes
 • Often has difficulties sustaining attention in tasks or play activities

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• Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly

• Often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish

homework, chores, or duties in the workplace
• Often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities

• Often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that require

sustained mental effort
• Often loses things necessary for tasks or activities

• Is often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli.

• Is often forgetful in daily activities

Attentional problems may be most obvious on specific types of

attentional tasks:
-sustained attention: responding to tasks, being vigilant
-situations requiring the child to attend over time to dull, boring, and
repetitive tasks

3. Combined Type

This is the most common type of ADHD. The person will show
impulsive and hyperactive behavior, as well as getting distracted easily
and struggling to maintain attention.
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