Side Shots

Side
• Problem Shots
• Usually, the boundary corners cannot be occupied as a traverse
station due to objects that have been already constructed such as Ties from the
fences, posts, etc. adjacent traverse
to the original
• Solution points
• Run a traverse very near to the points that cannot be occupied and
Error of closure
from the traverse stations, sight the boundary corners and obtain cannot be
distance and direction measurements. computed for the
boundary lines

STA OCC STA OBS DISTANCE (M) BEARING

Sta Occ Distance (M) Bearing Latitude Departure Northings Eastings

Side Shots A
B 492.981 N 05-30-09 E
A
492.981 N 05-30-09 E + 490.709 + 47.272
20000.000 20000.000

Example
C4 352.505 S 83-44-10 E
B 20490.709 20047.272
B
845.850 N 46-02-37 E + 587.113 + 608.901
C 845.850 N 46-02-37 E
C 21077.822 20656.173
C1 215.923 S 36-02-25 E
• Compute the 852.186 S 67-24-21 E - 327.411 + 786.780
C
coordinates of the lot D 20750.411 21442.953
D 852.186 S 67-24-21 E
corners given the 1026.251 S 12-16-57 E - 1002.761 + 218.316
D
position of point A: E 19747.650 21661.269
E 1026.251 S 12-16-57 E
20000N, 20000E 1123.337 S 83-43-52 - 122.662 - 1116.620
C2 121.231 S 13-44-15 W
• Plot the traverse and F 19624.988 20544.649
E
lot corners 661.269 N 55-27-04 W + 375.012 - 544.649
F 1123.337 S 83-43-52
A 20000.000 20000.000
C3 573.657 N 75-20-11 W ෍=0 ෍=0
F
A 661.269 N 55-27-04 W
Sta Occ Sta Obs Distance Bearing Lat Dep Northings Eastings Sta Occ Sta Obs Distance Bearing Lat Dep Northings Eastings
A 20000.000 20000.000 A 20000.000 20000.000
C4 352.505 S 83-44-10 E -38.461 350.400 C4 352.505 S 83-44-10 E -38.461 350.400 19961.539 20350.400
B 20490.709 20047.272 B 20490.709 20047.272
C1 215.923 S 36-02-25 E -174.596 127.039 C1 215.923 S 36-02-25 E -174.596 127.039 20316.113 20174.311
D 20750.411 21442.953 D 20750.411 21442.953
C2 121.231 S 13-44-15 W -117.763 -28.789 C2 121.231 S 13-44-15 W -117.763 -28.789 20632.648 21414.164
E 19747.650 21661.269 E 19747.650 21661.269
C3 573.657 N 75-20-11 W 145.218 -554.972 C3 573.657 N 75-20-11 W 145.218 -554.972 19892.868 21106.297

Sta Occ Sta Obs Northings Eastings

A 20000.000 20000.000

C4 19961.539 20350.400 • Borrowing Form

B 20490.709 20047.272 LabEx2: • Instrument Demonstration (setting up, how to

use)

D
C1 20316.113

20750.411
20174.311

21442.953
Traverse • All exact locations for your reference points
will be pointed out on Sunday.

C2 20632.648 21414.164

E 19747.650 21661.269

C3 19892.868 21106.297
 Area Computations
Area Computation • Plane Surveying
• Area is taken as its projection upon a horizontal plane

Techniques • Geodetic Surveying

• Area is taken as its projection upon the earth’s spheroidal surface at mean
Prepared by: Pierre Ilao sea level

Regular
Triangles
Coordinate Method
Area
Bounded by
Boundaries
Methods of DMD-DPA/ DPD-DPA • Triangles
• Coordinate Method
Area Regular • DMD-DPA/DPD-DPA
Computations
Boundaries
Trapezoidal Rule Irregular
Simpson’s 1/3 Rule Boundaries
 • Known base and altitude
• Three sides are measured
1
Area by 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ
2 Area by 𝐴= 𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)

Triangles • Two sides and included angle measured Triangles 1

𝑠 = (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)
1 2
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
2

Area by Triangles Area by Triangles

Example 1 Example 2
• Calculate for the area of a • Calculate for the area of a
triangular lot given below: triangular lot given below:

b=2 a=4
h=3 b=5
α = 30⁰
Area by Triangles
Example 3
• Area of a closed traverse with n sides is given
by the formula:
• Calculate for the area of a
triangular lot given below: Area by
Coordinates
1 𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑋3 𝑋𝑛 𝑋1
𝐴= …
2 𝑌1 𝑌2 𝑌3 𝑌𝑛 𝑌1
Corners X(m) Y(m)
1 20 25
2 27 40
3 35 17

Area by Triangles
Example 4
• Calculate for the area of a
Area by • Meridian Distance
• The shortest distance from the midpoint of a line to

DMD-DPA
the reference meridian
triangular lot given below:
• Double Meridian Distance (DMD)

Method
• Meridian distance of the line multiplied to 2
Corners X(m) Y(m) • DMD = 2*Meridian Distance
1 20 25
2 27 40
3 35 17
 Rules in Computing for the DPD of a Line
• Has the same procedures as that of DMD-DPA
Rules in Computing for the DMD of a Line Method

Area by 1. DMD of the first line = DEPARTURE of the

line
Area by Double Parallel Distance (DPD)
• Uses Latitude instead of Departure (DMD)

DMD-DPA 2. DMD of any other line =

DMD of the preceding line +
DPD-DPA 1. DPD of the first line = LATITUDE of the line

Method DEPARTURE of the preceding line +

DEPARTURE of the line itself Method 2. DPD of any other line =
DPD of the preceding line +
3. DMD of the last line = -DEPARTURE of the LATITUDE of the preceding line +
line LATITUDE of the line itself
3. DPD of the last line = -LATITUDE of the line

Area by DMD-DPA and DPD-DPA Area by DMD-

DPA/DPD-DPA
DMD-DPA DPD-DPA
• Calculate for the area of a
𝐷𝑃𝐴 = 𝐷𝑀𝐷 ∗ 𝐿𝐴𝑇𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐷𝑃𝐴 = 𝐷𝑃𝐷 ∗ 𝐷𝐸𝑃𝑎𝑑𝑗 triangular lot given below:

Corners X(m) Y(m)

1 20 25
2 27 40
1 3 35 17
𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 = ෍ 𝐷𝑃𝐴
2
Area by DMD-
DPA/DPD-DPA
Area by NOTE:

• Calculate for the area of a

triangular lot given below: DMD-DPA/ Given the distances and bearings for the lines of
the traverse or the boundaries of the property,

Corners X(m) Y(m)

DPD-DPA we will be able to determine the latitude and
departure of each line. From these, we will be

Method
able to compute for the area using either DMD-
1 20 25
DPA or DPD-DPA method.
2 27 40
3 35 17

Area
Area by • Assumption is that the ends of the offsets in

Bounded by the boundary line are assumed to be

Trapezoidal
• Trapezoidal Rule connected by straight lines, thereby forming a
series of trapezoids
Irregular • Simpson’s 1/3 Rule
Rule • Offsets are assumed to be spaced at regular

Boundaries intervals
Area by Area by • Based on the assumption that the curved
boundary consists of a series of parabolic

Trapezoidal Simpson’s
arcs, where each arc is continuous over three
adjacent offsets which are equally spaced

Rule 1/3 Rule • Applicable only when there is an odd number

of offsets

𝒉𝟏 + 𝒉𝒏
𝑨=𝒅 + 𝒉𝟐 + 𝒉𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝒉𝒏−𝟏
𝟐

Area by Irregular A series of regularly-spaced offsets is taken from a

transit line to the edge of a river. Compute for the area
Boundaries bounded by the line, perpendicular offsets, and edge of
the river. Use Trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s 1/3 Rule in
Example computing for the area.

Area by Sta Offsets (m)

Simpson’s 0+000 10.5

1/3 Rule
0+005 12.6
0+010 14.8
0+015 13.0

𝒅 0+020 11.3
𝑨= 𝒉 + 𝒉𝒏 + 𝟐 ෍ 𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒅 + 𝟒 ෍ 𝒉𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏
𝟑 𝟏 0+025 12.9
0+030 11.5
0+035 11.2
0+040 13.6
 Area by Irregular A series of regularly-spaced offsets is taken from a
transit line to the edge of a river. Compute for the area
Boundaries bounded by the line, perpendicular offsets, and edge of
the river. Use Trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s 1/3 Rule in
Example computing for the area.

Sta
0+000
Offsets (m)
10.5 Omitted Measurements
0+005 12.6
0+010 14.8
Prepared by: Pierre Ilao
0+015 13.0
0+020 11.3
0+025 12.9
0+030 11.5
0+035 11.2
0+040 13.6

OMITTED MEASUREMENTS COMMON TYPES OF OMITTED MEASUREMENTS

1. LENGTH AND DIRECTION OF 1 SIDE UNKNOWN
When it is not practical or possible to determine the length or direction of a line 2. OMITTED MEASUREMENTS INVOLVING 2 ADJOINING SIDES
by field observation
• 1st Case: Length of 1 side & direction of another side unknown
COMMON TYPES
• 2nd Case: Lengths of 2 sides unknown
OF OMITTED
• 3rd Case: Directions of 2 sides unknown
Missing quantities should not exceed 2 in number MEASUREMENTS
3. OMITTED MEASUREMENTS INVOLVING 2 NON-ADJOINING SIDES
• 1st Case: Length of 1 side & direction of another side unknown
• 2nd Case: Lengths of 2 sides unknown
• 3rd Case: Directions of 2 sides unknown
Assumption is that observed values are without error
LENGTH AND DIRECTION OF 1 SIDE UNKNOWN (TYPE 1) LENGTH AND DIRECTION OF 1 SIDE UNKNOWN (TYPE 1)

EXAMPLE: Given the following sketch and data for a closed traverse, determine EXAMPLE: Given the following sketch and data for a closed traverse, determine
the length and bearing of unknown side FA the length and bearing of unknown side FA

LINE LENGTH BEARING E c LINE LENGTH BEARING LATITUDE DEPARTURE

AB 733.75 N 76-18 E AB 733.75 N 76-18 E
D
BC 598.23 N 23-20 W F BC 598.23 N 23-20 W
CD 415.05 S 61-35 W CD 415.05 S 61-35 W
DE 511.38 N 57-00 W DE 511.38 N 57-00 W
EF 395.06 S 32-45 W B EF 395.06 S 32-45 W
FA ______ ______ A FA ______ ______

LENGTH AND DIRECTION OF 1 SIDE UNKNOWN (TYPE 1) INVOLVING 2 ADJOINING SIDES (TYPE 2)
SOLUTION: EXAMPLE: 1st Case: Length of 1 side & direction of another side unknown.
LINE LATITUDE DEPARTURE E c Given the following sketch and data for a closed traverse, determine the omitted
AB 173.780 712.874 measurements of lines DE and EA.
D A
BC 549.304 -236.947 F LINE LENGTH BEARING E
B
CD -197.514 -365.041
AB 1084.32 S 75-48 E
DE 278.518 -428.879
EF -332.261 -213.717 BC 1590.51 S 15-18 W
B
Σ= 471.827 -531.710 CD 1294.74 S 68-06 W
A
DE _______ N 28-39 W
Distance: 710.870 m C

Bearing: S 48°24’53.65” E EA 1738.96 _______ D

INVOLVING 2 ADJOINING SIDES (TYPE 2) INVOLVING 2 ADJOINING SIDES (TYPE 2)
EXAMPLE: 1st Case: Length of 1 side & direction of another side unknown. EXAMPLE: 1st Case: Length of 1 side & direction of another side unknown.
Given the following sketch and data for a closed traverse, determine the omitted Given the following sketch and data for a closed traverse, determine the omitted
measurements of lines DE and EA. measurements of lines DE and EA.
A A
LINE LENGTH BEARING E LINE LENGTH BEARING E
B B
AB 1084.32 S 75-48 E AB 1084.32 S 75-48 E

BC 1590.51 S 15-18 W BC 1590.51 S 15-18 W

CD 1294.74 S 68-06 W CD 1294.74 S 68-06 W

DE _______ N 28-39 W C DA _______ _______ C

EA 1738.96 _______ D D

INVOLVING 2 ADJOINING SIDES (TYPE 2) INVOLVING 2 ADJOINING SIDES (TYPE 2)

EXAMPLE: 1st Case: Length of 1 side & direction of another side unknown. SOLUTION: A
Given the following sketch and data for a closed traverse, determine the omitted Solving for the closing line: E
B
measurements of lines DE and EA.
LINE LATITUDE DEPARTURE
LINE LENGTH BEARING LATITUDE DEPARTURE
AB -265.992 1051.189
AB 1084.32 S 75-48 E BC -1534.138 -419.693

BC 1590.51 S 15-18 W CD -482.922 -1201.307

C
DA : Σ = -2283.052 -569.810
CD 1294.74 S 68-06 W
D
DA _______ _______
Lda = 2353.085 m
βda = N 14°0’49.47” E
INVOLVING 2 ADJOINING SIDES (TYPE 2) INVOLVING 2 ADJOINING SIDES (TYPE 2)
A A
E B SOLUTION: E B SOLUTION:
SUMMATION OF ANGLES AT D: SUMMATION OF ANGLES AT D:
Angle D = 42°39’49.47” Angle D = 42°39’49.47”

BY SINE LAW:
Unknown Length Unknown Length
Angle E= 66°29’42.71”
C C
SINCE Σ OF ANGLES = 180°:
D D
Angle A = 70°50’27.82”
LINE LENGTH BEARING LINE LENGTH BEARING
AB 1084.32 S 75-48 E AB 1084.32 S 75-48 E
BC 1590.51 S 15-18 W BC 1590.51 S 15-18 W
CD 1294.74 S 68-06 W CD 1294.74 S 68-06 W
DE _______ N 28-39 W DE _______ N 28-39 W
EA 1738.96 _______ EA 1738.96 _______
DA 2353.085 N 14-00-49.47” E DA 2353.085 N 14-00-49.47” E

INVOLVING 2 ADJOINING SIDES (TYPE 2) INVOLVING 2 NON-ADJOINING SIDES (TYPE 3)

A
E B Angle A = 70°50’27.82”
Angle E= 66°29’42.71” EXAMPLE: 2nd Case: Lengths of 2 sides unknown
Given the ff sketch and data for a closed traverse, determine the omitted
ABOUT STATION E: measurements of non-adjoining sides BC and EF
β𝐸𝐴 = N 84°51’17.29”E
Unknown Length
C
LINE LENGTH BEARING
C BY SINE LAW:
DE = 2423.868 m AB 620.06 S 87-30 E A
D B
BC _______ N 30-30 E
LINE LENGTH BEARING
AB 1084.32 S 75-48 E CD 691.56 S 42-45 E
BC 1590.51 S 15-18 W DE 688.48 S 60-40 W D
CD 1294.74 S 68-06 W F
DE _______ N 28-39 W EF _______ N 74-05 W
EA 1738.96 _______ FA 412.35 N 07-02 E E
DA 2353.085 N 14-00-49.47” E
INVOLVING 2 NON-ADJOINING SIDES (TYPE 3) INVOLVING 2 NON-ADJOINING SIDES (TYPE 3)

SOLUTION: DRAW AN EQUIVALENT TRANSFORMED FIGURE SOLUTION:

Side BC ab C
LINE LATITUDE DEPARTURE (Unknown Length)
C bc
ab C ab -27.047 619.470
bc
A
B
CD -507.828 469.431
ef
DE -337.279 -600.206 Side EF
ef (Unknown Length) fa D
fa 409.247 50.491
D fa D
F Σ= -462.907 539.186
E

E LCL = 710.637m
E
𝛽CL = N 49°21’10.63” W

INVOLVING 2 NON-ADJOINING SIDES (TYPE 3) INVOLVING 2 NON-ADJOINING SIDES (TYPE 3)

SOLUTION: SOLUTION:
Angle 1 = 𝛽BC + 𝛽CL = 79°51’10.63” Angle 2 = 𝛽EF - 𝛽CL = 24°43’49.37”
1 1
Angle 3 = 180 – (Angle 1 + Angle 2) = 75°25’0”
Side BC Side BC
(Unknown Length) (Unknown Length)
LINE LENGTH BEARING
AB 620.06 S 87-30 E bc
LINE LENGTH BEARING
bc

BC _______ N 30-30 E AB 620.06 S 87-30 E

CD 691.56 S 42-45 E 3 3
BC _______ N 30-30 E
DE 688.48 S 60-40 W ef CD 691.56 S 42-45 E ef
EF _______ N 74-05 W Side EF 2 DE 688.48 S 60-40 W Side EF 2
(Unknown Length) (Unknown Length)
FA 412.35 N 07-02 E EF _______ N 74-05 W
Cl N 49°21’10.63” W FA 412.35 N 07-02 E
Cl N 49°21’10.63” W
INVOLVING 2 NON-ADJOINING SIDES (TYPE 3) INVOLVING 2 NON-ADJOINING SIDES (TYPE 3)
SOLUTION: SOLUTION:
By Sine Law: By Sine Law:
Angle 1 = 79°51’10.63” Angle 1 = 79°51’10.63”
Side BC 1 Side BC 1
Angle 2 = 24°43’49.37” (Unknown Length) Angle 2 = 24°43’49.37” (Unknown Length)
Angle 3 = 75°25’0” Angle 3 = 75°25’0”
bc bc

BC = 307.191m EF = 722.809m
3 3

ef ef
Side EF 2 Side EF 2
(Unknown Length) (Unknown Length)

SOURCES
• For the other cases of Types 2 & 3 of Omitted Measurements,
consult Elementary Surveying, 3rd Ed by Juny Pilapil La Putt,
pp. 431-458.
• The said cases can be solved by following the procedures we Simple Subdivision
have discussed in this lecture. Prepared by: Pierre Ilao
LAND SUBDIVISION LAND SUBDIVISION
• Is a usual task undertaken by surveyors and engineers in
property surveys
• When tracts of land are sold or inherited it is often necessary
to divide into:
a) Small parcels or;
b) Into areas having certain proportions to each other

SIMPLE SUBDIVISION COMPLEX SUBDIVISION

 To cut off a required area by a line
4 COMMON CASES OF SIMPLE SUBDIVISION
running in a given direction
• Dividing an area into 2 parts by a line between 2 pts
• Dividing an area by a line running through a point and in a given REQUIRED AREA GIVEN DIRECTION
direction
• To cut off a required area by a line through a given point
• To cut off a required area by a line running in a given direction

Half of the total area Due East/West/North/South

To cut off a required area by a line

running in a given direction SOLUTION:
EXAMPLE: Line Distance (m) Bearing
Given the following data of a tract of land COURSE ADJ LAT (m) ADJ DEP (m)
AB 492.981 N 5-30-08.33 E
which is to be divided into 2 equal parts AB 490.71 47.27
by an east-west line. Compute the length BC 845.847 N 46-02-34.06 E
of the dividing line and determine the BC 587.12 608.89
distances from the line to the adjacent CD -327.41 786.78 CD 852.185 S 67-24-21.21 E
corners. Provide also the TD of the
subdivided parcels. DE -1002.76 218.32 DE 1026.251 S 12-16-57.74 E
EF -122.67 -1116.62 EF 1123.338 S 83-43-50.60 W
FA 375.01 -544.64 FA 661.260 N 55-27-02.80 W
Σ= 0.00 0.00
 DETERMINING THE AREA OF TRACT ABCDEF
SOLUTION:
C SOLUTION:
COURSE LAT DEP DMD DPA
D
AB 490.71 47.27 47.27 23195.86

MOTHER LOT
B BC 587.12 608.89 703.43 412997.82
CD -327.41 786.78 2099.10 -687266.33
DE -1002.76 218.32 3104.20 -3112767.59
A
EF -122.67 -1116.62 2205.90 -270597.75
E FA 375.01 -544.64 544.64 204245.45

F Σ DPA = -3430192.546

AREA: 1,715,096.27315 m² or 171.510 Ha

DETERMINING THE REQUIRED AREA

SOLUTION:

C SOLUTION: C

D D
AREAreq= ½ (AREAABCDEFA)
B B TRIAL LINE
AREAreq= ½ (1,715,096.27m²) E-W line (dividing line)
M N M N
TRIAL Line
A A P
AREAreq = 857,548.1375m²
E E

F F
 COMPUTING CLOSING LINE DA
SOLUTION:

C C
SOLUTION:
COURSE LAT DEP
D D
AB 490.71 47.27
B CLOSING LINE B BC 587.12 608.89
CD -327.41 786.78
M N M N
Σ= 750.42 1442.94
TRIAL Line TRIAL Line
A P A P

E E DDA = 1,626.408934 m
F F 𝛽 DA = S 62°31’21.78” W

Line Distance (m) Bearing SOLUTION:

AB 492.981 N 5-30-08.33 E
Interior angles: IN CASE AREA DOES NOT CLOSE (TRACT ABCDP)
BC 845.847 N 46-02-34.06 E
D = 74°48’25.52”
CD 852.185 S 67-24-21.21 E C
DE 1026.251 S 12-16-57.74 E P = 77°43’2.26” Course LAT DEP Lat Corr Dep Adj Lat Adj Dep
EF 1123.338 S 83-43-50.60 W A = 27°28’38.22” Corr D
FA 661.260 N 55-27-02.80 W AB 490.71 47.27 0.00 0.00 490.71 47.27
B
DDA = 1,626.408934 m By Sine Law, distances are: BC 587.12 608.89 0.00 0.00 587.12 608.89
𝛽DA = S 62°31’21.78” W M N
D DP = 767.9996725 m CD -327.41 786.78 0.00 0.00 -327.41 786.78
DP -750.57 163.42 0.15 -0.04 -750.42 163.38 TRIAL Line
PA = 1606.333438 m A P
PA 0.00 -1606.28 0.00 -0.04 0.00 -1606.32
E
Lat and Dep of DP and PA: Sum: -0.15 0.08 0.15 -0.08 0.00 0.00
F
Course LAT DEP
A TRIAL Line P DP -750.42 +163.38
PA 0.00 -1606.33
E
AREA COMPUTATION (TRACT ABCDP)
C

Course DMD DPA

D
AB 47.27 23,195.86
AREA ABCDP
B
BC 703.43 412,997.82 AREAABCDP M N
AREA REQUIRED
1,269,649.17 m²
CD 2,099.10 687,266.33
A P

DP 3,049.26 2,288,225.69 E AREA AMNP

PA 1,606.32 0.00 F

Sum: 2,539,298.34

C
Determining Determining R M N Q

area and parts D

area and parts 𝜑 𝛾
of tract AMNP B
of tract AMNP d

M N

A P A P

E Area AMNP = Area ARQP – Area ARM – Area PQN C

Area AMNP = Area ABCDP – Area Reqd (MBCDN) = (PA)d – ½ (RM)d – ½ (NQ)d
F
= (PA)d – ½ d2 tanφ – ½ d2 tanγ
D
= 1,269,649.17 m2 - 857,548.14 m2
d2 B
= 412,101.03 m2 412,101.03 = 1606.33 d –
2
(tan 5−30−8.33 + tan 12−16−57.74)
M N
Simplifying, 0.157 d2 - 1606.33 d + 412,101.03 = 0 A P
E
Using quadratic formula, d = 9966.48 and d = 263.33 m F
 C C

Determining Determining
distances of M and distances of M and
D D

N from adjacent B
N from adjacent B

corners M N corners M N

A P A P
MB = AB – AM DN = DP - NP
𝑑 E 𝑑 E
= 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝐴𝐵2 2
+ 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝐴𝐵 − = 767.9996 −
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾
263.33 F 263.33 F
= 490.71 2 + 47.47 2 − = 767.9996 −
𝑐𝑜𝑠(5−30−8.33) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(12−16−57.74)
= 228.43 m = 498.50 m

C
R M N Q
Determining length Technical D

of dividing line Description of

𝜑 𝛾
d B
(MN) Each Parcel
M N

A P
Line Distance (m) Bearing
MN = AP – RM - NQ
MB 228.43 N 05-30 E
= AP –dtanφ – dtanγ
= 1606.33 – 263.33*(tan 5-30-8.33 + tan 12-16-57.74) BC 845.847 N 46-03 E
= 1523.63 m
CD 852.185 S 67-24 E

DN 498.50 S 12-17 E

NM 1026.251 DUE WEST

Technical M N

Description of
Introduction to Vertical
A

Each Parcel E

Line Distance (m) Bearing

F
Distance Measurements
AM 264.55 N 05-30 E Prepared by: Pierre Ilao
Note:
MN 1523.63 DUE EAST NE = DE – DN
= 1026.25 – 498.50
NE 527.75 S 12-17 E

EF 1123.34 S 83-44 W

FA 661.26 N 55-27 W

Leveling Difference in Elevation

• The operation of measuring vertical distances, either directly • Vertical distance between two level surfaces in which the
or indirectly, to determine differences in elevation points lie
Leveling Terms Leveling Terms
• Level Surface • Elevation
- Surface every element of which is normal to the plumb line - Vertical distance of a point above of below an arbitrarily assumed
- When used as a reference, it is called the datum level surface or curved surface

• Plumbline • Horizontal line

- A vertical line used which is perpendicular to the tangent line of a - A straight line which is tangent to a level surface
level surface

• Vertical datum
- A surface to which elevations or depths are referred

Vertical Datum Comparison of surfaces

• Geoid
Geoid Ellipsoid
- Surface of constant potential energy (equipotential surface) that
coincides with mean sea level over the oceans

• Reference Ellipsoid
- Mathematical surface of reference
Leveling Terms Ellipsoidal Height VS Orthometric Height
• Orthometric Heights At certain heights on the earth
surface:
- Geometrical distance between the geoid and the point measured along - measurements referred from
the plumb line passing through the point the ellipsoid (mathematically
- Use different methods of leveling determined surface) are
called ellipsoidal height;
- measurements referred from
the geoid (equipotential
• Ellipsoidal Elevations surface and usually the Mean
Sea Level) are called
- Elevation referred to the reference ellipsoid orthometric height.
- We use GPS to determine ellipsoidal elevations (mathematically
induced measurements based on an ellipsoid surface best fitting the
earth)

Leveling Set-Up Leveling Terms

• Bench Mark (B.M.)
- A definite point on an object,
the elevation and location of
which are known
- Serves as a point of
reference for levels
- May be permanent (P.B.M.)
or temporary (T.B.M.)
Leveling Terms Leveling Terms
• Turning Point (T.P.) • Backsight (BS)
- An intervening point between two bench marks upon which point - A rod reading taken on a point of known elevation (BM or TP)
foresight and backsight rod readings are taken - Usually taken with the level sighting back along the line (hence the
- Its nature is usually indicated in the notes but location is not name)
necessary - Sometimes called a plus sight
- A B.M. may be used as a T.P.
• Backsight Distance
- Horizontal distance from level to rod on a BS

Leveling Terms Leveling Terms

• Foresight (FS) • Height of the Instrument (HI)
- A rod reading taken on a point of unknown elevation (BM or TP to be - Elevation of the line of sight of the telescope above the datum when
established) the instrument is leveled
- Sometimes called a minus sight

• Foresight Distance
- The horizontal distance from level to rod on a FS
Significance of Leveling Operations Types of Levels
• Provides necessary data for engineering design, engineering • Dumpy Level
construction, production of topographic maps • Automatic Level
• Site suitability analysis • Tilting Level
• Proper design and laying out of vertical and horizontal • Laser Level
structures
• Digital Level
• Hand Level

Automatic Level Automatic Level

• A.k.a. self-leveling level; also • Leveled by the use of a circular spirit or bull’s eye level and the
regarded as engineer’s level compensator maintains a horizontal line of sight
• Allows the establishment of a • ADVANTAGES: Light, easy to handle, and operation is quick and
horizontal line of sight by means of a accurate
compensator
• Compensator: a system of prisms and • Random error in centering the bubble is absent in the
mirrors supported by wires as in a instrument
pendulum
• Designed so that the LOS is horizontal
when the telescope barrel is within
+/-10” of being horizontal.
Laser Level Digital Level
• Used commonly in construction • EASY: aims the telescope at the staff,
adjust focus and press a single key, and
works to maintain the it measures height and distance
elevations needed simultaneously
• Saves time and effort since it • FAST: measurement is completed in < 3
sec
can detect the prism in a whole • ACCURATE: automatic operation
revolution of 360deg eliminates conventional error by the
operator
• Advantage for layout work in
construction since it is simple,
one button operation and fully RAB-Code Staves –
“Random Bi-directional Codes”
automatic construction

Hand Level Leveling Rods

• Widely used for rough leveling • Graduated rods of rectangular cross section by means of
• Consists of a metal sighting tube about 6in long on which is which difference in elevation is measured
mounted on a level vial • May be made of wood, aluminum alloy, and/or fiberglass
• Lower ground end
• Shod with metal to protect it from wear
• Usually, the point of zero measurement
• Rod is held vertically
• Rod reading is indicated by the level’s horizontal cross hair
• Measure of the vertical distance between the point on which the rod is
held and the line of sight
General Classes of Leveling Rods Self-Reading Rod
• Self-Reading Rod • May be read directly by the leveler while
looking through the telescope of the
• Target Rod level
• Leveler observes graduation at which
the line of sight intersects the rod and
records the reading
• Should be marked so that the
graduations appear sharp and distinct
for any normal distance between level
and rod
• PHILADELPHIA ROD is the most widely
used rod

Target Rod Leveling Operations

• In using target rods, the leveler signals the rod • Direct
man to slide the target up or down until it is
bisected by the line of sight. The target is then • Trigonometric
clamped, and the rod person, leveler, or both • Reciprocal
observed the indicated reading • Stadia
• Usually, it is equipped with a vernier
• Barometric
• Advantages:
1. Mistakes are less likely to occur • Borrow-pit
2. Under certain condition, its use materially • Gravimetric
facilitates the work
• GPS Survey
• Con: under ordinary conditions, its use retards
progress without adding much precision • Profile
 A
• Measure vertical distances directly
• Measuring vertical angles and horizontal or
• Most precise method of determining elevations slope distances
Direct Leveling • Note: effect of earth’s curvature and refraction is reduced to
negligible amount
Trigonometric Leveling • Source of error: Uncertainty in the
curvature and refraction correction caused
by variations in atmospheric conditions

Uses of Trigonometric Leveling

1. Rapid means of determining elevation of points in rolling or
rough terrains
2. If Total Station is used, results is nearly comparable to those
obtained by differential leveling
3. Used to establish vertical control for photogrammetric,
topographic, construction surveys and determination of
• Employed to determine the difference in elevation between
structural deformation in building, bridge, and dams two points when it is difficult or impossible to keep
inaccessible to differential leveling Reciprocal backsights and foresights short and equal
• E.g. when running levels across rivers, lakes, or in rugged
Leveling terrains where deep canyons and ravines are encountered.
 • Vertical distances are determined by tachometry by using
transit and level rod
Stadia • Process of taking stadia measurements consists of Stadia
observing, through the telescope, the apparent locations of
Leveling the two stadia hairs, which is held in a vertical position Leveling

• Measuring the differences in atmospheric pressure at

various stations by means of a barometer
• Principally used on exploratory or reconnaissance surveys • Determining relative elevations in a borrow-pit excavation
where differences in elevations are large like hilly or for the purpose of the calculating volumes of earthwork
Barometric mountainous country
• Mercurial barometer is accurate but suitable only for
Borrow-Pit • Usually encountered in the construction of roads and
Leveling observations at fixed point Leveling railroads
• Aneroid barometer is used for field because it is light and
can be easily transported.
 GPS Survey
Gravimetric Leveling
• Surveys where elevations are
• Used for measuring the differences in gravity referenced to the ellipsoid but can be
at various stations by means of gravimeter for corrected if a sufficient number of
geodetic purposes points with datum elevations are
located in the region surveyed.

Profile Leveling Differential Leveling

• Operation for determining differences in elevations of points
• Operation-usually by direct leveling-of some distance apart or of establishing benchmarks
determining elevations of points at
short measured intervals along a • It is usually accomplished by direct leveling
definitely located line, such as the
center line for a highway or a sewerp

𝐻𝐼 = 𝐵𝑆 + 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝐵𝑀
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑖 = 𝐻𝐼 − 𝐹𝑆
Differential Leveling Computations

Errors and Adjustments

BM BS HI FS Elev
BM1 3.251 75.356 72.105

in Leveling
TP1 2.539 77.883 0.012 75.344
TP2 3.572 81.117 0.338 77.545
BM2 0.933 78.938 3.112 78.005
TP3 0.317 75.949 3.306 75.632 Prepared by: Pierre Ilao
TP4 0.835 74.068 2.716 73.233
TP5 0.247 70.773 3.542 70.526
BM3 3.786 66.987
SUM = 11.964 SUM = 16.812

𝐵𝑀1 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 + 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝐵𝑆 − 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝐹𝑆 = 𝐵𝑀 3 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣

72.105 + 11.694 − 16.812 = 66.987

Errors in Leveling Errors in Leveling

• IMPERFECT ADJUSTMENT OF THE INSTRUMENT • PARALLAX
- Line of sight should be parallel to the axis of the level tube - Effect: relative movement between the image of the cross hairs and
- Any inclination produces systematic error image of the object when the eye is moved up and down
- Error in rod reading is proportional to the distance from the - Causes random error
instrument to the rod - To eliminate: careful focusing
- Error in elevations will be eliminated when 𝑆𝐷𝐵𝑆 = 𝑆𝐷𝐹𝑆
- To minimize: adjust the instrument and balance the BS and FS
distances
Errors in Leveling Errors in Leveling
• EARTH’S CURVATURE • ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
- Produces an error only when BS and FS distances are not balanced - Varies as the square of the distance
- Error varies as the square of the distance from instrument to rod - 1/7 and opposite in sign of that error due to earth’s curvature
- Correction: 𝑐𝑚 = 0.0785𝐾 2 - Usually considered together with earth’s curvature
- To eliminate: balance each 𝐷𝐵𝑆 by a corresponding 𝐷𝐹𝑆 - (c & r) = 0.0675𝐾 2 meters
- Often changes rapidly and greatly in a short distance
- In ordinary leveling: effect is negligible
- In leveling of greater precision: can be minimized by:
- Keeping the LOS well above the ground (at least ~0.7m)
- Taking the BS and FS readings in quick succession

Errors in Leveling Errors in Leveling

• VARIATIONS IN TEMPERATURE • ROD NOT OF STANDARD LENGTH
- Cause: sun’s ray falling on top of the telescope, or on one end and not - If distributed over the length of the rod:
on the other. - Systematic error is produced
- Effect: will produce a warping or twisting of its parts and hence, may - Varies directly as the difference in elevation
influence rod readings through temporarily disturbing the instruments - Bears no relation to the length of the line over which levels are run
- Error: usually random but under certain conditions, it may become - To eliminate:
systematic - Compare the rod with a standard rod
- To eliminate: shield the instrument from the rays of the sun - Apply correction analogous to a tape that is too short or too long
Errors in Leveling Errors in Leveling
• EXPANSION OR CONTRACTION OF THE ROD • ROD NOT HELD PLUMB
- Cause: change in moisture content - Result: rod readings that are too large
- Resultant error: systematic - Appreciable inclinations of the rod must be avoided particularly for
- Coefficient of thermal expansion is small high rod readings
- Error is of no particular consequence in ordinary leveling - Can be eliminated by:
- For precise leveling: gage points may be established using metal - Swinging the rod
plugs in the rod - Use a rod level
- Correction for thermal expansion may be based upon observed
temperatures of the rod

Errors in Leveling Errors in Leveling

• FAULTY TURNING POINTS • BUBBLE NOT EXACTLY CENTERED AT INSTANT OF SIGHTING
- Error: random - Result: produces random error which tends to vary as the distance
- Cause: when TPs are not well defined from instrument to rod
- To eliminate: choose definite and stable points - The longer the sight, the greater is the care that should be observed in
leveling the instrument
Errors in Leveling ERROR OF CLOSURE
• INABILITY OF THE OBSERVER TO READ THE ROD EXACTLY OR - When a line of level makes a complete circuit, almost invariably, the
TO SET THE TARGET EXACTLY ON THE LINE OF SIGHT 𝐵𝑀𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ≠ 𝐵𝑀𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
- This difference is the error of running the circuit and is called the
- Causes a random error of a magnitude depending upon the: Error of Closure
- Instrument - Result > Intermediate BMs are also in error
- Weather conditions - Problems:
- Length of sight - Determining the error for intermediate points
- Observer - Adjusting their corresponding elevations
- To reduce: by proper choice of the length of sight

Corrections to the Observed Elevations Adjustment of Intermediate Benchmarks

• The appropriate correction to the observed elevation of a given The accepted elevation of the initial Point Distance Observed
bench mark in the circuit is directly proportional to the benchmark BM1 of a level circuit is from BM1
(km)
elevation
(m)
distance of the BM from the point of beginning: 150.92m. The length of the circuit is
1.78km. The final elevation of BM1 as BM1 0 150.92

𝑑 calculated from the level notes is

BM2 0.35 238.45
𝐶 = − 𝐸𝐶 151.04m. The observed distances of
𝐿 the benchmarks from BM1 and the
BM3 0.89 203.3
elevations of benchmarks are
C = correction to be applied to a BM shown in the second and third BM4 1.24 165.61
d = distance of a BM from the point of beginning columns, respectively. The adjusted
L = length of the circuit elevations of these intermediate BM1 1.78 151.04
points are required.
E C = Error of closure of the level circuit = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 − 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
Adjustment of Intermediate Benchmarks
𝐸𝐶 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑏𝑠 − 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 Point Distance Observed Correction Adjusted
from BM1 elevation s (m) Elevation
𝐸𝐶 = 151.04 − 150.92 = 0.12 𝑚 (km) (m) (m)
BM1 0 150.92 0.00

𝐿 = 1.78 𝑘𝑚 BM2 0.35 238.45 -0.02 238.43

𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑚
𝐶=− × 0.12𝑚 BM3 0.89 203.3 -0.06 203.24
1.78

BM4 1.24 165.61 -0.08 165.53

BM1 1.78 151.04 -0.12 150.92