faulty genes that result in either too little

S K E LE TAL SYS T E M collagen formation, or poor-quality collagen.

- rigid framework to support the soft tissues of the Histology of Bone
body; system of joints and levers to allow the body Types of Bone Cells
to move. Osteoblasts
- dynamic, living tissues that are able to grow, detect - bone-forming cells; repair and remodelling of bone.
pain stimuli, adapt to stress, and undergo repair - has an extensive ER and numerous ribosomes.
under injury. - produce collagen and proteoglycans, which are
- consists of the bone, cartilage, tendons, and packaged into vesicles by the GA and secreted by
ligaments. exocytosis.
- Skeleton; dried (Greek) - secrete high concentrations of Ca2+ and phosphate
ions (hydroxyapatite).
Functions of the Skeletal System
 Ossification
1. Body Support
- osteogenesis; formation of new bone by
 Cartilage – provides firm yet flexible support osteoblasts.
within certain structures (e.g., nose, external ear, - can occur multiple times during life.
thoracic cage, and trachea). - occurs by appositional growth on the surface
 Ligaments – hold bones together; these are of previously existing material.
strong bands of fibrous connective tissue.
2. Organ Protection Osteocytes
 Bone – hard; protects the organs it surrounds. - account for 90-95% of bone cells and are very long-
3. Body Movement lived (up to 25 years).
 Skeletal muscles – attach bones by tendons, - can produce the components needed to maintain the
which are strong bands of connective tissue. bone matrix.
 Joints – formed where two or more bones come - cell bodies located between the lacunae.
together; allow movement between bones.  Lacunae – spaces in the bone matrix.
 Ligaments – allow some movement between  Canaliculi – narrow, long spaces tiny.
bones but prevent excessive movement.
4. Mineral Storage Osteoclasts
 Calcium and Phosphorus – two minerals - bone-destroying cells which break down bones.
essential for many physiological processes. - massive, multinucleated cells and develop from the
 Adipose tissue – stored within bone cavities. red bone marrow cells.
5. Blood cell production - create an acidic environment within the sealed
 Red bone marrow – produces blood cells and compartment which causes its breakdown.
platelets.  Reabsorption – breakdown of bone; important
for mobilizing crucial hydroxyapatite.
Bone Histology  Ruffled border – a specialized reabsorption-
Extracellular Matrix – composed of connective specific area of the membrane.
tissues.
 Collagen – tough rope-like protein; provides Types of Bone Tissue
flexibility but resists pulling or compression. Lamellar bone – mature bone.
 Proteoglycans – water-trapping proteins that Lamellae – thin, concentric sheets or layers organized to
helps cartilage be smooth and resilient; large become the lamellar bone.
molecules consisting of polysaccharides attached a. Spongy bone
to core proteins. - consists of interconnecting rods or plates called
 Tendons & Ligaments – large amounts of trabeculae.
collagen fiber. o Trabeculae – thin and consist of several
 Cartilage – contains collagen & proteoglycans. lamellae, with osteocytes located in lacunae
 Bone – contains collagen and minerals (Calcium between the lamellae.
& Phosphate). b. Compact bone
 Hydroxyapatite – calcium phosphate crystals; - cortical bone
acts as a template that stimulate formation and - solid, outer layer surrounding each bone.
mineralization of the matrix. - has more matrix and is denser with fewer pores.
o Osteon – haversian system; functional unit
 Brittle bone disease – osteogenesis imperfecta;
a rare disorder caused by any one of a number of of compact bone; composed of concentric

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 rings of matrix, which surrounds a central Periosteum – a connective tissue membrane covering the
tunnel and contain osteocytes. outer surface of a bone.
o Central Canal – bull’s-eye of the target;  Outer later consists of blood vessels and nerves,
lined with endosteum and contain blood whereas the inner layer is a single layer of bone
vessels, nerves, and loose connective tissue. cells.

Endosteum – a single cell layer of connective tissue that

lines the internal surfaces of all cavities within bones.

Bone Development
Types of Ossification
a. Intramembranous ossification – osteoblasts begin
to produce bone in connective tissue.
Bone Anatomy  Centers of Ossification – locations in the
Structure of a Long Bone membrane where intramembranous ossification
Diaphysis begins.
- center portion of the bone.  Fontanels – soft spots; are the larger,
- composed primarily of compact bone tissue, membrane-covered spaces between the
surrounding a hollow center. developing skull bones that have not yet been
 Medullary cavity – the hollow center. ossified.
b. Endochondral ossification – bone formation occurs
Epiphyses inside the cartilage; bones at the base of the skull and
- ends of a long bone. remaining skeletal system are formed.
- mostly spongy bone, with an outer layer of compact  Chondrocytes – produces a hyaline cartilage
bone. model; surrounded by perichondrium.
 Articular cartilage – hyaline cartilage covering o Bone collar – compact bone on the surface
the ends of a long bone. of the cartilage module.
 Epiphyseal plate – growth plate; located o Hypertrophy – enlargement of
between the epiphysis and the diaphysis. chondrocytes.
 Epiphyseal line – epiphyseal plate that has o Calcified cartilage – chondrocytes that has
ossified. hydroxyapatite crystals in the cartilage
matrix; will eventually die.
 Primary ossification center – where bone first
begins to appear.
o Osteoclasts – cells that remove calcified
cartilage matrix.
 Secondary ossification center – form in the
epiphyses.

Bone Growth
 Deposition of new bone lamellae onto existing
bone.
 Bone elongation occurs at the epiphyseal plate;
leads to increase in height (endochondral
ossification)
 Chondrocytes proliferate, enlarge, die, and are
replaced by bone.
 Appositional growth – increase in bone width or
diameter.

Bone Remodelling
- bone that becomes old is replaced with a new bone.
- occurs in all bones.
 Removal of existing bone by osteoclasts.
Red Marrow – site of blood cell formation.  Deposition of new bone by osteoblasts.
Yellow marrow – mostly adipose tissue.
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 Responsible for change in bone shape, bone Calcium Homeostasis
adjustment, repair, and calcium ion regulation. Calcium – a critical physiological regulator of many
processes required to achieve and maintain homeostasis.
 Stimulation of skeletal muscle contraction.
 Stimulation and regulation of cardiac muscle
Bone Repair contraction.
Classification of Bone Fractures  Exocytosis of cellular molecules.
 Open fracture – compound fracture; an open wound Osteoclasts remove calcium = blood calcium levels
extends to the site of the fracture or when a fragment increase.
of bone protrudes through the skin. Osteoblasts deposit calcium = blood calcium levels
 Closed fracture – skin is not perforated. decrease.
 Complicated fractured – soft tissues around a
closed fracture are damaged. Hormones that maintain Calcium Homeostasis
 Incomplete fracture – does not extend completely 1. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
across the bone. - secreted by cells in the parathyroid gland.
o Greenstick fracture – incomplete fracture on - essential for the maintenance of blood Ca 2+
the convex side of the curve of the bone. levels within the homeostatic limits.
o Hairline fractures – incomplete fractures in - production and secretion are controlled by Ca 2+-
which the two sections of bone do not separate; sensing receptors in the parathyroid gland.
common in the skull. - key signal is a reduction in blood Ca2+ levels.
 Complete fracture – bone is broken into at least two (1) Direct effects on bone cells and in the kidney.
fragments. o Bone Cells. PTH increases blood Ca2+ by
o Comminuted fracture – a complete fracture in exerting direct regulatory control of
which the bone breaks into more than two osteoblasts and osteocytes to increase
pieces. formation and activation of osteoclasts.
 Impacted fracture – one fragment is driven into the o Kidney Tubules. PTH stimulates the
spongy portion of the other fragment. reabsorption of Ca2+ from urine, which
 Linear fracture – run parallel to the length of the reduces its amount excreted in the urine.
bone. (2) Indirect effects on the small intestine.
o Increased PTH promotes the activation of
 Transverse fractures – at right angles to the length
of the bone. calcitriol in the kidneys which increases
absorption of Ca2+ in the small intestine.
 Spiral fractures – take a helical course around the
2. Calcitriol
bond.
- increases blood Ca2+ levels.
 Oblique fractures – run obliquely in relation to the
- a steroid hormone derived from vitamin D3.
length of the bone.
- assists PTH in the kidney tubules by preventing
 Dentate fractures – have rough, toothed, broken Ca2+ removal through urine.
ends. 3. Calcitonin
 Stellate fractures – have breakage lines radiating - secreted from C cells in the thyroid gland when
from a central point. Ca2+ levels are too high.
- rapidly lowers blood Ca2+ levels by inhibiting
osteoclast activity.

Skeletal Anatomy Overview

 Average adult has 206 bones.

Axial Skeleton
- consist of the bones of the skull, the auditory
ossicles, the hyoid bone, the vertebral column, and
 Hematoma – a localized mass of blood released the thoracic cage.
from blood vessels but confined within an organ or a
space. Appendicular Skeleton
 Clot is formed in the damaged area. - consists of the bones of the upper limbs, the lower
 Callus – a mass of bone tissue that forms at a limbs, the pectoral girdle, and the pelvic girdle.
fracture site.

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 Skull
- contains 8 cranial bones and 14 facial bones (total of
22).

Cranium
- cranial bones.
- house and protect the brain.
- connected by immovable joints called sutures.
o Coronal suture
o Sagittal suture
o Lambdoid sutures
o Squamous suture
 Calvaria – top of the skull; often removed to view
the interior of the skull.

Bone Shapes
 Long bones – longer than they are wider (e.g., upper
and lower limbs).
 Short bones – approximately as wide as they are
long (e.g., wrist and ankle).
 Flat bones – have a relatively thin, flattened shape
(e.g., skull bones, the ribs, and the scapula).
 Irregular bones – have shapes that do not fir readily
into the other three categories (e.g., vertebrae and
facial bones). Cranial Bones
1. Frontal Bone
Skeletal Terminology - connected to the two parietal bones by the
 Foramen – hole in a bone; usually exists because coronal suture.
some structure passes through the bone at that point. - most well-known at the “forehead”.
 Canal / Meatus – elongated hole in a tunnel like - forms the roof of both the orbit of the eye and
body. the nasal cavity.
 Fossa – depression in a bone. o Supraorbital foramen – notch; superior border
 Tubercle / Tuberosity – rounded projection on a of each of the orbits which allows passage of a
bone. blood vessel and nerve for the eyelid and eye.
 Process – sharp projection from a bone. o Glabella – smooth region of bone.
 Condyle – smooth, rounded end of a bone that forms o Frontal sinus – one of the paranasal sinuses.
a joint with another bone. o Anterior cranial fossa – supports lobes of the
 Facet – small flattened articular surface. brain.
 Crest – prominent ridge.
 Trochanter – tuberosity found only on proximal
femur.
 Fissure – cleft.
 Sinus – cavity.
 Suture – a joint uniting the bones of the skull

Axial Skeleton
- forms the central axis of the body.
- protects the brain, the spinal cord, and the vital
organs housed within the thorax.

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  Zygomatic process – extends from the
squamous part anteriorly toward the
zygomatic bone of the face.
 Zygomatic arch – a bridge across the
side of the skull.
 Mandibular fossa – oval-shaped fossa
on the inferior side; attachment site of
the mandible.
(2) The tympanic part of the temporal bone.
 External auditory canal (external
acoustic meatus) – transmits sound
waves toward the eardrum, or tympanic
membrane.
(3) The petrous part of the temporal bone
extends inward toward the center of the
skull.
- thick, bony ridge, hollow, and houses
the middle and inner ears.
 Internal auditory canal – located on
the posterior surface of the petrous part
and is the opening for a nerve
controlling hearing and balance.
 Mastoid process – a large, bony
inferior projection that can be seen and
felt just posterior to the external ear; not
a solid bone but is filled with cavities
called mastoid air cells.
 Mastoid air cells – connected to the
middle ear and can get infected.
 Mastoiditis – infection of the mastoid
air cells.

2. Parietal Bones
- form nearly half of the superior portion of the
skull.
- make up the majority of the lateral potion of the
skull.
o Sagittal suture – joins the two parietal bones.
o Lambdoid suture – connects the two parietal
bones to the occipital bones.
3. Temporal Bones
o Squamous sutures – connect the temporal
bones to the skull.
- temporal – “related to time”; derived from the
observation that the hair on the temples turns
grey as the person ages.
o Styloid process – projects from the lower
(1) The squamous part of each temporal bone
portion of the petrous part of the temporal bone;
meets the parietal bone.

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 serves as an attachment site for three muscles o Nasal septum – a large portion of the nasal
necessary for movement of the tongue, hyoid cavity.
bone, and pharynx. o Ethmoidal sinuses – formed from sinuses
o Stylomastoid foramen – located between the within the ethmoid bone.
styloid process and mastoid process and allows o Crista galli – a prominent ridge of the ethmoid
for passage of a nerve controlling facial muscles. bone; an attachment site for the meninges of the
o Jugular foramina – allow the jugular veins to brain.
carry the majority of the blood away from the o Cribriform plates – located on each side of the
brain. crista galli each of which one of the two
o Carotid canals – major entry point for blood olfactory bulbs that transmit signals for the sense
delivery to the brain. of smell from the nasal cavity to the brain.
o Foramen lacerum – an easily noticeable o Olfactory foramina – allow olfactory nerves to
opening in a dried skull at the border of the enter the nasal cavity.
petrous part and the sphenoid; only an artifact of o Perpendicular plate – a thin bony plate that
the dried skull and is closed off by cartilage in forms the superior portion of the nasal septum
life. and divides the nasal cavity in right and left
4. Occipital Bones halves.
- makes up the majority of the skull’s posterior o Conchae – two scroll-shaped bones.
wall and base.
o Foramen magnum – most prominent feature; Specialized Regions in the Skull
opening where the brainstem connects to the  Paranasal Sinuses
spinal cord. - sinuses found in the frontal bone, the ethmoid
o Posterior cranial fossae – support the bone, the sphenoid bone, and the maxilla.
cerebellum of the brain. - openings within particular bones that open into
o Occipital condyles – points of articulation the nasal cavity.
between the skull and the first cervical vertebra. o Functions of Sinuses
o Nuchal lines – points of attachment for several  decrease the weight of the skull.
neck muscles that move the head.  act as a resonating chamber when speaking.
5. Sphenoid Bone  Orbits
- a single bone that extends completely across the - cone-shaped fossae.
skull. - called orbits as they allow the eyes to rotate
- butterfly-shaped bone when viewed as a whole. within the fossae.
- the center forms a central prominence within the - converged portions of multiple bones.
floor of the cranial cavity. - protects the eyes and are the locations where the
o Sella Turcica – saddle-shaped structure at the muscles controlling eye movements attach.
central region; surrounds and protects the - have several openings through which structures
pituitary gland. communicate between the orbit and other
o Sphenoidal sinuses. cavities.
o Optic canal – located on each side of the o Nasolacrimal canal – passageway for the
sphenoid bone just anterior to the sella turcica; nasolacrimal duct carrying tears from the eyes to
passageways for blood vessels and nerves that the nasal cavity.
service the brain as well as the meninges,  Nasal Cavity
protective membranes that surround the brain. - has a rounded opening anteriorly and is
o Middle cranial fossa – formed from the lateral separated into right and left halves.
portions of the sphenoid bone.  Facial Bones
o Superior orbital fissure – superior border - protect the major sensory organs located in the
where cranial nerves controlling eye movement face.
enter the orbit. - provide attachment points for muscles
6. Ethmoid Bone controlling mastication, facial expressions
- appropriately names as it is very porous, fragile associated with our emotions, and eye
bone. movements.
- irregularly shaped bone that lies anterior to the - the bones of the face and their soft tissues
sphenoid bone determine the uniqueness of each facial
- centrally located in the skull, forming the nasal appearance.
septum.

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 o Zygomatic Bones – cheekbones, anterior to the
sphenoid bone; form part of the border of the
orbits.
o Maxillae – anterior and inferior to the zygomatic
bones; fused in the center.
 Each contains a palatine process.
 Hard palate – roof of the mouth.
 Incisive foramen – located just posterior to
the front teeth and allows passage of blood
vessels and nerves.
 Infraorbital foramen – passage of a facial Vertebral Column
nerve and artery. - central axis of the skeleton
 Inferior orbital fissure – allows the passage  26 individual bones (vertebrae)
of several nerves and blood vessels to the o 7 cervical vertebrae
face. o 12 thoracic vertebrae
o Palatine Bones – have horizontal plates that o 5 lumbar vertebrae
fuse centrally to form the posterior portion of o 1 sacral bone
the hard palate. o 1 coccygeal bone.
o Lacrimal Bones – smallest of the skull bones  33 or 34 vertebrae in a developing embryo.
and house the depression through which the o 5 sacral vertebrae have fused to form 1 bone,
nasolacrimal duct enters the nasolacrimal canal, and the 4 or 5 coccygeal bones have fused to
joining the orbits and nasal cavity. form 1 bone.
o Nasal Bones – form the bridge of the nose.  Adult vertebral column has four major curvatures.
o Mandible o Cervical region curves anteriorly.
- lower jaw. o Thoracic region curves posteriorly.
- the only skull bone that is freely movable. o Lumbar region curves anteriorly.
- inferior to the maxillae and attaches o Sacral and Coccygeal regions curve
posteriorly to the temporal bone via the posteriorly.
mandibular fossae.
 Mandibular condyle – attaches with the Functions of the Vertebral Column
mandibular fossa. 1. Supports the weight of the head and the trunk.
 Coronoid process – anterior to the 2. Protects the spinal cord.
mandibular condyle. 3. Allows the spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord.
 Temporalis muscle – powerful muscle of 4. Site for muscle attachment.
mastication; attaches to the coronoid 5. Permits movement of the head and trunk.
process.
 Mental foramen – passage of nerves and
blood vessels to the chin.
o Vomer – forms most of the posterior portion of
the nasal septum.
o Inferior Nasal Conchae – one of the three
conchae in the nasal cavity that provide
increased surface area.

Hyoid Bone
- important for speech and swallowing.
- unpaired, and is often listed as part of the facial
bones.
- has the unique distinction of being the only bone in
the body not directly attached to another bone.
- has no direct bony attachment to the skull.
- muscle and ligaments attach it to the skull.
- embedded in soft tissue in the neck just below the
mandible.

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 o Spinous process – lies at the junction between
the two laminae; can be seen and felt as a series
of rounded projections down the midline of the
back.
o Intervertebral foramina – locations where two
vertebrae meet and where spinal nerves exit the
spinal cord.
o Intervertebral notches – forms the foramen in
the pedicles of adjacent vertebrae.
o Superior and Inferior articular processes –
overlap of these processes increases the rigidity
of the column.
o Articular facet – smooth region of overlap and
articulation between the superior and inferior
articular process.
o Intervertebral disks – separates the vertebrae
in a living person.

Regional Differences in Vertebrae

1. Cervical Vertebrae
- located in the vertebral column region with the
greatest range of motion.
- can support and move the head.
- has very small bodies, making dislocations and
other fractures more common than in other
regions.
- transverse process has transverse foramina
where the vertebral arteries extend toward the
head.
o Atlas – C1; derives it name from the Greek
mythology character, Atlas, who held the world
General Features of the Vertebrae on his shoulders; does or have a body or a
1. Vertebral body – solid bony disk of each vertebra, spinous process.
supporting the body’s weight. o Axis – named because the joint between the atlas
and the axis allows for a significant amount of
head rotation.
o Dens – highly modified superior process of the
axis.
2. Thoracic Vertebrae
- least moveable of the five regions due to the
articulation of the thoracic vertebrae with the
ribs.
- support the thoracic cage, which houses and
protects the heart and lungs.
- have the longest spinous processes, which
2. Vertebral arch – protects the spinal cord; projects project inferiorly.
posteriorly from the body. - first 10 transverse processes possess articular
o Vertebral canal – contains the entire spinal cord facets for the ribs.
and cauda equina. 3. Lumbar Vertebrae
o Pedicle – half of the arch attached to the body. - support the majority of the body’s weight.
o Lamina – half of the arch which forms the - have massive bodies and heavy, rectangular
posterior portion of the vertebral foramen. transverse and spinous processes.
3. Transverse process – extends laterally from each - fractures are less common, but ruptured
side of the arch between the lamina and the pedicle. intervertebral disks are common.
- fifth lumbar vertebra or first coccygeal vertebra
may become fused into the sacrum.

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4. Sacrum Ribs and Costal Cartilages
- located between the two hip bones. - 12 pairs of ribs.
- formed from five separate sacral vertebrae that o 1 – 7 are true ribs; attached directly through
begin to fuse during adolescence, resulting in a costal cartilage to the sternum.
solid bony plate by the mid-20s. o 8 – 12 are false ribs; do not directly attached to
- part of the pelvic girdle, which provides support the sternum.
to the lower limbs.  8 – 10 are joined by a common cartilage to
the costal cartilage of rib 7.
 11 – 12 are floating ribs; do not attach to
the sternum.
 Sternum
- breastbone.
- has been described as sword-shaped and has
three parts:
o Manubrium – the “sword handle”; first rib
and the clavicle.
o Median sacral crest – ridge formed from a  Jugular notch – can be easily felt at the
former spinous process. anterior base of the neck.
o Sacral hiatus – opening in the inferior surface  Sternal angle – prominence on the
of the sacrum commonly used as an injection anterior thorax; cartilage at second rib.
site. o Body – gladiolus; the “blade”; third to
o Sacral promontory – anterior bulge on the first seventh ribs.
sacral vertebra; used as a landmark for o Xiphoid process – “sword tip”; no ribs
separation of the abdominal and pelvic cavity. attached.
5. Coccyx
- tailbone. Diseases relating to the vertebral column:
- terminal portion of the vertebral column. Kyphosis – posterior curvature; hunchback
- can be formed from three to five semi-fused Lordosis – anterior curvature; swayback condition
vertebrae. Scoliosis – lateral curvature
o Male – project anteriorly.
o Female – project inferiorly. Appendicular Skeleton
- much smaller than the other vertebrae and have - allows movement of our appendages and supports
neither vertebral foramina now well-developed our weight in an upright position.
processes.
- easily broken when a person falls by sitting Pectoral Girdle: Scapula and Clavicle
down hard on a solid surface. Pectoral girdle – consist of two pairs of bones that
attach each of the upper limbs to the body.
Thoracic Cage  Scapula
- rib cage. - shoulder blade.
- protects the heart and lunch within the thorax. - flat, triangular bone that can easily be seen and
- forms a semirigid chamber, which can increase and felt in a living person.
decrease in volume during respiration. o Acromion – large tip at the shoulder.
 (1) thoracic cage, (2) ribs associated with costal (rib) o Scapular spine – extends from the acromion
cartilages, and (3) the sternum. process across the posterior surface of the
scapula.
o Coracoid process – crow’s beak; provides
attachments for some shoulder and arm muscles.
o Glenoid cavity – located in the superior lateral
potion of the bone; articulates with the head of
the humerus.

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  Medial epicondyle and lateral epicondyle –
attachment sites.
 Olecranon fossa – accommodates a portion of the
ulna that is easily felt as the point of the elbow.

Forearm: Ulna and Radius

 Clavicle
- collarbone
- a long bone with a slight sigmoid (S-shaped)
curve.
- easily seen and felt in the living human.
- articulates with the scapula and the sternum;
acromion process on the lateral end; manubrium
of the sternum on the medial end.
- only bony connections between the pectoral
girdle and the axial skeleton.
- facilitates the limb’s mobility as it holds the
upper limb away from the body.

 Ulna
- medial; same side as the little finger.
o Trochlear notch – portion of ulna that
articulates with the humerus; C-shaped.
o Coronoid process – process on the anterior
Arm: Humerus surface of the proximal end of the ulna; inserts
Humerus – part of the upper limb from the shoulder to into a fossa of the humerus when the elbow is
the elbow. bent.
 Head – articulates with the glenoid cavity of the o Olecranon process – a much larger process in
scapula. the posterior surface of the proximal end of the
 Anatomical neck – immediately distal to the head, ulna; inserts into the olecranon fossa of the
almost non-existent. humerus when the elbow is straightened.
 Surgical neck – a common fracture site that often o Head – distal end of the ulna; articulates with
requires surgical repair. both the radius and the wrist bones.
o Styloid process – small process on the distal
Prominent landmarks for muscle attachment: lateral side.
(1) Greater tubercule – laterally.  Radius
(2) Lesser tubercule – anteriorly. - lateral; same side as the thumb.
 Deltoid tuberosity – site of attachment of the deltoid o Head – portion of radius that articulates with the
muscle. humerus; rotates over the capitulum of the
 Capitulum – location where the humerus articulates humerus when bending the elbow.
with the radius laterally. o Radial tuberosity – inferior to the radial head
 Trochlea – location where the humerus articulates on the medial side; site of attachment for the
with the ulna medially. biceps brachii muscle of the arm.

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 o Styloid process – distal end of the radius; - a large bony plate formed from the fusion of three
lateral; serves as an attachment location for wrist separate bones:
ligaments. o Ilium (groin)
- largest of the three hip bones.
Wrist: Carpals  Iliac crest – forms the most superior border.
Wrist – relatively short region between the forearm and  Anterior superior iliac spine – end of the
the hand; composed of 8 carpal bones arranged into two crest.
rows of four each.  Posterior superior iliac spine – end of the
crest.
Proximal Rows of Carpal Bones  Greater sciatic notch – on the posterior
 Scaphoid – boat-shaped. side of the ilium, just inferior to the
 Lunate – moon-shaped. posterior inferior iliac spine; serves as a
 Triquetrum – three-cornered. passage for the sciatic nerve.
 Pisiform – pea-shaped.  Auricular surface – joins the sacrum to
form the sacroiliac joint.
Distal Rows of Carpal Bones  Iliac fossa – a large depression on the
 Hamate – has a hooked process on its palmar side, medial side of the ilium.
called the hook of the hamate. o Ischium (hip)
 Capitate – head-shaped. - more posterior.
 Trapezoid – resemblance to a four-sided geometric - has a thick ischial tuberosity.
form with two parallel sides.  Ischial spine – site of ligament attachment.
 Trapezium – named after a four-sided geometric o Pubis (genital hair)
form with no two sides parallel. - forms the anterior portion of the pelvic
Straight Line To Pinky, Here Comes The Thumb. girdle.
 Pubic symphysis – a thick pad of
Hand: Metacarpals and Phalanges fibrocartilage that joins the two pubic bones
- five metacarpal bones attached to the carpal bones together.
and make up the central portion of the hand.  Obturator foramen – a large opening
 Pollex – thumb (proximal and distal phalanges). between the pubis and the ischium.
 Phalanges – small, long bones.  True pelvis.
 False pelvis – formed by muscle overlying
bone of the true pelvis.
 Pelvic inlet – opening to the true pelvis.
 Pelvic outlet – inferior opening of the true
pelvis.

 Acetabulum
Pelvic Girdle: Hip Bones and Sacrum - hip socket where the three individual bones
Lower limb – essential for normal standing, walking. converge.
and running. - crescent-shaped and occupies only the
superior and lateral aspects of the fossa.
Hip Bones Pelvic girdle

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- formed by two hip bones (coxal bones) and the
sacrum.
- serves as the place of attachment for the lower limbs,
supports the weight of the body, and protects internal
organs.
Pelvis
- includes the pelvic girdle and the coccyx.

Comparison of the Male and Female Pelvis

 Male pelvis is usually more massive due to greater
weight and size of body.
 Female pelvis is broader and has a larger, more
rounded pelvic inlet and outlet (for childbirth).

 Patella – kneecap; a large sesamoid bone located

within the tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle
group (major muscle group of the anterior thigh);
articulates with the patellar groove; holds the tendon
away from the distal end of the femur.

Leg: Tibia and Fibula

Leg – part of the lower limb between the knee and the
ankle.
 Tibia
- larger of the two and is the major weight-bearing
bone of the leg.
 Tibial tuberosity – point of attachment for the
quadriceps femoris muscle group.
 Head – articulated with the proximal end of the
tibia.
 Ankle
Thigh: Femur - consists of the distal ends of the tibia and fibula
- has a prominent, rounded head, where it articulates forming a partial socket that articulates with a
with the acetabulum. bone of the foot.
- has a well-defined neck.  Medial malleolus – prominence of the distal
- both head and neck are located at an oblique angle to tibia.
its shaft.  Lateral malleolus – prominence of the distal
 Greater trochanter – lateral to the neck. fibula.
 Lesser trochanter – inferior and posterior to the
neck.
 Both are attachment sites for muscles that fasten
the hip to the thigh.

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 - classified structurally as fibrous, cartilaginous, or
synovial, according to the major connective tissue
type that binds the bones together and whether a
fluid-filled joint capsule is present.
- can also be classified according to their degree of
motion as synarthroses (nonmovable joints),
amphiarthroses (slightly movable joints), or
diarthroses (freely movable joints).
 Fibrous joints
- articulating surfaces of two bones united by
fibrous connective tissues.
- have no joint cavity and exhibit little or no
movement.
 Sutures
- fibrous joints between the bones of the
skull.
o Fontanels – wide, soft spots that allow
flexibility in the skull during the birth
process.
 Syndesmoses
- fibrous joints where the bones are separated
by some distance and held together by
ligaments.
 Gomphoses
- consist of pegs fitted into sockets and held
in place by ligaments.
- the joint between a tooth and its socket is a
gomphosis.
Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsal, and Phalanges  Cartilaginous joints
Tarsal Bones - hold two bones together by a pad of cartilage.
 Talus (ankle)  Synchondroses
 Calcaneus (heel)  Hyaline Cartilage
 Navicular  Symphyses
 Medial cuneiform  Synovial joints
 Intermediate cuneiform - contain synovial fluid and allow considerable
 Lateral cuneiform movement between articulating bones.
 Cuboid - anatomically more complex than fibrous and
Tiger Cub Needs MILC cartilaginous joints.
o Articular change – thin layer of articular surfaces of
Metatarsal bones and phalanges arranged in a manner bones within synovial joints.
very similar to the metacarpal bones and held in place by o Meniscus – a flat pad of fibrocartilage; a type of
ligaments. (Great toe – hallux). articular disk that only partially spans the synovial
 Longitudinal arches – extend from the heel to the cavity such that there is an opening in the center.
ball of the foot. o Joint cavity – fille with synovial fluid and
 Transverse arch – extends across the foot; located surrounded by a joint capsule.
between the five metatarsals, the three cuneiforms, o Joint capsule – helps hold the bones together while
and the cuboid. still allowing me for movement.
Functions of the Arches: o Fibrous capsule – outer layer of the joint capsule.
(1) to support the body in its upright position both while o Synovial membrane – inner layer of the joint
standing and in forward movement during walking. capsule.
(2) to push the body forward during walking and to o Synovial fluid – a viscous lubricating film that
absorb shock when the foot contacts the ground. covers the surfaces of a join.
o Bursa – a synovial membrane extended as a pocket
Joints or sac; contains synovial fluid and provide a cushion
- articulations, commonly named according to the
bones or portions of bones that join together.

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 between structures that would otherwise rub against 7. Supination – rotation of the forearm so that the palm
each other. faces up.
o Tendon sheaths. 8. Eversion – opposite movement of the foot so that
o Bursitis – inflammation of a bursa, may cause the sole faces in a lateral direction.
considerable around the joint and restrict movement. 9. Inversion – movement of the foot so that the sole
faces medially.
Types of Synovial Joints 10. Rotation – movement of a part of the body around
*accdg to shape its long axis.
 Plane 11. Circumduction – combination in sequence of the
 Saddle flexion, extension, abduction, adduction.
 Hinge 12. Protraction – a movement in which a structure
 Pivot glides anteriorly.
 Ball-and-Socket 13. Retraction – the structure glides posteriorly.
 Ellipsoid 14. Elevation – movement of a structure in a superior
direction.
15. Depression – movement of a structure in an inferior
Movements at Synovial Joints
direction.
 Uniaxial – occurring around one axis.
16. Excursion – movement of a structure to one side.
 Biaxial – occurring around two aces situated at right 17. Opposition – movement unique to the thumb and
angles to each other. little finger; occurs when the tips are brought toward
 Multiaxial – occurring around several axes. each other across the palm of the hand.
18. Reposition – returns the digits to the anatomical
Classification of Joints position.
1. Plane/Gliding Joints – two opposed flat surfaces
that glide over each other; uniaxial.
2. Saddle Joints – two saddle-shaped articulating
surfaces oriented at right angles; biaxial.
3. Hinge Joints – permit movement in one plane only;
uniaxial.
4. Pivot Joints – restrict movement to rotation around a
single axis; rotation that occurs bet. the axis and atlas;
articulation bet. the ulna and radius
5. Ball-and-socket Joints – consist of a ball (head) and
a socket; multiaxial.
6. Ellipsoid/Condyloid Joints – elongated ball and
socket joints; biaxial.

Types of Movements
1. Flexion – bending movement that decreases the
angle of the joint to bring the articulating bones
closer together.
 Plantar flexion – movement of the foot toward
the plantar surface, when standing on toes.
 Dorsiflexion – movement of the foot toward the
shin, when walking on heels.
2. Extension – straightening movement that increases
the angle of the join to extend the articulating bones.
3. Hyperextension – extension of a joint beyond 180
degrees; can be a normal movement but can also
result in injury.
4. Abduction – movement away from the median or
midsagittal plane.
5. Adduction – movement toward the median plane.
6. Pronation – rotation of the forearm so that the palm
is down.

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