111Equation Chapter 1 Section 1ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Current and charge

Charge: the charge of an object is quantity of electricity which is either positive or
negative in it. Mathematically given by: Q = ne
The table below gives some materials and the charge carried in them.

Material Charge carrier

Metal Electrons
Semiconductor Electrons and holes
Electrolyte (salt and acid solutions) Positive and negative ions
Gases Electrons and ions

Electric current I: it is the rate of flow of charge, Q with respect to time, t through any
cross section. i.e. I = Q/t
It is a scalar quantity and its S.I. unit is ampere (A). smaller units are milliampere (1 mA
= 10-3 A) and microampere (1 µA = 10-6 A)
Current direction: Conventionally (or by agreement), the direction of flow of positive
charge is taken as the direction of electric current. Therefore, marked current arrows point
from positive to negative terminal of power supply.
Note
 Charge of electron = 1.6 × 10–19C
 1 ampere = 6.25 × 1018 electrons/sec
 Though direction is associated with current (opposite to the motion of electrons),
but it is not a vector quantity as it does not follow rules of vector addition.
 For a current to flow through a cross-section, there must be a net flow of charge
through that cross-section.
 In a metal like copper there are around 1028 free electrons per m3 moving randomly
in all direction with speeds of the order of 10 6 m/s even in the absence of electric
field. But since the number of electrons passing through a cross-section from left to
right is equal to the number of electrons passing from right to left in a given time,
therefore the net charge flow is zero and hence the electric current is zero.
 A conductor remains uncharged when current flows in it. i.e. Net charge in a
current carrying conductor is zero.
Electrons drift velocity.
When the ends of a conductor are connected to the two terminals of a battery, an electric
field is set up in the conductor from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. The
free electrons in the conductor experiences a force opposite to the direction of the electric
field and hence get accelerated. However, this process of acceleration is soon interrupted
by collision with ions of solid. The average time for which each electron is accelerated
before
suffering a collision is called the mean free time or mean relaxation time. Thus, the free
electrons within the metal, in addition to its random motion acquire a small velocity
towards the positive end of conductor. This velocity is called drift velocity. It is given by:

where e is the charge and m is the mass of electron. is the electric field established in
conductor and is the average relaxation time.
Negative sign is because the directions of and (for electron) are opposite.

Volume of conductor = AƖ
Total number of free electrons in this volume = n AƖ
Total charge = neAƖ
When the charge, Q moves from one end to the other in time, t, with a drift velocity, v

then the steady current flowing

.
where, J = current density
e = electronic charge = 1.6 × 10–19 C
n = the number of free electrons per unit volume
Current density, J:
Current density at a point inside a conductor is the amount of current flowing per unit
cross sectional area around that point of the conductor, provided the area is held in a
direction normal to the direction of current.

J is a vector quantity and its direction is same as that of .

In vector form,
The negative sign is because the direction of drift velocity of electron is opposite to .
Its SI unit is A m–2

Current density can also be related to electric field as where is

conductivity of the substance and is specific resistance of the substance (resistivity).
Mobility: it is the drift velocity per unit electric field. It is denoted by μ.

Its S.I. unit is m2/volt-sec

Dimensions of J are: [M°L–2T°A]
Note
 The number of free electrons per unit volume (n) can be determined by the
following relation:

Where N0 = Avogadro number

d = density of metal
M = molecular weight
X = number of free electrons per atom
 For steady current:

This means that for a given material and steady current in case of non-uniform cross-
section of material

 Variation of drift velocity:

When length is doubled, vd becomes half and when V is doubled, vd becomes twice.
Example 1.
The current in a wire varies with time according to the relation i = 4 + 2t2.
How many coulomb of charge pass a cross-section of wire in time interval t = 5s to t =
10s?
Solution

On integrating

Example 2.

The current density at a point is . Find the rate of charge flow

through a cross-sectional area such that

Solution
The rate of charge flow = current

Example 3
Calculate the number of electrons that pass through a wire per second if the current is
1.0mA. Assume the charge of each electron, e = 1.6 x 10 -19C.
Solution

Example 3
A uniform metal wire of cross section has its current tripled and its diameter doubled. By
what factor, is the drift velocity of its free electrons multiplied as a result?
 212\* MERGEFORMAT (.)

313\* MERGEFORMAT (.)

Dividing (1.2) by (1.1),

so, the drift velocity will be multiplied by

Electromotive Force (E.M.F) of a source and Electrical Potential difference (P.d)
An emf (electromotive force) device has a positive terminal (at high potential) and a
negative terminal (at low potential). This device is responsible for moving positive charge
within itself from negative terminal to positive terminal.

+ –
+
H.P L.P

+
H.P L.P
For this to happen, work is done by some agency in the emf device. The energy required
to do this work is chemical energy (as in a battery), mechanical energy (as in electric
generator), temperature difference (as in a thermopile).
The e.m.f of a source is the energy converted into electrical energy per unit charge leaving
the source.
OR
It is the work done per unit charge in converting other forms of energy into electrical
energy. The e.m.f is thus given by the formula

The S.I unit of e.m.f is

The electrical P.d is the amount of electrical energy changed to other forms of energy
when a unit charge moves from one point to another in a circuit.
The S.I unit of P.d is volt (V). Larger units are kilo volt and mega volt.
1 volt is the P.d between two points in a circuit which one joule of electrical energy is
converted to other forms of energy when one coulomb moves from one point to another.
 Work done when a charge, Q moves through a P.d. V is given by W = QV = IVt.
If positive charge moves from point A to point B in a circuit, the A is at a higher potential
than B. conversely, negative charge flows from lower potential to higher potential. i.e.
from B to A in the circuit. Consider the figure below:

Example 1
Use the diagram to determine
i) The p.d and
ii) The point which is at a higher potential:
a) AB, b) BC, c) CD, d) DE, e) EC.

Solution

Notice that the answers to (e) and (f) agree with each other.
Example 2
A current of 1.5 A flows through a section of a circuit as shown in the figure below.
Calculate the p.d between AB.

OHM’S LAW AND ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

When a potential difference is applied across the ends of a conductor, a current I is set up
in the conductor.
According to Ohm’s law “Keeping the given physical conditions such as temperature,
mechanical strain etc. constant, the current (I) produced in the conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference (V) applied across the conductor”.
i.e., I αV or I = KV ...
(1)
where K is a constant of proportionality called the conductance of the given conductor.
Alternatively, Vα I or V = RI ... (2)
where the constant R is called the electrical resistance or simply resistance of the given
conductor.
Limitations of Ohm’s law
This law is not obeyed if:
 The conductor is bent,
 Placed under tension,
 Placed at right angles to a strong magnetic field or
 Temperature is not constant.
Verification of Ohm’s law

Procedure: the variable resistor (rheostat) is set to its maximum value to prevent
overloading of ammeter. A series of current and corresponding voltage values are
recorded through the ammeter and voltmeter respectively by varying the value of the
rheostat.
Graph
Conclusion: the graph is a straight line passing through the origin indicating the current is
directly proportional to the voltage drop across the conductor. So Ohm’s law verified and
the slope of the gives the reciprocal of resistance.
Precautions:
 Eyes are placed normal to the measuring instruments when recording
readings of current and voltage so as to avoid parallax error.
 The rheostat is set to a maximum value before powering on the supply to
prevent the destruction of ammeter.
 The ammeter is connected in series with the circuit due to its low resistance in
effect to measure the maximum value of current flowing through the resistor and
not block part of the current it is supposed to measure.
 Conversely, the voltmeter has a high resistance and blocks current flow through it,
the reason it is connected across the end of conductor, so as to detect the p.d drop
across it.
If the resistor in figure a) or b) is replaced with a filament bulb and the experiment
repeated as above, then the I – V characteristic will be as shown below.

The graph bends downwards as voltage increases implying the resistance of the filament
wire increases with temperature. If a substance follows Ohm’s law, then a linear
relationship exists between V and I. These substances are called Ohmic substance. Some
substances do not follow Ohm’s law; these are called non-ohmic substance. Diode valve,
triode valve and electrolytes, thermistors are some examples of non-ohmic conductors.
Semiconductor diode: conducts only in one direction and so non-ohmic. It provides high
resistance to current flow in one direction and low resistance in the opposite direction.
This one-way property makes it useful for converting alternating current into direct
current.
Verification of I – V characteristics for a diode
Procedure: the diode is connected in forward bias mode. The power supply is switched
on and the forward voltage, VF, across the diode varied to obtain corresponding forward
current, IF with the help of the rheostat. The diode is removed and replaced in the reverse
bias. The milliameter is replaced with a microameter and experiment repeated to
determine a series of reverse voltage, VR and current, IR values.
Measurement
Forward voltage Forward current Reverse voltage Reverse current

(VF) (IF) (VR) (IR)

Graph
The graph below is a typical I-V characteristic for a diode.

If the diode is replaced with a thermistor, then its I-V characteristic will be as seen below.

The graph bends upward indicating its resistance decreases with temperature rise. This is
caused by electron-hole pairs being thermally generated.
A thermistor is a heat sensitive resistor usually made up of semiconductor. The oxides of
various metals such as mickel, iron, copper etc. Temperature coefficient of thermistor is –
ve but is usually large, of the order of 0.04/ºC.
Thermistors are used for resistance thermometer in very low temperature measurement of
the order of 10K and to safeguard electronic circuits against current jumps because
initially thermistors has high resistance when cold and its resistance drops appreciably
when it heats up.
Assignment: plot I-V characteristics of resistor, semiconductor, filament lamp and
thermistor on the same grap.
Electrical Resistance
On application of potential difference across the ends of a conductor, the free electrons of
the conductor starts drifting towards the positive end of the conductor. While drifting they
make collisions with the ions/atoms of the conductor and hence their motion is obstructed.
Electrical resistance is the net hindrance offered by a conductor to the flow of free
electrons or simply current.
It depends upon the size, geometry, temperature and nature of the conductor.

The SI unit of resistance R is volt/ampere = ohm (Ω). Larger units are; kilo ohm (K Ω)
and mega ohm (M Ω).
1 Ω is the resistance of a conductor in which the current is 1 A when a p.d. of 1 V is
applied across it.
Conductance of a conductor (G): is the reciprocal/inverse of its resistance. i.e. G = 1/R.
Unit is the siemens (s) or Ω-1
Resistivity or specific resistance (ρ): is the resistance of a material of unit length and
unit cross sectional area at a given temperature. For a given conductor of uniform cross-
section A and length l, the electrical resistance R is directly proportional to length l and
inversely proportional to cross-sectional area A. Mathematically given by:

Unit is Ω m.

Experiment to verify that

Proceedure: the clip is used to vary the length of the wire. For each length of wire, the

resistance is determined from, .

Determination of relation between resistance and area
Pieces of wire of the same length are made from the same material with different cross
sectional areas are used. For each piece of wire, the resistance is determined as above.
Sketching the graphs gives the forms below.
Conclusion: the graphs shows that .
Precautions:
 Eyes are placed normal to the measuring instrument when measuring length, and
thickness of the wire to prevent parallax error.
 Each experiment pair is done twice and average to reduce systematic and random
error.
 The value of ρ is very low for conductor, very high for insulators and alloys, and in
between those of conductors and insulators for semiconductors.
 Resistance is the property of object while resistivity is the property of material.
Materials and their resistivity
Material Resistivity (ρ)
(at 0° C)
(in Ω m )
Silver 1.6 × 10–8
Copper 1.7 × 10–8
Aluminium 2.8 × 10–8
Iron 9.8 x 10-8
Tungsten 5.2 × 10–8
Nichrome 100 x 10-8
Brass 8 x 10-8
Platinum 10.6 × 10–8
Manganin 42 × 10–8
Carbon 35 × 10–6
Germanium 46
Silicon 2300
Glass ~ 1013
Mica ~ 2 × 1015

Conductivity(s) : It is the reciprocal of resistivity i.e. . The SI unit is Ω-1 m–1.

Ohm’s law may also be expressed as, J = σE. Where J = current density and E = electric
field strength.

Conductivity, . Where n is free electron density, τ is relaxation time and m is

mass of electron.
Note

Since
It is incorrect to think that if the length of a resistor is doubled its resistance will become
twice.
If you look by an eye of physicist you will find that when l change, A will also change.
Case of Reshaping a Resistor
On reshaping, volume of a material is constant. i.e., Initial volume = final volume or,
……………………………………………………………………………………........................................................ (i)
where , are initial length and area of cross-section of resistor and , are final
length and area of cross-section of resistor. If initial resistance before reshaping is R i and
final resistance after reshaping is Rf then

……………………………………………………………(ii)

From eqs. (i) and (ii),

This means that resistance is proportional to the square of the length during reshaping of a
resistor wire.

Also from eqs. (i) and (ii),

This means that resistance is inversely proportional to the square of the area of cross-
section during reshaping of resistor. Since A = πr2 (for circular cross-section)

where r is radius of cross section.

Silver is the best conductor followed by copper. Nontheless, aluminium is used for
overhead cables because it is lighter and cheap than silver and copper even though it has a
lower conductivity. The density of aluminium is just about 1/3 that of copper and its
resistivity two times that of copper.
Example 1
the p.d across a 5 m of nichrome wire is 3.2 V when the current in it is 0.2 A. calculate the
diameter of the wire given that the resistivity of nichrome wire is 10-6 Ω m.
Solution
From

From
Example 2
a) A wire of length 1.5 m has a diameter of 4 mm. Determine the resistance. Assume
its resistivity is 1.8 x 10-8 Ω m.
Solution

b) The graph shows the result of an experiment to determine the resistivity of a wire of
length 80.0 cm.

i) Draw an appropriate circuit diagram that could be used to obtain such results.
ii) Use the graph to calculate a value for the resistivity of the wire if its diameter is
5.0 mm.
c) A car battery with a capacity of 60 ampere-hour is used to deliver current when the
p.d across its terminals is 12 V. How much electrical energy is available from such
a battery?
 Solution
i)

ii) From graph,

c) E = IVt = 12 x 60 x 3600 = 2.59 x 106 J

Example
The graph below show how the reistance of copper wire varies with length at 20 0C. the
wire has a thickness of 1.00 mm. Use the graph to determine
i) The resistivity of the wire
ii) The conductivity of the copper wire. If the experimenytt were to be carried out
at 30 0C, how would this affect the conductivity of the copper wire?
iii) The length of the copper wire that has a resistance of 56 cm Ω

d) A millimeter has a resistance of 10 ohm and a full deflection of 10 mA. How would
you convert it into
i) Ammeter reading up to 10 A ii) A voltmeter reading up to 10 V?
Example
In the diagram, the current in the 3 Ω resistor and R are 1.5 A and 0.54 A respectively.
Calculate
i) The emf of the battery
ii) The resistance of R.
Solution
i) P.d across 3 W = 3 x 1.5 = 4.5 V, p.d across R and 4 W = 4 x 1 = 4 V
Emf of battery = 4.5 V + 4 V = 8.5 V
ii) From Ohm’s law, 4 = 0.5 R, R = 8 W
Effect of Temperature on Resistance and Resistivity
Resistance of a conductor is given by R t = R0 (1 + α∆t) Where α = temperature coefficient
of resistance and ∆t = change in temperature
For metallic conductors :
If ρ1 and ρ2 be resistivity of a conductor at temperature t 1 and t2, then ρ2 = ρ1 (1 + α∆t ).
where α = temperature coefficient of resistivity and
where ∆t = t2 – t1 = change in temperature. The value of α is positive for all metallic
conductors. Therefore, ρ2 > ρ1.
In other words, with rise in temperature, the positive ions of the metal vibrate with higher
amplitude and these obstruct the path of electrons more frequently. Due to this the mean
path decreases and the relaxation time also decreases. This leads to increase in resistivity.

Note: the value of α for most of the metals is

For alloys:
In case of alloys, the rate at which the resistance changes with temperature is less as
compared to pure metals. For example, an alloy manganin has a resistance which is 30-40
times that of copper for the same dimensions. Also the value of a for manganin is very
small 0.00001°C–1. Due to the above properties manganin is used in preparing wires
for standard resistance (heaters), resistance boxes etc.
Please note that eureka and constantan are other alloys for which ρ is high. These are used
to detect small temperature, protect picture tube/ windings of generators, transformers etc.
For semiconductors:
The resistivity of semi-conductors decreases with rise in temperature. For semi conductor
the value of α is negative.
With rise in temperature, the value of n increases. The value of τ decreases with rise in
temperature. But the value of increase in n is dominating for the value of ρ in this case.
For electrolytes:
The resistivity decreases with rise in temperature. This is because the viscosity of
electrolyte decreases with increase in temperature so that ions get more freedom to move.
For insulators:
The resistivity increases nearly exponentially with decrease in temperature. Conductivity
of insulators is almost zero at 0 K.
Superconductors:
There are certain materials for which the resistance becomes zero below a certain
temperature. This temperature is called the critical temperature. Below critical
temperature the material offers no resistance to the flow of electrons. The material in this
case is called a superconductor. The reason for super conductivity is that the electrons in
superconductors are not mutually independent but are mutually coherent. This coherent
cloud of electrons makes no collision with the ions of superconductor and hence no
resistance is offered to the flow of electrons
For example, R = 0 for Hg at 4.2 K and R = 0 for Pb at 7.2 K. These substances are called
superconductors at that critical temperature.
Superconductors are used (a) in making very strong electromagnets, (b) to produce very
high speed computers (c) in transmission of electric power (d) in the study of high
energy particle physics and material science.

RESISTORS NETWORK
a) Resistances in Series
When a number of resistances are joined end to end so that same current flows through
each, resistor when some potential difference is applied across the combination, the
conductor are said to be connected in series.

The equivalent resistance in series is given by:

(Req)s = R1 + R2 + ...+ Rn
Equivalent resistance of same resistances connected in series is always greater than the
greatest of individual resistance. Potential division rule in series combination:
 b) Resistances in Parallel
Two or more resistors are said to be connected in parallel if the same potential difference
exits across all resistors.

The equivalent resistance is given by:

The equivalent resistance in a parallel combination is always less than the value of the
least individual resistance in the circuits. Current division rule in parallel combination:

Hint
In a given combination of resistors, when you want to detect whether the resistances are
in series or in parallel, then check if the same current flows through two resistors, then
these are in series and if same potential difference is there across two resistors, then these
are in parallel and potential difference across each resistor is the same and is equal to the
applied potential difference.
APPROACH TO FIND EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
Successive Reduction approach
This method is applicable only when the resistors can be clearly identified as in series or
parallel.

Example
A resistor of 85 Ω is in series with a parallel arrangement of 60 Ω and 20 Ω, and a p.d of
120 V is connected across the whole circuit. Calculate
i) The current in each resistor
 ii) The p.d across each.
Solution

Equivalent resistance of the whole circuit = 15 Ω + 85 Ω = 100 Ω

But I = V/R =

⸫ Total current 1.2 A = current flowing through the 85 Ω resistor. P.d across xy = 120 V
– 102 V = 18 V.

Example
Study the circuit and use it to calculate:
i) The equivalent resistance
ii) The current flowing in the circuit

Solution
The 10 Ω and 4 Ω resistors are in series so from R = R1 + R2, R = 4 + 10 = 14 Ω
The 14 Ω is in parallel with the 6 Ω resistor giving the combined resistance as:

. This resistor is in series with 12 Ω. So the equivalent

resistance = 12 + 4.2 = 16.2 Ω. This is in parallel with the 8 Ω resistor. i.e.

. This is in series with 4 Ω resistors.

i.e. Req = 5.4 + 4 = 9.4 Ω
ii)
Example
Dtermine the combined resistance between points X and Y in the circuit below

Solution
The 5 Ω and 6 Ω resistors are in series.
From R1 +R2 = 5 + 6 = 11 Ω. The circuit the reduces to

The 11 Ω and 8 Ω resistors are in parallel

The circuit again reduces to

The 4.6 Ω is in series with 9 Ω, giving the combined resistance 4.6 + 9 = 13.6 Ω and
further reduces the circuit to

These resistors are in parallel, so

This 2 Ω resistor is in series with the 10 Ω. Therefore the equivalent resistance between
points XY is 2 Ω + 10 Ω = 12 Ω.
Example
In the figure below, the battery of e.m.f . 30 V has an internal resistance of 0.5 Ω.
Calculate
i) The current flowing through the battery
ii) The current through each of the external resistors.

Solution
In the circuit, 5 Ω, 10 Ω and 10 Ω resistors are in parallel. So,

The 2.5 Ω is in series with 0.5 Ω and 4 Ω. The total equivalent resistance is
RT = 0.5 Ω + 4 Ω + 2.5 Ω = 7 Ω

From
iii) Current flowing through 0.5 Ω, 4 Ω and combined resistance of 2.5 Ω is 4.3 A.
so the p.d across the 2.5 Ω = 4.3 x 2.5 = 10.75 V

Example
Study the circuit figure and use it to determine:
i) The current I1, I2 and I3
ii) The current in the 8 Ω resistor.

Solution
i) Firstly, we determine the equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel. On doing
this, the circuit reduces to
1.1 Ω and 12Ω are in series and so are 6 Ω and 2.9 Ω. 13.1 Ω is in parallel with 8.9 Ω
because the circuit reduces to

The total equivalent resistance = 5.32 + 0.5 = 5.82 Ω

From , the p.d across 13.1 Ω and 8.9 Ω = 2.6 x 5.32 = 13.83 V

ii) p.d drop across the 8 Ω resistor is 1.1 x 10.6 = 1.17 V.

Points to keep
For Series Combination:
1. If resistances (or electrical appliances) are connected in series, the current through each
resistance is same. Then power of an electrical appliance
P α R and V α R. Therefore, P = i2Rt
It means in series combination of resistances, the potential difference and power
consumed will be more in larger resistance.
2. (i) When the appliances of power P1, P2, P3... are connected in series, the effective
power consumed (P) is

.i.e., the effective power is less than the power of individual

appliance.
(ii) If n appliances, each of equal resistance R, are connected in series with a voltage
source V, the power dissipated Ps will be

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(i)
3.When two lamps of different wattage are connected in series in a house the lamp of
lower wattage glows more brightly.
For Parallel Combination:
1. If resistances (i.e. electrical appliances) are connected in parallel, the potential
difference across each resistance is same. Then P α 1/ R and I α 1/ R.
It means in parallel combination of resistances the current and power consumed will be
more in smaller resistance.
2. When the appliances of power P1, P2, P3.... are in parallel, the effective power
consumed (P) is: P = P1 + P2 + P3 ... +P n. i.e. the effective power of various electrical
appliances is more than the power of individual appliance.
3. If n appliances, each of resistance R, are connected in parallel with a voltage source V,
the power dissipated Pp will be:

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------(ii)

From eqns (i) and (ii),

This shows that power consumed by n equal resistances in parallel is n 2 times that of
power consumed in series if voltage remains same.
4. In parallel grouping of bulbs across a given source of voltage, the bulb of greater
wattage will give more brightness and will allow more current through it, but will have
lesser resistance and same potential difference across it.
5. For a given voltage V, if resistance is changed from R to R/n, power consumed changes
from P to nP. P = V2 / R; when R´ = R/n, then P´ = V2 / (R/n) = n V2 / R = nP.
6. Filament of lower wattage bulb is thinner than that of higher wattage bulb i.e. filament
of 60-watt bulb is thinner than that of 100-watt bulb.
7. If I is the current through the fuse wire of length , radius r, specific resistance r and Q
is the rate of loss of heat per unit area of a fuse wire, then at steady state,

Hence current capacity of a fuse is independent of its length and varies with its radius as
r3/2.
8. If t1 and t2 are the time taken by two different coils for producing same heat with same
supply, then
(i) If they are connected in series to produce same heat, time taken, t = t1 + t2
(ii) If they are connected in parallel to produce same heat,

time taken is,

9. When a bulb glows the temperature of the filament is of the order of 3000K.

10. To avoid lengthy calculations use P = I2R in series combination and in

parallel combination and P = VI when we want to find power of a device and V and I are
known.
11. The resistance of an appliance, can be formed by rated

Rated voltage and power if R =

Now this resistance does not change (remember resistance depends only on the
parameters of resistors and not on the voltage across it or the current flowing through it, if
we neglect the changes occurring due to change in temperature).
12. The maximum current that can be safely passed through an appliance (a resistor) is

I= .

13. Bulbs get fused sometimes when switched on. This is because with the rise in
temperature the resistance increases and power decreases (P = V 2 / R). Therefore, the bulb
glows brighter in the beginning and get fused.
14. A lead-acid secondary cell is discharged if the relative density of electrolyte drops to
1.18 and e.m.f. of 1.8V.
15. Hot wire galvanometer is based on heating effect of current. Its deflection q is directly
proportional to the heating effect (i.e. I2). It works on A.C. as well as D.C.
16. Two wires of same material and same length but having different diameters connected
in parallel produce more heat than when connected in series. i.e., Hparallel > Hseries.
17. If t1and t2 be the time taken by two heaters to boil a given mass of a liquid, then the
time taken to boil the same amount of the liquid, when both heaters are connected in
parallel is given by
18. If t1and t2 be the time taken by two heaters to boil a given amount of a liquid, then the
time taken to boil the same amount of the liquid, when both heaters are connected in
series is given by: ts = t1 + t2.

19. If I be the current at which a fuse wire of radius R blows, constant. i.e., for two
fuse wires of radii R1and R2 and maximum bearing current I1, and I2, we have

20. If the two resistors R1and R2 are first connected in series and then parallel then the
ratio of heat produced in the two cases (series to parallel) is given by:

If two resistances R1 and R2 are connected in parallel and a current is passed in them such

that heat produced in them is H1 and H2 respectively, then

Colour Coding for Carbon Resistor and their Standard Values
i) It is a system of colour coding used to indicate the values of resistors.
ii) For the fixed, moulded composition resistor, four colour bands are printed on one end
of the outer casing as shown below

iii) The colour bands are always read left to right from the end that has the bands closest
to it.
iv) a) The first and second colour bands, represent the first and second significant digits
respectively, of the resistance value.
b) The third colour band is for the number of zeros that follow the second digit.
c) In case the third band is gold or silver, it represents a multiplying factor of 0.1 or
0.01.
d) The fourth band represents the manufacture’s tolerance. It is a measure of the
precision with which the resistor was made.
e) If the fourth band is not present, the tolerance is assumed to be ± 20%.
v) Standard value of colour codes for carbon resistors
 Colour Digit Multiplier Tolerance
Black 0 100 = 1
Brown 1 101 = 10
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Grey 8 108
White 9 109
Gold - 0.1 ± 5%
Silver - 0.01 ± 10%
No colour - - ± 20%
To learn the above table of
colour codes of resistors let us learn this interesting sentence: BB ROY of Great Britain
has a Very Good Wife. In the above sentence the capital letters have the following
meaning:
B Black B Brown
R Red O Orange
Y Yellow G Green
B Blue G Grey
W White
Remember the colour in the above order and the corresponding digits from 0 to 9 and also
the multiplier with the power to 10 from 0 to 9. Commercial resistors are of two types
(a) Wire round resistor made by winding of wires of an alloy manganins,
constantan and nichrome.
(b) Carbon resistors have low cost and are compact.
Example
Give the value of the resistor designed with the following colours: brown, black and red
Solution
Brown = 1, black = 0 and red = 100, tolerance = ± 20 %
Resistor value = 1000 Ω ± 20 %
Example
Give the value of the resistor designed with the following colours: orange, orange,
orange.
Solution
Orange = 3, orange = 3, orange = 1000
Resistor value = 33000 Ω
A modern way of writing resistant values is as shown below: 1.5 Ω = 1R5, 150 kΩ = 150
k or M15, 1.5 kΩ = 1k5 etc.
Wheatstone bridge

Wheatstone Bridge Derivation

The current enters the galvanometer and divides into two equal magnitude currents as I 1
and I2. The following condition exists when the current through a galvanometer is zero,
I1P = I2R--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(1)
The currents in the bridge, in a balanced condition, are expressed as follows:

Here, E is the emf of the battery.

By substituting the value of I1 and I2 in equation (1), we get

PS = RQ --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(2)

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(3)
Equation (2) shows the balanced condition of the bridge, while (3) determines the value of
the unknown resistance and is called the Wheatstone bridge formula.
In the figure, R is the unknown resistance, S is the standard arm of the bridge and P and Q
are the ratio arm of the bridge.
Example
In the diagram figure above, a current of 1.4 A goes through the bridge circuit and no
current in the galvanometer. Calculate the current through 10 Ω resistor.
Solution
10 I – 25 (1.4 – I) ⸫ I = 1.0 A.
Example
Study the circuit below and use it to determine the potential difference between points A
and B and state the point that is at a higher potential.
Solution
First, we determine the current flowing through A, IA and through B, IB as follows:

In moving through X to B, there is potential rise between A and X and a potential drop
between X and B. similarly, in moving from Y to B, there is a potential drop between A
and Y and a potential rise from Y to B.
Internal Resistance (r)
The potential difference across a real source of e.m.f. is not equal to its e.m.f. The reason
is that the charge which is moving inside the e.m.f. device also suffers resistance. This
resistance is called internal resistance of the e.m.f. device.

E = IR + Ir = V + Ir
Þ V = E – Ir
E.M.F., P.d. and Internal Resistance (r) of a cell or battery
The potential difference across a real source of e.m.f. is not equal to its emf. The reason is
that the charge which is moving inside the emf device also suffers resistance. This
resistance is called internal resistance of the emf device. So the e.m.f is given by:
E = V + v = V + Ir
⸫ V = E – I r ……………………………………………………………………………(1)
i.e. Terminal p.d. (voltage) = (e.m.f) – voltage drop across the internal resistor.
  If the battery or cell is being charged, then,
V = E + Ir ………………………………………………………………………………(2)
i.e. Terminal p.d. (voltage) = (e.m.f) + voltage drop across the internal resistor.
 If no current is flowing, then,
E = V …………………………………………………………………………………...(3)
i.e. Terminal p.d. (voltage) = e.m.f. of the battery or cell.
 Emf is the property of a cell but terminal potential difference depends on the
current drawn from the cell.
Terminal p.d varies with current as shown on the graph below. This can be obtained by
varying R to have a series of values for V and I.

Maximum current is obtained when R = 0. Here, I max = E/r is equal to short circuit current
and can damage most devices.
Example
In an experiment to determine the internal resistance of a cell, current through the cell was
made to vary with the voltage across the cell as shown on the graph below

i) sketch a circuit diagram from which such results could have been obtained.
ii) determine using the graph above values for
a) e.m.f. of the cell.
b) internal resistance of the cell.
iii) A heating coil of power 10 W is required when the p.d. across it is 20.0 V. Estimate
the length of the copper wire that would be needed to make the coil. Cross-sectional area
is 1.0 x 10-7 m2 and its resistivity is 1.0 x 10-6 Ωm.
iv) how much would it cost to use the coil in iii) for thirty days if ENEO charges 60 frs
per kWh?
Solution
i)

ii) a) V = E –Ir. From the graph, when I = 0, V = 3.0 V

b) gradient of graph = -r = - 0.78 Ω. i.e. r = 0.78 Ω
iii)

iv) E = P x t = 10 x 30 x 24 x 60 = 2.59 x 107 J, 1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 J

Circuit faults: There are two main types of circuit faults namely short-circuit and open
circuit faults.
Short Circuiting
When the terminals of an e.m.f. device are connected with a conducting path without any
external resistance by surrounding components then

Since internal resistance has a very small value, therefore a very high current flows in the
circuit producing a large amount of heat. This condition is called short circuiting.
NB: During short circuiting, the terminal potential difference is zero.
Causes of short-circuit
 No external resistance to the circuit by component leading to it.
 Touching of insulated part of the component terminal
 Effects of moisture between conducting paths which creates links of lower
resistance than the components.
Identification of short-circuit faults

 When the circuit or a section of the circuit draws an unusually large amount of
current
 Voltage between points connected by a short-circuit is the same.
Open circuit faults
It is as a result of part of the circuit having an extremely high resistance.
Causes
 A break in the circuit
 Very high external resistance to the circuit by component leading to it.
 Increase insulation at some points due to dirt, grease or corrosion.
Identification of open circuit faults

 No current or smaller than expected in the region of the circuit.

 Voltage difference across the region of the circuit very high or significantly higher
than expected.
SHUNTS AND MULTIPLIERS
1) conversion of a micro ammeter to an ammeter
A low resistance called shunt, s is connected in parallel with the meter to allow only 100
µA flow in through the coil of the meter and 0.9999 A remaining through the shunt, s.
since shunt and meter coil are connected in parallel, p.d across meter = p.d across shunt.
0.0001 x 1000 = 0.9999 x s s = 0.1 Ω.
2) conversion of a micro ammeter to a voltmeter

A large resistance called a multiplier, m is connected in series with meter coil so that
0.9999A is blocked by the multiplier allowing only 100 µA to flow through the meter
coil. Since the two devices are in series, 0.0001 (m + 1000) = 1 V, m = 9000 Ω. Its
resistance per volt is 1000 Ω. A good voltmeter must have a resistance of at least 1000
Ω/V
Example
A DC milliameter has a full scale deflection of 10 mA and a resistance of 50 Ω. How
would you adopt this to serve as a voltmeter with a full scale deflection of 150 V?
Solution
This can be done by connecting resistor, m in series with the meter.

i.e., (m + 50 Ω) x 10 x 10-3A = 150 V, m = 14950 Ω.

Example
A galvanometer gives a full scale deflection when a current 0f 0.4 mA. Calculate the
shunt resistance needed to convert it to an ammeter ranging from 0 to 10 A.

Solution
The shunt and galvanometer coil are in parallel. This means they have the same p.d. drop
across their terminals. i.e., 4 x 10-4A x 80 Ω = 9.9996 x Rs ⸫ Rs = 0.32 Ω
Example
A voltmeter gives a full scale deflection when it has a p.d. of 10.0 V drop across it. This is
achieved by connecting a resistor called a multiplier in series with it. The galvanometer
gives a full scale deflection when a p.d of 10 mV is across it.

Solution
The galvanometer coil and the multiplier are in series resulting in the same current
flowing through them.
⸫ RT = Rm + 40

⸫ 10 = 2.5 x 10-4(Rm + 40) Rm = 39960 Ω.

Electric cells
They are devices that convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
COMBINATION OF CELLS
Series Combination of Cells

A group of cells connected together is called a battery. Here, positive terminal of a cell is
connected to the negative terminal of the next cell. Total e.m.f., ET = E1 + E2 + E3. Total
resistances rT = r1 + r2 + r3.
If one cell E1 for example is turned round in the opposite direction to the others, then
ET = E2 + E3 - E1
Example

Calculate the current flowing through the 5 Ω resistor.

Solution
ET = 9 V – 4.5 V = 4.5 V
Parallel Combination of Cells

When cells of equal e.m.f and internal resistance are connected in parallel, the resultant
e.m.f is the same as that of one cell only. The equivalent e.m.f is given by:

and the equivalent internal resistance equals;

 If the cells connected in parallel are not equal as shown below, then, VAB = E2 - E1.

 If maximum current is needed, then the number of cell arrangement used will
depends the external circuit resistance.
 Series connection is used when the circuit resistance is high compared with that of
the cells and parallel when it is low.
Advantages/disadvantages of connecting cells in series and in parallel
 There’s less drain on cells in parallel, since they share the total current whereas the
same main current is supplied by each cell in series connection.
 Cells should never be connected in parallel when not in use, because if the e.m.f of
one cell is slightly higher than that of the other cells, current will circulate in the
battery itself and the cells will become exhausted. This is not possible with series
arrangement.
Mixed Grouping of Cells :
If the cells are connected as shown below then they are said to be in mixed grouping.
 1 2 n
1 r E r
E r E

2
A E r E r E r B

m
E r E r E r
Equivalent e.m.f EAB = nE

Equivalent resistance =
Where n = no. of cells in a row. and
m = no. Of rows
If this equivalent cell is attached to an external resistance R then

 The condition for maximum current through external resistance R

In other words, when external resistance is equal to total internal resistances of all the
cells.

Maximum current Imax =

 Maximum power dissipation for the circuit shown in figure

Power P = I2R =

For maximum power across the resistor, . On solving, we get R = r. This is the
condition for maximum power dissipation.
  If identical cells are connected in a loop in order, then emf between any two points
in the loop is zero.
 If n identical cells are connected in series and m are wrongly connected, then Enet =
nE – 2mE.

Potential (voltage) divider

It provides a convenient way of getting a variable p.d from a fixed p.d. and in its simplest
form form consists of two resistors in series. It is also known as a potentiometer.

From Ohm’s law: V2 = IR2,

We can equally use a sliding contact to vary the p.d supplied to a device as shown on the
figures below.

We can trap off any fraction of the p.d in the above figure by varying the sliding contact.

From Ohm’s law: V1 = IR1,

Therefore, the fraction of V0 obtained across R1 = .

A rheostat is used in the last figure to control the current in a device e.g. bulb. Only one
end is connected here and a sliding contact is needed.
Example

What is the final potential difference between A and B in the circuit

a) above
b) if an additional 500 Ω resistor is connected from A to B
c) if the 500 Ω resistor is replaced by a 2 µF capacitor? What would be the p.d across
AB?
Solution
a)

b)

c) VAB will still be 1.5 V as in a) since direct current cannot flow through a capacitor
Example
The 4.00 V cell in the circuits shown below has zero internal resistance, (a and b).
Accurately calibrated voltmeter connected across yz records 1.50 V. calculate
a) the resistance of the voltmeter
b) the voltmeter reading when it is connected across .
What do your results suggest concerning the use of voltmeters?

Solution
Vxy = 4.00 V – 1.50 V = 2.50 V.

Current flowing through 60 Ω resistor =

Current flowing through 40 Ω resistor =

Current flowing through voltmeter = 0.0417 A – 0.0375 A = 0.0042 A

Resistance of voltmeter =
b) If resistance between , then
NB: The voltmeter is in parallel with the 4.00 Ω resistor and has a resistance of 360 Ω

A voltmeter should have infinite resistances compared to that of the circuit so that the
current drawn by it to make it work should be very small (negligible) relative to the
current in the circuit.

POTENTIOMETER:
Principle: The p.d. across a resistance wire is directly proportional to its length provided
I, r and A are constant.

Working: PQ is the resistance wire of potentiometer generally made up of constantan or

nichrome. One end P is connected to the positive terminal of the battery B while negative
terminal is connected to Q through a Rheostat (Rh) and key (K). This is the main circuit.

A cell whose emf has to be measured is also connected to the potential wire in such a way
that the positive terminal is connected with P and negative terminal is connected to a
galvanometer and then to a jockey (J) which is free to slide along the wire
B K Rh

A C
P
I J Q
B
I
E
E
There is a potential drop along PQ.
The potential drop per unit length along PQ is called potential gradient.
When the jockey is pressed on some point, current flows from E to P ( ). Also current
that comes from B after reaching P divides into two parts. One part moves towards A and
the other towards E ( ). Three cases may arise.
(a) IB > IE. This happens when VPC > E. One side deflection in galvanometer
(b) IB = IE. This happens when VPC = E, Zero deflection in galvanometer
(c) IB < IE. This happens when VPA < E. Other side defection in galvanometer
NB:
• At null point since no current flows through E therefore it is said to be in the condition
of open circuit.
• More is the length of potentiometer, higher is the sensitivity of potentiometer and
smaller is the potential gradient.
• Potentiometer will work only when B > E. Also the positive terminal of the batteries is
connected at P. If any of the above conditions is not followed, we do not get a null point.
If the resistance of PQ per unit length = , then, E = --------------------------------------(1)

E1 = -----------------------------------------(2)
The accumulator is used because it gives steady current for a long time.

Uses: (i) Comparison of emfs of cells

(ii) To find internal resistance of a cell

emf can be measured by potentiometer and not voltmeter.
Advantages of potentiometer as voltmeter
(i) It is more accurate than any dial instrument since we can adjust the scale (wire) the
way we want.
(ii) It does not depend on the calibration of the galvanometer since it is a null method.
(iii) It behaves like a voltmeter of infinite resistance since at balance no current is
drawn by it from the unknown p.d.
Disadvantages of potentiometer as voltmeter
(i) It is bulky
(ii) Slow to use compared to ordinary voltmeter.
Precautions when using/constructing a potentiometer
(i) A protective resistor is connected in series with the galvanometer.
(ii) The circuit is tested by first placing the jockey on one end of the wire and then on
the other end. The deflection should be in opposite direction if not then either the
p.d across the whole wire is less than the unknown p.d or the unknown p.d is
connected wrongly.
(iii) The jockey should not be drawn along the wire or its uniformity will be lost.
(iv) The balance length is measured from the end P of the wire and is reasonably long
so that the percentage error in measuring it is small.
Example
A simple potentiometer is set up as shown using a uniform wire AB, 1.0 m long, which
has a resistance of 2.0 Ω. The resistance of the 4 V battery is negligible. If the variable
resistor R has a value of 2.4 Ω, what would be the length AC for zero galvanometer
deflection?
If R is made 1.0 Ω and the 1.5 V cell and galvanometer are replaced by a voltmeter of
resistance 20 Ω, what would be the reading of the voltmeter if the contact is placed at
midpoint of AB?
Solution

RT = 2.0 Ω + 2.4 Ω = 4.4 Ω. I= . At balance, V = 1.5 V

1.5 = = 0.91 A x 2
If 1.5 V and galvanometer are replaced by a resistor of resistance 20 Ω then,

Assignment
Solve June 2009, Question 9 a, b, c, d, e, f
a) define the term resistivity.
b) the graph in figure below shows how the resistance of a copper wire varies with its
length at 20 0C.

The wire has a thickness of 1.00 mm. use the graph to determine
i) The resistivity of the wire
ii) The conductivity of the wire. If the experiment were carried out at 30 0C. how would
this affect the conductivity of the copper wire?
iii) the length of the copper wire that has a resistance of 56 mΩ
c) A millimeter has a resistance of 10 ohm and a full scale deflection of 10 mA. How
would you convert it into:
i) An ammeter reading up to 10 A
ii) A voltmeter reading up to 10 V?
d) state two conditions that must be satisfied for a balance to be obtained with a slide wire
potentiometer

The circuit is used to obtain data which a graph of current, I against balance length L, is
drawn as in the graph above. The internal resistance of the cell is negligible.
i) Explain why for different values of L, the current I can be positive, zero or negative
ii) Using the graph, calculate the resistance of R. what assumption have you made in your
calculation?
iii) Hence, deduce the emf of the cell.
Solution
a) Resistivity is the resistance of a material of unit length and unit cross-sectional area at a
certain temperature.
b) . Comparing with y = mx, plotting R against is a straight with

slope =

ii)
Resistivity at 30 0C is greater than that at 20 0C. Since resistivity is inversely proportional
to conductivity, the conductivity at 20 0C will be greater than at 30 0C.
ii) When R = 56 mW, = 3.2 x 102 cm
c)

p.d across meter coil = p.d across shunt

10 x 0.01 = 9.99 x Rs, Rs = 0.01 W. so a shunt of resistance 0.01 W must be connected

in parallel with the coiling of the meter.
ii)

Same current flows through the multiplier and meter coil.

Vc = 10 V, 9.99 = 0.01 Rm, Rm = 990W
So a multiplier of resistance 990W must be connected in series with the meter coil.
d)- The emf of the drives cell must be greater than the unknown emf.
- The unknown p.d must be connected such that it drives the current in clockwise
direction while the p.d is tapped off with drive current in anticlockwise direction.
i) – If the drive cell’s emf is greater than that of the unknown, the current will be positive
- If the emf of the drives cell is equal to that of the unknown cell, the current will be
equal to zero.
- If the emf of the unknown cell is greater than that of the drives cell, the current will be
negative.
ii) E = IR + . Comparing with y = mx + c, y = I, = x, m =

The resistance of the milliammeter is negligible and the potentiometer has uniform cross-
sectional area.

iii) intercept = = 40 x 10-3A ⸫ E = 40 x 10 -3A x R = 40 x 10-3A x 3.2 Ω = 0.128 V or

128 mV
Example
a) Describe an experiment to determine the emf of a thermocouple
b) explain the following:
i) In an electrical circuit, a voltmeter is always connected across the element whose
voltage is to be measured.
ii) Most devices sometimes burn out at switch off.
iii) Long distance transmission of electricity requires high voltage.
c) To measure the emf of a thermocouple by potentiometer method, a uniform wire of
length 1.00 m and resistance 2.00 Ω is used. When a 1.00 x 10 2 Ω resistor is connected in
series with the wire and a 1.00 V standard cell connected across them, the balance length
of potentiometer is 9.00 cm but when only the thermocouple is connected across the wire,
the balance length is 45.0 cm. Calculate the emf of the thermocouple. What is the effect of
the changes in temperature on the emf of the thermocouple?
Solution
Procedure: the emf of a thermocouple is very small of order of millivolt (mV). To obtain
a balance length with negligible errors, a resistor of high resistance R is connected in
series with AB so as to cause a p.d of say U mV across AC. To measure the
thermoelectric emf, E of the thermocouple at a temperature θ. The balance length L is
obtained.
Calculation:

Precaution:
 Eyes are placed normal to the ruler when measuring the balanced length so as to
minimize parallax error.
 The experiment is performed twice and the values averaged to minimize
systematic and random errors.
b) i) so that it should measure the voltage drop across it without altering the current
flowing through it since it has a high resistance
ii) the sudden collapse of magnetic flux at switch off, can cause large induced currents to
burn most devices.
iii) to reduce power on the wire from, P = IV = I 2R implies high voltage leads to low
current and therefore, less I2R loss.

c) At balance point, the current along AB, . From V =IR, VAB

= 2 x 9.82 x 10-3 = 1.96 x 10-2 V. But where E is the thermocouple emf and L E

its balance length, i.e.,

the variation of emf with temperature is approximately parabolic as seen in the previous
chapter.
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE (α)
It is the fractional change in the resistance of a material per unit rise in temperature.
Experiment shows that α for metals and their alloys is approximately constant within the
range 0 0C to 100 0C. For copper α is = 4 x 10 -3 0C-1, this means that a copper wire having
a resistance of one at 0 0C increases in resistance by 4 x 10-3 Ω for every 1 0C temperature
rise. Metals and their alloys have positive temperature coefficient of resistance (p.t.c) i.e.,
their resistances increase with temperature rise. The value for pure metals is of the order
of 4 x 10-3 0C-1 or 1/273 0C.
Semiconductors, graphite and non-metals have negative temperature coefficient (n.t.c)
i.e., their resistances decrease with temperature rise. This is because electron-hole pair are
thermally generated.
Example
Calculate the temperature coefficient of platinum if a platinum wire has a resistance of
1.36 Ω at 0 0C and a resistance of 1.89 Ω at 100 0C.
Solution
i) Rθ = R0 (1 + αθ) i.e., 1.89 = 1.36 (1 + 100α) ∴ α = 3.9 x 10-3 K-1

ii) , where are the resistances at temperature θ and 0 0C

respectively.
Experiment to measure α

Procedure: The change of resistance with temperature is very small, so a Wheatstone

bridge is used to measure R. The temperature of the wire is varied by heating the water
bath. At each temperature, the Wheatstone bridge is adjusted until the galvanometer
shows no deflection (this is the balance condition)

Calculation: At balance, the values are read and R calculated from

Graph
A graph of resistance, R versus temperature, θ is plotted

Slope =

Precautions:
  Copper is used as connecting leads because of its low resistance since the energy
loss in the connection leads is supposed to be very small.
 Eyes are placed normal to the thermometer when measuring temperature avoid
parallax error.
Some Temperature Coefficient of Resistance Values
Substance α/10-3K-1 at 100 0C
Silver 3.9
Copper 4.3
Aluminum 4.9
Iron 5.6
Tungsten 5.8
Nichrome 0.4
Brass 1.5

ENERGY AND POWER IN RESISTORS

Joule’s law of heating
It states that the amount of heat, H, produced in a conductor is directly proportional to the
(i) Square of the current flowing through the conductor, (Q, T – constant) i.e. H ∝ i2
(ii) Resistance of the conductor (i, T – constant.) i.e. H ∝ R
(iii) Time for which the current is passed (i, R, – constant) i.e., H ∝ t

Thus H = i2 RT joule =
Electric Power
It is the rate at which work is done in maintaining the current in electric circuit
or
The power of a device is the rate at which it converts electrical energy to other forms of
energy with time.
Electric power, P = VI = I2 R = V2 / R S.I. unit is watt or joule/second. The last two
expressions are correct only when all the electrical energy is converted into heat.
Electric energy: The electric energy consumed in a circuit is defined as the total work
done in maintaining the current in an electric circuit for a given time.
Electric energy = VIt = Pt = I2 Rt = V2 t / R.
The S.I. unit of electric energy is joule (denoted by J) where 1 joule = 1 watt × 1 second =
1 volt × 1 ampere × 1 sec. ∴ 1W = 1 J/s
Any device that is capable of converting all its electrical energy into heat is termed a
passive resistor e.g. heating coil, and elements of an electric iron, etc.
Heating Elements:
From P = V2/R, if P is constant, then the rate of heat production by a resistor increases as

R decreases. But , where d = diameter.

This means that if a high rate of heat production is needed, then the heating element must
have a large cross-sectional area, low resistivity and a short length. It must also be capable
of withstanding high temperatures without oxidizing. Nichrome satisfies all these
requirements. Tungsten is used in electric lamp filament because it has a high melting
point (3400 0C). It is used with an inert gas (neon or argon). The gas reduces evaporation
and prevents it from condensing on the inside of the bulb and blackening it. In most
projector lamps, there is little iodine which forms tungsten vapour and remains as vapour
when the lamp is working thereby preventing blackening.

The Kilo watt-hour (KWh)

In household circuits the electrical appliances are connected in parallel and the electrical
energy consumed is measured in kWh (kilo watt hour).
1 kWh = 1000 Wh = 1000 W x 3600 s = 3.6 × 106 J

Example
In a factory, a heating coil of power 100 W is used to heat a liquid. How much would it
cost to use the coil for thirty days if ENEO charges 60 francs per kWh?
Solution
Energy consumed for thirty days is 30 x 24 x 60 x 60 = 2.592 x 108J
1kWh = 3.6 x 106J
Cost = 4320 frs
Example
You are given a reel of wire whose resistance is 10 Ohms per meter. Calculate the length
of wire you would need to make a heater, which using the mains voltage 240V, would
take 5 minutes to heat 2 kg of water from 40 0C to 100 0C. (s.h.c of water = 4200 Jkg-1 0C-
1
)
Solution
Power needed =

Since 10 Ohms is equivalent to 1 meter, the length needed = 34.29Ω/10Ωm-1 = 3.43m

Example
An electric iron of resistance 30 Ω is socketed on the wall and the current flowing through
it is 3A. calculate
(i) Its power
(ii) The thermal energy generated by it in 5 minutes.
(iii) Calculate the cost of operating the iron for five hours if a KWh cost 65 frs C.F.A.
Solution
P = I2R = (3)2 x 30 Ω = 270 W
Energy consumed = P x t = 270 x 5 x 60 x 60 = 4860000
KWh = 3600000

⸫
Example
A cable with resistance of 0.05Ω delivers 135kW at 240V to a factory. Calculate the
efficiency of the transmission