03: Boolean Algebra and Circuit Design

IT1206 – Computer Systems

Level I - Semester 1

© 2020 e-Learning Centre, UCSC

Boolean Algebra

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 2

Boolean Postulates

0.0=0
1+1=1
0+0=0
1.1=1
1.0=0.1=0
1+0=0+1=1

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 3

Basic Identities of Boolean Algebra

Source - Linda Null and Julia Lobur, Essentials of Computer Organization and Architecture, 5th Edition

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 4

 Laws of Boolean Algebra

▪ . A.B + A.B = A
( A + B )( A + B ) = A

▪ . A+0 = A
A.0 = 0

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 5

 Laws of Boolean Algebra

▪ . A + A.B = A + B
A( A + B ) = AB

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 6

 Boolean Expressions

• There can be multiple boolean expressions for a single

operational behavior (single truth table).
• Thus, there can be multiple circuit structures with
different logic gate arrangements for the same behavior.
• Simple and minimal circuit structure is always preferred.
– Efficiency
– Cost

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 7

 Simple Expression

• Boolean algebra helps to simplify expressions.

– 𝐹1 = 𝑥ҧ 𝑦𝑧
ത + 𝑥𝑦𝑧
ҧ + 𝑥 𝑦ത
– 𝐹2 = 𝑥𝑦ത + 𝑥𝑧
ҧ
𝒙 𝒚 𝒛 𝑭𝟐 𝑭𝟏
0 0 0 0 0
• You will get two circuits
0 0 1 1 1
if you draw circuits for F1 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1
and F2.
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 8

 Expression to Truth Table

• When a boolean expression is given, we can formulate

the truth table for the expresssion.
• Identify the variables in the expression
– If there are 𝑛 variables, then there will be 2𝑛
combinations of values
– 2𝑛 rows in the turth table
• Derive the resulting value for each value combination in
the truth table rows.

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 9

 Expression to Truth Table. (Cont.)

• Ex.
𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥. 𝑦. 𝑧ҧ + 𝑦.
ത𝑧

– Three variables in 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

– There will be 23 combinations
– There will be 23 rows in the truth table

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 10

 Expression to Truth Table. (Cont.)

• Ex.
𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥. 𝑦. 𝑧ҧ + 𝑦.
ത𝑧

𝒙 𝒚 𝒛 𝑭
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 11

 Truth Table to Expression

• When a truth table is given, we can formulate the

boolean algebric expression to represent it.
• There are two forms (𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 forms) in presenting the
expression.
– Sum of Minterms (Standard Products)
– Product of Maxterms (Standard Sums)

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 12

 Minterm

• In a three variable boolean expression, we can combine

3 variables with an AND operator.
• There are 8 possible such arrangements.
– 𝑥.ҧ 𝑦.
ത 𝑧ҧ
– 𝑥.ҧ 𝑦.
ത𝑧
– ………..
– 𝑥. 𝑦. 𝑧
• Each of these AND terms is called Minterm
(or Standard Product).
• (𝑥. 𝑦) is not a Minterm in this context.
© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 13
 Maxterm

• In a three variable boolean expression, we can combine

3 variables with an OR operator.
• There are 8 possible such arrangements.
– 𝑥ҧ + 𝑦ത + 𝑧ҧ
– 𝑥ҧ + 𝑦ത + 𝑧
– ……………
– 𝑥+𝑦+𝑧
• Each of these OR terms is called Maxterm (or Standard
Sum)
• (𝑦ത + 𝑧) is not a Maxterm in this context.

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 14

[Sum – Product] in Mathematics

A product is the result of multiplying, or an

expression that identifies factors to be
multiplied.

A sum is the aggregate of two or more

numbers or particulars as determined by or as
if by the mathematical process of addition.

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing

15
 Sum of Minterms

• Disjunction of terms where each term is a conjunction of

literals.
• The OR operations are performed on the terms that are
made by AND operations.
• Ex.
𝐹 = 𝑥.ҧ 𝑦. 𝑧ҧ + 𝑥. 𝑦.
ത 𝑧ҧ + 𝑥. 𝑦.
ത 𝑧 + 𝑥. 𝑦. 𝑧ҧ + 𝑥. 𝑦. 𝑧

• Each term in the expression is referred as Minterm or

Standard Product.

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 16

 Product of Maxterms

• Conjunction of terms where each term is a disjunction of

literals.
• The AND operations are performed on the terms that are
made by OR operations.
• Ex.
𝐹 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 . 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧ҧ . 𝑥 + 𝑦ത + 𝑧ҧ

• Each term in the expresssion is referred as Maxterm or

Standard Sum.

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 17

 Standard Forms

• In Cannonical Form, each term must contain all the

variables in the truth table.
• But Standard Form is an alternative way to express
Boolean function.
• A term in an expression that is expressed in a standard
form doesn’t need to contain all the variables in the truth
table.
• There are two standard forms.
– Sum of Products
– Product of Sums

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 18

 Standard Form – Sum of Products

• OR operation is performed over several terms where

each term is made up by performing AND operation over
several literals.
• Ex.
𝐹 = 𝑥.ҧ 𝑦 + 𝑦.
ത 𝑧ҧ + 𝑥. 𝑦.
ത 𝑧+𝑦

𝐹 = 𝑥.ҧ 𝑦 + 𝑦.
ത (𝑥 + 𝑧)ҧ + 𝑥. 𝑦.
ത 𝑧+𝑦

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 19

 Standard Form - Product of Sums

• AND operation is performed over several terms where

each term is made up by performing OR operation over
several literals.
• Ex.
𝐹 = 𝑦. 𝑥 + 𝑧 . 𝑥ҧ + 𝑦ത + 𝑧ҧ

𝐹 = 𝑦. 𝑥 + 𝑧. 𝑦ത . 𝑥ҧ + 𝑦ത + 𝑧ҧ

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 20

 Logic Equations to Truth Tables

X = A.B + A.B + AB
A B X
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 21

 Sum of Minterms
▪ The OR operation performed on the products of the AND
operation
▪ Fill the corresponding cells with 1 for each product, the
other cells with 0

A B X
X = ( A.B ) + ( A.B ) + ( A.B ) 0 0 1
A = 1, A = 0 0 1 1

B = 1, B = 0 1 0 0

1 1 1

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 22

 Product of Maxterms
▪ The AND operation performed on the sums of the OR
operation
▪ Fill the corresponding cells with 0 for each sum, the
other cells with 1

A B X
Y = ( A + B ).( A + B ) 0 0 1

A = 0, A = 1 0 1 1

B = 0, B = 1 1 0 0

1 1 0

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 23

 Truth Tables to Logic Equations

• Sum of Minterms - consider 1s

A B X
– Consider A=1,B=1
0 0 1
X = ( A.B ) + ( A.B)
0 1 1
• Product of Maxterms – consider 0s
1 0 0
– Consider A=0,B=0
1 1 0
X = ( A + B).( A + B)

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 24

 Your Turn: Exercise1

▪ Convert the following equation which is in the form of

Product-of-sums into the form of Sum-of-products

f ( ABCD ) = ( A + B + C )( A + B + C + D)( A + B + D)( A + C )

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 25

 Answer: Exercise1

f ( ABCD ) = ( A + B + C )( A + B + C + D)( A + B + D)( A + C )

f ( ABCD ) = ( A + B + C )( A + B + C + D)( A + B + D)( A + C )

f ( ABCD ) = ( A + B + C ) + ( A + B + C + D ) + ( A + B + D ) + ( A + C )

f ( ABCD ) = ( A.B.C ) + ( A.B.C.D) + ( A.B.D) + ( A.C )

f ( ABCD ) = ( A.B.C ) + ( A.B.C.D) + ( A.B.D) + ( A.C )

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 26

 Implementation of Boolean Functions

▪ A Boolean function can be realised in either SOP or

POS form

▪ At this point, it would seem that the choice would

depend on whether the truth table contains more 1s
and 0s for the output function

▪ The SOP has one term for each 1, and the POS has
one term for each 0

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 27

 Implementation of Boolean Functions

▪ However, there are other considerations:

➢ It is generally possible to derive a simpler Boolean
expression from truth table than either SOP or
POS

➢ It may be preferable to implement the function with

a single gate type (NAND or NOR)

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 28

 Implementation of Boolean Functions

▪ The significance of this is that, with a simpler

Boolean expression, fewer gates will be needed to
implement the function

▪ Methods that can be used to achieve simplification

are:
➢ Algebraic Simplification
➢ Karnaugh Maps

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 29

 Your Turn: Algebraic Simplification

▪ Simplify the following equation using Boolean

algebra laws

f ( ABC ) = ( A + B + C )( A + BC )

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 30

Answer: Algebraic Simplification

f ( ABC ) = ( A + B + C )( A + BC )
f ( ABC ) = AA + A BC + A B + B BC + AC + BC C
f ( ABC ) = A(1 + BC + B + C ) + BC + BC C
f ( ABC ) = A + BC

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 31

 Karnaugh Maps

▪ For purposes of simplification, the Karnaugh map is a

convenient way of representing a Boolean function of
a small number (up to 4 to 6) of variables

n
▪ The map is an array of 2 squares, representing the
possible combinations of values of n binary variables

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 32

 Karnaugh Maps
▪ The map can be used to represent any Boolean
function in the following way:
➢ Each square corresponds to a unique product in the
sum-of-products form.

➢ With a 1 value corresponding to the variable and a 0

value corresponding to the NOT of that variable

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 33

Karnaugh Maps: 2 Values

A 0 1
B
0 0 1

1 1 1

X = A.B + A.B + AB

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 34

 Karnaugh Maps: 2 Values
▪ The AB corresponds to the fourth square in the
Figure
▪ For each such production in the function, 1 is
placed in the corresponding square
AB

00 01 11 10
1 1

F = AB + AB

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 35

 Karnaugh Maps: 3 Values

AB 00 01 11 10
C
0 1 1 0 0

1 0 0 1 1

X = A.B.C + A.B.C + A.B.C + A.B.C

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 36

 Karnaugh Maps: 4 Values
AB 00 01 11 10
CD
00 1 0 1 1

01 0 1 1 0

11 0 1 1 0

10 0 1 0 1

X = A.B.C.D + A.B.C.D + A.B.C.D + A.B.C.D + A.B.C.D + A.B.C.D + A.B.C.D + A.B.C.D

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 37

 Karnaugh Maps: Exercise 1

▪ Simplify the following Karnaugh Map using Boolean

equations (Write your answers in both SOP and POS)

AB 00 01 11 10
C
0 0 1 0 0

1 1 1 0 1

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 38

 Karnaugh Maps: Answer

( A.B.C ) + ( A.B.C ) + ( A.B.C ) + ( A.B.C ) AB + BC

( A + B + C ).( A + B + C ).( A + B + C ).( A + B + C ) ( B + C ).( A + B)

AB 00 01 11 10
C
0 0 1 0 0

1 1 1 0 1

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 39

 Karnaugh Maps: Exercise 2

▪ Simplify the following Karnaugh Map using Boolean

equations (Write your answers in both SOP and POS)

AB 00 01 11 10
CD
00 1 0 0 1

01 0 1 1 0

11 0 0 1 0

10 1 0 0 1

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 40

 Karnaugh Maps: Answer

( ABC D) + ( ABC D) + ( ABC D) + ( ABC D) + ( ABCD ) + ( ABC D) + ( ABC D)

B D + BC D + ABD
AB 00 01 11 10
CD
00 1 0 0 1

01 0 1 1 0

11 0 0 1 0

10 1 0 0 1

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 41

 Karnaugh Maps: Answer
( A + B + C + D).( A + B + C + D).( A + B + C + D ).( A + B + C + D).
( A + B + C + D).( A + B + C + D).( A + B + C + D ).( A + B + C + D).
( A + B + C + D)

( B + D).( B + D).( A + C + D)
AB 00 01 11 10
CD
00 1 0 0 1

01 0 1 1 0

11 0 0 1 0

10 1 0 0 1

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 42

 Simplified Labeling of Karnaugh Maps
▪ The labeling used in figure emphasizes the relationship
between variables and the rows and columns of the map
C
▪ The two rows embraced by
the symbol A are those in
which the variable A has the
value 1; the rows not
B
embraced by the symbol A
are those in which A is 0 A

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 43

 Simplified Labeling of Karnaugh Maps

▪ Once the map of a function is created, we can often write

a simple algebraic expression for it by noting the
arrangement of the 1s on the map
▪ The principle is as follows:
➢ Any two squares that are adjacent differ in only one of
the variables
➢ If two adjacent squares both have an entry of 1, then
the corresponding product terms differ in only one
variable
➢ In such a case, the two terms can be merged by
eliminating that variable

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 44

Simplified Labeling of Karnaugh Maps

▪ For example, in following FIGURE, the two adjacent

squares correspond to the two terms ABCD and ABCD

CD

▪ The function expressed is

ABCD + ABCD = ABD
1 1
AB

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 45

 Simplified Labeling of Karnaugh Maps

▪ This process can be extended in several ways:

➢ First, the concept of adjacent can be extended to
include wrapping around the edge of the map
➢ Thus, the top square of a column is adjacent to
the bottom square, and the leftmost square of a
row is adjacent to the rightmost square
n
➢ Second, we can group not just 2 squares but 2
adjacent squares, that is, 4, 8, etc

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 46

 Your turn: Karnaugh Maps

CD

AB

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 47

 Answer: Karnaugh Maps

CD

AB
BCD

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 48

 Your turn: Karnaugh Maps

CD

1 1
AB

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 49

 Answer: Karnaugh Maps

CD

1 1
AB
ABD

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 50

 Your turn: Karnaugh Maps

CD

1 1 1 1

AB

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 51

 Answer: Karnaugh Maps

CD

1 1 1 1

AB
AB

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 52

 Your turn: Karnaugh Maps

CD

1 1
AB
1 1

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 53

 Answer: Karnaugh Maps

CD

1 1
AB
BC
1 1

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 54

 Your turn: Karnaugh Maps

CD

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1
AB

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 55

 Answer: Karnaugh Maps

CD

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1
AB
A

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 56

 Your turn: Karnaugh Maps

CD

1 1

1 1
AB
1 1

1 1

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 57

 Answer: Karnaugh Maps

CD

1 1

1 1
AB
C
1 1

1 1

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 58

 Simplified Labeling of Karnaugh Maps

▪ In attempting to simplify, first look for the largest

grouping possible:
➢ When you are circling groups, you are allowed to
use the same 1 more than once
➢ If any isolated 1s remain after the groupings, then
each of these is circled as a group of 1s
➢ Finally, before going from the map to a simplified
Boolean expression, any group of 1s that is
completely overlapped by other groups can be
eliminated

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 59

 Karnaugh Maps: Overlapping Groups

CD
BC
00 01 11 10
00 01 11 10 00
0 1 1 1
A AB 01
1 1
11 1 1

F = AB + BC 10 1

F = BCD +ACD

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 60

 Your turn: Karnaugh Maps

CD

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1
AB
1 1 0 1

1 1 1 1

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 61

 Answer: Karnaugh Maps

CD

F = AC + AB + BCD
0 0 0 0
F = (A+C).(A+B).(B+C+D)
0 0 0 1
AB
1 1 0 1

1 1 1 1

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 62

 Drawing a Circuit

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 63

 Drawing a Circuit

B+AC

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 64

 Drawing a Circuit

B+AC

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 65

 Logic Operators

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 66

 Logic Operations

▪ Basic logic operators and logic gates

▪ Boolean algebra

▪ Combinational Circuits

▪ Basic circuit design

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 67

Basic Logic Operators and Logic Gates

▪ AND
▪ OR
▪ NOT
▪ XOR (Exclusive OR)
▪ NOR
▪ NAND
▪ XNOR

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 68

 Buffer

A B
0 0
1 1

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing

 AND Operation

▪ . Operator
▪ ^ Operator A B A.B
▪ A.B=A^B
0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing

 OR Operation

▪ + Operator
▪ v Operator A B A+B
▪ A+B=AvB
0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing

 NOT Operation

▪ ~ Operator
▪ ¬ Operator
A A’

0 1
A = A = ~ A = A'
1 0

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing

 XOR Operation

▪ Operator

A B A B
A B 0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing

 NAND Operation

( A.B) = ( A.B)' A B ( A.B)

0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing

 NOR Operation

( A + B) = ( A + B)' A B ( A + B)
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing

 XNOR Operation

( A  B) A B ( A  B)
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing

 Multiple Input Gates

• Gates are not limited to two inputs.

• There can be logic gates with more than two inputs.

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 77

 Drawing Logic Gates

▪ In addition to the basic gates, gates with 3,4, or

more inputs can be used
E.g. x + y + z can be implemented with a single
OR gate with 3 inputs

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 78

 Drawing Logic Gates

X = ( A + B )C

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing

 Drawing Logic Gates

X = A + ( B.C ) + D

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing

 Drawing Logic Gates

X = ( A.B) + ( A.C )

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing

 Drawing Logic Gates

X = ( A + B).(C + D).C

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing

 Reducing Logic Gates

▪ Reducing the number of inputs

➢ The number of inputs to a gate can be reduced by
connecting two (or more) inputs together

➢ The diagram shows a 3-input AND gate operating

as a 2-input AND gate

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 83

 Reducing Logic Gates

▪ Reducing the number of inputs

➢ Reducing a NOT gate from a NAND or NOR gate

➢ The diagram shows this for a 2-input NAND gate

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 84

 Logic Gates

▪ Typically, not all gate types are used in

implementation
➢ Design and fabrication are simpler if only one or
two types of gates are used
➢ Therefore, it is important to identify functionally
complete sets of gates
➢ This means that any Boolean function can be
implemented using only the gates in the set

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 85

 Logic Gates

▪ The following are functionally complete sets:

➢ AND, OR, NOT
➢ AND, NOT
➢ OR, NOT
➢ NAND
➢ NOR

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 86

 Logic Gates

▪ AND, OR, and NOT gates constitute a functionally

complete set, since they represent the 3 operations of
Boolean algebra
▪ For the AND and NOT gates to form a functionally
complete set, there must be a way to synthesize the OR
operation from the AND and NOT operations

A+B = A.B
A OR B = NOT( ( NOT A) AND ( NOT B) )

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 87

 Logic Gates

▪ Similarly, the OR and NOT operations are functionally

complete because they can be synthesize the AND
operation

A.B = A+B
A AND B = NOT( ( NOT A) OR ( NOT B) )

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 88

 Universal Gates

▪ The AND, OR and NOT functions can be

implemented solely with NAND gates, and the same
thing for NOR gates.

▪ For this reason, digital circuits can be, and frequently

are, implemented solely with NAND gates or solely
with NOR gates
▪ Therefore, NAND and NOR gates are referred to as a
Universal Gate

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 89

 Logic Gates

▪ The diagram shows how the NOT function can be

implemented solely with NAND gate

A A

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 90

 Logic Gates

▪ The diagram shows how the AND function can be

implemented solely with NAND gate

A A.B
A.B

B
A

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 91

 Logic Gates

▪ The diagram shows how the OR function can be

implemented solely with NAND gate

A
A

A+B

B
B

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 92

 Logic Gates
Gate Equivalent in NAND gates

NOT

AND

OR

NOR

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 93

 Your turn

▪ Draw a diagram that shows how the NOT function

can be implemented solely with NOR gate

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 94

 Logic Gates

▪ The diagram shows how the NOT function can be

implemented solely with NOR gate

A A

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 95

 Your turn

▪ Draw a diagram that shows how the OR function

can be implemented solely with NOR gate

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 96

 Logic Gates

▪ The diagram shows how the OR function can be

implemented solely with NOR gate

A A+B
A+B

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 97

 Your turn

▪ Draw a diagram that shows how the AND function

can be implemented solely with NOR gate

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 98

 Logic Gates

▪ The diagram shows how the AND function can be

implemented solely with NOR gate

A
A

A. B

B
B

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 99

Substituting Gates in a Logic System

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 100

Substituting Gates in a Logic System

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 101

Substituting Gates in a Logic System

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 102

 Digital Circuits and Boolean Algebra

• There are digital circuit elements to represent primary

boolean algbeabric operations.
– Boolean OR operation = OR Gate
– Boolean AND operation = AND Gate
– Boolean NOT operation = NOT Gate
• Complex boolean functions can be represented as
combinations of logic gates.

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 103

 Integrated Circuits

• Typically gates are not available as individual circuit

units.
• Instead, multiple gates which are built into chips are
available.
• A chip is typically mounted in a ceramic or plastic
container with enternal pins to make connections.
• Not only these chips, but also complex circuits built into
such a chip is generally regarded as an Integrated
Circuit (IC).

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 104

 Thank You

© 2009, University of Colombo School of Computing 105