TURBULENT FLOW

Most flows encountered in engineering practice are turbulent. Turbulent flow is

characterized by disorderly and rapid fluctuations of swirling regions of
fluid, called eddies, throughout the flow. These fluctuations provide an
additional mechanism for momentum and energy transfer. In laminar flow,
fluid particles flow in an orderly manner along pathlines, and momentum and
energy are transferred across streamlines by molecular diffusion.

The above text and figures are taken from: Çengel, Y. A. & Cimbala, J.M., Fluid Mechanics:
Fundamentals and Applications, McGraw Hill, 2017. 1
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In turbulent flow, the swirling eddies transport mass, momentum, and
energy to other regions of flow much more rapidly than molecular diffusion,
greatly enhancing mass, momentum, and heat transfer. As a result, turbulent
flow is associated with much higher values of friction, heat transfer, and
mass transfer coefficients.

The above text and figures are taken from: Çengel, Y. A. & Cimbala, J.M., Fluid Mechanics:
3
Fundamentals and Applications, McGraw Hill, 2017.
Even when the average flow is steady, the eddy motion in turbulent flow causes significant
fluctuations in the values of velocity, temperature, pressure, and even density (in
compressible flow). The figure shows the variation of the instantaneous velocity component u
with time at a specified location, as can be measured with a hot-wire anemometer probe or other
sensitive device. We observe that the instantaneous values of the velocity fluctuate about an
average value, which suggests that the velocity can be expressed as the sum of an average value
u– and a fluctuating component u′.

The above text and figures are taken from: Çengel, Y. A. & Cimbala, J.M., Fluid Mechanics:
4
Fundamentals and Applications, McGraw Hill, 2017.
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Total Shear Stress in Turbulent Flow

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Turbulent Shear Stress
turbulent shear stress

Turbulent shear
stress

eddy viscosity or turbulent viscosity:

accounts for momentum transport by
turbulent eddies

Total shear
stress

kinematic eddy viscosity or

kinematic turbulent viscosity (also
called the eddy diffusivity of
momentum).
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 mixing length lm: related to the average
size of the eddies that are primarily
responsible for mixing

Molecular diffusivity of
momentum v (as well as
µ) is a fluid property, and
its value is listed in fluid
handbooks.
Eddy diffusivity vt (as well
as µt), however, is not a
fluid property, and its
The velocity gradients at the value depends on flow
wall, and thus the wall shear conditions.
stress, are much larger for Eddy diffusivity µt
turbulent flow than they are decreases toward the wall,
for laminar flow, even though becoming zero at the wall.
the turbulent boundary layer Its value ranges from zero
is thicker than the laminar at the wall to several
one for the same value of thousand times the value
free-stream velocity. of the molecular diffusivity
in the core region. 9
lm is the mixing length.

L. Prandtl proposed that turbulent process could be viewed as the

random transport of bumdles of fluid particles over a certain length,
lm.

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Turbulent Velocity Profile The very thin layer next to the wall where
viscous effects are dominant is the viscous (or
laminar or linear or wall) sublayer.
The velocity profile in this layer is very nearly
linear, and the flow is streamlined.
Next to the viscous sublayer is the buffer
layer, in which turbulent effects are becoming
significant, but the flow is still dominated by
viscous effects.
Above the buffer layer is the overlap (or
transition) layer, also called the inertial
sublayer, in which the turbulent effects are
much more significant, but still not dominant.
Above that is the outer (or turbulent) layer in
the remaining part of the flow in which
turbulent effects dominate over molecular
diffusion (viscous) effects.

The velocity profile in fully developed pipe flow is parabolic in laminar flow,
but much fuller in turbulent flow. Note that u(r) in the turbulent case is the
time-averaged velocity component in the axial direction (the overbar on u
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has been dropped for simplicity).
 friction velocity
law of the wall

Law of the wall is valid very near the smooth wall for 0≤yu*/ʋ≤5
In the viscous sublayer, the fluid viscosity is the important parameter. The
thickness of the viscous sublayer is proportional to the kinematic viscosity and
inversely proportional to the average flow velocity.

for 5≤yu*/ʋ≤70

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 Velocity
defect law
The deviation of velocity from the centerline value
umax - u is called the velocity defect.

The value n = 7 generally

approximates many flows in
practice, giving rise to the
term one-seventh power-law
velocity profile.

Power-law velocity profiles

for fully developed
turbulent flow in a pipe for
different exponents, and its
comparison with the
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laminar velocity profile.
Comparison of Laminar & Turbulent Flow

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Comparison of Laminar & Turbulent Flow
Laminar Turbulent
Can solve exactly Cannot solve exactly (too complex)
Flow is unsteady, but it is steady in the
Velocity profile is parabolic
mean
Pipe roughness does not affect the
Mean velocity profile is fuller
flow Pipe roughness is very important
Vavg 85% of Umax (and depends on Re )
No analytical solution, but there are
some good semi-empirical expressions
that approximate the velocity profile
shape.

Instantaneous
profiles

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Major Losses (Turbulent Flow)

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Darcy Weisbach Equation
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Turbulent Flow (Re>4000)

δs = thickness of the
Velocity profile, viscous sublayer
R=D/2
y u = u f(y) e = the roughness of
ds pipe wall
x

ds e e ds
e

(a) Smooth wall (b) Transitional flow (c) Rough wall

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Turbulent Flow (Re>4000)

ds e e ds
e

(a) Smooth wall (b) Transitional flow (c) Rough wall

For hydraulically smooth pipe  f=f(Re) only

For frictionally transition zone  f=f(Re, ε/D)
For fully rough pipe  f=f(ε/D) only.

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 THE MOODY CHART
The friction factor in fully developed turbulent pipe flow depends on the
Reynolds number and the relative roughness 𝜀/D, which is the ratio of the
mean height of roughness of the pipe to the pipe diameter.

The functional form of this dependence cannot be obtained from a theoretical

analysis, and all available results are obtained from experiments using
artificially roughened surfaces (usually by gluing sand grains of a known size
on the inner surfaces of the pipes).

In 1939, Cyril F. Colebrook (1910–1997) combined the available data for

transition and turbulent flow in smooth as well as rough pipes into the
following implicit relation known as the Colebrook equation:
The above text and figures are taken from: Çengel, Y. A. & Cimbala, J.M., Fluid Mechanics:
25
Fundamentals and Applications, McGraw Hill, 2017.
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We make the following observations from the Moody chart:

• For laminar flow, the friction factor decreases with increasing Reynolds
number, and it is independent of surface roughness.

• The friction factor is a minimum for a smooth pipe (but still not zero because
of the no-slip condition) and increases with roughness. The Colebrook
equation in this case (𝜀 = 0) reduces to the Prandtl equation expressed as 1/√f
= 2.0 log(Re√f ) − 0.8.

• The transition region from the laminar to turbulent regime (2300 < Re < 4000)
is indicated by the shaded area in the Moody chart. The flow in this region
may be laminar or turbulent, depending on flow disturbances, or it may
alternate between laminar and turbulent, and thus the friction factor may also
alternate between the values for laminar and turbulent flow. The data in this
range are the least reliable. At small relative roughnesses, the friction factor
increases in the transition region and approaches the value for smooth pipes.

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• At very large Reynolds numbers (to the right of the dashed line on the
Moody chart) the friction factor curves corresponding to specified relative
roughness curves are nearly horizontal, and thus the friction factors are
independent of the Reynolds number.

• The flow in that region is called fully rough turbulent flow or just fully rough
flow because the thickness of the viscous sublayer decreases with increasing
Reynolds number, and it becomes so thin that it is negligibly small compared
to the surface roughness height.

• Some authors call this zone completely (or fully) turbulent flow, but this is
misleading since the flow to the left of the dashed blue line in is also fully
turbulent.
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Friction Losses in Pipes, hf
hf – Friction (Viscous, Major) loss

Determination of Friction Loss (hf):

1. Darcy-Weisbach Equation

8fL
LV 2
L 16 Q2 K 2 5
hf  f f 5 2  KQ2 where
g D
D 2g D  2g

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 2. Hazen-Williams Equation

6.8 L 10.6 L
hf  1.85 1.165 V 1.85
 1.85 4.87 Q1.85  KQ1.85
C D C D

K
D – pipe diameter (m)
V – average velocity (m/s)
g – gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
Q – flow rate (discharge) (m3/s)
L – pipe length (m)
f – Darcy – Weisbach friction factor (unitless)
C – Hazen-Williams Coefficient of Roughness (unitless)
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 Darcy-Weisbach Friction Factor in
Turbulent Flow
Smooth Pipe - 1  2.51 
 2 log
 Re f

 f  func Re
Hydraulically Smooth Flow f  

Colebrook – 1  2.51 e   e
 2 log   f  func  Re, 
White Transitional Flow    D
f  Re f 3.7 D 

Rough Pipe - 1  e  e 
Hydraulically Rough Flow
 2 log  f  func  
f  3.7 D  D

All of these eqn.s are implicit (f on both RHS and LHS)


hard to solve SO INSTEAD use Swamee-Jain Eqn. 33
 Hazen- Manning’s Darcy-Weisbach
Material Williams Coefficient Roughness Height

Roughness C n e (mm)

Coefficients for Asbestos cement 140 0.011 0.0015

Hazen-Williams, Brass 135 0.011 0.0015

Manning and Darcy-

Brick 100 0.015 0.6
Cast-iron, new 130 0.012 0.26

Weisbach Equations Concrete:

Steel forms 140 0.011 0.18
Wooden forms 120 0.015 0.6
Centrifugally spun 135 0.013 0.36
Copper 135 0.011 0.0015
6.8 L Corrugated metal --- 0.022 45
hf  1.85 1.165
V1.85 Galvanized iron 120 0.016 0.15
C D
Glass 140 0.011 0.0015
Lead 135 0.011 0.0015
Plastic 150 0.009 0.0015
Steel:
2
LV
hf  f Coal-tar enamel 148 0.010 0.0048

D 2g New unlined 145 0.011 0.045

Riverted 110 0.019 0.9
Wood stave 120 0.012 0.18

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 Swamee-Jain Formula (Explicit)
1.325
f  2
  e 5.74 
ln  3.7 D  Re 0.9 
  

for the range of 106  e / D  102 and 5000  Re  108

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 Computation of Flow in Single Pipes
The flow computation in single pipes requires solution
of three equations simultaneously:

The energy equation: P1 V12 P2 V22

z1 + + α = z2 + + α + hf
γ 2g γ 2g

Equation of Contunity: Q  V1 A1  V2 A2

Darcy-Weisbach Equation: L V2
hf  f
D 2g

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 Computation of Flow in Single Pipes
• In general, there are 3 types (I, II and III) of problems
depending on the information given:

1. Find ″head loss″ problem  Type I

Given : Q, L, D, , e Find : h f
2. Find ″discharge ″ problem  Type II
Given : h f , L, D, , e Find : Q
3. Find ″diameter″ problem (design problem)  Type III
Given : h f , L, Q, , e Find : D

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 Type of the problem
Variable
Type I Type II Type III
a) Fluid
G G G
*Density
G G G
*Viscosity
b) Pipe
G G D (G)
*Diameter
G G G
*Length
G G G (D)
*Roughness
c) Flow
G D G
*Flowrate, or
Average velocity
d. Pressure
D G G
*Pressure Drop, or
Head loss

G- Given,
D-Determined

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 Determination of Head Loss (Type I)
Given : Q, L, D, , e Find : h f
H1  H 2  hL and hL  hm  h f since hm  0, hL  h f  h f  H1  H 2
V2
p f LV 2 8f L 2
H  z  and h f  since V  Q / A  h f  Q
 2g D2 g g D
2 5

Q
1) Calculate velocity V
 D2 / 4
2) Calculate Reynolds number VD
Re 

3) Calculate relative roughness e /D
4) Calculate the friction factor, f  f Re, e /from
D Moody Chart or
equations.

5) Calculate head loss from Darcy-Weissbach Eqn. 8f L

hf  Q 2

g 2 D 5 39
Determination of Velocity (Discharge)
(Type II) Given : h , L, D, , e Find : Q
f

H1  H 2  hL and hL  hm  h f since hm  0, hL  h f  h f  H1  H 2

f LV 2 f LV 2
hf  thus H1  H 2  V  H1  H 2  D2 g
(1)
D2 g D2 g fL

V  H1  H 2 
D2 g
Equation (1)
fL

f  f Re, e / D

VD
Re 
There is V at both sides of Eqn. (1)! 
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Determination of Average Velocity
(Type II) Given : h , L, D, , e f Find : Q

1) Calculate relative rougness, ε/D

2) Make an initial guess for friction factor, f
 assume completely rough turbulent flow for which f=f(ε/D) only
& f(i)=f(0). h D2 g
V
f

3) Calculate velocity  fL
VD
4) Calculate Re  Re 

5) Determine f(i+1) using ε/D from Step 1 and Re from Step 4
using Moody chart or Equations
6) Check if f(i+1)= f(i). If no, go to Step 3 with f(i+1).
If yes,
D 2
7) calculate Q  Q V
4 41
 Iteration Table for Type II
Given : h f , L, D, , e Find : Q

h f D2 g VD
f(i) V Re  f(i+1)*
fL 

f(0) assumed calculated calculated f(1)

f(1) calculated calculated f(2)

f(2) calculated calculated f(3)

. . . .
. iteration
. stops when
. f(i) = f(i+1)
.
. . . .

f(i) f(i+1)

* obtained from Moody Chart [f=f(ε/D, Re)] , or determined using equations.

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Determination of Pipe Diameter (Type III)
Given : h f , L, Q, , e Find : D
1) Make an initial guess for friction factor, f
 assume that f(i), i=0  f(0)=0.015 or 0.020, which is a middle value
in Moody chart. 1/ 5
8LQ 2  8LQ 2 
2) Calculate pipe diameter  D5 f   2 
 f 1/ 5
h g  h g 
2
VD 4Q
3) Calculate Re  Re  
 D
4) Calculate relative rougness  ε/D
5) Determine f(i+1) using ε/D from Step 4 and Re from Step 3
using Moody chart or Equations
6) Check if f(i+1)= f(i). If no, go to Step 2 with f(i+1).
If yes, stop
7) Diameter calculated at Step 2 is the result
8) Select the next larger commercially available diameter 43
Iteration Table for Type III
Given : h f , L, Q, , e Find : D

f(i)  8LQ  15
2 5
Re 
VD
e /D f(i+1)*
D   2 
 f
 h g  
f(0) assumed calculated calculated calculated f(1)

f(1) calculated calculated calculated f(2)

f(2) calculated calculated calculated f(3)

. . . . .
. iteration
. stops when
. f(i) = f.(i+1) .
. . . . .

f(i) f(i+1)

* obtained from Moody Chart [f=f(ε/D, Re)] , or determined using equations.

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