Standard X

MATHEMATICS

Part-2
NT-889-1-MATHS-10-E-VOL.2

Government of Kerala
Department of General Education

State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT), Kerala

2019
 THE NATIONAL ANTHEM

Jana-gana-mana adhinayaka, jaya he

Bharatha-bhagya-vidhata.
Punjab-Sindh-Gujarat-Maratha
Dravida-Utkala-Banga
Vindhya-Himachala-Yamuna-Ganga
Uchchala-Jaladhi-taranga
Tava subha name jage,
Tava subha asisa mage,
Gahe tava jaya gatha.
Jana-gana-mangala-dayaka jaya he
Bharatha-bhagya-vidhata.
Jaya he, jaya he, jaya he,
Jaya jaya jaya, jaya he!

PLEDGE
India is my country. All Indians are my brothers and
sisters.
I love my country, and I am proud of its rich and varied
heritage. I shall always strive to be worthy of it.
I shall give respect to my parents, teachers and all
elders and treat everyone with courtesy.
I pledge my devotion to my country and my people.
In their well-being and prosperity alone lies my
happiness.
Prepared by :
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)
Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram 695 012, Kerala
Website : www.scertkerala.gov.in
E-mail : [email protected]
Phone : 0471-2341883, Fax : 0471-2341869
Typesetting and Layout : SCERT
Printed at : KBPS, Kakkanad, Kochi-30
© Department of General Education, Government of Kerala
Dear children,
Measurements and relations between them form an important
part of mathematics. Because of this, physical and social
sciences require mathematics to present such quantitative
relations. Mathematics also has an ideal aspect in which
measurements are seen as pure numbers and objects as
geometrical shapes. Relations between numbers then grow into
algebra, and cause-effect relationships of physical objects
develop into logical connections between ideas. Thus
mathematical theorems are formed. These in turn lead to more
effective practical applications. Here we present the basic lessons
in mathematical theory and applications.
In the present age, tedious computations and complex drawings
are done using computers. On the other hand, knowledge of
mathematics is essential for the effective use of computers. We
have indicated this two-way interaction between mathematics
and computers at many places in this book. We have included
examples of using the dynamical geometry program GeoGebra and
the computer language Python. More material on these are made
available through the Samagra portal and through QR codes.

With love and regards

Dr. J. Prasad
Director, SCERT
 CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part IV A
FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES OF CITIZENS

ARTICLE 51 A
Fundamental Duties- It shall be the duty of every citizen of India:
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions,
the National Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle
for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the
people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional
diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers,
wild life and to have compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity
so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and
achievements;
(k) who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to his child or,
as the case may be, ward between age of six and fourteen years.
 7. Tangents ........................................ 1 5 9

8. Solids ............................................. 1 8 7

9. Geometry and Algebra ............... 2 11

10. Polynomials .................................. 2 3 3

11. Statistics ........................................ 2 4 3

Certain icons are used in this
textbook for convenience

Computer Work

Additional Problems

Project

For Discussion

NSQF
  
See this picture :

AB is the diameter through the point A on the circle; and it is extended a bit on
either side.
This picture shows another chord through A, instead of a diameter, which is
also extended.
 X

Without altering the position of A, suppose we make X closer to A.

What if we make X closer and closer to A along the circle?

     
  GeoGebra   X
       
X         X
 X    
    
         
         
   

The red line in the picture just touches the circle at A, right?

This line is called the tangent

to the circle at A. Look at the
picture again; see any relation
between the tangent and the
diameter?
To make this clear, let’s take
the central angle of chord AX
as x.


   

As X gets closer to A, the length of the chord AX and its central angle become
smaller; that is, the number x gets closer to zero.

What about the angle between the chord and the  
diameter? Since ΔAOX is isosceles, this angle is     !
o
       
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
2
(180 − x) = ⎜⎝ 90 − 2 x⎟⎠   
        
       
        
"  #       
     
     
      
     
     
     

As X gets closer to A, this angle gets closer to 90.       GeoGebra.
$             %  
And when the extended chord becomes a tangent,
&  '         
the angle becomes exactly 90.   (      " 
             
 


 X

We state this as a general principle:

                
      

Let’s look at some problems based on this.

In the picture below, the top line is a tangent to the circle:
)          
GeoGebra     $ 
     point on the 
 "     
m
2c

  
             
   & Trace On" 
Animation"     
 

Can you draw this picture in your notebook?

First draw a circle of radius 2 centimetres and a horizontal line through its
centre.

What we need next is a line

making an angle of 25 with this
line. If we draw a line slanted at
2 cm 25from an arbitrary point on this
line, it may not be a tangent to the
circle.


   

So, let’s think in reverse, at what point on the circle should we draw the
tangent? It should meet the first line at a 25slant.
Look at the first picture again; the top angle of the triangle is 90; and another
angle is 25.
So, the third angle is 65.
Can’t you complete the picture now?

m
2c

(1) In each of the two pictures below, a triangle is formed by a tangent to

a circle, the radius through the point of contact and a line through the
centre:
cm

2
cm
2.5

5 cm 4 cm

Draw these in your note book.

(2) In the picture, all sides of

a rhombus are tangents to
a circle. 4 cm

Draw this picture in your

notebook.


 X

(3) Prove that the tangents drawn to a circle at the two ends of a diameter
are parallel.
(4) What sort of a quadrilateral is formed by the tangents at the ends of
two perpendicular diameters of a circle?

  
See this picture:
The tangents at the points A, B on a circle
centred at O meet at C.
In the quadrilateral OACB, the angles at the
opposite corners A, B are right; so their sum
is 180. Thus the quadrilateral is cyclic.


)        "  That is,
*   tangere   +   ,
         
) "   "        
       
        
          
     
T In such a quadrilateral the sum of the other two angles is
also 180.

x
O P

-"          "     

    "          "
    PT  x 


 


  circle, the angles between the radii through two points and
the angle between the tangents at these points are supplemen-
tary.
       
   
  


      
    

    

  
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NT-889-2-MATHS-10-E-VOL.2

  

  
   
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 X

Thus we need only draw three radii of the circle 120 apart and draw the
tangents at their ends to get our triangle.
Draw a circle of radius 3 centimetres and draw an equilateral triangle
like this.

(1) Draw a circle of radius 2.5 centimetres. Draw a triangle of angles 40,
60,80with all its sides touching the circle.
(2) In the picture, the small (blue) triangle is equilateral.
The sides of the large (red) triangle are tangents to
the circumcircle of the small triangle at its vertices.
i) Prove that the large triangle is also equilat-
eral and its sides are double those of the
small triangle.
ii) Draw this picture, with sides of the smaller
triangle 3 centimetres.

      (3) The picture shows the tangents at two points
$        !  on a circle and the radii through the points of con-
              "
tact.
  5       
       6   013o   
        $ 
           " 
   013o  6 
        
             
i) Prove that the tangents have the same length.
   "    
         ( ii) Prove that the line joining the centre and the
         7 &    point where the tangents meet bisects the
" "     "       angle between
  Animation On "    "   the radii.
       #  


   

iii) Prove that this line is the perpendicular

bisector of the chord joining the points
of contact.

(4) Prove that the quadrilateral with sides as the

tangents at the ends of a pair of perpendicular
chords of a circle is cyclic. (See the Problem (7) in
the section, #   of the chapter
#   )
What sort of a quadrilateral do we get if one chord
is a diameter? And if both chords are diameters?

  

The picture shows the tangents at the two ends of a chord of a circle:

We know that angle between the tangents is

80. What about the angles between the tan-
gents and the chord?


 X

The two sides of the green triangle in the

picture are equal and so are the angles
opposite them. Since the sum of these angles is
180 − 100 = 80, each measures 40.

The angle between the radius and the tangent is 90. So the angle between the
chord and the tangent is 90− 40= 50.

Area problem
       

 

This is half the central angle of the chord, isn’t it?

Is it true for any chord? To check this, let’s take the central
angle as .


   

So the other two angles of the green tri-

angle are
o
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
(180 − ) = ⎜⎝ 90 − x⎟⎠

2 2

Since the angle between the tangent and

the radius is 90, we can see that the angle
1
between the tangent and chord is 2 xo.

- GeoGebra   
          
 "    8 
    "     
  &       
          
&         ?  
         

                 
         

The angle made by the chord on the larger part of the circle is also half the
central angle, isn’t it? (The chapter, #  )


 X

So in this picture, what is the angle which the tangents make with the chord?

  

             
   "   9  
P

A B
The angles on the right are 65.
* , . PB& 
X

A B

Y
The angles which the tangents make on the left of the chord
(    P      
   B are 180 − 65 = 115. This is the angle which the chord
makes on the smaller part of the circle, isn’t it?

A B

)    XY &      

  B           So the relation between the angles which the chord makes
  
with the tangents at its ends and the angles which it makes on
the circle can be shown like this:

 
   

And we can write it like this:

            $      
       $ 
         
We draw a tangent to a circle at a point by drawing the perpendicular to the
diameter through this point, right? The above idea can be used to draw tangents,
even if the centre is not known.

We need only draw a chord through this point and draw the angle which it
makes on one part of the circle on the opposite side of the chord:

       

:     & 
      8
$          ∠$:
      &    
   $        "
:$  

If the triangle drawn is isosceles, then we need draw only the line through the
point, parallel to the bottom side.
So, to draw the tangent to a circle at a specified point, we first draw an arc of
the circle centred at this point and join the points where it cuts the first circle:

 
 X


       "
    #4
P

x

A − x  B

Q
Now we need only draw a line parallel to this line through the
* , .     & "  point at which we want the tangent:
X

− x  P

x
U

A − x  B
x
Q

  P    (1) In the picture, the sides of the large
Q      X triangle are tangents to the circumcircle
of the small triangle, through its vertices.

− x  P

x U

A − x  B

x
Q

)      xo& 

AP (0;3 − x)°& AP ,
 Calculate the angles of the large triangle.

 
   

'1+ In the picture, the sides of the large

triangle are tangents of the circum-
circle of the smaller triangle, through
its vertices.
Calculate the angles of the smaller
triangle.

(3) In the picture, , ,  are tangents

to the circumcircle of ΔABC.
Sort out the equal angles in the
picture.

(4) In the picture, the tangent to the circumcircle

of a regular pentagon through a vertex is
shown.
Calculate the angle which the tangent makes
with the two sides of the pentagon through
the point of contact.

  

See this picture:
A point outside a circle is joined to the
centre and extended. It cuts the circle at two points;
and these points are the ends of a diameter.
Suppose we join the same point outside the circle
to a point a little above or below the centre?

 
 X

The points where the line cuts the circle get a little closer. Let’s
continue this:

The lines which cut the circle at closer and closer points leave the circle entirely
after a stage.
But at some stage before this, two of these lines above and below just touch
the circle, don’t they?

%               

But we haven’t discussed how we can actually draw such a pair of tangents.
See this picture:

  2 cm

 
   

A point is marked 5 centimetres away from the centre of a circle of radius 2

centimetres.
How do we draw the pair of tangents to the circle from this point?
Perhaps it would be clear if we imagine how the picture would be after they
are drawn:

We need two pairs of mutually perpendicular lines from the centre of the
circle and the point outside.
We have seen in the lesson #  , that all such pairs of mutually perpendicular
lines meet on the circle with the line joining these points as diameter:

    
In those pairs we want, one line should be a radius of our original   GeoGebra  
circle; that is, the lines should meet on this circle. For that, we :       
need only draw through the point of intersection of the old and       
new circles. "       $  
9     $:- # 
Now can’t we actually draw the tangents? First draw the circle
      &#   
on the line joining the point outside with the centre as diameter:
     :  
Circle Through Three Points 
8   :     
   $    # 
     "     
    #    
"  

 
 X

Joining the points of intersection of these circles to the point outside, we get
the tangents from it:

In our problem, the radius of the original circle is 2 centimetres and the
distance from the centre to the point outside is 5 centimetres.

2c
m
 

2c
m

So, we can calculate the lengths of the tangents using Pythagoras

Theorem:

52 − 22 < 21 centimetres
We have already seen that if tangents are drawn from two points on a circle,
then their lengths from the point of contact to the point of intersection are
equal. We can now state it like this:

                 

Let’s look at a problem based on this. The

picture shows the quadrilateral formed by
the tangents at four points on a circle.
Let’s join the centre to these points.

 
   

Taking the lengths of the tangents from the corners as , , , ,

we can mark these lengths as below:
d       GeoGebra 
d c  "        
c         
  "    
a
  9           
b
    )        
a b   8    " 
So, the sum of the lengths of the bottom and top sides of the  "  9       
    &    
quadrilateral is (+ ) + (+ ).
      "   
What about the sum of the left and right sides?     
(+ ) + (+)
Both sums are +  + +  . Thus we have the following:

               
           
Recall the fact we have seen earlier: in a quadrilateral formed by joining four
points on a circle, the sum of the opposite angles are equal.
If the sum of the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are equal, can we
draw a circle with the four sides as tangents?
We have seen that among the lines drawn to a circle from a point, those which
touch the circle at a single point are equal. We have also seen in the lesson,
#  , that for all lines cutting the circle at two points, the product of the
whole line and the part outside the circle are equal.
Remember this picture and its equation?

P PA× PB <PC × PD

Now suppose, we draw a line which touches a circle and another line
intersecting the circle.


 X

Same relation
   
B
A

P
C D

  PA × PB = PC × PD  To find out the relation between these, join AC, BC to make
        triangles:

B
A

C
 PD     PC 
The chord AC makes angle PCA at C; it is equal to the angle
   ABC, which AC makes on the other side of the circle, isn’t it?
PA × PB = PC2 C

      

    A

C
   PA2 = PC2  That is, the angle at C in ΔABC is equal to the angle at B in
PA = PC. ΔPBC. And in both triangles the angle at P is the same.
 
     Thus these triangles have the same angles and so pairs of sides
    opposite equal angles have the same ratio.

In ΔPAC, the side opposite the angle of x is PA and in ΔPBC, the side
opposite the angle of x is PC. In ΔPAC, the longest side is PC and in ΔPBC,
the longest side is PB. So,
PA PC
=
PC PB

We can write this as,

PA × PB = PC2


   

    

         
        
As in the case of intersecting chords, this can be
stated in terms of areas.
The rectangle with the intersecting line and its
part outside the circle as sides and the square
with sides equal to the tangent have the same
area.

(1) In the picture, a triangle is formed by two

mutually perpendicular tangents to a circle
and a third tangent.
Prove that the perimeter of the triangle is
equal to the diameter of the circle.

(2) The picture shows a triangle formed by three tangents to a circle.






Calculate the length of each tangent from the corner of the triangle to
the point of contact.


 X

&-( In the picture, two circles touch at a point

and the common tangent at this point is
drawn.

i) Prove that this tangent bisects another

common tangent of these circles.

ii) Prove that the points of contact of

these two tangents form the vertices
of a right triangle.

iii) Draw the picture on the right in your

notebook, using convenient lengths.
What is special about the quadrilateral
formed by joining the points of contact
of the circles?

(4) In the picture below, AB is a diameter and P is a point on AB

extended. A tangent from P touches the circle at Q. What is the radius
of the circle?







 

       

    

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NT-889-3-MATHS-10-E-VOL.2

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 X

$e can take any point on the

          bisector of the angle made by
GeoGebra        the bottom and left sides to
       draw a circle touching these
  
two sides.
       
        
         Taking any point on the bisector
     of the angle made by the bottom
 !     "
and right sides as centre, we can
   
draw a circle touching these two
 
sides.

So, what if we take the point of both these bisectors, that is their point of
intersection?

The lengths of the perpendiculars from this point

to all three sides are equal, right?
What about the circle of radius this length,
centred at this point?
This circle is called the incircle of the triangle.

We note another thing here. Since the centre

of the incircle is at the same distance from the
left and right sides, it is also on the bisector of
the angle joining these sides.

      

   GeoGebra


   

                  

There are some relations between the points where the incircle touches the
triangle and the sides of the triangle.

To see it, we draw the incircle of a triangle and

join its centre to the points of contact with the
sides.

The sides of the triangle are formed by the tangents to the incircle
from the vertices. And the lengths of the tangents from each corner
are equal. So taking the lengths of the tangents as x, y, z, we can mark them
as below:
Circumcircle and incircle
#          
    $     
   %     
%      


The sum of all these lengths is the perimeter of the triangle.

That is, the perimeter of the triangle is 2(x + y + z) . In
other words, x + y + z is half the perimeter of the triangle.
Taking it as s,
x + y +z = s
Next if we take the lengths of the sides of the triangle as a, b, c, the picture
gives
x+y=a
y+z=b
z+x=c


 X

Now to get x, we need only subtract y + z from x + y + z:

x = ( x + y + z ) − (y + z) = s − b
Similarly, we see that
y = ( x + y + z ) − (z + x) = s − c
and
z = ( x + y + z ) − (x + y) = s − a
So the lengths of tangents are like this:

Area
         
  &
       
   
 %   
        
    ' %  ( 
        For example, consider a triangle of sides 5 centimetres, 6
)* centimetres and 7 centimetres. Half the perimeter is 9
     a% b% c   centimetres.
1
s+ ,a-b-c.%  So the points of contact with the incircle divides the sides like
2
this: 9 − 5 = 4, 9 − 6 = 3, 9 − 7 = 2
s ( s − a )( s − b )( s − c )
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron’s_formula) 







 

The radius of the incircle has a relation

with the area of the triangle. The lines
joining the centre of the incircle to the
vertices divide the triangle into three.


   

One side of each of these small triangles is a side of the original large triangle
and the height from it is equal to the radius of the incircle. So, if we take the
sides of the triangle as a, b, c and the radius of the incircle as r, then the areas
1 1 1
of these small triangles are 2 ar, 2 br, 2
cr.

Their sum is the whole area of the large triangle. Taking it as A, we have
1 1 1 1
A= 2
ar + 2
br + 2
cr = 2
(a + b + c) r = sr

This equation can written as

A
r= s

                      

  

(1) Draw a triangle of sides 4 centimetres, 5 centimetres, 6 centimetres and

draw its incircle. Calculate its radius.
(2) Draw a rhombus of sides 5 centimetres and one angle 50 and draw its
incircle.

(3) Draw an equilateral triangle and a semi-

circle touching its two sides, as in the pic-
ture.

(4) What is the radius of the incircle of a right triangle having perpendicular
sides of length 5 centimetres and 12 centimetres?
(5) Prove that if the hypotenuse of a right triangle is h and the radius of its
incircle is r, then its area is r ( h + r).
(6) Prove that the radius of the incircle of an equilateral triangle is half the
radius of its circumcircle.


 X

Area

We have noted that the area of a triangle with length of sides , ,  is

s(s − a) (s − b) (s − c) . As an example, let’s compute the area of a triangle of sides 12, 35
12 + 35 + 43
and 43 centimetres. Taking  = 12,  = 35,  = 43 centimetres we get  = 2
= 45,
− = 33, − = 10, − = 2. Using a calculator, we can compute the area.

Area = 45 × 33 × 10 × 2 ≈ 172.33 square centimetres

This can be used to find the area of any region bounded by straight lines. The picture
below shows a ground divided into triangles:

All the sides of the triangles are shown (in metres). So we can compute the area of each by
the above formula and add them all to get the area of the whole ground.



We can make prisms by cutting thick paper in various ways and pasting the
edges.

And we have learnt much about them.

Let’s make another kind of solid:
 X

First, cut out a figure like this in paper.

   
        
      
GeoGebra    
       
      
   !
  "     GeoGebra #
  "    
$%   &'
Graphics.    
     3D Graphics
       &' (  
   ) '"   A square in the middle and four triangles around it; all four of
 )#   them are isosceles triangles and they are equal. Now fold and
        )   paste as shown below.
 )%

What shape is this? Can’t be called a prism; prisms have

two equal bases and rectangles on the sides. In the shape
we have made now, we have a square at the bottom, a
point on top and triangles all around.
Instead of square, the base can be some other rectangle,
a triangle or some other polygon. Try! (It is better looking
when the base is a regular polygon.)
Such a solid is generally called a .


 



The sides of the polygon forming the base of a

pyramid are called   and the other sides



of the triangles are called    . The



topmost point of a pyramid is called its  .

  

The height of a prism is the distance between its bases, isnt it? The height of a
pyramid is the perpendicular distance from the apex to the base.

 
What is the surface area of a square pyramid of base edges
10 centimetres and lateral edges 13 centimetres? The surface *GeoGebra '
+' 
area is the area of paper needed to make it. How will it look,
# , 
if we cut this pyramid open and lay it flat?
)   
         
 )#
'  (  
 # % )
    - )

  
  "      
  # 
    )   

   ))  
  

189
 X

           
    


      #   





   $  



       

            


 


        


13 − 5 !"   

2 2

      %× "!&    

       ##   #

Height and slant height

     GeoGebra   
Midpoint or Centre   
     
   Segment
     
 Polygon 
 

       

 

     

Net   
  

190
 

This length is called the     of the pyramid.

We have seen the relation between the base edge, lateral
edge and slant height of a pyramid in the problem we did

  
just now. As shown in the picture on the right, there is a

 
 
right triangle on each side of the pyramid - its

 
perpendicular sides are the slant height and half the base
edge, the hypotenuse is a lateral edge.
Now do this problem: what is the surface area of a square
pyramid with base edges 2 metres and lateral edges     

3 metres?
The base area is 4 square metres. To compute the areas
of lateral faces, we need the slant height. In the right triangle
mentioned above, one side is half the base edge, that is,
1 metre and the hypotenuse is the lateral edge of 3 metres.  
So, the slant height is


3 − 1 = 2 2 metres


2 2

Using this, the area of each triangular face is

1 
× 2 × 2 2 = 2 2 square metres.
2
So, the surface area of the pyramid is,

( )
/ 0 4 × 2 2 1 / 0 2 2 square metres.
If not satisfied with this, a calculator can be used, (or an approximate value of
2 recalled) to compute this as 15.31 square metres.

(1) A square of side 5 centimetres, and four isosceles triangles of base

5 centimetres and height 8 centimetres, are to be put together to make
a square pyramid. How many square centimetres of paper is needed?
(2) A toy is in the shape of a square pyramid of base edge 16 centimetres
and slant height 10 centimetres. What is the total cost of painting 500
such toys, at 80 rupees per square metre?

191
 X

'/( The lateral faces of a square pyramid are equilateral triangles and the
length of a base edge is 30 centimetres. What is its surface area?
(4) The perimeter of the base of square pyramid is 40 centimetres and the
total length of all its edges is 92 centimetres. Calculate its surface area.
(5) Can we make a square pyramid with the lateral surface area equal to
the base area?

    
The height of a pyramid is often an important measure. See this problem:
A tent is to be made in the shape of a square pyramid of base
edges 6 metres and height 4 metres. How many square metres
of canvas is needed to make it?
To calculate the area of the triangular faces of the tent, we need the slant
height. How do we compute it using the given specifications?
See this picture: A
  

C M
  

The slant height we need is . Joining , we get a right

  
triangle with  as hypotenuse. What is the length of  in
3  )' it? A

 ) #4)
52' #' #
   

 '  # 4) ,  #

' ' 6777- 

C    M
  

From the picture  1 32 + 4 2 1 8 metres.

192
 

So, to make the tent, four isosceles triangles of base 6 metres and height
1
5 metres are needed. Their total area is 4 × 2
× 6 × 5 = 60 square metres.

So this much canvas is needed to make the tent.

In this problem, we have found something which is true

  
in the case of all square pyramids. Within every square 3 )  
pyramid, we can imagine a right triangle with 4)   
perpendicular sides as the height of the pyramid and 9 # :
half the base edge and hypotenuse as the slant height. (    &' #
  # &'  
 ) '5/7(  
 ' 67  '   


  3 

Height



'  ') # 



         )

 #'  '" )  )
     )
Half the base edge

(1) Using a square and four

triangles with dimensions as
specified in the picture, a
 

pyramid is made.

 
What is the height of this pyramid?
What if the square and triangles are like this?



 

193
 X

'3( A square pyramid of base edge 10 centimetres and height 12 centimetres

is to be made of paper. What should be the dimensions of the triangles?
(3) Prove that in any square pyramid, the squares of the height, slant height
and lateral edge are in arithmetic sequence.

(4) A square pyramid is to be made with the

triangle shown here as a lateral face. What






would be its height? What if the base edge
is 40 centimetres instead of 30
centimetres?  

Can we make a square pyramid with any four equal isosceles

triangles?

 
We have seen that the volume of any
prism is equal to the product of the
base area and the height. What
about the volume of a pyramid?
Let’s take the case of a square
pyramid. Make a hollow square
pyramid with thick paper and also a
square prism of the same base and
height.
 
Fill the pyramid with sand and transfer it to the prism. Measure
&'  &'
the height of the sand in the prism and see what fraction of the
 #  
  )  GeoGebra  3 height of the prism it is. A third, isn’t it? So to fill the prism,
  )'  " ) how many times should we fill the pyramid?
 ' #       Thus we see that the volume of the prism is three times the
  577     →
volume of the pyramid. (A mathematical explanation of this is
 % ;     ' ' )
given at the end of this lesson).
Volume.    
<  )      ) We have seen in Class 9 that the volume of a prism is equal
   to the product of the base area and the height.

194
 

So what can we say about the volume of a square pyramid?

The volume of a square pyramid is equal to a third of the product

of the base area and the height.

For example, the volume of a square pyramid of base edge 10 centimetres

1 2
and height 8 centimetres is 3
× 102 × 8 = 266 3
cubic centimetres.

A metal cube of edge 15 centimetres is melted and recast into a square pyramid

of base edge 25 centimetres. What is its height?

The volume of the cube is 153 cubic centimetres. The volume of the square

pyramid is also this. And the volume of a pyramid is a third of the product of

the base area and height. Since the base area of our pyramid is 252 square

centimetres, a third of the height is 153 and so the height is,

252
153
3× = 16.2 centimetres.
252

(1) What is the volume of a square pyramid of base edge 10 centimetres

and slant height 15 centimetres?

(2) Two square pyramids have the same volume. The base edge of one is
half that of the other. How many times the height of the second pyramid
is the height of the first?

(3) The base edges of two square pyramids are in the ratio 1 : 2 and their
heights in the ratio 1 : 3. The volume of the first is 180 cubic centimetres.
What is the volume of the second?

(4) All edges of a square pyramid are 18 centimetres. What is its volume?

(5) The slant height of a square pyramid is 25 centimetres and its surface
area is 896 square centimetres. What is its volume?

195
 X

'5( All edges of a square pyramid are of the same length and its height is
12 centimetres. What is its volume?
(7) What is the surface area of a square pyramid of base perimeter
64 centimetres and volume 1280 cubic centimetres?


Cylinders are prism-like solids with circular bases. Similarly, we have pyramid-
like solids with circular bases:

They are called  .

We can make a cylinder by rolling up a rectangle. Likewise, we can make a
cone by rolling up a sector of a circle.
What is the relation between the dimensions of the sector we start with and
the cone we end up with?


     
GeoGebra"='
   
      !
 " '   
    3
 '    )   
The radius of the sector becomes the slant height of the cone. The arc
 )' ) 
length of the sector becomes the circumference of the base of the cone.

196
 











   
 

 

  
 
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 X

5 1
The radius of the small circle forming the base of the cone is = of the
15 3
radius of the large circle from which the sector is to be cut out. (How do we
1
get this?) So, the circumference of the small circle is also of the circumference
3
of the large circle.

The circumference of the small circle is the arc length of the sector. Thus the
1
arc of the sector is of the circle from which it is cut out. So its central angle
3
1
must be 360 × = 120°.
3

(1) What are the radius of the base and slant height of a cone made by rolling up a
sector of central angle 60 cut out from a circle of radius 10 centimetres?
(2) What is the central angle of the sector to be used to make a cone of base radius 10
centimetres and slant height 25 centimetres?
(3) What is the ratio of the base-radius and slant height of a cone made by rolling up a
semicircle?

    

As in the case of a cylinder, a cone also has a curved surface- the part which
rises up at a slant. The area of this curved surface is the area of the sector
used to make the cone. (For a cylinder also, the area of the curved surface is
the area of the rectangle rolled up to make it, isn’t it?)

;     
See this problem:
GeoGebra"  ' '> To make a conical hat of base radius 8 centimetres and slant
#       ' >
  "    
height 30 centimetres, how much square centimetres of paper
  do we need?
What we need here is the area of the sector we roll up to make this hat. Since
the slant height is to be 30 centimetres, we must cut out the sector from a
circle of this radius. Also the radius of the small circle forming the base of the
8 4
cone must be 8 centimetres, that is = of the radius of the large circle
30 15
from which the sector is cut out. So the circumference of the small circle is

198
 

also the same fraction of the circumference of the large circle.

  
The arc length of the sector is the circumference of the small
4 3  #  ' '# # 
circle. Thus the sector to be cut out is of the full circle.   #'
15
So, its area is that fraction of the area of the circle; that is,  (# '#
4  r     )l"
π × 302 × = π × 2 × 30 × 4 = 240π   '#  l  
15
Thus we need 6/7π square centimetres of paper to make r
   )   l × 360 !  
o

the hat (It can be computed as approximately 754 square

1 ⎛r
centimetres). ×⎜ × 360⎞⎟ × l2 = rl
360 ⎝ l ⎠
As in a pyramid, the height of a ? '  ##
cone is the perpendicular    %
distance from the apex to the 3'#''##
base, and it is the distance    #'#
between the apex and the centre  '#     )
Height

of the base circle.

Sla
Again, as in the case of a square pyramid, the height is related nt
Height

to the slant height via a right triangle.

he
igh
t

For example, in a cone of base radius 5 centimetres and height

10 centimetres the slant height is,
Base radius
52 + 10 2 = 125 = 5 5 centimetres

(1) What is the area of the curved surface of a cone of base radius
12 centimetres and slant height 25 centimetres?
(2) What is the surface area of a cone of base diameter 30 centimetres
and height 40 centimetres?
(3) A conical fire work is of base diameter 10 centimetres and height
12 centimetres. 10000 such fireworks are to be wrapped in colour
paper. The price of the colour paper is 2 rupees per square metre.
What is the total cost?

199
 X

'8( Prove that for a cone made by rolling up a semicircle, the area of the
curved surface is twice the base area.

 
To find the volume of a cone, we can do an experiment similar to the one we
did to find the volume of a square pyramid. Make a cone and a cylinder of the
same base and height. Fill the cone with sand and transfer it to the cylinder.
Here also, we can see that the volume of the cone is a third of the volume of
the cylinder. Thus we have the following:

The volume of a cone is equal to a third of the product of the

base area and height.

(A mathematical explanation of this also is given at the end of this lesson)

@ #&'
For example, the volume of a cone of base radius 4 centimetres and
 "  
       # height 6 centimetres is
  )
1
GeoGebra.  × π × 42 × 6 = 32π cubic centimetres.
3
  '

(1) The base radius and height of a cylindrical block of wood are 15
centimetres and 40 centimetres. What is the volume of the largest cone
that can be carved out of this?
(2) The base radius and height of a solid metal cylinder are 12 centimetres
and 20 centimetres. By melting it and recasting, how many cones of
base radius 4 centimetres and height 5 centimetres can be made?
(3) A sector of central angle 216 is cut out from a circle of radius 25
centimetres and is rolled up into a cone. What are the base radius and
height of the cone? What is its volume?
(4) The base radii of two cones are in the ratio 3 : 5 and their heights are in
the ratio 2 : 3. What is the ratio of their volumes?
(5) Two cones have the same volume and their base radii are in the ratio
4 : 5. What is the ratio of their heights?


 

 
Round solids enter our lives in various ways -
as the thrill of ball games and as the sweetness
of laddus. Now let’s look at the mathematics
of such solids called   .
It we slice a cylinder or cone parallel to a base,
we get a circle. In whatever way we slice a
sphere, we get a circle.

The distance of any point on a circle from the centre is the

same. A sphere also has a   , from which the distance
to any point on its surface is the same. This distance is called       
     
the  of the sphere and double this is called the   .
  ( ' 
 ' #       ) 
If we slice a sphere into exact
'  
halves, we get a circle whose  '
centre, radius and diameter are ! #  
those of the sphere itself.   ' #
r r
r"
We cannot cut open a sphere and  '
spread it flat, as we did with other solids. The fact is that we    ) #
r
cannot make the surface of a sphere flat without some folding   
 r    6r
or stretching.
! '# 
But we can prove that the surface area of a sphere of radius (2πr × 2r) + (2 × πr2) = 6πr2
 is 4π2 (An explanation is given at the end of the lesson). 3'## /πr2 .

3'    #  '# 

The surface area of a sphere is equal to the
A6
square of its radius multiplied by 4p.
@) " '#  

Also, we can prove that the volume of a sphere of radius  πr2 × 2r = 2πr3
4     ' #   
is 3 π3 (An explanation of this also is given at the end of the 4 3
πr " # '
3
lesson.)  A6


 X

See this problem:

What is the surface area of the largest sphere that can be carved
from a cube of edges 8 centimetres?

We can see from the picture that the diameter of the

sphere is the length of an edge of the cube. So, the

surface area of the sphere is
4π × 42 = 64π square centimetres


Another problem:
A solid sphere of radius 12 centimetres
is cut into two equal halves. What is
the surface area of each hemisphere?
The surface of the hemisphere consists of half
the surface of the sphere and a circle.
Since the radius of the sphere is 12 centimetres, its area is,
4π × 122 = 576π square centimetres
Since the radius of the circle is 12 centimetres, its area is
π × 122 = 144π square centimetres
So the surface area of the hemisphere is,
1
2
× 576π + 144π = 432π square centimetres
One more example:
A water tank is in the shape of a hemisphere attached to a cylinder. Its
radius is 1.5 metres and the total height is 2.5 metres. How many litres
of water can it hold?
#  

#   #  
#  


 

'    ##    ( 

2
3
π × )%*3 ! ""%π   

+ '   # 

π × )%*2 )"% −%* ! ""%π   

   ' 

""%π, ""%π ! -%π ≈ -.   

       ( -.  

 

)*      # "    /   
  '        #
)"* '     #   "01&-    
+       
).*      -   
   /       #   "
    # 
)-* +  #  "       
"0  #    2       #
)%*    #              
&    '      '    #
  '   
)&* #       #  (
1 metre 1 metre
2 metres

6 metres

3   #  


 X

*       & 0 '   

      2   /
 -        )

-          ' 

    2        
  )

204
 

Appendix
e have seen only the techniques of calculating volumes of pyramids and
cones, and also the surface area and volume of a sphere. For those who may
be interested in knowing how they are actually got, we give some explanations
below.
 
We can think of a stack of square plates,
of decreasing size as an approximation to
a square pyramid.

As we decrease the thickness of the plates

and increase their number, we get better
approximations.

And the sum of the volumes of these plates get nearer to the volume of the
pyramid.
Suppose we use 10 plates, to start with. Each plate is a square prism of small
height. Let’s use plates of same height. So, if we take the height of the pyramid
1
as , each plate is of height 10
 . How do we compute the base of each
plate?

If we imagine the pyramid and the stack

of plates sliced vertically down from the h
vertex, we get a picture like this.

Starting from the top, we have isosceles triangles of increasing size. Their
1
heights increase at the rate of 10
 for each plate.


 X

Since these triangles are all similar (why?) their bases also increase
at the same rate. So, if we take the base edge of the bases of the pyramid to
1 2
be , the bases of the triangles starting from the top are 10
b" b""b.
10

So, the volumes of the plates are

2 2
⎛1 ⎞ 1 ⎛2 ⎞ 1 1
⎜⎝ b⎟⎠ × h, ⎜⎝ b⎟⎠ × h, ..., b × h
2

10 10 10 10 10

And their sum?

1 2 ⎛ 1 22 92 102 ⎞
b h (1 + 2 2 + 32 + ... + 10 2 )
1 2 2
b h ⎜ 2 + 2 + ... + 2 + 2 ⎟ =
10 ⎝ 10 10 10 10 ⎠ 1000

We have seen how such sums can be computed in the section, Sum of squares
of the lesson, Arithmetic Sequences.
1
12 + 22 + 32 + ... + 102 = 6
× 10 × (10 + 1) × (2 × 10 + 1)
Thus the sum of the volumes
1 2 1 1 10 11 21 1 2
b h × × 10 × 11 × 21 = b 2 h × × × = b h × 1.1 × 2.1
1000 6 6 10 10 10 6

Now imagine 100 such plates (we cannot draw it anyway.)

1
The thickness of a plate becomes 100
h and the base edges would be
1 2 3
b, b, b,..., b . So the sum of the volumes would be
100 100 100

b h (1 + 2 2 + 32 + ... + 100 2 ) =
1 2 2 1 2 1
b h × × 100 × 101 × 201
1003 1003 6
1 2 100 101 210
= b h× × ×
6 100 100 100
1
= b 2 h × 1.01 × 2.01
6

What if we increase the number of plates to 1000? Without going through

detailed computations, we can see that the sum of volumes would be
1 2
b h × 1.001 × 2.001
6

What is the number to which these sums get closer and closer to?

It is the volume of the pyramid; and it is

1 2 1
b h × 1 × 2 = b2h
6 3


 

 

Just as we stacked square plates to approximate a pyramid, we can stack

circular plates to approximate a cone.

And in much the same way, we can

compute the volume of a cone also.
(Try!)

    

First consider a circle through the middle of the    
sphere and a regular polygon with its sides ' )   ")
touching it;   

Now if this figure revolves, we get the sphere

and a solid just covering it.                #
   ) <
(# '" )    )
# ) R"H"L #
 r"h"l")
r h l
= =
R H L
In the picture above, this solid can be split into
two frustums and a cylinder. l h

r
L


 X

As we increase the number of sides of the polygon, the

covering solid approximates the sphere better.

    
(#  ' ##      #   #  To compute the area of the curved surface of these
 " )   #'' frustums, let’s consider one of these. Let’s take its
# 
height as  and the radius of its middle circle as .
Let’s also take the radius of the sphere as  and the
length of a side of the covering polygon as . We then
have a figure like this.

B# #''# m
#  #''   #      )   a h
 <
r r

d The two right triangles in the figure are similar and

so
R
m h
=
r a
3 )   )# ) 
   L   l"  )     # )' which can be written as
d = L − l!'##  = 
#'' "
The area of the curved surface of the frustum got by
πRL − πrl = π RL − rl%
revolving this is 2π, as shown in the side bar.
= π R l + d% − rl%
   , on the last page. And this is
= π Rl + Rd − rl%
equal to 2π , by the above equation; that is, the
r l area of the curved surface of a cylinder of base radius
"  " = !
R L  and height .
Rl = rL . )  "   #  '
'# " So what do we get? In the solid which approximates
π rL + Rd − rl% = π r L − l) + Rd% the sphere, the curved surface area of each frustum
= π rd + Rd% is equal to that of a cylinder of the same height with
= π r + R%d base radius equal to that of the sphere.


 

So the curved surface area of the whole approximating solid is

equal to the sum of the curved surface areas of all these cylinders.
And what do we get on putting together all these cylinders? A
large cylinder, just covering the sphere.

As we increase the number of sides of the polygon covering the circle, it

becomes more circle-like; and the solid covering the sphere becomes more
sphere-like. As seen just now, the curved surface area of any such solid is
equal to the curved surface area of a cylinder just covering the sphere. So the
surface area of the sphere is also equal to the area of the curved surface of
this cylinder. Since the base radius of the cylinder is  and its height is 2, the
area of its curved surface is
2π ×  × 2 = 4π2

   
See these pictures:

A sphere is divided into cells by

horizontal and vertical circles. If we join
the corners of such a cell to the centre
of the sphere, we get a pyramid-like
solid.

The sphere is made up of such solids joined together; and so the volume of
the sphere is the sum of the volumes of these solids. Now if we change each
cell into an actual square which touches the sphere, we get a solid which just
covers the sphere; and the solid is made up of actual square pyramids. The
heights of all these pyramids are equal to the radius of the sphere. If we take
1
it as  and the base area of a pyramid as , the volume of a pyramid is 3 .

209
 X

       The volume of the solid covering the sphere is the
       #  '
sum of the volumes of all such pyramids. The bases
'###'' π(r + R)d
of all such pyramids make up the surface of the solid,

so that the sum of the base areas of the pyramids is

the surface area of this solid. If it is taken as , the
3 ) '#  '     1
volume of the solid would be 3
.
x")# )'  A
r As we decrease the size of the cells and increase
x
d
their number, the solid covering the sphere
R
approximates the sphere better; and the surface area
*  A
of the solid gets closer to the surface area of the
r
x sphere. Since the surface area of the sphere is 4π2,

R
the volume of the solid gets closer to the number
;   )  )   )" 1 4
3
× 4π2 ×  = 3
π3
x−r 1
=
R−r 2
And this is the volume of the sphere.
!  # )" ) 
1
x= (R + r)
2

!"#''###''
      6πxd
-'  #''##
 # 'x  )d


 
e have seen that if the line joining two points is not parallel to either axis,
then we can draw a rectangle with these points as opposite vertices and sides
parallel to the axes:

       
    
     
  !   !
 " # $% #
  !  
   & #!  
&& $

Moreover, we have seen how we can find the coordinates of

the other two vertices without drawing the axes.

It was using such a rectangle that we computed the dis-

34 tance between two points like these, in terms of their co-
ordinates. In fact, we didn’t use the full rectangle, but
only a right triangle forming half of it.
 X

Algebra of geometry Computations using such right triangles are useful in many
 often write relations between
situations. For example, see this parallelogram with the
numbers using algebra. Also we have origin and two other points as vertices.
seen how some of these relations
between positive numbers can be
described geometrically. If we represent
points in a plane by pairs of numbers,
we can write in algebra, the geometric
relations between these points and also
figures formed by them. An example of
this is the fact that the fourth vertex of
the parallelogram with vertices (0,0),
(x1, y1), (x2, y2), is (x1+ x2,y1+ y2). We have to find the fourth vertex.
For that, we draw right triangles with the top and bottom
sides as hypotenuse and the perpendicular sides parallel
to the axes.
Mark the point A(0,0) and two other
points B, C. Type ( x(B)+x(C),
y(B)+y(C)) in the input bar to get the
point D. Draw the quadrilateral
ABCD. Isn’t it a parallelogram?
Why? Change the position of B and
C and check.

In these triangles, the hypotenuse and the angles at its ends

Draw triangle ABC and mark the are equal. (Why?) So, their perpendicular sides are also
coordinates of its vertices. Use the equal.
Move tool to shift the triangle to the
We can easily find the lengths
right by 3. What happens to the
of the perpendicular sides of
coordinates of the vertices? Next shift
the lower triangle. These
the triangle up by 2. What happens to
are the lengths of the
the coordinates now? What is the
relation between the coordinates of
perpendicular sides of
the first and last triangles? Do this the upper triangle
with a parallelogram instead of a also.
triangle.


    

Now we can calculate the lower right corner of the

upper triangle as (9, 5) and the top right corner as
&o move a figure in geogebra we can use
(9, 7). (How?) the Translate by Vector tool. Suppose we have
drawn a parallelogram and want to shift it to
3 right and 2 up. For this first mark the points
(0,0) and (3,2). Then choose the Translate by
Vector tool and click on the parallelogram, the
point (0,0) and point (3,2) in that order. What
is the change in the coordinates of the
parallelogram? Take other points instead of
(3,2) and repeat.

Mark three points A, B,C and get the fourth

point D by typing (x(B)+x(C)−x(A),
y(B)+y(C)−y(A)) in the input bar. Is ABCD
a parallelogram? Why?

(1) What are the coordinates of the fourth

vertex of the parallelogram shown on
the right?

x3 y3
(2) The figure shows a parallelogram with
the coordinates of its vertices:
Prove that 1 + 3 = 2 + 4
and 1 + 3 = 2 + 4

(3) A parallelogram is drawn with the lines joining

(1, 1) and (2, 2 ) to the origin as adjacent sides.
What are the coordinates of the fourth vertex?


 X

#7$ Prove that in any parallelogram, the sum of the squares of all sides is
equal to the sum of the squares of the diagonals.

(5) In this picture, the mid points of the sides of

the large triangle are joined to make a small
triangle inside.
Calculate the coordinates of the vertices of
the large triangle.

 
e have seen earlier that for a rectangle with sides parallel to the coordinate
axes, if we know the coordinates of two opposite vertices, then we can find
the coordinates of the other two (as in chapter Coordinates). Now we have
seen that for any parallelogram, if we know the coordinates of three vertices,
then we can find the coordinates of the fourth vertex.
Both these problems are about finding the coordinates of some points
geometrically related to points with known coordinates. Let’s look at another
problem of this type.
The figure shows the coordinates of the end points of a line:

e want to find the coordinates of

the midpoint of this line.

What we want is to find the point whose distance from (2, 3) is half the
distance between the points (2,3 ) and (8, 5).
If we know the shifts in the  and  coordinates as we move from (2, 3) to this
point, then we can find its coordinates:

*#  &  ! 

 3 #   


   "   4


   


    

If we take these shifts as a and b, then we can write the Force parallelogram
coordinates of the midpoint as (2 + a, 3 + b).    &!! ! "
! #  # !!    
 ' ' # ! #  #
 !    
* &  # 5  #
 &  !   !  
  +" " !&
"     #      
!   !
&   
Let’s mark also the shifts in coordinates as we move from

1
 &  !  

F
(2, 3) to (8, 5): 0"     # 
   !  F2
!6
0  " 

1
F
  #&" 
   3 F2
 6
* # !    "
!   #  #  !  
In this figure, the large right triangle and the smaller one   #&7  &#    
inside have the same angles (how?) So their sides are scaled  #  !   #      
by the same factor.  

The hypotenuse of the smaller triangle is half that of the F

1
F

larger triangle; so the perpendicular sides are also halved.

F2
This means a and b are 3 and 1. Thus the midpoint is (5, 4)
*    "    8  #&
Now what if the line is like this? 9" ! 2

As we move from (3, 4) to (7, 1), the x-coordinate increases by 4 and the
y coordinate decreases by 3. So, to reach the midpoint, the x coordinate
1
must be increased by 2 and the y coordinate decreased by 1 :
2


 X

⎛ 1⎞
Thus the coordinates of the midpoint are ⎜ 5, 2 2 ⎟ .
⎝ ⎠

To find the midpoint without drawing any figure, let’s take the coordinates of
two points as (1, 1) and (2, 2), in general. Their relative positions can be
of different types. First let’s take them like this:

The  coordinate of the midpoint is

1 1
1 + (2 − 1) = (1 + 2)
2 2
and the y coordinate is
1 1
y1 + (y2 − y1) = (y1 + y2)
2 2

What if the points are like

this?


    

The  coordinate of the midpoint is

1 1
1 + (2 − 1) = (1 + 2)
2 2
and the y coordinate is
1 1
y1 − (y1 − y2) = (y1 + y2)
2 2
Draw pictures for different relative positions of the points. What do you see?

The midpoint of the line joining (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is
⎛1 1 ⎞
⎜ ( x 1 + x 2), ( y 1 + y 2) ⎟
⎝2 2 ⎠

1. A circle is drawn with the line joining (2, 3) and (6, 5) as diameter.
What are the coordinates of the centre of the circle?
2. The coordinates of two opposite vertices of a parallelogram are (4,5 )
and (1, 3). What are the coordinates of the point of intersection of its
diagonals?
3. The coordinates of the vertices of a quadrilateral, taken in order, are
(2, 1), (5, 3), (8, 7), (4, 9).
(i) Find the coordinates of the midpoints of all four sides.
(ii) Prove that the quadrilateral got by joining these midpoints is a
parallelogram.
4. In the figure, the midpoints of the large
quadrilateral are joined to form the
smaller quadrilateral within:
(i) Find the coordinates of the fourth
vertex of the smaller quadrilateral.
(ii) Find the coordinates of the other
three vertices of the larger
quadrilateral.

5. The coordinates of the vertices of a triangle are (3, 5), (9, 13), (10, 6).
Prove that this triangle is isosceles. Calculate its area.
6. The centre of a circle is (1, 2) and a point on it is (3, 2). Find the
coordinates of the other end of the diameter through this point.

217
 X


The midpoint of a line joining two points divides the line into two equal parts.
Any other point on the line splits it into unequal parts. e can use ratios to
specify such points. See these pictures:

1 2
In the first picture, AP is 3
of AB and the length of PB is the remaining 3 .
e say that the point P divides AB in the ratio 1 : 2.

In the second picture, the point Q divides the line AB in the ratio 2 : 3. That is,
2 3
AQ is 5
of AB (and QB is the 5
of AB).

To find the coordinates of the point which divides a line in a specified ratio,
we can use the method we used to find the midpoint (with slight changes).
For example, let’s find the coordinates of the point which divides the line
joining (2, 3) and (8, 6) in the ratio 1 : 2. As in the case of the midpoint, we
start by drawing right triangles:


    

1
In this picture, the hypotenuse of the smaller triangle is 3  of the hypotenuse
of the larger one. So, the perpendicular sides are also likewise. Hence we can
mark their lengths like this:

Now we can calculate the coordinates of the required point as (4, 4).
What is our method of calculating these coordinates?
To reach (8, 6) from (2, 3), we must add 6 to the x coordinate and 3 to the y
1
coordinate; so to reach 3
of the distance between these points, we must add
1
3
of these lengths.

Similarly, how do we calculate the coordinates of the point dividing the line
joining the points (1,6) and (11, 2) in the ratio 3 : 5?
To reach (11, 2) from (1, 6), we must add 10 to the x coordinate and subtract
3
4 from the y coordinate. The point we need is 8
of the length of the line away
from (1, 6). Can’t we calculate its coordinates without drawing a picture?
3 3
x coordinate = 1 + 10 × 8
= 44

3 1
y coordinate = 6 − 4 × 8
= 4 *#    ( #  
2
3 #     6:
Now look at this picture:
"  4;   
  


 X

The line inside the large triangle is the bisector of the top angle. e want to
find the coordinates of the point where it meets the bottom side.
The bisector of an angle of a triangle divides the opposite side in the ratio of
the sides containing the angle, isn’t it? (The section Triangle division in the
chapter Area of the Class 9 textbook.)
e can compute the lengths of the left and right sides of the triangle as 2 5
and 5 . So, what we need are the coordinates of the point which divides the
line joining (4, 1) and (10, 2) in the ratio 2 : 1. e can compute this as before:
2
x coordinate = 4 + (10 − 4) × 3
=8
2 2
y coordinate = 1 + (2 − 1) × 3
= 13

1. The coordinates of the points A and B are (3, 2) and (8, 7). Find the
coordinates of
(i) the point P on AB with AP : PB = 2 : 3
(ii) the point Q on AB with AQ : QB = 3 : 2
2. Find the coordinates of the points which divide the line joining (1, 6)
and (5, 2) into three equal parts.
3. The coordinates of the vertices of a triangle are (−1, 5), (3, 7), (1, 1).
Find the coordinates of its centroid.
4. Calculate the coordinates of the point P in the picture:

What are the coordinates of the centroid of the triangle with vertices
(x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3)?

220
    

Straight line
e can draw a straight line (and only one straight line) joining any two points.
And we can extend it as much as we like to either side. If the x coordinates
of the points are equal, then the line would be parallel to the y axis; and if the
y coordinates are equal, it would be parallel to the x axis:

If both the x coordinates and the y coordinates are different, the line would be
slanted, not parallel to either axis:


 X

As we move along such a line, the x and y coordinates change at every point.
There is a rule to this change. See this picture:

It shows the line joining the points (2, 5) and (6, 7) and two other points
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) on it; we have also drawn two right triangles with these
two pieces of the line as hypotenuse and perpendicular sides parallel to the
axes. e can mark the lengths of these perpendicular sides like this:

The perpendicular sides of the lower triangle are 4 and 2. That is, the vertical
side is half the horizontal side. It must be so for the upper triangle also (why?)
Thus
1
y2 − y1 = (x − x1)
2 2

In this, (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) can be any two points on the line.
For any two points on the line joining (2, 5) and (6, 7), the y
difference is half the x difference
e can put this in a different way. As we move along this line from one point
to another, the x and y coordinates change; and the rule for this change is this:
In moving along the line joining (2, 5) and (6, 7), the change in y at
every stage is half the change in x

222
    

What if we take some other pair of points, instead of (2, 5) and (6, 7)?

For example, let’s take (1, 4) and (5, 12). As

we move along the line joining them from (1, 4)
to (5, 12), the x coordinate increases by 4 and
the y coordinate by 8. In other words, the
y change is twice the x change. And the same
is true for any two positions on the line:

Thus
In moving along the line joining (1, 4) and (5, 12), the change in y at
every stage is twice the change in x.
In both these lines, as x increases, so does y. It can be otherwise.

For example, if we take the points

(3, 6) and (7, 4), as the x coordinate
increases by 4, the y coordinate
decreases by 2:

What do we see in general in all these?

In any line not parallel to either axis, the change in y
coordinate is the product of the change in x coordinate with
a fixed number

Do you remember the name for such a change?

In any line not parallel to either axis, the change in y is
proportional to the change in x

223
 X

Along a line parallel to the x axis, the y coordinate does not change at all; so
the y difference of any two points on such a line is 0, and it is the x difference
multiplied by 0. So, in this case also, the y difference is a fixed multiple of the
x difference; but the x, y change is not proportional.

    &   

Geometrically, the x difference is the horizontal shift and the
&     * y difference is the vertical shift:
    Input
Bar#  " 1
Animation On!  

y difference
y difference
    #"   
 &(  Trace
On !     &
(  ' % #   ! x difference x difference
 "  

So, on dividing the y difference by the x difference, we get the rate of change
of the vertical shift with respect to the horizontal shift.
In other words, the constant of proportionality of the change in coordinates of
a line is a measure of the slant of the line. It is called the slope of the line:




−


e can use this idea to find other points on a line joining two specified points.
For example, let’s look at the line joining (3, 5) and (6, 7). For these two
points the x difference is 3 and the y difference is 2. So, anywhere on this line,

224
    

as the x coordinate changes by 3, the y coordinate changes by 2. In other

2
words, the y change is 3
of the x change. Geometrically, we say that the
2
slope of the line is 3
.

Now suppose we increase the x coordinate of the point (3, 5) by 1 and make
it 4. Is there a point on this line with x coordinate 4? The line through (4, 5)
parallel to the y axis cuts this line, doesn’t it?

What is the y coordinate of this point?

2
Its x coordinate is 1 more than 3; so to get the y coordinate, we must add 3
⎛ 2⎞
to 5. Thus ⎜⎝ 4, 5 3⎟⎠ is a point on this line. In the same way, we can find a point
on this line with its x coordinate any number we choose.
For example, what is the point on this line with x coordinate 9?
9 is 6 added to 3; so to get the y coordinate, we must add * #     !  
2 GeoGebra Slope  
6× = 4 to 5. Thus (9, 9) is a point on this line.
3    

225
 X

e have seen that the points (3, 5), (6, 7), (9, 9) are points on the
same line. Is there any relation between the x coordinates 3, 6, 9
of these points? What about the y coordinates 5, 7, 9? Can you
find some more points on this line with natural number coordinates?

e can use the same idea to find the point of intersection of

Physics, algebra and geometry
two lines. For example, let’s take the line joining (0, 2) and
1  '  &(     (6, 4), and the line joining (3, 1) and (−2, 6). Let their point
   (    <) &    of intersection be (x, y):
!     <: &    
 )&    ! 
  #   #   1
       # (
   <)&4  #  ! 
 <:&4  #    
)&4  #  !   
 
  "    ' x y
:&4(     ##!
  '    
! : &      
"  :& 44 :&42 
   #' , 
v =<):t
     v!  '  Then the point (x, y) is on both the lines.
&t
0"  -& ( t v   # In the right leaning line, as the x coordinate changes from 0 to
 !      6, the y coordinate changes from 2 to 4. That is, as the x
    ' "  &   coordinate increases by 6, the y coordinate increases by 2.
1
v So, anywhere on this line, the y change is 3
of the x change.
 Since (x, y) is a point on this line, we get

1
 y−2= 3
x

t
    What about the left leaning line?
As the x coordinate increases by 5, the y coordinate decreases
*   !     : > 
        "  v  # by 5. So, anywhere on this line, as the x coordinate increases
"     t7     by 1, the y coordinate decreases by 1. That is, the y change
   

226
    

is the negative of the x change. Since (x, y) is a point on this line also, we get
y−1=3−x
Now if we rewrite the equations got from the two lines as
x − 3y = −6
x+y = 4
Then as seen in the chapter Pairs of Equations of the Class 9 textbook, we
can find the numbers x and y. Thus we get
1 1
x=12 y=22
⎛ 1 1⎞
That is, the lines intersect at ⎜1 2 , 2 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

1. Prove that the points (1, 3), (2, 5) and (3, 7) are on the same line
2. Find the coordinates of two more points on the line joining (−1, 4) and
(1, 2)
3. x1, x2, x3,... and y1, y2, y3,... are arithmetic sequences. Prove that all
the points with coordinates in the sequence (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3),...
of number pairs, are on the same line
4. Prove that if the points (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3) are on a single line, then
the points (3x1 + 2y1, 3x1 − 2y1), (3x2 + 2y2, 3x2 − 2y2), (3x3 + 2y3,
3x3 − 2y3) are also on a single line. ould this be true if we take some
other numbers instead of 3 and 2?

   

For the coordinates of all points on the line joining the points (2, 4) and
(5, 6), what is the relation between the x change and the y change?
For these two points, as the x coordinate increases by 3, the y coordinate
2
increases by 2. That is, the y change is 3
of the x change.

And this is true for all points on this line. So the relation between the changes
in the x and y coordinates of any point (x, y) on this line and the point (2, 4)
is this:

227
 X

2  ! <:? ! 2

y−4= 3
(x − 2)
   !   / ?@  
!!  (  '  !!  e can rewrite this equation like this:
3
 +"  3 # ! 3(y − 4) = 2(x − 2)
4
   GeoGebra      
e can simplify this further and write
 ' "   $
2x − 3y + 8 = 0
Perpendicular slopes
"    !    What does this mean?
,       ' "
 !   $ If we take any point on this line, its x and y coordinates
1   ! p  q
       9 -  satisfy this equation. That is, if the point with coordinates
    !     (p, q) is on this line, then 2p − 3q + 8 = 0.
a, b
*     a  < b  p   On the other hand, if we take a pair of numbers satisfying
   !        this equation, would the point with these numbers as
a<bq     "$
coordinates be on this line?
a+b+p
For example, taking x = 11 and y = 10, we find

2x − 3y + 8 = 22 − 30 + 8 = 0
a, b
a+b+q
So, is the point (11, 10) on this line?
1         As seen in an earlier example, the line through (11, 4) parallel
  a, b a  < b  p 
a<bq ( ! #
to the y axis intersects this line. The x coordinate of the point
 #     # *      of intersection is 11; let’s take the y coordinate as y.
3 #       1
 , !   #  !  e have noted that for any two points on this line, the y
     !     #   2
change is 3
of the x change. Since (5,6) and (11, y) are
p2< q2<    # ! 
   ApqA * # ( points on the line, this gives
p2<q2<=pq2
2
1 & ! #  # ( y−6 = 3
(11 − 5) = 4
 =pq
" &  and this means y = 10. Thus (11, 10) is indeed a point on the
pq =<
* !       line.
   !    # (!
  !  !  

228
    

In the same way, we can see that if we take any pair x, y of numbers satisfying
the equation 2x − 3y + 8 = 0, the point (x, y) is on the line joining
(2, 4) and (5, 6). * #−;=)    
Suppose that we have found a pair p and q of numbers such that ! GeoGebra"#   " 
  ,    
2p − 3q + 8 = 0. If the point of intersection of the line joining '  '=)
(2, 4), (5, 6) and the line through (p, 4) parallel to the y axis is      % #  ( 
taken as (p, y), then as in our example, we get !' #   
 # #   
2
y−4= 3
(p − 2)

e can write this as

2
y= 3
(p − 2) + 4

Now from the equation 2p − 3q + 8 = 0, we get

2
q= 3
(p − 2) + 4

Thus we get y = q and this means the point (p, q) is on the line.
What have we seen here?
The set of coordinates of the points on the line joining the points
(2, 4) and (5, 6), and the set of number pairs satisfying the equation
2x − 3y + 8 = 0 are the same.
e shorten this as below:
The equation of the line joining the points (2, 4) and (5, 6) is
2x - 3y + 8 = 0

Similarly, once we get the coordinates of two points on a line, we can write its
equation.
For example, let’s look at the line joining (0, 0) and (1, 1). The x difference
and the y difference are equal for these points. It is so anywhere on this line.
Thus for any point (x, y) on this line, the x and y differences from (0, 0) are
equal. That is, y = x.
This is the equation of this line. #e can also write this as +"  3 #:
 ?@*,  !
x − y = 0).
   '   
Algebra View

229
 X

From the equation, we see that the x and y coordinates of any

point on this line are equal.
   "     GeoGebra
e can write equations for not only straight lines but for other
 # Circle with Center and
Radius   +"     "  geometric figures also. For example, let’s take the circle with
  </       centre at (1, 4) and radius 2. The distance between any point
  ,     Algebra on the circle and the centre is 2:
View

First degree plot

*    ! y =x      ' 
&  " ' "y6






− − − − −      
−
−
−
−
−
8   & & !   #
  &   +  #     #
e have seen that the square of this distance is
( &$*  ! #
 GeoGebra    #  # ( (x − 1) + (y − 4). Since this is the square of the radius of the
=  Input Bar circle, we get
(x − 1) + (y − 4) = 4

The x and y coordinates of any point on the circle satisfy this equation; on the
other hand if we take any pair of numbers satisfying this equation, the point
with those numbers as coordinates would be a point on this circle.
So, this is the equation of the circle. e can also expand (and then simplify)
this and write it as
x + y − 2x − 8y + 13 = 0
What is the equation of the circle with centre at the origin and radius 1?

230
    

If we take the coordinates of a point on this circle as (x, y), the square of its
distance from the origin is x + y. Since this is equal to the square of the
radius, we get
x + y = 1
This is the equation of the circle.

(1) Find the equation of the line joining (1, 2) and (2, 4). For points on this
line with consecutive natural numbers 3, 4, 5, ... as x coordinates, what
is the sequence of y coordinates?
(2) Find the equation of the line joining (−1, 3) and (2, 5). Prove that if the
point (x, y) is on this line, so is the point (x + 3, y + 2).
(3) Prove that whatever number we take as x, the point (x, 2x + 3) is a
point on the line joining (−1, 1) and (2, 7).

(4) In the picture below, the x coordinate

Second degree plot
of a point on the slanted (blue) line is 3: *  ' "   ! , 
y=x2x
  #& 6







− − − − −      
−
−
−

i) What is its y coordinate? −

−
ii) What is the slope of the line?
8    !" &   #
iii) rite the equation of the line.   &     
* "   GeoGebra 
=B−  Input Bar


 X

#5) In the picture here, ABCD is a

square: Prove that for any point on
the diagonal BD, the sum of the x
and y coordinates is zero.

(6) Prove that for any point on the line intersecting

the axes in the picture, the sum of the x and
y coordinates is 3.

(7) Find the equation of the circle with centre at the orgin and radius 5.
rite the coordinates of eight points on this circle.
(8) Prove that if (x, y) be a point on the circle with the line joining (0, 1) and
(2, 3) as diameter, then x + y − 2x − 4y + 3 = 0. Find the
coordinates of the points where this circle cuts the y axis.

(9) What is the equation of the circle shown here?

If we type any equation connecting x and y in the Input Bar of GeoGebra, then we get the figure formed
by the points with coordinates satisfying this equation. Try the following equations one by one:
$ 2x∧2 + 2y∧2 = 4 $ 2x∧2 + 3y∧2 = 4 $ 2x∧2 − 3y∧2 = 4 $ 2x∧2 + 3y = 4

232
    

e have seen       

    

    

2 − 2 −    

!"#     $

% & 

2 − '+ ' − '

2 − ( ( x + 2 ) ( x − 2 )

1 ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
2 −  ⎜⎝ x + 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ x − 2 ⎟⎠
4
1
2 − ' 2 − (  2 −-         &     
4
1 1
 − '  + '   − 2 ,   2 ,   − ,  -)      
2 2
 &   

*      &      

  &   
     
    %+  '(  ( × ,
( ,'(-   & 2 −' −' )'  − '
 )' 2−'
 X

!" # + $        &

+  )( ).  
)( ). 2)/),
    
2)/),)( ).

0& 1     &   )(

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2 + $# 
2)' )( 3)(2))(

*  &   2)'   &  

)(  &   +3)(2))(
     $
 the polynomial p(x) is the product of the polynomials q(x)
and r(x), then we say that the polynomials q(x) and r(x) are
factors of the polynomial p(x)
3 # $
 − '  − ( 2 − (−(2− .(

* 
2 −.( − '  − (

*   &   2 − .(  

 &   
*    
  2 − .(  ' 4
  
' '−.)(5
*"  &  
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% 
' '−' ×'−( 5×−' 5
 & "( 5 4


  

6 5 4

−' −( 5  −' −(7 4
*' ( # 5 
' (      5  
2 − .(5 
!" # + $
−' −( −. 2 − .( −. 3−,2 ''−,

8   &−'−(−. 

  &   3−,2 ''−,9  
 
e      
 = 3 −,2 ''−,−' −( −.        
   +        
        
' 5( 5. 5      
  
* '(.      5     
GeoGebra      
  3 −,2 )''−,5 
   
     + 4
the first degree polynomial x - a is a factor of the polynomial
p(x), then p(a) = 0; that is, a is a solution of the equation
p(x) = 0

     # $

If the polynomial p(x) can be split into first degree factors as
p (x) = (x - a1) (x - a2) ... (x - an)
then the numbers a1a2an are the solutions of the equation
p(x) = 0
-    &        &    
 
      


 X

%+  #    $

2 − /,5

  2 − /,  

 &    4*  
 &      4 - &  

2 − /,− −

:+  

2 −/,2 −) +

*       %



)  /

 ,

*    / ,

;   # . ( #< #.

(  

2 −/,− 2) − 3)

%       2 −/,5

( .

!" #   $

2 +(−'/5

;     

2 +(−'/− − 2− )

 

−(

−'/


  

3 and 5 are factors of 15. Since the product is to be negative, we must have
one of them negative. If we take −3 and 5, the sum won’t be right; but 3 and
−5 give the right sum. So taking  = 3 and b = −5 we can write

x2 + 2x − 15 = (x − 3) (x + 5)

And we get the solutions of the equation x2 + 2x − 15 = 0 as 3 and −5.

Write the second degree polynomials given below as the product of two first
degree polynomials. Find also the solutions of the equation p(x) = 0 in each.

i) p (x) = x2 − 7x + 12 ii) p (x) = x2 + 7x + 12

iii) p (x) = x2 − 8x + 12 iv) p (x) = x2 + 13x + 12

v) p (x) = x2 + 12x − 13 vi) p (x) = x2 − 12x − 13

Factor theorems
We have seen that the first degree polynomial x − 1 is a factor of the polynomial
x2 − 1; also, if we take x − 2 instead of x − 1, then it is a factor of x2 − 4 and
1 1
if we take x − 2
, then it is a facor of x2 − . In general, x − a is a factor of
4
x2 − a2, whatever be the number a.
We can put this another way. In the second degree polynomial p(x) = x2, if
we take the number a as x, then p(a) = a2, right? Then
   
p(x) − p(a) = x2 − a2. Thus in the second degree
For any two numbers x and y, we can
polynomial p(x) = x2, whatever number a we take as x,
split x2−y2 as a product:
the first degree polynomial x − a is a factor of the second
x2−y2 = (x − y) (x + y)
degree polynomial p(x) − p(a).
Similarly, we can write x3 − y3 like this:
Would this be true if we take some other second degree x3 − y3 = (x − y) (x2 + xy + y2)
polynomial, instead of x2, as p(x)? For example, let’s (Try it!). What about the difference of
take fourth powers? We can write
x4 − y4 = (x − y) (x3 + x2y + xy2 + y3)
p(x) = 3x2 + 2x − 1
Proceeding like this, for any natural
number n, we can write xn − yn as a
multiple of x − y.

237
 X

 >*
  > .×>2 )(× > −'
!" −    &  $
 −  .2)(−' −.×>2 )(×> −'
9  2>2 >  4
     − .2−>2 )(−>
"        x  y 
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#

x3−y3 x−yx2!xy !y2
$%&&    y    −> .−> )> )(−>
   #              −> 
   
*#   
x−' &  &x3−'
x−( &  &x3−)  −> −> .)> )(
1 1 *    &   
x− 2  &  &x3− 8
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x+* &  &x3+(+
* −>  −>
,      #  
 a   x−a  !" # + #   (2)−> 
&  &x3−a3 −(. ;  +   
          & 
−( (×−( 2)−( −>
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 Power difference,    &    & 
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In the same way we can see that for any second degree polynomial (x) and
any number a, the polynomial x − a is a factor of the polynomial p(x) − p(a).
For those who are not convinced yet, we write this procedure completely in
algebra. Let’s take
p(x) = lx2 + mx + n
and let a be any number. Then
        
p(x) − p(a) = (lx2 + mx + n) − (la2 + ma + n) Results on multiplication of numbers
can also be stated as results of
= l(x2 − a2) + m(x − a)
division. For example 2 × 5 = 10 can
= l(x − a) (x + a) + m(x − a) also be stated as 10 ÷ 2 = 5 or
10 ÷ 5 = 2. We can also write this in
= (x − a) (l (x + a) + m) 10
the form of fractions as 2 = 5 or
= (x − a) (lx + (la + m))
10
which shows that x − a is a factor of p(x) − p(a). Thus we have = 2.
5
the general result:
Similary, the multiplication of
For any second degree polynomial p(x) and for any polynomials
(x − 1) (x + 1) = x2 − 1
number a, the polynomial x − a is a factor of the
can also be written in the form of
polynomial p(x) − p(a). fractions as
Suppose we take p(x) = x2 − 5x + 6 and a = 3. Then 2
x −1
=x+1
p(3) = 9 − 15 + 6 = 0, so that p(x) − p(3) = p(x). So, according x −1

to the general result above, x − 3 is a factor of p(x) itself. This or

gives the general result below: x2 − 1
x +1 =x−1
For any second degree polynomial p(x) and any number a, But we must be careful about one
thing here. The equation
x − a is a factor of p(x) − p(a). If p(a) is zero we get
x2 − 1 = (x − 1) (x + 1) is true,
p(x) − p(a) = p(x). So x − a is a factor of p(x) itself. whatever number we take as x. But
In general, in the equation
2
x −1
    px  x −1
=x+1
  a  pa         
we cannot take x = 1 (why?)
x-a   px

For example, if we take p(x) = 3x2 − 5x − 2 and a = 2, then

p(a) = p(2) = 12 − 10 − 2 = 0
so that x − 2 is a factor of 3x2 − 5x − 2.

239
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244
  

median income 19050 rupees, like the mean income 19285 rupees gives
a reasonable estimate of the economic status of the first ten households (and
there is no great difference between the mean and the median either).
What is important here is that the high income of the eleventh household does
not change the median much. Also if we say that the median income of some
households is 19050 rupees and that the monthly income of one of these is
21000 rupees, we can conclude that this household is better off than more
than half the households considered.

(1) The distance covered by an athlete in long jump practice are

6.10, 6.20, 6.18, 6.20, 6.25, 6.21, 6.15, 6.10
in metres. Find the mean and median. Why is it that there is not much
difference between these?
(2) The table below gives the rainfall during one week of September 2015
in various districts of Kerala.

District Rainfall (mm)

Kasaragod 66.7
Kannur 56.9
Kozhikode 33.5
Wayanad 20.5
Malappuram 13.5
Palakkad 56.9
Thrissur 53.4
Ernakulam 70.6
Kottayam 50.3
Idukki 30.5
Pathanamthitta 56.4
Alapuzha 45.5
Kollam 56.3
Thiruvananthapuram 89.0

Calculate the mean and median rainfall in Kerala during this week. Why
is the mean less than median ?
(3) Prove that for a set of numbers in arithmetic sequence, the mean and
median are equal.

245
 X

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252
  

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253
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254
  

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255
 

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