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MODULE – 4 Metal film resistors

➢ A metal-film resistor is a resistor in which a thin film of

ELECTRONICS metal is sprayed onto a ceramic substrate and then cut
There are 2 types of electronic components into a spiral body.
1. Active component: Which produce a signal processing

Eg: diode,transistor
2. Passive component : which did not produce a signal
processing Carbon film resistor
Eg: resistor,inductor, capacitor
➢ In carbon-film resistor a thin film of carbon is deposited
onto an insulated substrate and then cut into a spiral body.
Resistors
Wire wound resistors
➢ It is a two terminal electronic component designed to
oppose an electric current by producing a voltage drop ➢ made by winding resistance wire on a former.
between its terminals in proportion to the current. ➢ Used for high power applications.
Types of resistors
1. fixed Resistors
2. Variable resistors
1. Fixed Resistors :-
➢ Fixed resistors are those its resistance value is fixed it
Variable resistors
cannot change.
symbol ➢ A variable resistor is a device that is used to change the
resistance according to our needs in an electronic circuit.
➢ Variable resistors are called potentiometers.
➢ It has three terminals one is variable point and other two
Fixed resistors are following types:- are fixed points.
● Carbon composition resistors

● Metal film resistor

● Carbon film resistor

● Wire wound resistor Capacitor

• A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical
Carbon-composition resistors are resistors :-
component that stores electric energy
➢ made of finely divided carbon or graphite mixed with a • Its made by 2 parallel plates and a dielectric is
powdered insulating material as a binder in the
placed between them
proportions need for the desired resistance value.

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• The capacitor have different types according to Centre-tap full-wave rectifier

Which type dielectric used in capacitor,
• Ceramic capacitors have a ceramic dielectric.
• Film and paper capacitors are named for their
dielectrics.
• Electrolytic capacitors: suitable electrolyte is
used between the metal plates

PN-Junction

➢ This circuit consist of two diodes D1 and D2, centre

tapped transformer.
➢ During positive half cycle of AC supply only diode D1
conduct and current flows through load resistor R L and
out put voltage obtained across load resistor.
➢ When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to n-type
➢ During negative half cycle of AC supply only diode D2
semiconductor, the contact surface is called pn junction.
conduct and current flows through load resistor R L and
➢ When a pn junction is formed, the free electrons near the
out put voltage obtained across load resistor RL.
junction in the n-region begin to diffuse across the junction
into the p- region ➢ Current flows through load resistor RL in the same
➢ As the free electrons diffuse across the junction, they direction for both half cycle of input a.c voltage.
combine with holes and leave a layer of positive charges in
the n-region and a layer of negative charges in the p-region.
This forms a barrier potential. This action continues until Bridge rectifier
the voltage of the barrier stops further diffusion.
➢ For silicon the barrier potential is about 0.7V and for
germanium, it is about 0.3V.
Rectifiers
Two types
1. Half- wave rectifier
2. Full-wave rectifier
a. Centre- tapped full wave rectifier
b. Bridge rectifier
➢ In this rectifier four diodes are used.
Half- wave rectifier
➢ During positive half cycle only diode D1&D2 conduct,
current flows through load resistor and output voltage is
obtained across the load resistor.
➢ During negative half cycle only diode D3&D4 conduct,
current flows through load resistor and output voltage is
obtained across the load resistor.
➢ ➢ During both positive and negative half cycle current flows
through load resistor in the same direction.
➢ In half-wave rectifier, the diode conduct only during
positive half cycle of input a.c supply. During negative half
cycle diode does not conduct and hence no voltage appears
across the load. Therefore current always flows in one
direction through the load.

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Bipolar junction transistor(BJT) Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

➢ A transistor consists of two pn junctions formed by ➢ SCR is a four layer, three terminal semiconductor
sandwiching either p-type or n-type semiconductor device which act as a electronic switch.
between a pair of opposite types. ➢ Its terminals are Anode , cathode , Gate
➢ A transistor has three terminal emitter , base and
collector.
➢ There are two types of transistors
P-N-P transistor
N-P-N transistor
➢ In normal operating conditions of SCR anode is highly
positive with respect to cathode and gate is small
positive with respect to cathode.
Working of SCR
(i) When gate is open.
Symbol of a transistor

➢ Under this condition, junction J2 is reverse biased while

junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased. Hence, no current
flows through the load RL and the SCR is cut off.
However, if the applied voltage is gradually increased, a
stage is reached when reverse biased junction J2 breaks
Working of transistor down.
➢ The SCR now conducts heavily and is said to be in the
ON state. The applied voltage at which SCR conducts
heavily without gate voltage is called Break over
voltage.
(ii) When gate is positive w.r.t. cathode.
➢ The SCR can be made to conduct heavily at smaller
applied voltage by applying a small positive potential to
the gate as shown in Fig.
➢
➢ For normal operation the emitter-base junction is always
forward biased while the collector-base junction is always
reverse biased.
➢ Electrons are injected into the emitter region by the
emitter bias supply . The electrons injected to the emitter
enter to the base and only few electrons recombine with
the holes in the base region. ➢ Now junction J1 J2 and J3 is forward biased. The electrons
➢ Injected electrons diffuse into collector region due to from n-type material start moving across junction J3
extremely small thickness of base and most of the towards left whereas holes from P-type towards the right.
electrons cross into the collector region.

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➢ Consequently , the electrons from junction J3 are attracted NOT gate

across junction J2 and gate current starts flowing.
➢ The NOT gate performs a basic logical function called
Applications of SCR inversion or complementation.
1. Speed control of DC and AC motors ➢ The purpose of NOT gate is to change one logical level
2. As rectifier for conversion of AC into DC to the opposite level.
3. As inverter for conversion of DC into AC ➢ This gate has only one input and one output
4. As chopper for converting fixed DC into variable DC.
➢ It changes a 1 to 0 and vice-versa.
5. As cycloconverter for converting AC of one frequency
into AC of another frequency. Symbol Truth table
6. Power switches.
7. As static switches.
8. Relay control.
Logic gates
➢ There are seven types logic gates namely
OR , AND , NOT, NOR, NAND, X-OR and X-NOR
➢ OR, AND, NOT gates are known as basic types of gates.
➢ NAND and NOR gates are called the universal gates
OR gate
➢ The OR gate performs logical addition.
➢ An OR gate has two or more input signals with only one
output signal.
➢ In OR gate ,output voltage is high if any or all of the input
voltages are high.
Symbol Truth table NAND gate
➢ NAND = AND + NOT
➢ The NAND gate performs AND function with inverted
output.
➢ In NAND gate , output voltage is low only when all the
input voltages are high.
AND gate
➢ The AND gate performs logical multiplication. Symbol Truth table
➢ An AND gate has two or more input signals with only one
output signal.
➢ In AND gate ,output voltage is high only when all the input
voltages are high.
Symbol Truth table

NOR gate
➢ NOR = OR + NOT
➢ The NOR gate performs OR function with inverted
output.

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➢ In NOR gate ,output voltage is high only when all the

Depending on feedback it is divided into two types:-
input voltages are low.
1. Open Loop Control System (Feedback is not present)
Symbol Truth table
2. Closed Loop Control System (Feedback is present)
APPLICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM

AUTOMATION

Automation or automatic control is the use of

various control systems for operating equipment with minimal
or reduced human intervention.

The biggest benefit of automation is that it saves labor;

however, it is also used to save energy and materials and to
improve quality, accuracy and precision. Automation has been
achieved by various means including mechanical, hydraulic,
pneumatic, electrical, electronic devices and computers, usually
in combination.

The main advantages of automation are:

• Increased productivity.
• Improved quality or increased predictability of quality.
• Improved robustness (consistency), of processes or
product.
• Increased consistency of output.
• Reduced direct human labor costs and expenses.

CONTROL SYSTEM

Control System is a combination of various physical

elements connected in such a manner so as to regulate itself or
some other device/system.

Block Diagram

Feedback
Feedback is a fractional part of the past/present
output which is fed back to the input. In case of positive
feedback, it is added to the input and if it is negative feedback
then it is subtracted from the input.
Types of Control System