computer network : A computer network is a collection of

interconnected devices sharing resources. It enables communication

and data exchange between computers and devices. Networks can be
wired or wireless and span various geographical distances. They
facilitate sharing information, files, and resources for efficient
collaboration. Computer networks form the backbone of modern
communication and information systems.
advantages of computer network
easy sharing: Computer networks make sharing files and resources
between devices easy. People can work together on projects and
share information conveniently.
Quick communication : Computer networks enable fast
communication, connecting people across distances instantly.
Emails, messaging, and video calls facilitate quick information
exchange and collaboration.
access to information :Computer networks grant easy access to vast
information resources, aiding research and learning. Online
databases and websites offer a wealth of knowledge at fingertips.
cost efficiency : Computer networks reduce costs by sharing
resources like printers and storage. Centralized data management
minimizes expenses associated with manual processes.
global connectivity :Computer networks enable communication and
collaboration across geographical boundaries effortlessly. Access to
information and resources transcends physical location, fostering
global connectivity.
disadvantages of computer network:
security risks :Computer networks can expose data to hackers and
malicious software. Sensitive information might be vulnerable to
unauthorized access and cyberattacks.
network failure :Network failures can disrupt communication and
access to shared resources. Business operations may halt due to
connectivity issues or technical glitches.
technical complexity :Technical complexity can lead to setup and
maintenance challenges for users. Understanding intricate network
configurations might require specialized knowledge and training.
dependency on infrastructre :Reliance on network infrastructure
can cause disruptions if issues arise. Without functioning
infrastructure, network services and operations can be compromised.
privacy concerns :Computer networks can lead to worries about
unauthorized access to personal data. Confidential information might
be exposed if not adequately protected on networks.
Features of computer network
Connectivity and Communication: Computer networks enable
devices to connect and communicate, fostering collaboration and
efficient data exchange.
Resource Sharing and Collaboration: Networks allow users to
share files, printers, and applications, promoting teamwork and
resource optimization.
Remote Access and Mobility: Users can access data and
applications from remote locations, enhancing flexibility and
productivity.
Cost Efficiency and Centralized Management: Sharing resources
reduces hardware costs, and centralized management streamlines
maintenance.
Scalability and Adaptability: Networks easily accommodate more
users and devices as needs grow, adapting to changing demands.
Reliability and Redundancy: Redundant connections ensure
reliability, reducing disruptions and maintaining operations.
Security and Data Protection: Networks implement security
measures to protect sensitive information from unauthorized access.
Centralized Data Storage and Backup: Centralized storage
improves data organization, backup, and recovery processes.
LAN (Local Area Network): LAN covers a small geographical area
like a home, office, or campus. Provides high-speed data sharing and
resource sharing among connected devices. Typically uses Ethernet
cables or Wi-Fi for connectivity. LANs are managed by a single
organization, ensuring security and control. Commonly used for file
sharing, printer access, and local communication.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Spans a larger area than
LAN, often covering a city or a campus. Offers higher data transfer
rates compared to WAN within the coverage area. MANs connect
multiple LANs and data centers, facilitating data exchange. Used by
universities, businesses, and municipal services for efficient
communication. Utilizes technologies like fiber optics and
microwave links for connectivity.
WAN (Wide Area Network):
Encompasses large geographical areas, even worldwide, connecting
cities or countries. Operates through public or private networks, like
the internet or leased lines. Slower data rates compared to LANs due
to long-distance transmission. Enables remote communication, such
as online meetings and cloud services. Utilizes routers, switches, and
various transmission mediums for connectivity.
CAN (Campus Area Network):
Covers a larger area than LAN but smaller than MAN, like a
university campus. Connects multiple buildings within a campus for
seamless communication. Provides high-speed data transfer for
academic and administrative purposes. Supports centralized services
like email servers and shared databases. Enhances collaboration
among different departments and facilities.
SAN (Storage Area Network):
Specialized network for high-speed data storage and retrieval
purposes. Connects storage devices like servers and disk arrays to
share data. Improves data management, backup, and disaster
recovery processes.
Operates independently from LAN or WAN networks for optimized
performance.
Commonly used by enterprises for managing vast amounts of critical
data.
PAN (Personal Area Network):
Smallest network, typically within a range of a few meters. Connects
devices like smartphones, laptops, and wearable gadgets. Utilizes
technologies like Bluetooth and Wi-Fi for short-range
communication. Enables data sharing and synchronization among
personal devices. Supports applications like wireless headphones,
file transfer, and smart device control.
Introduction to Networking:
Networking involves connecting devices for communication and
resource sharing. It enables data exchange, collaboration, and
efficient information flow. Various types include LAN, WAN, MAN,
PAN, and CAN for diverse needs. Networking protocols define rules
for data transmission and device interaction. Essential for
businesses, individuals, and societies in the digital age.
Concept of Internet:
The internet is a global network connecting millions of devices. It
enables access to vast information, services, and online resources.
Based on TCP/IP protocols, ensuring reliable data transmission. Web
browsing, email, social media are common internet applications.
Facilitates e-commerce, remote work, education, and global
connectivity.
Applications of Computer Networks:
Communication: Networks enable real-time communication via
email, messaging, and video conferencing.
Information Sharing: Sharing files, documents, and data across
geographically distant locations.
Remote Access: Remote work, accessing resources from anywhere,
enhancing productivity.
E-commerce: Online shopping, payment gateways, and digital
transactions thrive on networks.
Entertainment: Streaming services, online gaming, and social
media depend on network connectivity.
Education: E-learning platforms deliver courses and connect
students globally.
Challenging Issues of Computer Networks:
Security: Vulnerabilities like hacking, malware, and data breaches
threaten network integrity.
Privacy: Balancing data sharing with individual privacy concerns in
a connected world.
Scalability: Networks must handle increasing user demands and
traffic without degradation.
Reliability: Downtime and network failures can disrupt critical
services and operations.
Bandwidth Limitations: Strain due to high data usage impacts
speed and performance.
Network Congestion: Heavy traffic can lead to congestion,
affecting data delivery and latency.
TCP/IP Reference Model - Layers and Definitions:
Network model for Internet architecture and communication
standards.
Developed by DARPA for connecting remote machines and
networks.
Consists of four layers: Host-to-network, Internet, Transport, and
Application.
Each layer serves specific functions for data transmission and
management.
Defines protocols like IP, TCP, and UDP for reliable communication.
Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer:
Lowest layer in the TCP/IP model, closest to physical hardware.
Responsible for connecting the host to the local network
infrastructure. Uses various protocols specific to each network type
(Ethernet, Wi-Fi, etc.).Handles data encapsulation and transmission
over the physical medium. Provides hardware addressing (MAC
addresses) for data link communication.
Layer 2: Internet Layer:
Selects a packet switching network for connectionless
internetworking. Maintains the overall architecture and connectivity
of the TCP/IP model. Utilizes Internet Protocol (IP) for routing and
delivering data packets. Ensures independent packet delivery,
packets may arrive out of order. Performs functions like routing,
forwarding, and avoiding congestion.
Layer 3: Transport Layer:
Decides on parallel or single path data transmission between
devices. Responsible for multiplexing, segmenting, and
reassembling data. Enables applications to read and write data
through the transport layer. Adds header information to data for
reliable delivery. Breaks messages into smaller units for efficient
handling by the network layer.
Layer 4: Application Layer:
Contains various application protocols for specific services like
email (SMTP), file transfer (FTP), etc.
Enables peer entities to carry out conversations across the network.
Defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP (reliable) and UDP
(unreliable).
TCP handles error-free byte-stream communication with flow
control.
UDP provides one-shot request-reply service without sequencing
and flow control.
Network Devices: Repeater, Hub, NIC, Bridge, Switch, Router,
Gateway
Repeater:
Amplifies weak signals to extend the reach of a network. Functions
at the physical layer of the OSI model. Used to combat signal
attenuation in long cable runs. Has no awareness of data or network
addresses. Helps maintain signal integrity and data quality. Doesn't
filter or manage network traffic. Commonly used in environments
with long cable distances.
Hub:
Connects multiple devices in a simple star topology. Operates at the
physical layer, regenerating signals. Broadcasts data to all connected
devices. Lacks intelligence and doesn't filter traffic. Prone to
collisions and reduced network efficiency. Rarely used due to
limited functionality and performance. Replaced by switches for
better network management.
NIC (Network Interface Card):
Hardware component enabling device-network communication.
Connects computers to Ethernet, Wi-Fi, or other networks. Provides
a unique MAC address for device identification. Essential for
sending and receiving data packets. Can be integrated into
motherboards or added externally. Supports various network
protocols and speeds. Crucial for seamless network connectivity.
Bridge:
Connects and segments network traffic at the data link layer. Filters
traffic based on MAC addresses, reducing collisions. Extends
network by connecting different LAN segments. Enhances network
performance and reduces congestion.
Works transparently without modifying data packets.
Learning bridges dynamically build MAC address tables.
Often used in smaller network setups for segmentation.
Switch:
Efficiently manages data traffic at the data link layer. Creates
dedicated communication paths between devices. Operates based on
MAC addresses, reducing collisions. Enhances network performance
and bandwidth utilization. Smart switches offer advanced
management features. Popular choice for LANs due to its
capabilities. Can be managed or unmanaged depending on needs.
Router:
Routes data between different networks, including the internet.
Operates at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.
Determines the optimal path for data transmission. Uses IP addresses
for routing decisions. Provides network segmentation and security.
Commonly found in home and enterprise networks. Acts as a
gateway between LANs and the internet.
Gateway:
Translates data between different network protocols or formats.
Connects networks with different communication architectures.
Provides compatibility between diverse network environments. Acts
as an entry/exit point for data entering/leaving a network. Often
found in situations where different technologies meet. Used in
VPNs, connecting LANs to the internet, etc. Essential for seamless
communication between heterogeneous networks.
OSI Model:
Seven-layer framework standardizing network communication and
protocol interaction. Divides network tasks into distinct layers,
aiding design and interoperability. Each layer serves specific
functions, abstracting complexity and promoting modularity.
Facilitates understanding, troubleshooting, and development of
network protocols and systems.
OSI Model Layers:
1. Physical Layer:
Transmits raw binary data as electrical or optical signals. Manages
physical connection, medium, data rates, and signaling. Concerned
with bit-level transmission without interpreting data. Involves
cables, switches, hubs, and repeaters.
2. Data Link Layer:
Organizes raw bits into frames with MAC addresses. Handles error
detection, flow control, and access to shared media. Divided into
LLC (logical link control) and MAC (media access control).
Involves switches, bridges, and NICs.
3. Network Layer:
Routes data packets using logical addressing (IP addresses).
Determines optimal paths, handles congestion, and manages
subnetting. Provides logical addressing and interconnects different
networks. Involves routers and Layer 3 switches.
4. Transport Layer:
Ensures end-to-end data delivery, error correction, and flow control.
Breaks large messages into segments and reassembles at destination.
Uses port numbers to identify specific services on devices. Involves
TCP (reliable) and UDP (unreliable).
5. Session Layer:
Establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions
between applications. Handles synchronization, checkpointing, and
recovery during data exchange. Ensures data integrity and provides
dialog control. Manages session tokens and encryption keys.
6. Presentation Layer:
Translates, encrypts, or compresses data for proper application
format. Ensures data from various systems can be understood and
exchanged. Handles data transformation and encryption/decryption.
Involves data format conversion, compression, and encryption.
7. Application Layer:
Provides network services directly to end-user applications. Supports
communication and data exchange between different software.
Includes protocols for email, web browsing, file transfer, and more.
Represents the layer closest to the user and applications.
OSI Model TCP/IP Model
Stands for Open System Stands for Transmission Control
Interconnection Protocol
Developed by ISO Developed by ARPANET
Independent standard, acts as Consists of standard protocols
communication gateway for internet
Transport layer guarantees packet
Transport layer not as reliable
delivery
Vertical approach Horizontal approach
Separate session and presentation Combined session and
layers presentation in application layer
Known as a reference model Implemented model of OSI
Network layer offers both
Network layer provides only
connection-oriented and
connectionless
connectionless
7 layers 4 layers
Defines services, protocols, Services, protocols, interfaces
interfaces; protocol independent not clearly separated
Usage is relatively low Highly used
Standardizes devices like routers,
No standardization for devices
switches
Network Protocols:
Set of rules governing data communication, ensuring consistency
and compatibility. Determine data format, transmission, error
handling, and device interaction. Examples include TCP/IP, HTTP,
FTP, and SMTP. Facilitate seamless data exchange in a network
environment. Define how data packets are structured, sent, and
received. Essential for interoperability and effective communication
between devices.
Network Interfaces:
Connect hardware components to a network, enabling
communication and data exchange. Include physical components
like NICs and wireless adapters. Serve as intermediary between
device and network, handling data conversion. May involve software
interfaces for application access to network services. Allow devices
to transmit and receive data over a network medium. Essential for
seamless interaction between devices and network resources.
Network Services:Provide specific functionality to users and
applications in a network.Examples include file sharing, email,
remote access, and printing.Offer features like security, resource
allocation, and communication facilitation. Ensure efficient
utilization of network resources and enhance user experience.
Managed through protocols and accessible via interfaces. Play a
crucial role in enabling diverse applications to work over networks.
Client-Server Model: Centralized architecture with distinct client
and server roles. Clients request services, servers respond, handling
data processing. Efficient resource utilization and centralized
management. Scalability challenges with growing client base.
Enables better security and access control. Common in web
applications and corporate networks. Provides dedicated resources
for specialized tasks. Requires robust server infrastructure and
maintenance.Peer-to-Peer Model:Decentralized architecture, no
distinct client or server roles. Nodes share resources directly, like
files and computing power. Promotes equal contribution and
resource availability among peers. Scalability advantage with more
peers enhancing resources. Security and access control can be
challenging to enforce. Popular for file sharing (BitTorrent),
messaging apps (Skype). Relies on each peer's resources, not
dedicated servers. Requires coordination and efficient peer discovery
mechanisms.
 Aspect Client-Server Model Peer-to-Peer Model
Architectur Centralized with distinct Decentralized, no distinct
e roles roles
Resource Servers provide
Peers share resources directly
Sharing resources to clients
Resource Servers manage and Equal contribution among
Utilization distribute resources peers
Limited by server
Scalability Scales well with more peers
capacity and load
Better control and Security and control
Security
security challenges
Web applications, email File sharing (BitTorrent),
Examples
servers Skype
Dependenc Reliant on server
Not solely reliant on any node
y availability
Maintenanc Requires server Distributed maintenance
e management effort
LAN Standards:
Define rules for network design, interoperability, and
communication consistency.
Enable different devices to connect and share resources seamlessly.
Standards like Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) and Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11).
Facilitate uniformity and compatibility across diverse network
equipment.
Govern data rates, cable types, and network topologies.
Vital for efficient data exchange and reliable network performance.
Evolve to accommodate increasing data demands and new
technologies.
Form the backbone of local area networks, ensuring consistent
operation.
Connection-Oriented Services Connectionless Services
Requires a dedicated connection
No connection setup needed
setup before data transfer
Guarantees data delivery and No guarantee of data delivery or
ensures order order
Ensures reliable data transfer with May have data loss without error-
error-checking mechanisms checking
Uses acknowledgments for each No acknowledgment for data
data packet packets
Examples: TCP (Transmission Examples: UDP (User Datagram
Control Protocol), virtual circuits Protocol)
Slower due to connection
Faster due to no connection setup
establishment and verification
Suitable for applications needing Suitable for real-time
data integrity applications
Used in applications like file
Used in online gaming, streaming
transfer, web browsing
Requires handshake, data transfer, No specific phases in data
and termination phases exchange
More overhead due to setup and
Less overhead, more efficient
verification processes
LAN Architecture:
Specifies network layout, components, and their interactions in a
LAN. Primarily comprises clients, servers, switches, routers, and
access points. Determines data flow, access control, and resource
sharing mechanisms. Common architectures: peer-to-peer and
client-server. Scalability, fault tolerance, and security considerations
influence design. Architectural choices depend on organizational
needs and network size. Rapid evolution due to advancements in
technology and cloud integration. Crucial for maintaining efficient,
well-organized, and manageable LANs.
Media access control
Sublayer of data link layer in OSI model, handling data
transmission. Responsible for multiplexing, flow control, and
transmission medium access. Manages data packets' transmission on
remotely shared channels. Ensures effective communication within a
network via network interface cards. Part of OSI model, which
organizes network communication into layers. Data link layer
divided into Logical Link Control (LLC) and MAC sublayers. MAC
layer provides an abstraction of physical layer for upper layers.
Manages encapsulation, addressing, channel access, collision
resolution, and error protection.
MAC Address:
Unique hardware identifier assigned to network interface cards
(NICs). Comprises a sequence of six pairs of hexadecimal digits.
First half indicates manufacturer's identifier, second half device's
serial. Essential for data link layer communication and identifying
devices on a network. Operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the
OSI model. Used for Ethernet networks and critical for network
communication.An example of a MAC address is
00:0A:89:5B:F0:11.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD):
Protocol Overview: Operates in the MAC layer, facilitating carrier
transmission.
Listens to the channel, deferring transmission until it's free.
Collision detection detects transmission overlaps from other stations.
In case of collision, station stops, sends jam signal, retries later.
Algorithm of CSMA/CD:
Check Channel: Assess if channel is busy or idle.
Wait for Idle: If busy, wait for channel to become idle.
Start Transmission: Begin transmitting on idle channel.
Collision Detection: Monitor for collision signals during
transmission.
Collision Detected: Initiate collision resolution in case of collision.
Reset Counters: Reset retransmission counters for new attempt.
Complete Transmission: Finish frame transmission after success.
Collision Resolution Algorithm:
Continuous Transmission: Send frame with jam signal
simultaneously.
Retransmission Counter: Increment counter for tracking attempts.
Max Attempts Check: If max attempts reached, abort transmission.
Backoff Period: Wait based on collision history before retry.
Restart Algorithm: After backoff, initiate CSMA/CD algorithm
again.
Efficient Handling: Minimize collisions, enhance data delivery
success.
Reliable Network: Enhances successful data transmission in shared
medium.
IEEE 802.3: Ethernet Most common LAN standard, using
CSMA/CD for collision detection. Data link layer protocol with
various physical media options. Operates over twisted-pair, coaxial,
and fiber optic cables. Supports 10 Mbps (Ethernet), 100 Mbps (Fast
Ethernet), 1 Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet). Foundation for LAN
connectivity in homes, offices, and data centers. Ethernet frames
contain source, destination MAC addresses and data. Dominant
LAN technology with widespread adoption and evolution.
Continuously advancing to higher speeds and improved efficiency.
IEEE 802.4: Token Bus
Token-passing protocol for token bus networks. Defines access
control mechanism for deterministic data transmission. Used in
industrial automation, control systems, and manufacturing. Tokens
circulate, granting devices brief access to the medium.Ensures
collision-free communication and controlled network access. Less
prevalent compared to other IEEE 802 standards. Devices connect
sequentially, forming a logical ring topology. Offers reliable
communication in real-time industrial applications.
IEEE 802.5: Token Ring
Token-passing protocol for token ring networks. Devices connected
in a logical ring, each with a token. Ensures controlled, predictable
access to the network medium. Less common due to Ethernet's
popularity and simplicity. Token prevents collisions, enabling
efficient data transmission. Offers deterministic network behavior,
suitable for critical applications. Slower data rates compared to
Ethernet and other standards. Historically used for mainframe
connections and industrial applications.
Token Ring:
Token-passing protocol in a logical ring topology network. Devices
receive and send data when holding the token. Ensures controlled
access, avoiding collisions, guaranteeing transmission. Token
circulates, granting devices time-limited data transmission rights.
Predictable and deterministic data flow suitable for critical
applications.
Gradually replaced by Ethernet due to scalability and simplicity.
Slower compared to Ethernet in terms of data rates.
Offers reliability in networks requiring consistent communication
behavior.
Historically used for mainframes, now mostly obsolete in LANs.
Token Bus:
Token-passing protocol in a bus topology network. Token controls
access, ensuring collision-free data transmission. Devices send data
in line with token availability and priority. Reliable, deterministic
communication in industrial automation and control. Ensures data
integrity and efficient resource utilization. Less common than other
IEEE 802 standards due to specific applications. Utilizes a linear bus
structure with devices connecting sequentially. Less affected by
network traffic than Ethernet in critical setups. Offers a controlled
environment suitable for real-time industrial needs.
Introduction to Wireless LAN:
Wireless Local Area Network enables wireless data communication.
Connects devices within a limited geographic area, like home or
office. Replaces wired connections with radio waves, enhancing
mobility. Uses radio frequency (RF) technology for wireless signal
transmission. Common for internet access, sharing files, printers,
and more. Offers convenience, eliminating cable constraints and
enabling mobility. Utilizes Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and other wireless
technologies. Enhances workplace flexibility and simplifies network
setups. Found in homes, businesses, public areas for seamless
connectivity.
Bluetooth:
Short-range wireless technology for data and device communication.
Connects devices like smartphones, headphones, and IoT devices.
Operates in the 2.4 GHz frequency band globally. Low-power
consumption, suitable for battery-operated devices. Enables file
sharing, wireless audio, and peripheral connections. Establishes
personal area networks (PANs) with low-cost components. Provides
secure connections and supports multiple devices simultaneously.
Simplifies device pairing through a user-friendly process.
Integral part of modern smartphones, smartwatches, and audio
devices.
Wi-Fi:
Wireless networking technology connecting devices to the internet.
Utilizes radio waves in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands. Commonly
used in homes, businesses, and public places. Enables high-speed
internet access, file sharing, and streaming. Offers various Wi-Fi
standards (802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ax) with evolving speeds.Requires access
points (routers) for signal distribution. Supports multiple devices
concurrently, promoting connectivity. Security measures like WPA3
safeguard data transmission. Integral in the digital age for versatile
and convenient networking.
Wi-Max:
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access provides wireless
communication. Offers broadband wireless access over long distances.
Operates in licensed and unlicensed frequency bands. Serves as an
alternative to wired broadband connections. Provides high data rates
and coverage for remote areas. Supports point-to-point and point-to-
multipoint connections. Enables last-mile connectivity and backhaul
services. Utilized for rural internet access and mobile data services.
Offers non-line-of-sight communication for various applications.
Introduction to Physical Layer: OSI model's lowest layer, handles
raw physical data transmission. Manages physical connection,
signaling, voltage levels, data modulation. Concerned with bits,
cables, connectors, and transmission medium properties.Converts
digital bits to analog signals for transmission over medium. Involves
hardware components like hubs, switches, and repeaters. Ensures
reliable, efficient data transfer across physical network links.
Introduction to Data Link Layer: OSI model's second layer,
responsible for framing and error detection. Organizes bits into frames
with start and stop markers. Manages data integrity, flow control, and
addressing within a link. Handles MAC (Medium Access Control)
addressing and access protocols.Involves devices like NICs, switches,
and bridges for local communication.Ensures error-free, orderly
transmission between connected devices.
Line Coding:
Converts digital signals for transmission, avoids overlap and
distortion.
Properties: Efficient bandwidth use, reduced error probability, power
efficiency.
Three types: Unipolar, Polar, Bipolar.
Unipolar Signaling:
Uses one voltage level for 1, no voltage for 0.
Variations: Non Return to Zero (NRZ), Return to Zero (RZ).
NRZ: 1 as positive pulse (Mark), 0 as no pulse.
Advantages: Simple, low bandwidth.
Disadvantages: No error correction, signal droop, no clock, sync
issues.
RZ: 1 as pulse, then immediate zero.
Advantages: Simple, clock use possible.
Disadvantages: No error correction, double bandwidth, signal droop.
Polar Signaling:
Uses positive/negative voltage levels for 1s/0s.
Variations: Polar NRZ, Polar RZ.
Polar NRZ: 1 as positive pulse, 0 as negative pulse.
Advantages: No low-frequency components.
Disadvantages: No error correction, no clock, signal droop.
Polar RZ: 1 as pulse, then immediate zero; 0 as negative pulse.
Advantages: No low-frequency components.
Disadvantages: No error correction, no clock, double bandwidth,
signal droop.
Bipolar Signaling:
Uses +, -, 0 voltage levels; called duo-binary signal.
Types: Bipolar NRZ, Bipolar RZ.
Bipolar NRZ: 1 as + to - or - to + transition.
Advantages: No low-frequency components, low bandwidth.
Disadvantages: No clock, sync issues.
Bipolar RZ: 1 as pulse, then immediate zero; 0 as negative pulse.
Advantages: No low-frequency components, low bandwidth.
Disadvantages: No clock, double bandwidth, signal droop.
L

Channel Bandwidth:
Defines the range of frequencies a channel can carry. Measured in
Hertz (Hz), determines data rate capacity. Higher bandwidth
accommodates more data transmission simultaneously. Affected by
channel characteristics, modulation, and signal quality. Limited by
available spectrum and interference considerations.
Higher bandwidth supports faster data rates but requires more
resources.
Balances between data capacity, signal quality, and available
resources.
Propagation Time:
Time taken for a signal to travel from sender to receiver.
Affected by distance and speed of electromagnetic waves.
Influenced by transmission medium properties like refractive index.
Longer distances lead to increased propagation delays.
Propagation time = distance / propagation speed.
Critical for long-distance communication, impacts latency.
Cannot be eliminated but can be managed in network design.
Transmission Time:
Time required to send a message's bits onto a channel.
Determined by data rate and message size.
Transmission time = message size / data rate.
Higher data rates reduce transmission time.
Impacted by channel bandwidth and signal encoding efficiency.
Short messages transmit quickly, while longer messages take longer.
Part of overall latency in data communication.
Issues in Data Link Layer:
Error Detection and Correction:
Ensures data integrity by identifying and correcting transmission
errors. Utilizes techniques like checksums or cyclic redundancy
checks (CRC).
Flow Control:
Prevents data congestion by managing the pace of data transmission.
Techniques like Stop-and-Wait, Sliding Window control flow.
Media Access Control (MAC):
Manages fair access to shared communication channels among
devices. MAC protocols like CSMA/CD or CSMA/CA control
channel access.
Addressing and Frame Format:Defines how devices are addressed
and data is organized within frames. MAC addresses and frame
structures are crucial for proper communication.
Collision Detection and Avoidance:Detects and manages collisions
that occur when multiple devices transmit simultaneously. Protocols
like CSMA/CD ensure efficient channel usage.
Framing:Defines how data frames are created and separated. Adds
necessary control characters and synchronization bits for accurate
reception.
Flow Control in Data Link Layer:
Flow control ensures proper data flow between sender and receiver.
Important when sender and receiver have different processing
speeds.Coordinates frame transmission and prevents data overload.
Enables communication between stations with varying
speeds.Restricts sender's data transfer before receiving
acknowledgment from the receiver.
Approaches to Flow Control:
Feedback-based Flow Control:
Receiver acknowledges frames, allowing sender to transmit more
data.
Ensures efficient data transfer and processing coordination.
Rate-based Flow Control:
Limits sender's data rate to match receiver's capacity.
No feedback or acknowledgement needed from the receiver.
Flow Control Techniques:
Stop-and-Wait ARQ:
Alternating bit protocol for error control.
Sender waits for ACK before sending the next data packet.
Resends frame and waits for ACK if timeout occurs.
Sliding Window ARQ:
Used for continuous transmission error control.Go-Back-N ARQ:
Continues to transmit frames specified by window size without
ACK.Selective Repeat ARQ: Retransmits only suspected
lost/damaged frames.Go-Back-N ARQ: Transmits a set of frames,
retransmits all if any error occurs.Selective Repeat ARQ:
Retransmits only frames for which NAK (Negative
Acknowledgment) is received.
Error Control in Data-Link Layer:
Error control in data-link layer ensures accurate data transmission.
Not a strict requirement but optimization for reliability.
Detects, identifies, and retransmits lost/corrupted frames.
Prevents erroneous frames from reaching the receiver.
Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) is used for retransmission.
Error Detection and Correction:Error Detection:
Purpose: Detects errors in data transmission caused by noise or
impairments.
Techniques: Utilizes methods to identify garbled, unclear, or
distorted data.
Importance: Ensures data integrity and reliability during
transmission.
Application: Commonly used in communication systems to ensure
accurate data transfer.
Error Correction:
Objective: Fixes errors in transmitted data, ensuring the original
message is reconstructed error-free.
Complexity: Error correction methods are expensive and technically
challenging.
Significance: Essential when data accuracy is crucial, but it requires
advanced algorithms.
Use Cases: Applied in scenarios where high data integrity is
paramount, such as critical communication systems.
HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) Protocol:
HDLC is a synchronous data link layer protocol. It provides error
detection and correction during data transmission. HDLC uses a
frame-based structure for data encapsulation. It is widely used in
point-to-point and multipoint communication.
Features
Asynchronous and synchronous data transmission support.
Three types of stations: primary, secondary, and combined stations.
Full-duplex and half-duplex modes for data exchange.
Efficient flow control using sliding window technique.
Supports various frame types: Information, Supervisory, and
Unnumbered frames.
Merits
Efficient error detection and correction mechanism. Provides reliable
data transmission in both directions.
Demerits
HDLC lacks flexibility for interoperability between different
vendors' equipment.Complex implementation and configuration
compared to other protocols.
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol):
PPP is a data link layer protocol used for point-to-point
communication.It is used to establish a direct connection between
two network nodes.PPP is often used for connecting a computer to
an Internet Service Provider (ISP).It supports multiple network layer
protocols, including IPv4 and IPv6.
Features
Provides authentication mechanisms for verifying the identity of
endpoints.Supports error detection and correction through cyclic
redundancy check (CRC).Negotiates link configuration parameters
such as maximum transmission unit (MTU).Supports various
network layer protocols using Network Control Protocols (NCPs).
Efficiently handles dynamic IP address allocation using PPPoE (PPP
over Ethernet).
Merits
Lightweight protocol suitable for low-bandwidth connections.
Supports various authentication methods, ensuring secure
connections.
Demerits
Limited to point-to-point connections, not suitable for broadcast
networks. Lacks built-in encryption, requiring additional security
mechanisms for data privacy.
Data Link Layer Functions:
Framing: Encapsulates Network Layer packets into frames for
transmission.
Addressing: Provides layer-2 hardware addressing, unique on the
link.
Synchronization: Ensures both machines are synchronized for data
transfer.
Error Control: Detects and recovers from transmission errors;
provides error reporting.
Flow Control: Enables data exchange at the same speed between
machines.
Multi-Access: Manages shared media access using mechanisms like
CSMA/CD.
Internetworking in Computer Network:
Interconnecting multiple networks to form a larger network.
Facilitating data exchange and communication between separate
networks.
Routers play a vital role in forwarding data packets.
Scalability and expansion of interconnected networks.
Utilizes protocols like IP for data delivery.
Enables global connectivity, as seen in the internet.
Network Layer Addressing Issues:
Assigning unique IP addresses to devices in a network.
Dealing with the hierarchical structure of IP addresses.
IPv4 exhaustion and transition to IPv6 addressing.
Network address translation (NAT) for private IP spaces.
Subnetting to divide IP address blocks into smaller segments.
Handling dynamic IP allocation through DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol).
Implementing CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) for efficient
IP address allocation.
Resolving IP address conflicts and managing address reservations.
IP address
IP address stands for "Internet Protocol address." It is a numerical
label assigned to each device connected to a computer network. IP
addresses are used to identify and locate devices in networks. They
consist of four sets of numbers separated by dots. IPv4 addresses use
32 bits, while IPv6 addresses use 128 bits. IPv4 addresses are more
common but running out due to growth. IPv6 addresses were
introduced to accommodate the expanding internet. IP addresses
enable communication and data exchange across the internet.
Class A:
Class A addresses have the first bit set to 0, indicating network
addresses.
They have a range of 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255.
The first octet represents the network portion, and the remaining
three octets are for host addresses.
Class A addresses are used for large networks with a large number of
hosts.
They provide a maximum of 16,777,214 host addresses per network.
The default subnet mask for Class A addresses is 255.0.0.0.
Class A addresses are typically assigned to organizations with a large
number of hosts, such as internet service providers.
Class B:
Class B addresses have the first two bits set to 10, indicating
network addresses. They have a range of 128.0.0.0 to
191.255.255.255. The first two octets represent the network portion,
and the remaining two octets are for host addresses.
Class B addresses are used for medium-sized networks with a
moderate number of hosts. They provide a maximum of 65,534 host
addresses per network. The default subnet mask for Class B
addresses is 255.255.0.0. Class B addresses are typically assigned to
organizations with a moderate number of hosts and networks.
Class C:
Class C addresses have the first three bits set to 110, indicating
network addresses. They have a range of 192.0.0.0 to
223.255.255.255. The first three octets represent the network
portion, and the last octet is for host addresses. Class C addresses are
used for small networks with a limited number of hosts.
They provide a maximum of 254 host addresses per network.
The default subnet mask for Class C addresses is 255.255.255.0.
Class C addresses are commonly used for home networks and small
businesses.
Class D:
Class D addresses have the first four bits set to 1110, indicating
multicast addresses.
They have a range of 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255.
Class D addresses are used for multicasting, where data is sent to a
group of devices simultaneously.
They are not assigned to individual devices or networks.
Class D addresses are used for applications such as streaming video
and audio.
Multicast addresses in Class D start with 224.0.0.0 for permanent
groups and 224.0.0.1 to 239.255.255.255 for dynamic groups.
Class D addresses are reserved for special purposes and not used for
regular unicast communication.
Private Addresses:
Used within private networks, not on the internet. Defined by RFC
1918 for IPv4. Examples: 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255, 192.168.0.0 –
192.168.255.255. NAT hides them when communicating with the
internet. Can be reused across different private networks. Enables
many devices to share a single public IP. Provides an extra layer of
network security. Used for communication within specific
organizations.
Public Addresses:
Required for devices to access the internet. Allocated by Regional
Internet Registries (RIRs). Must be unique worldwide to avoid
conflicts. IPv4 shortage led to IPv6 adoption for more addresses.
IPv6 offers a large pool of unique public addresses. Routers use
them to forward traffic globally. Associated with domain names in
DNS for website access. Used for direct communication between
networks on the internet.
subnet mask
A subnet mask is a 32-bit number dividing IP into network and host
segments. It separates addresses using 0s for host bits and 1s for
network bits. Reserves "255" for broadcast, "0" for network; not for
host use. IP, subnet mask, gateway form an underlying structure for
inter-device communication. Subnetting uses subnet masks to divide
IP addresses for efficient subnetworking. The term "mask" implies
using a 32-bit number to separate addresses.

K
Subnetting
Subnetting divides physical network into logical sub-networks
(subnets).Facilitates network expansion without new network
numbers.Reduces traffic, hides complexity, essential for LAN
portions.Subnets are smaller interconnected parts of a larger
network.Enhances efficiency by avoiding unnecessary traffic routes.
Purpose is to establish quick, efficient, robust computer networks.
Subnetting prevents congestion, optimizes traffic pathways.
Subnets enable efficient communication between devices via routers.
Working of Subnetting
Subnetting involves breaking an IP address for efficient network
utilization. IP divided into network and host parts, using subnet
mask. Subnet mask separates by turning network bits to '1' and host
bits to '0'. Subnetting enables creation of smaller sub-networks
within a larger network. Helps manage IP addresses effectively,
reducing wastage. Subnetting improves network performance,
routing efficiency, and scalability.

Merits of Subnetting:
Subnetting prevents IP address wastage, optimizing address space.
Reduces traffic by segmenting network, improving data
transmission.Isolation of subnets enhances network security and
management.
Demerits of Subnetting:Subnetting requires careful planning and
configuration, potentially complex. Managing multiple subnets
increases administrative overhead. Subnetting can add complexity to
routing configurations and maintenance.
Classless Addressing:
Classless addressing, also called Classless Inter-Domain Routing
(CIDR), is an improved IP addressing system. It increases the
effectiveness of IP address allocation because of the absence of class
distribution.
Structure
The CIDR block comprises two parts. These are as follows:
Block id is used for the network identification, but the number of
bits is not pre-defined as it is in the classful IP addressing scheme.
Host id is used to identify the host part of the network.

Notation
CIDR IP addresses look as follows:
w.x.y.z/n
In the example above,w,x,y,z each defines an 8-bit binary number,
whilentells us about the number of bits used to identify the network
and is called an IP network prefix or mask.
Rules
Requirements for CIDR are defined below:
Addresses should be contiguous.
The number of addresses in the block must be in the power of 2.
The first address of every block must be divisible by the size of the
block.
Block information
Given the following IP address, let's find the network and host bits.
200.56.23.41/28
The following illustration gives a clear understanding of the
aforementioned IP address scheme:

CIDR block with block and host ids' bits

To find the network and host bits, we will use the stated formula,
wherebrepresents the number of hosts in the network.
nh=232−n
This particular case, in whichnequals 28, represents the block id bits,
so subtracting it with 32 leaves us with the total number of hosts
expected in the network.
nh=232−28

nh=24
Classful Address:
Introduced in 1981 as the initial Internet Protocol addressing system.
Replaced by Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in 1993.
IP address consists of 32 bits, divided into four sections.
Each section is eight bits (1 byte) long.
Divided into network ID and host ID.
Types of Classful Address:
Class A: Intended for large networks with a huge number of hosts.
Uses the first octet (8 bits) for the network ID.
Can accommodate up to 16 million hosts in each of its networks.
Class B: Suited for medium-sized networks.
Uses the first two octets for the network ID.
Can accommodate around 65,000 hosts in each network.
Class C: Designed for smaller networks.
Uses the first three octets for the network ID.
Can host up to 254 hosts in each network.
Class D: Reserved for multicast groups.
Starts with '1110' in the first four bits.
Used for sending data to multiple recipients simultaneously.
Class E: Reserved for experimental purposes.
Starts with '1111' in the first four bits.
Not intended for regular networking operations.

Classless Addressing
Aspect Classful Addressing
(CIDR)
Division of Fixed divisions into Variable division based on
Address Space classes (A, B, C, D, E) subnet masks
Limited subnetting Extensive subnetting and
Subnetting
capabilities supernetting
Address Fixed length address Variable length address
Format format format
Inefficient IP address Efficient usage of IP
Efficiency
allocation addresses
Often results in address Minimizes address
Wastage
wastage wastage
Relies on class-based Enables route aggregation
Routing
routing for efficient routing
Limited flexibility in Provides greater flexibility
Flexibility
address assignment in addressing
Implementatio Legacy system, less Modern approach,
n adaptable adaptable and scalable
IPv4 Overview:
IPv4 stands for Internet Protocol version 4. Introduced in ARPANET
in 1983. IPv4 addresses are 32-bit integers expressed in decimal
notation. IPv4 address like 192.0.2.126 is a 32-bit numeric identifier.
Parts of IPv4:
Network part: Identifies network and its class, like 192 in
192.0.2.126.
Host Part: Identifies unique machine within the network, like 2 in
192.0.2.126.
Subnet number: Optional, used for dividing large networks into
subnets.
Characteristics of IPv4:
32-bit IP address with dot-separated numeric format.
12 header fields with a 20-byte header length.
Supports Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast addresses.
Supports VLSM.
Uses ARP for MAC address mapping.
Uses RIP for routing.
Advantages of IPv4:
Offers encryption for security.
Wide router support.
Simplifies device connection.
Provides efficient data transfer.
Allows redefinition of addresses.
Enhances routing scalability.
Specific data communication in multicast.
Limitations of IPv4:
Limited unique IP addresses.Depletion of IP address pool.
Requires new class for additional hosts.
Complex configuration and renumbering.
Large routing tables, security, and other limitations.
IPv6 introduced to overcome these limitations.
IPv6 Overview:
IPv6 developed to address IPv4 exhaustion issue by IETF. IPv6 has
128-bit address space, uses hexadecimal format with colons.
IPv6 Components:
Consists of 8 groups, each representing 2 bytes (16 bits). Hex-digits
(nibbles) are 4 bits each. Address groups are separated by colons (:).
Need for IPv6:
Rising devices, Internet of Things (IoT) led to IPv4 exhaustion. IPv6
addresses issues: processing slowness, multimedia support, security.
IPv6 Advantages:
Realtime Data Transmission: Enables rapid, live data transmission
(e.g., live streaming).
Authentication Support: Ensures data integrity and origin
verification.
Encryption Capability: Encrypts data at network layer, augmenting
security.
Faster Router Processing: Smaller header speeds up routers' packet
handling.
Types of IPv6 Addresses:Unicast: Single node identification (e.g.,
sender or receiver).Multicast: Group of devices, efficient for
multimedia distribution.Anycast: Assigned to interfaces, delivered
to nearest member.
Advantages of IPv6:Vast Address Space: 128-bit address,
overcomes IPv4's address shortage.Enhanced Header Format:
Streamlined header, quicker routing.New Functionalities: Supports
new options for additional features.Scalability & Extension:
Adaptable for future technologies.Resource Allocation: Traffic
class, flow label for specific handling.Security Enhancement:
Encryption and authentication options.
Disadvantages of IPv6:Transition Complexity: Shift from IPv4 to
IPv6 challenging.Intercommunication: IPv4 and IPv6 devices need
intermediaries to communicate.
 IPv4 IPv6
IPv4 has a 32-bit address length IPv6 has a 128-bit address length
It Supports Manual and DHCP It supports Auto and renumbering
address configuration address configuration
In IPv4 end to end, connection In IPv6 end-to-end, connection
integrity is Unachievable integrity is Achievable
9 The address space of IPv6 is quite
It can generate 4.29×10 address
large it can produce 3.4×1038
space
address space
The Security feature is dependent IPSEC is an inbuilt security
on the application feature in the IPv6 protocol
Address representation of IPv4 is Address Representation of IPv6 is
in decimal in hexadecimal
Fragmentation performed by In IPv6 fragmentation is
Sender and forwarding routers performed only by the sender
In IPv6 packet flow identification
In IPv4 Packet flow identification
are Available and uses the flow
is not available
label field in the header
In IPv4 checksum field is In IPv6 checksum field is not
available available
Routing type and its necessity
Routing is process of choosing path for data transfer. Routers
forward packets using header info and tables. Algorithms decide
optimal path using metrics like hop count. Routing protocols employ
metrics for best path determination. Routing occurs at network layer
(OSI) or internet layer (TCP/IP).
Dynamic Routing:
Automatically adjusts paths based on real-time network conditions.
Optimizes data transmission by selecting efficient routes
dynamically. Reduces manual configuration efforts compared to
static routing methods. Enhances network adaptability and resilience
to changing topology and congestion. Adapts to network changes,
improving overall efficiency and performance.
Merits of Dynamic Routing:
Efficient adaptation to changing network conditions.
Real-time adjustments for improved reliability.
Reduced manual configuration, easing network management.
Demerits of Dynamic Routing:
Increased complexity due to advanced setup.
Resource-intensive calculations impact network performance.
Vulnerabilities and errors due to protocol dependencies.
Static routing
Static routing is a manual network configuration method. Routes are
pre-defined, don't adapt to network changes. Simple setup, suitable for
small networks with stable topologies. Limited scalability, manual
updates required for any network changes. Less overhead, faster
routing decisions, but lacks flexibility.
Merits of Static Routing:
Simplicity: Easy to configure, suitable for small networks.
Lower Overhead: Minimal network traffic used for routing updates.
Predictable: Stable routes, as they don't change automatically.
Demerits of Static Routing:
Scalability: Inefficient for large networks with frequent changes.
Maintenance: Manual updates needed for topology changes.
Suboptimal Routes: Cannot adapt to network congestion or failures.
Shortest Path Routing Algorithm:
Calculates path with least distance between source and destination.
Utilizes metrics like hop count, distance, or cost of links. Dijkstra's
algorithm is a popular shortest path method. Dijkstra's algorithm
maintains a list of visited and unvisited nodes. It iteratively selects the
node with the smallest distance. Updates distances and predecessors to
determine optimal route. Bellman-Ford algorithm handles negative
edge weights.Used in OSPF, RIP, and other network routing protocols.
Transport Layer:
Fourth layer of OSI model, focuses on end-to-end communication.
Manages data segmentation, reassembly, and error correction.
Provides flow control to prevent overwhelming receivers.
Handles port addressing for process-to-process communication.
Supports both connection-oriented (TCP) and connectionless (UDP)
protocols.
TCP ensures reliable, ordered, and error-checked data delivery.
UDP offers faster but less reliable data transmission.
Facilitates multiplexing and demultiplexing of data streams.
Congestion Control in Transport Layer:
Manages network congestion to maintain optimal data flow.
Prevents network overload that can degrade performance.
Uses mechanisms to detect and handle congestion situations.
Slows down sending rate to avoid overwhelming network resources.
TCP uses sliding window and acknowledgment techniques for
control.AIMD algorithm adjusts congestion window size based on
network feedback.RED, a queue management method, drops packets
to signal congestion.Ensures fair sharing of network resources
among competing connections.
Congestion Control Algorithm - Open Loop Solutions:
Static allocation of resources without real-time feedback.Fixed
bandwidth allocation for each flow or connection.Suitable for
predictable and consistent traffic patterns.Lacks adaptability to
changing network conditions and traffic spikes.Efficient for
dedicated networks with known traffic characteristics.Less
responsive to dynamic congestion situations.Examples: Fixed Time
Slot, Priority Schemes, Pre-allocated Bandwidth.May lead to
underutilization or overutilization in varying scenarios.
Congestion Control Algorithm - Closed Loop Solutions:
Adapts to network conditions using real-time feedback.
Adjusts resource allocation based on network performance
indicators.More efficient in handling varying traffic loads and
congestion scenarios.Utilizes feedback from routers, switches, and
endpoints to make decisions.Ensures better resource utilization and
reduced congestion occurrences.Requires more complex
mechanisms for data flow management.
Examples: TCP AIMD, RED (Random Early Detection), AQM
(Active Queue Management).
Improves responsiveness and fairness in dynamic network
environments.
Leaky Bucket Algorithm:
Controls data rate by allowing a fixed number of packets.
Incoming packets fill the "bucket," excess packets are discarded.
Provides traffic shaping and prevents bursts of data.
Smooths traffic by releasing packets at a constant rate.
Suitable for limiting outgoing traffic to a specific rate.
Can lead to latency for bursty traffic if bucket is small.
Effective for maintaining consistent bandwidth usage.
Prevents network congestion and improves QoS.
Token Bucket Algorithm:
Regulates data flow by granting tokens at a fixed rate.
Tokens represent permission to send a certain amount of data.
Unused tokens accumulate, allowing bursts within token limit.
Controls both average and peak data rates effectively.
Used to shape outgoing traffic and maintain desired bandwidth.
Dynamic token generation handles varying traffic demands.
Ensures fairness by controlling access to network resources.
Widely used in network traffic management and QoS mechanisms.
Flow Control:
Definition: Management of data flow between devices or nodes in a
network to ensure efficient handling.
Challenge: Preventing data overflow due to fast transmission,
causing data loss or retransmission.
Importance: Essential to manage communication efficiency and
prevent congestion.
Scenario: Sender's high data rate and slower receiver can lead to
issues.
Solution: Implement flow control to match sender and receiver
capabilities.
Benefits: Ensures data integrity, prevents congestion, and optimizes
network performance.
Approaches:
Feedback-Based: Receiver sends signals to sender for permission to
send or indicates receiver's status.
Rate-Based: Built-in mechanism in protocol restricts sender's
transmission rate without receiver feedback.
Examples:
Xon-Xoff: Asynchronous serial connection protocol; sender syncs
with receiver's buffer status.
Feedback-Based (Data Link Layer): Receiver provides permission
or status to sender for data transmission.
Rate-Based (Network Layer): Protocol rules limit sender's
transmission until receiver permits continuation.
Quality of Service (QoS):
Definition: Manages data traffic to reduce packet loss, latency, and
jitter.
Objective: Control network resources, set data priorities for optimal
performance.
Needs for QoS:
Video/audio conferencing: Bounded delay and loss rate.
Streaming: Bounded packet loss, less sensitive to delay.
Time-critical apps: Bounded delay crucial (real-time control).
Valuable apps: Better services for important apps.
QoS Specification:
Delay: Time taken for data from source to destination.
Jitter: Variation in packet delay; low jitter preferred.
Throughput: Data transfer rate.
Error Rate: Level of data transmission errors.
IMPORTANCE
Reliability:
Impact of lost packets; retransmission needed.
Varies by application (e.g., email vs. audio conferencing).
Delay:
Significant for real-time apps (audio conferencing).
Tolerable for non-real-time apps (email, file transfer).
Jitter:
Variation in packet delay; low jitter preferred.
High jitter causes inconsistency (unacceptable for telephonic
conversation).
Bandwidth:
Varies for different applications.
Video conferencing demands higher bandwidth than email.
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):
Reliable data delivery by using acknowledgment and retransmission.
Connection-oriented protocol with three-way handshake for setup.
Error-checking using checksum to ensure data integrity.
Data sequencing for ordered and accurate delivery.
Flow control prevents overwhelming receiver using windowing
mechanism.
Slower due to overhead in error-checking and sequencing.
Suitable for applications requiring data integrity, e.g., web browsing.
Used in applications like HTTP, FTP, email, and file sharing.
Guarantees delivery but can face delays due to retransmissions.
TCP is heavier and consumes more network resources.
UDP (User Datagram Protocol):
Connectionless and lightweight, minimal overhead, and no handshake.
Does not guarantee delivery or order of packets. No error-checking or
retransmission, data integrity is application's responsibility. Suitable for
applications requiring speed over reliability. Used in real-time
applications like video streaming, online gaming. Faster due to lack of
error-checking and retransmission delays. Broadcasts and multicasts are
easily facilitated with UDP. Minimal overhead, suitable for small data
packets and voice data. Examples include DNS, VoIP, DHCP, and some
gaming protocols. More suitable for applications where speed is crucial
but data loss is acceptable.
Feature TCP UDP
Connecti
Connection-oriented Connectionless
on
Reliabilit Reliable data delivery, No guaranteed delivery, no
y retransmissions retransmissions
Guarantees ordered data
Order No guarantee of ordered data
delivery
Error Uses checksum for error
No error-checking
Checking detection
Flow Uses windowing for flow
No built-in flow control
Control control
Slower due to error-
Speed Faster due to lack of overhead
checking and sequencing
Applicati Web browsing, file transfer, Real-time streaming, online
ons email gaming
Higher due to error- Lower due to minimal
Overhead
checking and sequencing overhead
Data High, guarantees data Depends on application's
Integrity integrity handling
Use Applications requiring
Applications prioritizing speed
Cases reliability
HTTP, FTP, email, data Video streaming, VoIP, online
Examples
synchronization gaming
Application Layer:
Closest OSI layer to users; enables direct user-software interaction.
Manages client-server model for data communication between
applications.Identifies available communication partners and checks
network resource availability.Coordinates communication
synchronization for applications requiring cooperation. Supports
network virtual terminals, file management, addressing, mail,
directory, authentication.
Functions/Services within Application Layer:
Network Virtual Terminal: Emulates remote terminal for user
logins. File Transfer, Access, and Management (FTAM): Access,
retrieve, manage files on remote systems. Addressing: Establishes
client-server communication by assigning addresses.
Mail Services: Facilitates email forwarding, storage, and retrieval.
Directory Services: Provides distributed databases for global object
and service information. Authentication: Verifies sender/receiver
message authenticity; ensures secure communication.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):
Facilitates email sending and receiving, operates on application
layer. Uses TCP for communication, relies on port 25 for
connections.Involves client-server interaction, transmits messages
between mail servers. Vulnerable to spam and email spoofing, lacks
inherent encryption. SMTPS and STARTTLS provide encryption
options for enhanced security. Utilizes commands like HELO, MAIL
FROM, RCPT TO for message flow. Supports MIME encoding,
allows attachments, and multimedia email content. Forms the basis
for electronic communication, crucial for online correspondence. An
integral part of the Internet's email delivery infrastructure.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol):Enables file sharing across networks,
operates on the application layer.Utilizes separate control and data
connections for efficient data transfer. Requires authentication for
secure access, supports anonymous logins.Vulnerable to data
interception due to lack of encryption in standard form.
Active mode initiates connections from the client, passive mode
mitigates issues. Commonly uses port 21 for control, may employ
other ports dynamically. SFTP and FTPS variants provide encryption
for safer file transfers.Involves commands like RETR, STOR, LIST
for file manipulation on servers. Integral for data exchange, widely
used for uploading and downloading files.
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol):
Automates IP allocation, simplifies network setup, operates on
application layer. Leases include IP, subnet, gateway, DNS server
addresses, reducing conflicts. DHCP server assigns temporary IP
addresses dynamically upon device connection.Streamlines IP
management, updates configurations, supports IPv4 and IPv6.
Involves discovery, offer, request, acknowledgment stages during
address assignment. DHCP relay forwards client requests across
network segments for efficient allocation. Prevents rogue DHCP
servers through DHCP snooping security measures. Enhances
network scalability, eases administration by managing IPs centrally.
Essential for modern networks, facilitating seamless device
connectivity and communication.
DNS (Domain Name System):
Translates domains to IPs, hierarchical structure, resolves human-
readable names.Utilizes recursive and iterative queries, operates on
distributed global servers.Employs A, CNAME, MX records to map
domains to IP addresses.Prevents the need to remember numerical
IPs, simplifies web navigation.Vulnerable to cache poisoning
attacks, DNSSEC adds digital signatures for security.Serves as a
backbone for internet navigation, crucial for browsing.Transforms
user-friendly domain names into IP addresses understood by
machines. Enhances web efficiency by swiftly resolving URLs to
corresponding IP addresses.Integral for accessing websites, emails,
and various online services.
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):
Foundation of web communication, operates on application layer,
client-server interaction. Facilitates data exchange between web
browsers and servers, uses URLs. Stateless, independent requests,
supports methods like GET, POST, PUT. Allows cookies for session
management, evolved into HTTP/2 for speed.HTTPS encrypts data
using SSL/TLS, securing online transactions and privacy. Defines
how requests, responses formatted, enabling browsing and content
retrieval. Critical for browsing, retrieving resources, underlies the
World Wide Web. Empowers dynamic web content, APIs,
multimedia streaming, and e-commerce. Evolving protocols improve
web performance, ensuring efficient data transfer.
WWW (World Wide Web):
Network of interlinked hypertext documents, accessible via web
browsers. Sir Tim Berners-Lee's innovation, revolutionized global
information sharing. Relies on HTTP for communication, URLs
identify and locate resources. Hyperlinks connect web pages,
enabling seamless navigation and content discovery. Comprises web
servers hosting content, clients accessing through browsers. Utilizes
HTML, CSS, JavaScript for structuring and interactivity, multimedia
integration. Spans diverse domains: education, business,
entertainment, research, and more. Transformed society's
communication, economy, access to knowledge, and entertainment.
Foundation of modern digital experience, shaping modern lifestyles
and interactions.
Confidentiality:
Ensures data privacy, limits access to authorized individuals,
guarding sensitive information. Encryption safeguards data during
transmission and storage, preventing unauthorized decryption.ole-
based access controls restrict data exposure, granting privileges
based on roles. Non-disclosure agreements protect sensitive
information shared among parties.User authentication and strong
passwords prevent unauthorized access to confidential data.
Data masking, redaction, or anonymization techniques shield
sensitive details from exposure. Regular security audits identify
vulnerabilities, ensuring compliance with privacy regulations.
Protected communication channels, secure sockets layer (SSL),
transport layer security (TLS). Crucial for safeguarding personal,
financial, medical, and classified data.
Integrity:Ensures data accuracy, preventing unauthorized
modification, maintaining information reliability. Hashing ensures
data integrity by generating unique checksums for
verification.Digital signatures validate sender authenticity, detect
tampering, and ensure data integrity.Access controls and change
management limit authorized users from altering critical data.
Database constraints prevent unauthorized data modification,
maintaining data consistency. Regular backups and redundancy
strategies safeguard data against loss and corruption.Intrusion
detection systems monitor for unauthorized alterations and raise
alerts.Audit trails track data changes, aiding in forensic
investigations and accountability.Critical for financial, legal,
healthcare systems, maintaining trust and operational efficiency.
Availability:Ensures systems, data, services accessible when
needed, minimizing downtime impact.Redundancy, failover
mechanisms prevent single points of failure, ensuring continuous
operation.Load balancing distributes traffic, prevents server
overload, and enhances system availability.Data replication across
geographically dispersed servers ensures data accessibility and
resilience.Disaster recovery plans, backups, and business continuity
strategies maintain service availability.DDoS protection mitigates
malicious attacks, preserving system and service availability.Cloud-
based solutions offer scalable resources, ensuring high availability
and fault tolerance.Monitoring systems proactively detect and
address issues, minimizing service disruption.Essential for e-
commerce, critical infrastructure, communication networks, and
public services.
DIGITAL SIGNATURE
Validates sender and message integrity in networks for secure
communication.Hashing transforms messages, private key signs for
unique identification.Prevents denial of sending by creating distinct,
verifiable signatures.Recipient confirms authenticity through
verification with sender's public key.Detects even subtle message
alterations, ensuring data integrity during transmission.Legally
recognized for validity, lending credibility to electronic
transactions.Guards against unauthorized changes, securing
documents, transactions, and communication.Enhances
accountability by confirming sender identity and message
integrity.Utilizes cryptographic principles, key pairs, and hashing
algorithms for implementation.
firewalls
Security barrier controlling traffic flow between networks. Filters
data based on preset rules for access control. Blocks unauthorized
access, viruses, malware, cyber threats. Segments networks to hinder
lateral movement of attackers. Enforces security policies, enhancing
overall network safety and integrity.
application areas for firewalls:
Network Security: Firewalls protect networks from external threats,
unauthorized access, and attacks.
Perimeter Protection: They secure the entry point of a network,
defending against malicious traffic.
Web Filtering: Firewalls restrict access to certain websites,
ensuring safe and productive browsing.
Intrusion Prevention: They identify and block suspicious activities,
preventing potential breaches.
Remote Access Security: Firewalls safeguard remote connections,
maintaining data confidentiality and integrity.
Merits: Enhanced Security: Firewalls provide a strong line of
defense against unauthorized access, cyber threats, and attacks,
safeguarding sensitive data. Access Control: They enable precise
control over incoming and outgoing network traffic, allowing
organizations to enforce security policies effectively.
Demerits: False Sense of Security: Relying solely on firewalls
might lead to neglecting other security aspects, leaving
vulnerabilities unnoticed. Complex Configuration: Proper
configuration requires expertise; misconfigurations can lead to
security gaps or operational issues.Inadequate Against Advanced
Threats: Sophisticated attacks can bypass or evade firewalls,
necessitating additional security measures.
here are three types of firewalls
1. Packet Filtering Firewall:Examines packets based on defined
rules. Filters packets by source, destination IP addresses, and port
numbers. Fast processing, suitable for simple traffic filtering.
Limited in dealing with complex attacks and application-layer
filtering. Generally found in routers, less resource-intensive.
2. Stateful Inspection Firewall:Tracks the state of active
connections and enforces policies. Makes decisions based on the
context of the traffic. Offers better security by analyzing packet
history and state. More resource-intensive but effective against
certain attacks.Can provide better protection for modern network
threats.Balances between packet filtering and deep inspection.
3. Application Layer Firewall (Proxy Firewall):Operates at the
application layer, inspects full content of packets. Acts as an
intermediary between internal and external systems. Provides
detailed analysis of traffic, identifying application-specific
threats.Offers better control over applications and content.Can cache
content for improved performance.Slower due to in-depth analysis,
suitable for critical security zones.Remember that advancements in
technology might have led to variations and combinations of these
types in modern firewalls for improved security and efficiency.
VPN (Virtual Private Network):
Secure Network Connection: Establishes a secure, encrypted
connection over a public network. Privacy and Anonymity: Masks
user's IP address, ensuring online anonymity. Remote Access:
Enables users to access a private network remotely, as if on-site.
Data Encryption: Encrypts data transmissions, safeguarding
sensitive information from interception. Bypassing Geo-Restrictions:
Allows users to access region-restricted content by appearing from
another location.
Applications of VPN:
Remote Work: Facilitates secure remote access to a company's
network. Online Privacy: Shields personal data from ISPs and
potential cyber threats. Bypassing Censorship: Allows access to
restricted content in certain regions. Public Wi-Fi Security: Encrypts
data on public networks, preventing data theft. International
Business: Enables secure communication and data sharing across
borders.
Merits of VPN:
Enhanced Security: Encrypts data, preventing unauthorized access
and eavesdropping. Anonymity: Masks IP addresses, ensuring
privacy and protecting against tracking.
Demerits of VPN:
Speed Reduction: Encryption can lead to slower connection speeds.
Dependency on Provider: VPN performance relies on the quality of
the service.
Types of VPN:
1. Remote Access VPN:
Allows individual users to connect securely to a corporate network.
Ideal for remote workers and employees traveling frequently.
Provides access to internal resources without exposing them to the
public internet. Typically uses SSL or IPsec for encryption. Offers
seamless access to resources as if connected locally. Limited in
scalability for large-scale implementations.
2. Site-to-Site VPN (Intranet-based):
Connects multiple networks in different locations. Used by
businesses with multiple branches to create a unified network.
Utilizes routers or firewalls to establish secure tunnels between sites.
Provides consistent access and resource sharing across locations.
Scalable but may require dedicated hardware and configuration.
Suitable for organizations needing centralized management and data
sharing.
3. Extranet-based VPN:
Extends a private network to external partners, suppliers, or
customers.
Enables controlled access to specific resources for authorized
parties.
Enhances collaboration while maintaining security and segregation.
Requires careful access control and security measures to prevent
breaches.
Balances security and communication needs in a controlled manner.
Useful for business-to-business collaborations and sharing sensitive
data.
Wireless Security Threats:
Eavesdropping: Unauthorized interception of wireless
communication.
Unauthorized Access: Intruders gaining network entry without
permission.
Rogue Access Points: Unauthorized points imitating legitimate ones,
posing risks.
Data Interception: Capture of sensitive data during wireless
transmission.
Jamming: Intentional signal interference disrupting wireless
connectivity.
Malware Distribution: Spread of malicious software through
vulnerable devices.
Authentication Attacks: Cracking weak authentication for
unauthorized access.
Man-in-the-Middle (MitM): Intercepting and altering data between
parties.
Denial of Service (DoS): Overloading networks, causing service
disruptions.
Mitigation Techniques:
Encryption: Implement strong encryption like WPA3 to protect data.
Access Control: Use MAC filtering, robust authentication for
authorized users.
Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS): Monitor and detect suspicious
activities.
Regular Updates: Keep devices and access points patched and up-to-
date.
Network Segmentation: Divide networks to limit attack exposure.
Rogue AP Detection: Locate and eliminate unauthorized access
points.
Firewalls: Filter wireless traffic using firewall protection.
Strong Passwords: Enforce complex passwords for network access.
RF Monitoring: Detect and counter signal interference and jamming.
Cryptography:
Definition: Cryptography is the practice and study of techniques for
secure communication and data protection.
Goals: It aims to achieve confidentiality, integrity, authenticity, and
non-repudiation of data.
Types:
Symmetric Cryptography: Same key used for both encryption and
decryption.
Asymmetric Cryptography: Uses a pair of keys - public key for
encryption, private key for decryption.
Hash Functions: Transform input into fixed-size hash value
(digest).
Common Algorithms: AES, DES, RSA, ECC, SHA-256, MD5.
Applications: Secure communication, data protection, digital
signatures, authentication.
Key Management:
Key Generation: Creating cryptographic keys using algorithms or
random processes.
Key Distribution: Securely transmitting keys between parties.
Key Storage: Safely storing keys to prevent unauthorized access.
Key Exchange: Securely swapping keys between parties (Diffie-
Hellman protocol).
Key Derivation: Generating additional keys from a single master
key.
Key Rotation: Periodically changing keys to mitigate potential
breaches.
Key Revocation: Disabling compromised or obsolete keys.
Key Escrow: Storing keys with a third party for recovery purposes.
HSM (Hardware Security Module): Dedicated hardware for
secure key management.
Best Practices: Regular audits, strong authentication for key access,
encryption of stored keys.