▪ Artificial intelligence: Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence in machines

that are programmed to think like humans and mimic their actions.
▪ Problem space: The steps to reach from initial state to goal state is called as problem space.
▪ Search: The steps we follow to reach from initial state to goal state called as search.
▪ Production system: Production system provides a structure that is useful to arrange problems in a way that
facilitates describing and performing a search.
▪ Control Strategy: which rule to apply next in the process of searching for a solution if multiple rules are
applicable. this is decided by the control strategy.

❖ BFS is a traversal approach in which we first walk through all nodes on the same level before moving on to
the next level.
❖ DFS is also a traversal approach in which the traverse begins at the root node and proceeds through the
nodes as far as possible until we reach the node with no unvisited nearby nodes.

Heuristic Search: A heuristic is a method that might not find always find the best solution but it is
certain to find a good solution in a reasonable time.

❖ Production system: A production system is a type of cognitive architecture for implementing search
algorithms and simulating human problem-solving abilities.

❖ Propositional Logic: Propositional logic is the logic that deals with a collection of declarative statements
which have a truth value, true or false.

❖ Predicate Logic: Predicate logic is an expression consisting of variables with a specified domain. It consists of
objects, relations and functions between the objects.

❖ Non-monotonic Reasoning: Non-monotonic Reasoning is the process that changes its direction or values as
the knowledge base increases.

1.Definition of Forward Reasoning:

The solution of a problem generally includes the initial data and facts in order to arrive at the solution.

These unknown facts and information is used to deduce the result.

For example, while diagnosing a patient the doctor first check the symptoms and medical condition of the body such
as temperature, blood pressure, pulse, eye colour, blood, etcetera.

After that, the patient symptoms are analysed and compared against the predetermined symptoms. Then the doctor
is able to provide the medicines according to the symptoms of the patient. So, when a solution employs this manner
of reasoning, it is known as forward reasoning.
2.Definition of backward Reasoning:

The backward reasoning is inverse of forward reasoning in which goal is analysed in order to deduce the rules, initial
facts and data.

We can understand the concept by the similar example given in the above definition, where the doctor is trying to
diagnose the patient with the help of the inceptive data such as symptoms.

However, in this case, the patient is experiencing a problem in his body, on the basis of which the doctor is going to
prove the symptoms. This kind of reasoning comes under backward reasoning.

Unification: Unification is a process of making two different logical atomic expressions identical by finding a
substitution.

AO* algorithm:

Ans: The AO* algorithm is a knowledge-based search technique, meaning the start state and the goal state is already
defined, and the best path is found using heuristics. The time complexity of the algorithm is significantly reduced due
to the informed search technique. Compared to the A* algorithm , AO* algorithm is very efficient in searching the
AND-OR trees very efficiently.

Mini-Max Algorithm in Artificial Intelligence •

Mini-max algorithm is a recursive or backtracking algorithm which is used in decision-making and game theory. It
provides an optimal move for the player assuming that opponent is also playing optimally.

Backtracking is an algorithmic technique where the goal is to get all solutions to a problem using the brute
force approach.

Intelligence: The ability to learn or understand or to deal with new or trying situations.

(ii)Knowledge: Knowledge is the information about a domain that can be used to solve problems in that domain.

(iii)Information: Information is stimuli that has meaning in some context for its receiver.

(iv) logical reasoning: Logical reasoning is a form of thinking in which premises and relations between premises are
used in a rigorous manner to infer conclusions that are entailed (or implied) by the premises and the relations.

Best first search is a traversal technique that decides which node is to be visited next by checking which node is the
most promising one and then check it.

Procedural Knowledge means how a particular thing can be accomplished.

While Declarative Knowledge means basic knowledge about something.

A proposition is basically a declarative sentence that has a truth value. Truth value can either be true or false, but it
needs to be assigned any of the two values and not be ambiguous. The purpose of using propositional logic is to
analyse a statement, individually or compositely.

2. Predicate Logic:

Predicates are properties, additional information to better express the subject of the sentence. A quantified
predicate is a proposition, that is, when you assign values to a predicate with variables it can be made a proposition.

An Artificial neural network is usually a computational network based on biological neural networks that construct
the structure of the human brain.

Fuzzy logic helps in solving a particular problem after considering all the available data and then taking the suitable
decision. The fuzzy logic method emulates the human way of decision making, which considers all the possibilities
between digital values of True and False.

Fuzzy refers to something that is unclear or vague. Hence, Fuzzy Set is a Set where every key is associated with value,
which is between 0 to 1 based on the certainty. This value is often called as degree of membership. Fuzzy Set is
denoted with a Tilde Sign on top of the normal Set notation.

Monotonic Reasoning is the process that does not change its direction or can say that it moves in the one direction.

Non-monotonic Reasoning will increase or decrease based on the condition.

Alpha-Beta Pruning

• Alpha-beta pruning is a modified version of the minimax algorithm. It is an optimization technique for the minimax
algorithm.

• As we have seen in the minimax search algorithm that the number of game states it has to examine are
exponential in depth of the tree. Since we cannot eliminate the exponent, but we can cut it to half. Hence there is a
technique by which without checking each node of the game tree we can compute the correct minimax decision, and
this technique is called pruning.

This involves two threshold parameter Alpha and beta for future expansion, so it is called alpha-beta pruning. It is
also called as Alpha-Beta Algorithm

Natural Language Processing – 5 Phases

Phase 1 – Lexical Analysis

Phase 2 – Syntactic Analysis

Phase 3 – Semantic Analysis

Phase 4 – Discourse Analysis

Phase 5 – Pragmatic Analysis

Problems in Hill Climbing Algorithm:

1. Local Maximum: A local maximum is a peak state in the landscape which is better than each of its neighboring
states, but there is another state also present which is higher than the local maximum.
2. Plateau: A plateau is the flat area of the search space in which all the neighbour states of the current state contain
the same value, because of this algorithm does not find any best direction to move. A hill-climbing search might be
lost in the plateau area.

3. Ridges: A ridge is a special form of the local maximum. It has an area which is higher than its surrounding areas,
but itself has a slope, and cannot be reached in a single move.