LAB REPORT

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS II

SUBMITTED TO:
DR. ALI AKBR
SUBMITTED BY:

MADIKHA
21-ME-420

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LAB SESSION #1
Reg No: 20-ME-420

EXPERIMENT #1
OBJECTIVE:
Determine the reaction of a simply supported beam using reactions of beam apparatus. By
changing the magnitude of the load. Compare the experimental and theoretical results.
APPARATUS:
 Reactions of Beam Apparatus

THEORY:
 Types of Beams:
o Cantilever beam: A cantilever beam is a rigid horizontal beam supported only on one
end.
o Simply Supported Beam: A simply supported beam is one that rests on two supports
and is free to move horizontally. Typical practical applications of simply supported
beams with point loadings include bridges, beams in buildings, and beds of machine
tools.
o Overhanging Beam: If the end portion of a beam extends beyond the support, then
the beam is known as overhanging beam. Overhanging may be on one of the supports
or on both the sides.
o Fixed Beam: A fixed beam is supported between two fixed ends. It is also called
fixed-end beam or built-in beam or restrained beam. It is classified as a statically
indeterminate beam, which involves more than three unknowns and the equilibrium
equations of statics alone are not sufficient to determine the support reactions.
o Continuous Beam: A continuous beam, i.e. a beam that has more than two
supports, is statically indeterminate. The reactions in the supports of a continuous
beam cannot be obtained with the equations of static equilibrium only. For the
calculation of the reactions in the supports each section is considered as an
independent beam.

 Reactions at Supports:
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A support reaction can be a force resulting on a support or a resulting restraining end

moment, which results due to a prevented possibility to move. In the case of structural
systems, support reactions are in equilibrium with the external forces acting on the structure.
 Practical uses of
o Beams: Apart from supporting commercial and residential constructions, I-beams are
also used to construct frames for trolley ways, elevators, trailer and truck beds, etc. H-
shaped beams have thicker walls and flanges and are used to construct mezzanines,
platforms and bridges, and common building constructions.
o Bridges: The purpose of a bridge is to allow people or cargo easy passage over an
obstacle by providing a route that would otherwise be uneven or impossible.
o Structures: The purpose of structure is to optimise for (brevity, readability,
traceability, isolation and encapsulation, maintainability, extensibility, performance
and efficiency), examples being: language choice, code, functions, libraries, builds,
system evolution, or diagrams for flow logic and design.
o Trusses: Trusses are used in a broad range of buildings, mainly where there is a
requirement for very long spans, such as in airport terminals, aircraft hangers, sports
stadia roofs, auditoriums and other leisure buildings. Trusses are also used to carry
heavy loads and are sometimes used as transfer structures.
PROCEDURE:
 First of all I set the apparatus.
 I hanged the hangers at fixed displacements from the support A.
 Then I applied different loads and noted the values of reactions at A and B.
 At last I use ∑FA=0⇛RA+RB=w1+W2 +W3 and ∑MA=0 these equations and calculated
the theoretical values of reactions at A and B and then I calculated the difference in
experimental and theoretical values of Reactions.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
Sr. Load (N) Position of load Experimental Theoretical Difference
No (cm) Results (N) Results (N) (Exp-Theoretical)
W1 W2 W3 X1 X2 X3 RA RB RA RB RA-RA RB-RB
1 5 2 4 23.4 48.5 73.8 6.3 4.9 5.9 5.1 0.4 -0.2
2 7 3 6 23.4 48.5 73.8 9.2 7.3 4.6 7.3 4.6 0
3 8 4 4 23.4 48.5 73.8 9.8 6.6 4.2 6.8 5.6 -0.2
4 10 2 4 23.4 48.5 73.8 10.3 6.1 9.8 5.4 0.5 0.5
5 7 2 7 23.4 48.5 73.8 8.8 7.6 8.5 7.7 0.3 -0.1
6 1 6 9 23.4 48.5 73.8 6.9 9.5 6.9 9.6 0 -0.1

Beam Material is Aluminum and the length of the beam is 100cm.

Reg No: 20-ME-420

For the first values:

∑FA=0⇛RA+RB=w1+W2 +W3 ⇛RA=(5+2+4)-RB ⇛RA=11-RB
∑MA=0⇛(23.4)(5)+(48.5)(2)+(73.8)(4)=100 RB ⇛ RB=5.1N⇛RA=5.9
Similarly, all the remaining values are calculated by using the above two relationships.
COMMENTS:
 There is a minor difference in the experimental and theoretical values of reactions.
 The reason behind this is that experimental values are noted from digital meter and the
theoretical values are calculated by hand.

LAB SESSION #2
Reg No: 20-ME-420

EXPERIMENT #2
OBJECTIVE:
Determine the reaction of a simply supported beam using reactions of beam apparatus. By
changing the magnitude of the loads, position of the loads and both. Compare the
experimental and theoretical results.
APPARATUS:
 Reactions of Beam Apparatus

THEORY:
 Reactions at Supports:
A support reaction can be a force resulting on a support or a resulting restraining end
moment, which results due to a prevented possibility to move. In the case of structural
systems, support reactions are in equilibrium with the external forces acting on the structure.
 Beams:
A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the beam's
axis (an element designed to carry primarily axial load would be a strut or column). Its mode
of deflection is primarily by bending. The loads applied to the beam result in reaction forces
at the beam's support points.
 Columns:
A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that
transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural
elements below. In other words, a column is a compression member.
 Struts:
A strut is a structural component commonly found in engineering, aeronautics, architecture
and anatomy. Struts generally work by resisting longitudinal compression, but they may also
serve in tension.

PROCEDURE:
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 First of all I set the apparatus.

 First I hanged the hangers at different positions from the support A.
 Then I applied loads of same magnitude and noted the values of reactions at A and B.
 Then I changed the both magnitude of the loads and position of the loads and noted
the values of the experimental results.
 At last I use ∑FA=0⇛RA+RB=w1+W2 +W3 and ∑MA=0 these equations and calculated
the theoretical values of reactions at A and B theoretically and then I calculated the
difference in experimental and theoretical values of Reactions.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
Beam Material is Aluminum and the length of the beam is 100cm.
 By changing the position of the loads:
Sr. Load (N) Position of load Experimental Theoretical Difference
No (cm) Results (N) Results (N) (Exp-Theoretical)
W1 W2 W3 X1 X2 X3 RA RB RA RB RA-RA RB-RB
1 2 5 2 25 50 75 4.46 4.76 4.5 4.5 -0.04 0.26
2 2 5 2 20 40 80 5.09 4.14 5. 4 0.09 0.14
3 2 5 2 30 60 90 3.27 5.95 3.6 5.4 -0.33 0.55
4 2 5 2 15 35 55 6.47 2.8 5.85 3.15 0.62 -0.35
5 2 5 2 40 60 80 3.23 5.9 3.6 5.4 -0.37 0.5
6 2 5 2 50 80 90 1.37 7.85 3 7 -1.63 -0.85
7 2 5 2 25 70 85 2.9 6.2 3,.3 5.7 -0.4 0.5

For the first values:

∑FA=0⇛RA+RB=w1+W2 +W3 ⇛RA=(2+5+2)-RB ⇛RA=9-RB
∑MA=0⇛(25)(2)+(50)(5)+(75)(2)=100 RB ⇛ RB=4.5N⇛RA=4.5
Similarly, all the remaining values are calculated by using the above two relationships.

 By changing the both positions and magnitudes of the loads:

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Sr. Load (N) Position of load Experimental Theoretical Difference

No (cm) Results (N) Results (N) (Exp-Theoretical)
W1 W2 W3 X1 X2 X3 RA RB RA RB RA-RA RB-RB
1 5 2 2 32 44 74 5.2 4.02 5.04 3.96 0.18 0.6
2 1 3 5 44 66 88 0.49 5.4 2.18 6.82 -1.78 -1.42
3 2 5 3 30 55 75 3.9 5.2 3.3 5.7 0.6 -0.5
4 4 1 2 25 50 75 3.3 2.61 6 3 2.66 -0.05
5 5 2 2 30 60 90 4.31 4.9 4.5 4.5 -0.29 0.4
6 2 5 2 20 45 65 5.39 3.8 5.05 3.95 0.34 -0.15
7 2 2 5 40 50 60 4.12 3.73 4.2 4.8 -0.08 -1.07

∑FA=0⇛RA+RB=w1+W2 +W3 ⇛RA=(5+2+2)-RB ⇛RA=9-RB

∑MA=0⇛(32)(5)+(44)(2)+(74)(2)=100 RB ⇛ RB=3.96N⇛RA=5.04
Similarly, all the remaining values are calculated by using the above two relationships.
COMMENTS:
 There is a minor difference in the experimental and theoretical values of reactions.
 The reason behind this is that experimental values are noted from digital meter and the
theoretical values are calculated by hand.

LAB SESSION #3
Reg No: 20-ME-420

EXPERIMENT #3
Objective:
Determine the reactions of overhanging beam subjected to multiple loads by changing the
magnitude of loads using reaction of beams apparatus. Compare experimental and theoretical
results.
Apparatus:
 Hangers.
 Loads.
 Simply supported beam.
 Reaction measuring tool.
 Loads.
Figure:

Theory:
 Reaction of simply supported beam:
Supports in the simply supported beam which is either a pin support or a rolling support
applies reaction on the beam against the load. A pin support has only one reaction while
rolling support has two, one in vertical and other is horizontal.
Reactions of a beam are determined theoretically by considering the beam in equilibrium and
applying equations of static. That is,
∑FY =0 ∑ M A=0
Reg No: 20-ME-420

Procedure:
 First of all take an overhanging beam and then attach the reaction measuring
instruments on the point A and B and attach the loads on the beam and then calculate
the values of practical RA and RB.
 Then find the theoretical value of RA and RB by the given formula:
RA + RB = w1 + w2 + w3
MA = 0
RB (L) = w1 (l1) + w2 (l2) + w3 (l3)

Observations and Calculations:

Sr. Lengths Loads Exp. Theo. Error
No (cm) (N) Reactions Reactions
L1 L2 L3 L W1 W2 W3 RA RB RA RB RA RB
1 25 30 65 100 5 2 2 9 1 7.7 1.3 1.3 0.3
2 25 30 65 100 7 4 4 13 3 10.9 4.1 2.1 -1.1
3 25 30 65 100 9 6 4 16 4 14.7 4.3 1.3 -0.3
4 25 30 65 100 11 5 6 19 4 16.7 5.3 2.3 -1.3
5 25 30 65 100 9 2 9 13 7 11.6 8.4 1.4 -1.4
6 25 30 65 100 4 7 11 7 15 5.5 16.5 1.5 -1.5

Comments:
 There is a minor difference in the experimental and theoretical values of reactions.
 The reason behind this is that experimental values are noted from digital meter and the
theoretical values are calculated by hand.
Reg No: 20-ME-420

LAB SESSION #4
EXPERIMENT #4
Objective:
Determine the reactions of overhanging beam subjected to multiple loads by changing the
magnitude and position of loads using reaction of beams apparatus. Compare experimental
and theoretical results.
Apparatus:
 Hangers.
 Loads.
 Simply supported beam.
 Reaction measuring tool.
 Loads.
Diagram:

Theory:
 Reaction of simply supported beam:
Supports in the simply supported beam which is either a pin support or a rolling support
applies reaction on the beam against the load. A pin support has only one reaction while
rolling support has two, one in vertical and other is horizontal.
Reactions of a beam are determined theoretically by considering the beam in equilibrium and
applying equations of static. That is,
∑FY =0 ∑ M A=0

Procedure:
Reg No: 20-ME-420

 First of all take an overhanging beam and then attach the reaction measuring
instruments on the point A and B and attach the loads on the beam and then calculate
the values of practical RA and RB.
 Then find the theoretical value of RA and RB by the given formula:
RA+RB=w1+w2+w3 MA=0 RB(L)=w1(l1)+w2(l2)+w3 (l3)
Observations and Calculations:
 By changing the position:
Sr. Lengths Loads Exp. Theo. Error
No (cm) (N) Reactions Reactions
L1 L2 L3 L W1 W2 W3 RA RB RA RB RA RB
1 20 30 70 100 2 2 3 3.5 4 3 3.4 0.5 0.6
2 15 40 65 100 2 2 3 3 5 3.5 4.8 -0.5 0.2
3 10 40 65 100 2 2 3 2 5 3 5.7 -1 -0.7
4 10 20 65 100 2 2 3 3.5 4 4 3.5 -0.5 0.5
5 10 10 60 100 2 2 3 5 3 4.6 2 0.4 1
6 5 20 60 100 2 2 3 4 4 3.5 4.5 0.5 -0.5
7 25 40 65 100 2 2 3 3.5 4.5 2.5 4 1 0.5

 By changing both the position and magnitude:

Sr Lengths Loads Exp. Theo. Error
. (cm) (N) Reactions Reactions
No
L1 L2 L3 L W1 W2 W3 RA RB RA RB RA RB
1 10 30 70 10 2 2 3 3.5 4 4 3.5 -0.5 0.5
0
2 15 40 65 10 2 3 3 2.5 6.5 3 6.8 -0.5 0.2
0
3 10 40 65 10 4 3 3 5 6 4.7 5.5 0.3 0.5
0
4 10 20 65 10 4 3 5 5.5 7 5 5.9 0.5 1.1
0
5 10 10 60 10 4 5 5 9 6 9.7 7.3 1.8 -1.3
0
6 5 20 60 10 4 5 3 7 5.5 6.8 5 0.2 0.5
0
7 25 40 65 10 4 6 2 11.5 2 10.5 10.7 1.2 0.8
0
Comments:
 There is a minor difference in the experimental and theoretical values of reactions.
 The reason behind this is that experimental values are noted from digital meter and the
theoretical values are calculated by hand.
Reg No: 20-ME-420

LAB SESSION #5
EXPERIMENT #5
Objective:
Determine the torsional strain for a hollow circular aluminum tube subjected to eccentric
load at 100mm using electrical resistance strain gauge apparatus. Compare experimental and
theoretical strain.
Apparatus:
 Sheer stress apparatus
 Hanger
 Load.
 Gauge for length measure
Theory:
 Torsional deformation:
Torque is a moment that twists a structure. Unlike axial loads which produce a uniform, or
average, stress over the cross section of the object, a torque creates a distribution of stress
over the cross section. To keep things simple, we're going to focus on structures with a
circular cross section, often called rods or shafts. When a torque is applied to the structure, it
will twist along the long axis of the rod, and its cross section remains circular.

 Polar Moment of Inertia:

Polar Moment of Inertia is a measure of an object's capacity to oppose or resist torsion when
some amount of torque is applied to it on a specified axis
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π
J= ¿
32

 Modulus of Rigidity:
The modulus of rigidity is also known as shear modulus. It is the material property with a
value equal to the shear stress divided by the shear strain. It can be used to explain how a
material resists transverse deformation but this is practical for small deformations only.

Diagram:

Procedure:
 First of all I set the strain meter at zero by rotating the nob.
 Then I applied the strain load and measure the diagonal strain on the strain meter.
 I applied the load from 5N to 25N and measure the diagonal strain reading according
to their strain load.
 Then I measured the diagonal strain thematically by using this formula.
T ×R
ε=
J ×E

 Strain meter gave us the two times of diagonal Strain (2 ε )

Observation and calculation:
O/D = Do = 9.5mm I/D = Di = 6.3mm T = Torsion = Load × Eccentricity
π
J= ¿
32
D o 9.5
R= = 2 mm
2

E = 69000N/mm
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T ×R
ε=
J ×E
Sr. Eccentricity Load Exp. Theo comparison
No (mm) (N) (meter reading) diagonal strain
1 100 5 50 38 12
2 100 10 100 76 24
3 100 15 130 115 15
4 100 20 180 153 27
5 100 25 200 191 9
6 100 30 220 214 9

Graph:
Load vs. Strain
250

200

150

100

50

0
5 10 15 20 25 28

Comments:

 The theoretical and experiment reading are not same because the nob of the apparatus
is very sensitive.
 From graph we have seen that when we increase the load the torsional strain also
increase.
Reg No: 20-ME-420

LAB SESSION #6
EXPERIMENT #6
Objective:
Determine the torsional strain for a hollow circular aluminum tube subjected to eccentric
load at 50mm using electrical resistance strain gauge apparatus. Compare experimental and
theoretical strain.
Apparatus:
 Sheer stress apparatus
 Hanger
 Load.
 Gauge for length measure
Theory:
 Torsional deformation:
Torque is a moment that twists a structure. Unlike axial loads which produce a uniform, or
average, stress over the cross section of the object, a torque creates a distribution of stress
over the cross section. To keep things simple, we're going to focus on structures with a
circular cross section, often called rods or shafts. When a torque is applied to the structure, it
will twist along the long axis of the rod, and its cross section remains circular.

 Polar Moment of Inertia:

Reg No: 20-ME-420

Polar Moment of Inertia is a measure of an object's capacity to oppose or resist torsion when
some amount of torque is applied to it on a specified axis
π
J= ¿
32

 Modulus of Rigidity:
The modulus of rigidity is also known as shear modulus. It is the material property with a
value equal to the shear stress divided by the shear strain. It can be used to explain how a
material resists transverse deformation but this is practical for small deformations only.

Diagram:

Procedure:
 First of all I set the strain meter at zero by rotating the nob.
 Then I applied the strain load and measure the diagonal strain on the strain meter.
 I applied the load from 5N to 25N and measure the diagonal strain reading according
to their strain load.
 Then I measured the diagonal strain thematically by using this formula.
T ×R
ε=
J ×E

 Strain meter gave us the two times of diagonal Strain (2 ε )

Observation and calculation:
O/D = Do = 9.5mm I/D = Di = 6.3mm T = Torsion = Load × Eccentricity
π
J= ¿
32
D o 9.5
R= = 2 mm
2
Reg No: 20-ME-420

E = 69000N/mm
T ×R
ε=
J ×E
Sr. Eccentricity Load Exp. Theo comparison
No (mm) (N) (meter reading) diagonal strain
1 50 10 20 53 33
2 50 15 40 80 40
3 50 20 70 106 36
4 50 30 100 160 60
5 50 35 110 186 76

Graph:
Load vs. Strain
250

200

150

100

50

0
10 15 20 30 35

Comments:

 The theoretical and experiment reading are not same because the nob of the apparatus
is very sensitive.
 From graph we have seen that when we increase the load the torsional strain also
increase.
Reg No: 20-ME-420

LAB SESSION #7
EXPERIMENT #7
Objective:
Determine the tensile torsional strain for a hollow circular aluminum beam subjected to
eccentric load at 50mm from fixed end using the electrical resistance strain gauge apparatus.
Compare the experimental and theoretical results.
Apparatus:
 Electrical resistance strain gauge apparatus.

Theory:
 Electrical resistance strain gauge apparatus:
The electrical resistance strain gauge is a resistance element which changes resistance with
change in strain.
 Wheatstone bridge:
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical resistance
by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown component.
One of the Wheatstone bridge's initial uses was for soils analysis and comparison.

Procedure:
 First of all I set the strain meter at zero by rotating the nob.
Reg No: 20-ME-420

 Then I applied the strain load and measure the diagonal strain on the strain meter.
 I applied the load from 5N to 25N and measure the diagonal strain reading according
to their strain load.
 Then I measured the diagonal strain thematically by using this formula.
T ×R
ε=
J ×E
 Strain meter gave us the two times of diagonal Strain (2 ε )

Observations and calculations:

T τ G⍬
= =
J R L
π 4 4
T= torsion = load x eccentricity J= polar moment of inertia of the tube = 32 (D −d ) τ =
surface shear stress R= Outer radius of tube = 4.75mm
TR
G= modulus of rigidity ⍬= angle of twist over length L €= JE
Sr. no Eccentricity (mm) Load (N) Exp. (meter Theoretical comparison
reading) diagonal strain
1 50 10 20 53 33
2 50 15 40 80 40
3 50 20 70 106 36
4 50 30 100 160 60
5 50 35 110 186 76
Graph:
Load vs. Strain
250

200

150

100

50

0
10 15 20 30 35
Reg No: 20-ME-420

Comments:
 The theoretical and experiment reading are not same because the nob of the apparatus
is very sensitive.
 From graph we have seen that when we increase the load the torsional strain also
increase.

LAB SESSION #8
EXPERIMENT #8
Objective:
Determine the tensile torsional strain for a hollow circular aluminum beam subjected to
eccentric load at 0mm from fixed end using the electrical resistance strain gauge apparatus.
Compare the experimental and theoretical results.
Apparatus:
 Electrical resistance strain gauge apparatus.

Theory:
 Electrical resistance strain gauge apparatus:
The electrical resistance strain gauge is a resistance element which changes resistance with
change in strain.
 Wheatstone bridge:
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical resistance
by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown component.
... One of the Wheatstone bridge's initial uses was for soils analysis and comparison.

Procedure:
 First of all I set the strain meter at zero by rotating the nob.
 Then I applied the strain load and measure the diagonal strain on the strain meter.
 I applied the load from 5N to 25N and measure the diagonal strain reading according
to their strain load.
Reg No: 20-ME-420

 Then I measured the diagonal strain thematically by using this formula.

T ×R
ε=
J ×E

 Strain meter gave us the two times of diagonal Strain (2 ε )

Observations and calculations:

T τ G⍬
= =
J R L
π 4 4
T= torsion = load x eccentricity J= polar moment of inertia of the tube = 32 (D −d )
τ = surface shear stress R= Outer radius of tube = 4.75mm
TR
G= modulus of rigidity ⍬= angle of twist over length L €= JE
Sr. no Eccentricity (mm) Load (N) Exp. (meter Theoretical comparison
reading) diagonal strain
1 0 5 0 0 0
2 0 10 0 0 0
3 0 15 200 0 200
4 0 20 200 0 200
5 0 25 200 0 200

Graph:
Load vs. Strain
250

200

150

100

50

0
5 10 15 20 25
Reg No: 20-ME-420

Comments:
 The theoretical and experiment reading are not same because the nob of the apparatus
is very sensitive.
 From graph we have seen that when we increase the load the torsional strain also
increase.

LAB SESSION #9
EXPERIMENT #9
Objective:
To perform a Rockwell hardness testing on given specimen.
Apparatus:
 Rockwell hardness testing equipment.
 Metallic specimen

Theory:
 Hardness Testing Methods:
 Vickers
 Rockwell
 Brinell
 Microhardness
 Shore
 Knoop
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Rockwell Hardness Test:

The Rockwell scale is a hardness scale based on indentation hardness of a material. The
Rockwell test measures the depth of penetration of an indenter under a large load compared
to the penetration made by a preload. There are different scales, denoted by a single letter,
that use different loads or indenters.

 Types of Indenters:
 Steel Ball
 Diamond Cone
 Dwell time:
Dwell time is how long the main load is being applied on the specimen.
Hard metal = diamond cone
Soft metal = steel ball
Diamond cone indenter = 1200
Steel cone indenter = 1.588 mm (diameter)
 Types of loads:
There are basically two types of loads, minor load or the pre-load and major load or the final
load.
 The minor load will hold the specimen.
 The major load is the main force that will indent.
Observations and calculations:
Given material = Aluminum (Soft material)
Load = HRB = 100 kg
Distance = 5-20 mm (specimen and holding cup)
Dwell time = 12 seconds
Material Scale Result
Aluminum HRB 130.0

Comments:
 The theoretical and experiment reading are not same because the nob of the apparatus
is very sensitive.
 From graph we have seen that when we increase the load the torsional strain also
increase.
Reg No: 20-ME-420

LAB SESSION #10

EXPERIMENT # 10
Objective:
To perform Tensile, Compressive and bending test on a given specimen by using U.T.M
Apparatus:
 Universal Testing Machine (WEW 300B Microcomputer Hydraulic Testing Machine
 Extensometer
 Test Specimens (according to standard dimensions i.e. ASTM E8)
 Ruler, micrometer and vernier calipers.
Theory
 Tensile Test:
A tensile test is a very common destructive test performed on engineering materials.
The tensile test provides information on the strength of a material under uniaxial tensile
stress. It can be used to obtain the stress-strain curve of a material that will show the
relationship between the stress and strain of that material as shown in FIG 1.
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FIG. 1. Stress-Strain Plot

From the stress-strain curve, various mechanical properties of the material, such as Young's
Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity), Yield Strength, and the Ultimate Tensile Strength, can be
determined.

1.Young's Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity)

In the region on the stress-strain curve where the stress changes linearly with the strain, the
Young’s modulus (Modulus of elasticity, E) is defined as the ratio of stress and strain. Value
of the Young’s modulus is a constant for a given material.
2. Yield point
Yield point is a point on the stress-strain curve, after which there is a significant increase in
strain with little or no increase in stress. The corresponding stress is called the Yield Strength
of that material. For materials that do not possess well- defined yield point, “offset method”
is used to determine it.
3. Proportional limit
Proportional limit is the value of stress on the stress-strain curve at which the curve first
deviates from a straight line.
4. Elastic Limit
Elastic limit is the value of stress on the stress-strain curve after which the material deforms
plastically; that is, it will no longer return to its original size and shape after unloading it.
5. Ultimate tensile strength
Ultimate tensile strength is the highest value of apparent stress on the stress-strain curve.
6. Fracture Strength
The stress value at which the tensile specimen fracture is known as fracture strength.

 Compressive Test:
This is the test to know strength of a material under compression. Generally compression test
is carried out to know either simple compression characteristics of material or column action
of structural members.
It has been observed that for varying height of member, keeping cross-sectional area and the
load applied constant, there is an increased tendency towards bending of a member. Member
under compression usually bends along minor axis, i.e, along least lateral dimension.
According to column theory slenderness ratio has more functional value. If this ratio goes on
increasing, axial compressive stress goes on decreasing and member buckles more and more.
End conditions at the time of test have a pronounced effect on compressive strength of
materials. Effective length must be taken according to end conditions assumed, at the time of
the test.
Reg No: 20-ME-420

As the ends of the member is made plain and fit between two jaws of the machine, fixed end
is assumed for calculation of effective length. Effective length is taken as 0.5 L where L is
actual length of a specimen.

 Bending Test:
If a beam is simply supported at the ends and carries a concentrated load at the center, the
beam bends concave upwards. The distance between the original position of the beam and
its position after bending is different at different points (fig) along the length if the beam,
being maximum at the center in this case. This difference is called ‘deflection’.
In this type of loading the maximum amount of deflection is given by the relation,

Specifications of Universal Testing Machine:

Model WEW 300B Microcomputer Hydraulic
Testing Machine
Make Jinyuan Mechanical Equipment Co. Ltd.
China
Supplier Oriental Engineers Pvt. Ltd. Lahore
Max. Load 300kN
Full scale and resolving power 0-300 kN : 10N
Max. distance of tensile test ≥ 620mm
Max. distance of compressive test ≥ 550mm
Thickness of flat test bar 0-15 mm
Diameter of round test bar 10-32 mm
Stroke of piston 150 mm
Size of hold down plates (mm) ɸ 120 X ɸ120
Reg No: 20-ME-420

Distance between supporting rollers for 100-320 mm

bend test
Distance between two columns in tensile or ≥ 495 mm
compressive test
Max. speed of table ≥ 100mm/min
Max. speed of lower crossbeam ≥ 220 mm/min
Power input ≈ 2 kW

WEW 300B is an intelligent universal control system. It is mechanic-electro-hydraulic

interactive high technique product. It consists of main machine, oil pressure sensor,
extensometer, microcomputer based data processing system and printer. It is suitable for
testing of most of materials in tension, compression and bending. It has maximum force of
300kN.
The inner core of this machine microcomputer display system uses flexible C++ program
language, it has friendly human-computer interface with English help system. It posses
functions of automatic operation, manually operation, instantaneous force value displaying,
loading curve tracing and save querying and printing testing results.
This machine conforms various standards like ASTM, ISO, and BS for mechanical testing of
wide range of materials.
Procedure:
There are six steps involved in each test:
 Specimen preparation.
 Setting test parameters.
 Running the required test (tensile , compressive or bending)
 Collecting stress-strain data for tensile test case.
 Calculating material properties.
 Evaluating experimental results.

Calculation and Observations of Tensile Testing:

Length = 220mm
Diameter = 12.2mm
Area = 113.09mm2
Sr. Load Original Extensio Stress = Strain = Increase
No n Load/ in length/
(N) Gauge
length (mm) Area Original length
(N/mm2)
Reg No: 20-ME-420

1 95.04 220 5 0.84 0.0227

Observation and Calculation Of Compressive Test:

Cross sectional area of the specimen perpendicular to the load =A=2375.8mm 2
Load taken by the specimen at the time of failure =W=8.61(k N)
Strength of the pin against shearing (s) = [W/A] =3.62 N/mm2

Observations and Calculations of Bending Test:

Length of the specimen=400mm
Thickness of the specimen=10mm
Width of the specimen=51mm
I= bt3/12 = 4250 mm4

Sr. No. Load W Deflection(δ) Young’s

(mm) Modulus (E)
(kN)
(N/mm2)
1 2 3 209150

2 2.2 4 172549

3 2.4 5 150588

Comments:
 By the help of the tensile test we can find the point where yielding occurs (we come to
know the safe limit of loading) and also we can find the all other points of the stress-
strain curve.
Reg No: 20-ME-420

 By the help of the compressive test we can find out the compressive strength of the
material.
 By the help of bending test we can find the maximum deflection of the work piece on
applying the load.