Part of the Enginuity Group

BUILDING SERVICES
ENGINEERING FOR
CONSTRUCTION
CORE

Mike Jones, Stephen Jones, Tom Leahy,

Peter Tanner, David Warren

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 The publisher would like to acknowledge Mike Jones for his permission to reproduce text from Foundation
in Construction and Building Services Engineering: Core (Wales).
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ISBN: 978 1 3983 3287 4
© Hodder & Stoughton Limited, Stephen Jones, Peter Tanner 2022
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 Contents

Contents
Acknowledgements.................................................................................................. iv

About the authors....................................................................................................... v

Introduction............................................................................................................... vii

Guide to the book.................................................................................................... viii

1 Health and safety in construction.......................................................................................................1

2 Construction science principles.........................................................................................................47
3 Construction design principles..........................................................................................................86
4 Construction and the built environment industry........................................................................112
5 Sustainability principles...................................................................................................................146
6 Measurement principles...................................................................................................................179
7 Building technology principles........................................................................................................195
8 Information and data principles......................................................................................................229
9 Relationship management in construction....................................................................................247
10 Digital technology in construction..................................................................................................269
11 Construction commercial/business principles...............................................................................282
12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems................................................................................301
13 Maintenance principles....................................................................................................................365
14 Tools, equipment and materials.......................................................................................................377

About the exams and employer-set project...................................................... 394

Answers................................................................................................................... 396

Glossary................................................................................................................... 407

Index.......................................................................................................................... 413

iii

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Acknowledgements
Thank you to Tom Stottor who gave me the opportunity to contribute to this important textbook and my thanks
to the copy-editors, proof-readers, illustrators, and editors who have put so much time and effort into making this
new textbook a reality.
Many thanks to Matthew Sullivan who’s been so supportive and provided lots of suggestions and ideas on how to
shape the chapters I’ve produced into something of value for T-level learners.
Imogen Miles and Sylvia Bukowski have demonstrated their skills in creating a book that is visually appealing as
well as of practical value. Thank you.
Finally, thanks to my lovely wife Sue who has patiently supported me through the many hours I’ve spent at my
desk.
Mike Jones
I would like to thank my family and the team at Hodder Education for their continued and relentless support on
this project, without which it would not have been possible to successfully complete the book.
I would also like to acknowledge the readers of this book and hope that it provides some support in achieving
your personal and professional goals.
Stephen Jones
I would like to give special thanks to my partner Charlotte Geileskey for her grammatical and typing skills.
I would also like to thank Debbie Coomes, Assistant Principal at West Suffolk College, for her support, and my
family for their encouragement. Lastly, I would like to thank Hodder Education for this opportunity, my first foray
as an author within vocational education.
David Warren

iv

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 About the authors

About the authors

Mike Jones
Working in the construction industry has been the further education, Stephen had his own business and
mainstay of Mike’s working life over a long period. He worked in the construction industry as a carpenter,
has worked as a skilled tradesman, a supervisor and a joiner and shopfitter since leaving school at 16 years of
site manager on projects ranging from small extensions age, where he gained a wealth of subject knowledge
to multi-storey contracts worth millions of pounds. For and skills.
a number of years, he employed a small team of skilled
Stephen lives in Torquay on the south coast of Devon
workers in his own construction company working on
with his wife, children and dog, Maisy. His main
contracts for selected customers.
interest is his family; he is also a football fanatic and
The skills Mike developed over the years allowed enjoys working out in the gym.
him to design and successfully build his own family
home in rural Wales, which he has always viewed as a Tom Leahy
highlight of his construction career.
Tom’s journey started over 20 years ago when he
After over 30 years working out on site, Mike moved served a four-year apprenticeship with a local
into the education sector, first as an NVQ trainer and authority, working on both commercial and domestic
assessor for three years and subsequently as a college plumbing/heating systems whilst attending college for
lecturer at Cardiff and Vale College in South Wales for one day a week. This experience would give him the
10 years. After leaving his post at college, he continued underpinning knowledge and practical skills to make a
to work in education and training, producing teaching successful plumber.
and learning resources for City and Guilds, along with
In 2005 Tom started work for another local authority,
his work as a technical author writing textbooks. He is
working on a variety of authority-owned buildings,
also involved in the writing, reviewing and editing of
from libraries to town halls and community centres, as
vocational examinations.
part of a reactive maintenance and installation team.
Mike’s aim during his time teaching others has been
After successfully contributing to the training and
to impart to learners the great job satisfaction that
development of several apprentices, Tom moved into
can be gained from becoming a skilled practitioner.
further education and achieved teaching, assessing and
Put maximum effort into developing your skills and
quality assurance qualifications. He continues to work
knowledge, and you will be able to take full advantage
in further education as a Programme Leader training
of the vast range of career opportunities in the
the next generation of Construction and Building
construction industry.
Services professionals.
Stephen Jones
Peter Tanner
Stephen Jones has been writing books about the
Having started in the electrotechnical industry while
construction industry, site carpentry and architectural
still at school, chasing walls for his brother-in-law
joinery since 2009. Besides being a published author,
for pocket money, Peter was keen to progress in the
he is also a lecturer in the construction department
industry. After a spell in the armed forces, Peter gained
at South Devon College. Stephen has Qualified
a place as a sponsored trainee on the Construction
Teaching and Learning Status (QTLS) and is a highly
Industry Training Board training scheme.
experienced lecturer with a Post Graduate Certificate
of Education (PGCE), Higher National Certificate in On completion of his apprenticeship Peter worked for
Construction (HNC) and Nebosh National Certificate a short time as an intruder alarm installer, then for
in Construction Health and Safety. Prior to teaching in a company involved in shop-fitting and restaurant

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

and pub refurbishments. Peter was later seconded David Warren

to the Property Services Agency, designing major
installations within some of the best-known buildings David is currently working at West Suffolk College as
in the UK. Head of Department for Building Services Engineering.
He also works part time for City and Guilds as a
A career-changing accident took Peter into teaching.
Moderator and TQA for the new T Levels. David has
Peter has worked with City & Guilds for over 25 years
been in education for the last 17 years. Prior to this,
and has represented them on industry committees,
he successfully ran two businesses, one specialising in
such as JPEL/64 which is responsible for the
plumbing and heating; the other in ceramic floor and
production of BS 7671. He is passionate about using his
wall tiling and project management.
experience to maintain the high standards the industry
expects. David is the proud dad of three children. He is
a dedicated Spurs fan and has great interest in
architecture, motoring, Formula One and interior design.

vi

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 Introduction

Introduction
A T Level in Building Services Engineering for only, the content that you cover and the skills that you
Construction will provide you with broad and deep learn will also be useful in your chosen occupational
foundations for a career in the Building Services specialism(s).
Engineering industries, including in areas such as
The book will introduce you to the Building Services
electric installation or maintenance and plumbing or
Engineering workplace, and the fundamental principles
heating. The Level 3 technical qualification, which
that underpin it, across a range of engaging and real-
was developed by City & Guilds in collaboration with
world examples. The book covers the key content in
employers and industry bodies, will enable you to
detail and includes hundreds of photos and technical
progress to a range of careers and further education
drawings, as well as industry tips to support you in your
opportunities. You can find out more about the
T Level work placement. There are also lots of activities
qualification on the City & Guilds website.
and learning features; you can find out more about
This book will help you to develop the knowledge these and how to use them on the next page.
and understanding you need to complete the core
Your teacher or lecturer might decide to use the book
component of your T Level. Each of the chapters
in your classroom, either as a central learning tool or to
in the book follows the topics required for the core
supplement their teaching. The book will also prepare
component’s knowledge outcomes, which you can
you for your final exams and the employer set project.
find in the qualification handbook on the City &
(You can find out more about how you will be assessed
Guilds website. Headings in the book follow those
on page 394 of this book.) If you have any questions
in the qualification handbook, so that you can check
about how you should be using the book, you should
your learning against the City & Guilds material.
consult your teacher or lecturer.
Although the book focuses on the core component

vii

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Guide to the book

The following features can be found in this book.

Learning outcomes Health and safety

Core knowledge outcomes that you must Important points to ensure safety in the workplace
understand and learn

Improve your maths

Key term
Short activities that encourage you to apply and
Important terms that you should understand develop your functional maths skills in context

Industry tip Improve your English

Useful tips and advice to help you in the workplace Short activities that encourage you to apply and
develop your functional English skills in context

Research
Assessment practice
Research-based activities: either stretch and
challenge activities enabling you to go beyond Knowledge-based practice questions to help
the course, or industry placement based activities prepare you for the exam (answers found at the
encouraging you to discover more about your back of the book)
placement

Project practice
Case study
Short scenarios and focused activities, reflecting
Placing knowledge into a fictionalised, real-life one or more of the tasks that you will need to
context, to introduce dilemmas and problem solving undertake during completion of the employer-set
project

Test yourself
A knowledge-consolidation feature containing
questions and tasks to aid understanding and guide
you to think about a topic in detail

viii

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety
in construction

Introduction
This chapter looks at health and safety legislation and
approved standards, and how they protect workers and others
who may be affected by work activities.
We will also consider the legal responsibilities of people working
in construction and building services engineering (BSE) and the
implications of not following health and safety law.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will understand: 10 recording and reporting of safety incidents and
1 construction legislation and regulations near misses
2 public liability and employer’s liability 11 emergency procedures for unsafe situations
3 approved construction codes of practice 12 types of PPE
4 development of safe systems of work 13 first-aid facilities
5 safety conscious procedures 14 warning signs for the main groups of hazardous
6 safety inspection of a work environment substance
7 implications to those working within the BSE industry 15 safe practices and procedures for the use of access
of not following health and safety legislation equipment and manual handling
8 safe working practices for the safe isolation of 16 safe practices and procedures for working in
systems excavations and confined spaces.
9 implications of poor health and safety on building
performance and individual stakeholders

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

1 Construction legislation and Key term

regulations Duty holders: people with a legal responsibility
under health and safety law
1.1 The role of legislation and
regulations in the construction Shortly after HASAWA was introduced, the UK
industry government established the Health and Safety
Executive (HSE). The HSE is an independent regulator
Working in the construction industry can be extremely
that aims to prevent workplace ill health, injury and
hazardous. In 1974, the Health and Safety at Work
death by targeting industries with the greatest risks
etc. Act (HASAWA) was introduced. It replaced many
and worst risk-management records, which include
older laws and enabled new regulations to be passed
construction and manufacturing.
in Parliament to protect workers and the general public
from work activities. The HSE provides advice and guidance to employers
so that they can identify hazards and manage risks
The main objectives of HASAWA are to:
correctly. Its emphasis is on the prevention of accidents
 secure the health, safety and welfare of people at
and ill health by raising awareness in workplaces, so
work
that workers and other people can stay safe and well.
 protect people other than those at work (for
example the general public or visitors) from risks to
health or safety arising out of or in connection with Research
work activities Visit the HSE website (www.hse.gov.uk) to find out
 control the possession and use of highly flammable, the responsibilities of duty holders under HASAWA.
explosive and dangerous substances.
Everyone has a moral responsibility to protect the
The HSE has legal powers to hold people or companies
health and safety of themselves and others at work.
to account when risks are not managed and legislation
However, under HASAWA some parties – known as
is breached. We will look at how the HSE enforces
duty holders – have legal responsibilities. Employers,
HASAWA later in this chapter.
employees, the self-employed, manufacturers and
people in control of premises are all duty holders. Legislation made under HASAWA is divided into a
number of different regulations. Table 1.1 outlines
the main regulations that control health, safety and
welfare in the construction industry.

▼ Table 1.1 Main regulations that control health, safety and welfare in the construction industry

Regulation Overview
Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and These regulations place legal duties on employers, the self-employed
Dangerous Occurrences Regulations and people in control of premises to report to the HSE serious accidents,
(RIDDOR) 2013 dangerous occurrences and occupational diseases resulting from workplace
activities.
Control of Substances Hazardous to These regulations state that employers must control substances hazardous to
Health (COSHH) Regulations 2002 health by preventing or reducing workers’ exposure. This can be achieved by:
• finding out what the health hazards are
• deciding how to prevent harm to health by assessing the risks (risk
assessment)
• providing control measures, such as secure storage for chemicals
• making sure that control measures are followed
• maintaining control measures
• providing training, information and instruction for employees and others
• monitoring and providing health surveillance when necessary
• planning for emergencies.
Note: asbestos is not covered by COSHH Regulations.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

Regulation Overview
Control of Asbestos Regulations 2012 There are several different types of asbestos that have been used in the
construction industry, some of which are more hazardous than others. In most
cases, asbestos can only be removed by a licensed contractor. However, small
quantities of lower-risk asbestos can be removed by non-licensed contractors,
providing they are competent and have effective controls in place.
The law states that before doing any building work or maintenance on
premises or on plant and equipment that contain asbestos, a risk assessment
has to be carried out to manage and control the risks.
It is mandatory for anyone who is likely to be exposed to asbestos fibres at
work to receive training.
Provision and Use of Work Equipment These regulations place duties on people and organisations that operate or
Regulations (PUWER) 1998 have control over work equipment. They state that:
• equipment must be suitable for its intended use
• equipment must be safe, maintained and regularly inspected
• people who use the equipment must have received training, information
and instruction
• equipment must be used accompanied by suitable health and safety
measures, for example guarding or emergency stop devices.
Manual Handling Operations Regulations These regulations define manual handling as ‘any transporting or supporting
(MHOR) 1992 of a load ... by hand or bodily force’. They set out a hierarchy of control
measures for dealing with the risks posed by manual handling:
1 Avoid hazardous manual handling operations so far as is reasonably
practicable.
2 Assess any hazardous manual handling operations that cannot be
avoided.
3 Reduce the risk of injury so far as is reasonably practicable.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) at These regulations relate to the use of personal protective equipment (PPE).
Work Regulations 1992
Employers have a responsibility to provide PPE free of charge to employees
(Note: the current legislation which refers to to control the hazards identified in risk assessments. They should also provide
the supply of PPE is the Personal Protective information, instruction and training on how to use it and take care of it.
Equipment Regulations 2016/425, which
is enforced by the Personal Protective
Equipment (Enforcement) Regulations 2018)
Work at Height Regulations 2005 Under these regulations, people who are in control of others working at
height have a duty to make sure work is properly planned, supervised and
carried out by competent people. All work at height must be risk assessed.
Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005 Exposure to high levels of noise can cause temporary or permanent hearing
loss. Employers have a duty to reduce the risk by:
• assessing the risks
• eliminating or controlling the noise
• providing hearing protection
• providing hearing checks for those at risk
• providing employees with information and training
• maintaining any noise-control equipment and ensuring it is being used.
Control of Vibration at Work Regulations These regulations place a duty on employers to reduce the risk to employees’
2005 health from exposure to vibration caused by work equipment, machinery and
tools, for example when using a core drill.
Employers must calculate the amount of vibration that employees may be
exposed to at work. At a specific level (referred to as the ‘exposure action
value’), employers must introduce technical and organisational measures
to reduce the risk of personal injury to an acceptable level. The law also
prevents workers from being exposed to a higher exposure limit value of
5.0 m/s² A(8).

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

▼ Table 1.1 Main regulations that control health, safety and welfare in the construction industry

Regulation Overview
Confined Spaces Regulations 1997 The aim of these regulations is to prevent people working in confined spaces
whenever possible, because of the serious risk to health and safety from
collapse, drowning, low oxygen levels and exposure to natural gases. If the
activity is unavoidable, a safe system of work must be followed to control the
risk.
Management of Health and Safety at Work These regulations apply to every work activity. They explain what employers
Regulations 1999 need to do to manage health and safety at their place of work under
HASAWA.
The main requirement is for employers to complete a risk assessment and
record significant findings when they have five or more employees.
Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 These regulations outline the responsibilities of those involved in the
design, operation, construction and maintenance of electrical equipment
and systems. They are relevant to most work activities and premises, except
certain offshore installations and particular ships.
Environmental legislation There are numerous environmental laws in the UK that protect wildlife, the
countryside, listed buildings, national parks and monuments, for example
the Control of Pollution Act 1974, the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981
and the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990. The
environment is protected further by the Planning and Energy Act 2008,
Energy Act 2020 and Climate Change Act 2008.
The Climate Change Act 2008 is an environmental law designed to meet the
UK government’s target to reduce carbon emissions recorded in 1990 by at
least 80 per cent by 2050.
Waste management legislation There are several requirements for handling waste, including the Waste
Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Regulations 2013, as well as
regulations on waste carriers.
For more information, see Chapter 5, section 7.

and BSE industries. These changes are often made

Key terms
with guidance and support from the following bodies:
Risk assessment: a formal process of identifying  employers
significant workplace hazards, whom they affect and  unions
control measures that could be used to eliminate or  trade associations
reduce risk to an acceptable level  professional bodies
Asbestos: a naturally occurring mineral that used to  academics.
be mixed with other construction materials to create
insulation, pipe lagging and flooring; it has been Test yourself
banned in the UK since 1999 because it is extremely
hazardous to health, however workers may still be How can you reduce the risk of personal injury
exposed to it in older buildings caused by manual handling?
Safe system of work: a formal set of procedures
that must be followed when hazards cannot be
eliminated completely Health and safety
Carbon emissions: carbon dioxide released into
the atmosphere; scientists believe this is a cause of The use of PPE should be a last resort after all
climate change other methods of controlling a hazard have been
considered. For example, the use of guardrails,
safety nets and airbags should be considered for
Health and safety legislation is regularly reviewed use while working at height before a lanyard. This
and updated to reflect changes in the construction is because PPE only protects the user, whereas the
other methods protect others as well.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

Research Health and safety

Find out the short- and long-term effects that vibration The CDM Regulations state that, if necessary,
can cause on different parts of the human body. employers have to provide facilities for pregnant or
Suggest ways to reduce or control the risks to comply nursing mothers to rest lying down.
with the Control of Vibration at Work Regulations 2005.

1.2 Regulations relating to the

provision of welfare facilities during
construction work
Under HASAWA, employers have a duty to provide
basic welfare facilities for their employees at their place
of work. The Construction (Design and Management)
(CDM) Regulations 2015 outline the minimum
facilities that should be provided on construction sites:
 Drinking water:
– An adequate supply of fresh drinking water
should be appropriately labelled and accessible
in suitable places.
– An adequate supply of cups or other drinking
vessels must be provided, unless the water is
supplied from a fountain for workers to drink easily.
 Toilets:
– These should be separate for men and women, ▲ Figure 1.1 Welfare facilities on a construction site
with doors that are lockable from the inside.
– They should be clean and maintained with
adequate ventilation and lighting.
1.3 Implications of not adhering
 Washing facilities: to legislation
– These should be located in the vicinity of the Health and safety law is made up of Acts of
toilets and changing rooms, with clean cold and Parliament and statutory regulations. Failure
hot or warm running water if possible. to comply with them is a criminal offence. HSE
– Soap or another means of cleaning must be inspectors have a number of powers to enforce the
provided, along with towels or another suitable law, including carrying out inspections, issuing
method of drying. simple cautions and notices to duty holders, and
– Showers may also need to be provided if the sometimes initiating prosecutions.
nature of the work requires it.
 Rest facilities: The law states that HSE inspectors can enter a
– These should be equipped with tables and workplace without notice at any reasonable time to
seating with backs for the number of people conduct an inspection or investigation. During a visit,
expected to use them. they may want to speak to workers, look at possible
– The rest area must be able to maintain an health risks, and inspect equipment and machinery.
appropriate temperature and have facilities to They can also take samples, such as sound and dust
prepare and eat meals and boil water. levels, photographs and measurements, and make
 Changing rooms with lockers: copies of records or other documentation needed as
– These must be provided if workers have to wear part of their investigation.
special clothing for their job, unless they can be If the inspector thinks that the employer has
reasonably expected to change elsewhere. broken the law, they will issue a ‘notification of
– Changing rooms should be provided with contravention’. This document outlines what laws
seating and facilities to dry and store clothing. have been broken and how, and what needs to be
– Separate rooms must be provided for men and done to put things right.
women.
5

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

An HSE inspector may issue an improvement notice

when one or more laws have been breached; this Research
means that faults have to be remedied within a specific
Research an employer’s common-law duty of care
period of time, which should be no less than 21 days. and compare this to their duties under HASAWA.
If there has been a serious breach of the law and people
are at risk of immediate harm, the HSE will issue a
prohibition notice, preventing work from continuing.
1.4 Statutory and non-statutory
documents in construction
Failure to comply with improvement or prohibition
notices can result in prosecution, fines and The UK construction industry is subject to a number
imprisonment. of laws which cover many different areas, including
health, safety and welfare. Legislation comprises Acts
Research of Parliament and regulations (statutory legislation)
which have legal status and must be complied with.
What are the maximum legal penalties for employers However, there are also many non-statutory guidance
that have not adhered to health and safety documents, which are not compulsory but offer advice
legislation? on good practice and compliance with the law, for
example the Approved Codes of Practice (ACOPs)
produced by the HSE which describe preferred
Case study methods and standards. Unless stated, you do not need
to follow the ACOP guidance, but in doing so you will
Amelia is a self-employed painter and decorator meet the requirements of HASAWA. The HSE states
who subcontracts work from medium-sized
that other practical methods can be used, but they
developers in the local area.
must meet or exceed the standards in the ACOP.
Several months ago, she was visited by an HSE
inspector. During the visit, the inspector noticed that
a large amount of hazardous paint was not being
stored correctly and was a potential source of fuel
for a fire; therefore, they issued an improvement
notice.
The enforcement action taken by the inspector has
been published on the HSE website. What impact do
you think this will have on Amelia’s business?

When people suffer loss or injury as a result of an

accident at work, they may seek compensation. If health
and safety legislation has been breached, the duty holder
is usually fined because they have broken criminal law.
Magistrates and the Crown Court have a discretionary
power to award compensation to an injured person.
However, claims are usually pursued by the injured
person because of a breach of common law.
Employers should have liability insurance to cover
any claims against them for a breach of common law;
however they cannot insure against fines when they ▲ Figure 1.2 An Approved Code of Practice
have broken criminal law.
Test yourself
Key term
State one example of statutory legislation that is
Common law: legislation made in the civil courts applicable to a construction activity and an ACOP to
rather than statute law that is made in Parliament support it.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

arising out of their employment and any financial

2 Public liability and employer’s claims made against them.
liability
The amount of liability insurance an employer needs is
2.1 Current requirements usually determined by the number of employees and
level of risk involved with their business. However,
We have already seen that the HSE has the power the minimum amount of cover for most insurance
to issue fines to employers and other duty holders if policies starts between 5 and 10 million pounds. If the
they neglect the law. The fines issued by the HSE are injured person was successful with their claim against
intended to punish employers financially; therefore the employer, the compensation would go towards
they cannot insure against them. the recovery of their lost earnings, medical treatment,
However, employers can protect themselves with ongoing care and any legal fees.
insurance against claims made by employees
through the common-law courts in the pursuit of Research
compensation. In this section, we will look at the
different types of insurance that employers may have. Find out the other types of insurance that a
contractor or subcontractor may take out to
Public liability insurance safeguard themselves and their assets.
Public liability insurance protects a business against
claims for compensation for any loss or injury to
members of the public, customers or employees in Improve your maths
connection with work activities.
The HSE reported that there were 142 work-related
There is no legal requirement for employers to have fatal injuries in the UK in 2020–21; 39 fatalities
public liability insurance. However, if they engage with occurred in the construction industry. What
the public, or the public and their property are likely to percentage of fatalities occurred to construction
workers?
be affected by the employer’s work activities, then they
should have this insurance to protect themselves from
any potential claims made against them.
The level of insurance protection is determined by the
3 Approved construction codes
nature and scale of the work undertaken. Some clients of practice
will stipulate the minimum level of insurance cover
needed by a contractor, and have it agreed in writing 3.1 The HSE Legal (L) Series
before awarding any contracts or allowing construction In 2015, the Construction (Design and Management)
work to start. (CDM) Regulations came into force. Their aim was to
manage health, safety and welfare on all construction
Employers’ liability insurance
projects by defining roles for duty holders. People
Common law is legislation that places a duty of care with responsibilities under the regulations include
on employers to protect their employees from any clients, designers and contractors. If there is more
unnecessary risks, and to ensure a safe system of work. than one designer or contractor working on the same
If a person is injured or suffers a loss in the workplace, construction project, a principal designer or principal
they may seek financial compensation from the contractor must be appointed (named). Any other
employer if they are liable. designers or contractors must work under the control of
the principal designer or contractor.
Key term
The CDM Regulations state that where possible
Liable: legally responsible the designer (or principal designer) should
plan for health and safety by identifying then
eliminating or minimising all foreseeable risks at the
Under the Employers’ Liability (Compulsory Insurance)
planning stage of a project. They also state that all
Act 1969, all employers are required by law to insure
construction work, regardless of size, should have
against liability for injury or disease to their employees
a ‘construction phase plan’. This is a key document

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

that identifies all the potential hazards for a project ‘Legionnaires’ disease: The control of Legionella
and the measures that will be used to remove or bacteria in water systems (L8)’ is an example of an
mitigate them. ACOP and part of the HSE’s L Series. It outlines the
responsibilities that employers and further duty holders
Contractors and principal contractors have a duty
have towards others in relation to Legionella. The latest
under the CDM Regulations to:
(fourth) edition of the document provides revisions to
 provide site inductions for all workers and visitors
simplify some of the text contained in the regulations
to the site
(for example COSHH).
 provide suitable welfare facilities
 secure the site to prevent unauthorised access and The ACOP provides practical advice to prevent the
protect non-workers (for example members of the growth and spread of Legionella bacteria in manmade
public). water systems. The first step in managing the risk is
to complete a suitable and sufficient Legionella risk
The HSE has published a range of documents known
assessment (LRA), to identify the source of any risk. The
as the HSE Legal (L) Series (also referred to as the
ACOP recognises the importance of the LRA and states
CDM Series). Their primary purpose is to support duty
that it must be completed by a trained and competent
holders in meeting their obligations under the CDM
person who fully understands the water systems being
Regulations. They are available online to download
evaluated. Risk assessments must be regularly reviewed
for free, or a hard copy can be purchased through the
and updated when changes are necessary as a result of a
HSE’s website. The L Series contains both Approved
review, to keep records up to date and current.
Codes of Practice (ACOPs) and guidance on various
health, safety and welfare regulations. The ACOP states that duty holders must appoint a
competent person (known as a responsible person)
Key terms with suitable authority to manage the day-to-day
operational procedures, to make sure ‘effective and
Principal designer: a designer appointed by the timely’ actions are taken to manage the hazards
client to take the lead in planning, managing, identified in the risk assessment.
monitoring and co-ordinating health and safety
during the pre-construction phase of a project In addition to risk assessments, the L8 ACOP describes
involving more than one designer other methods of implementing control schemes and
measures, including managing, monitoring precautions
Principal contractor: a contractor appointed by
the client to take the lead in planning, managing,
and inspection.
monitoring and co-ordinating health and safety
during the construction phase of a project involving
more than one contractor

Improve your English

Include the word ‘mitigate’ in a short sentence about
health and safety hazards that you may face at your
training centre.

3.2 Legionnaires’ disease: the control

of Legionella bacteria in water ▲ Figure 1.3 A plumber installing a water system
systems (L8)
Legionnaires’ disease is a type of pneumonia caused
Test yourself
by Legionella bacteria that naturally occur in fresh- How could an employer ensure that ACOPs are
water environments such as streams and lakes. It can implemented in a construction project?
be contracted by inhaling infected airborne water
droplets and can be fatal.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

The law states that every employer must have a policy

4 Development of safe systems for managing health and safety, and that it must be in
of work written form if they have five or more employees. A
health and safety policy sets out the general approach
4.1 Development and use of safe an employer has towards managing health and safety
systems of work in construction in their business and is divided into three sections:
projects  general statement of intent (the employer’s
commitment)
There are different types of management system that  arrangements (what the employer intends to do
can be used to create safe systems of work. However, and how)
the HSE favours the following approach, which can be  responsibilities (areas of responsibility within their
applied to most construction businesses: business and defining roles).
 Plan – for specific health and safety objectives
 Do – implement the plan The Management of Health and Safety at Work
 Check – that the plan is working and measure Regulations 1999 contain a schedule known as the
performance, for example the number of accidents ‘General principles of prevention’. This provides a
and near misses hierarchy of control measures for employers to manage
 Act – learn from any mistakes and put them right. risks to health and safety in the workplace (see
Figure 1.4).

Avoid risks whenever possible

Evaluate the risks that cannot be avoided

Combat the risks at source

Adapt the work to the individual regarding design of

workplaces and choice of equipment and production
methods to reduce their effect on health

Adapt to technical progress

Replace the dangerous with

less or non-dangerous

Develop an overall prevention policy

covering technology, organisation of
work and working conditions

Prioritise collective protective measures

over individual measures

Give appropriate instruction to employees

▲ Figure 1.4 Hierarchy of control measures for managing health and safety risks (source: www.legislation.gov.uk)

Test yourself
What is the least effective method of controlling health and safety risks?

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

A risk assessment should be a structured examination

Research of workplace activities, appropriate and proportional
to the level of risk and the nature of the hazards. It
Find out about permits to work as part of a safe
should be site and task specific; therefore generic
system of work. Explain:
 when they are used risk assessments would not be considered suitable or
 who issues them sufficient.
 how they are controlled
Completing a risk assessment is a five-step process:
You should also make a list of as many work 1 Identify hazards and potential hazards (what could
activities as you can think of that would benefit from cause injury or illness).
a permit-to-work system and justify your reasons for 2 Decide who might be harmed and how.
choosing these tasks.
3 Assess the risks by looking at the likelihood of the
hazard causing harm and the severity of that harm.
4.2 How to complete risk assessments 4 Establish control measures to remove or reduce the
risk of harm. (Look at what you are already doing to
The Management of Health and Safety at Work protect people, what future actions need to be taken
Regulations 1999 place a legal duty on employers to and who needs to take those actions).
manage the risk of potential harm to people from 5 Record any significant hazards found (when
work activities. A risk assessment that identifies there are five or more employees) and review
hazards and determines measures to eliminate or the assessment after the control measures have
control them is fundamental to reducing work-related been put in place to see if they are working, or if
accidents and ill health. anything further could be done.
Risk assessments should not be designed to produce As part of a good management system, employers
lots of paperwork, neither do they need to be should prioritise the highest-level risks before
complicated or difficult to understand. assessing medium-level risks. Once all of these

Risk Assessment
Activity / Workplace assessed: Return to work after accident Location:
Persons consulted / involved in risk assessment Risk assessment reference number:
Date: Review date:
Reviewed on: Review by:

Significant People at risk and what is Existing control Risk rating Further action required Actioned to: Due date: Completion date:
hazard the risk measure What is Use matrix identified in What is required to bring Who will When will the Initial and date
Describe the harm that is currently in place to guidance note. the risk down to an complete the action be once the action has
likely to result from the control the risk? Likelihood (L) acceptable level? Use action? completed been completed.
hazard (e.g. cut, broken leg, Severity (S) hierarchy of control by?
chemical burn etc.) and who described in guidance
could be harmed (e.g. Multiply (L) * (S) to note when considering
employees, contractors, produce risk rating (RR) the controls needed.
Uneven Operatives Verbal warning and L S RR L/M/H None applicable Site supervisor Active now Ongoing
floors supervision 2 1 2 M

Steps Operatives Verbal warning 2 1 2 M None applicable Site supervisor Active now Ongoing

Staircases Operatives Verbal warning 2 2 4 M None applicable Site supervisor Active now Ongoing

Likelihood

1 2 3
Unlikely Possible Very likely

1
Slight/minor
1 2 3
injuries/minor
damage
Severity

2
Medium
injuries/significant 2 4 6
damage

3
Major
3 6 9
injury/extensive
damage

1 – Low risk: action should be taken to reduce the risk if reasonably practicable.
2, 3, 4 – Medium risk: is a significant risk and would require an appropriate level of resource.
6 & 9 – High risk: may require considerable resourced to mitigate. Control should focus on elimination of risk,
if not possible control should be obtained by following the hierarchy of control.  Figure 1.5 A risk assessment

10

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

hazards have been identified and eliminated or These documents are used as part of a safe system
controlled in some way to a satisfactory level, lower- of work to communicate vital health and safety
risk activities should be risk assessed. information and guidance to people completing the
activity; together with risk assessments they are referred
Risk assessments should be completed by a competent
to as RAMS (risk assessments and method statements).
person with a satisfactory level of knowledge and
experience. For more complex activities, the person A typical method statement describes:
completing them may seek advice from other sources,  hazards identified
such as the HSE or trade organisations. Employers with  safe access and egress
five or more employees are required by law to record  supervision needed
significant findings from their risk assessments.  hazardous substances and how to control them
 permit-to-work systems (if applicable)
Health and safety  personal protective equipment
 emergency procedures
Some regulations require risk assessments to  environmental controls
be carried out for specific tasks, for example the  health and safety monitoring
Work at Height Regulations 2005 and the Control  workforce details.
of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH)
Regulations 2002. Although method statements are an effective way
of keeping people safe at work, there is no legal
requirement for employers to produce them. However,
4.3 How to write method statements they are often requested by principal contractors.

Method statements are documents prepared by

employers that describe a logical sequence of steps to Key term
complete a work activity in a safe manner. They reflect
Egress: an exit or way out
the hazards identified in risk assessments and describe
the way in which the job should be undertaken.

METHOD STATEMENT
Revision Date: Revision Description: Approved By:
Work Method Risk Assessment Risk Levels Recommended
Description Actions* (Clause No.)
1.
2.
3.
4.
RISK LEVELS: Class 1 (high) Class 2 (medium) Class 3 (low) Class 4 (very low risk)

Engineering Details/Certificates/Work Cover Codes of Practice, Legislation:

Approvals:

Plant/Equipment: Maintenance Checks:

Sign-off
Print Name: Print Name: Print Name: Print Name:
Signature: Signature: Signature: Signature:
Print Name: Print Name: Print Name: Print Name:
Signature: Signature: Signature: Signature:

▲ Figure 1.6 A method statement

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

4.4 How to complete a COSHH products and processes that may contain or create
substances harmful to health. If they have five
assessment or more employees, these assessments must be
Hazardous substances can take many forms, including written down.
chemicals, dust and biological agents, and are not just The main legal requirement is to use appropriate
products labelled as hazardous. control measures to prevent harm from exposure,
People at work are often exposed to hazardous substances and this can be achieved by applying the hierarchy of
and may be at risk of long-term (chronic) health problems control measures outlined in Figure 1.7.
such as asthma, cancer and skin disease.
Employers and the self-employed have a legal duty
Key term
under the COSHH Regulations to assess the risk Chronic: continuing for a long time
to their employees and others from exposure to

Most effective
method Elimination: avoid or remove the hazard altogether

Substitution: replace hazardous substance with other,

less hazardous substances

Engineering controls: isolate people

from the hazard

Administrative controls:
provide information, training
and instructions to change the way
people think and work, e.g. safety
signs, site inductions and toolbox talks

PPE: as a last resort, protect individuals

Least effective
with personal protective equipment
method

▲ Figure 1.7 Hierarchy of control measures to prevent exposure

By law, suppliers must provide up-to-date safety data Steps to follow to complete a COSHH assessment:
sheets for any hazardous substances. These contain 1 Identify the hazardous substance, who is likely to
the supplier’s information about a product and should be harmed and how.
not be confused with COSHH assessments. 2 Evaluate the risk of the hazard causing harm by
considering frequency of exposure to the substance
Key term and what effects it could have.
3 Decide what reasonably practicable measures are
Safety data sheets: written documents produced
necessary to prevent or control any exposure to the
by manufacturers and suppliers of hazardous
substances that contain important information
hazard and how these will be maintained; make a
about how products should be transported, used, plan for emergencies.
stored and safely disposed of after use, any special 4 Record the assessment.
conditions you should be aware of and how to deal 5 Decide if and when the assessment needs to be
with the substance in an emergency reviewed, and by whom.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

Company name: Patio path and paving Date assessment made:

Department: Date discussed with employees:

Step 1 Step 4
Substance Step 2 Step 3 Action

What are What

What is the What harm, and you doing improvements do
hazard? who? already? you need? Who When Check

Long-term lung
damage, e.g. Water to Get enough water.
bronchitis and silicosis. suppress Those involved
Breathing in Everyone involved in dust. should wear P3
dust from cutting and anyone Protective respirators, ear
cutting paving working nearby goggles plugs

Make sure area is

Breathing in Carbon monoxide Always use not enclosed and
exhaust fumes poisoning. Everyone cutter fumes can
from cutter nearby outdoors disperse

Get access to
Ready-mix Avoid skin running water.
cement – skin Skin burns when laying contact. Use Wash off splashes
contact – cement. Anyone – protective immediately. Use
splashes cement on skin gloves skin care products

Use
protective
Mixing concentrate. gloves. Wash Get access to
Moss killer – Anyone – splash on out applicator running water. Use
skin irritation skin after use skin care products

Also: Action taken Action needed

Check water
Thorough examination and test – COSHH None suppression

When
Supervision available

Respirator training
Instruction and training Yes for P3 and fit test

Emergency plans Mobile phone

Ask doctor about

Health surveillance None lung function tests

Monitoring None None

1. Review your assessment – make sure you are not sliding back
Step 5 2. Any significant change in the work? Check the assessment and change it
Review date: if necessary

Other hazards needing attention: lifting and handling heavy weights, noise, reversing vehicles

▲ Figure 1.8 A COSHH assessment

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Management Safety Training Scheme Refresher

Test yourself (SMSTS-R) to retain the qualification and to make
sure they are aware of any changes in legislation, new
Which substances are covered by the COSHH
Regulations? guidance and industry best practice.

4.7 Site Supervision Safety Training

4.5 Construction Skills Certification Scheme
Scheme The Site Supervision Safety Training Scheme (SSSTS)
The Construction Skills Certification Scheme (CSCS) is a similar qualification to the SMSTS. It is designed
is one of many industry-recognised card schemes for people with supervisory responsibilities or
accredited by the Construction Industry Training those preparing to start in this role and provides an
Board (CITB). CSCS cards prove that the card holder understanding of topics such as site inductions, risk
has a satisfactory level of health and safety awareness; assessments and method statements. Every five years,
they also show relevant qualifications the holder has the Site Supervision Safety Training Scheme Refresher
achieved to confirm they are working in the correct job (SSSTS-R) course has to be completed, to keep up to
role on site. date with any changes that affect the supervisory role
and to retain the qualification status.
There are various types of CSCS card, designed
to suit people working at different levels in the
construction industry, from labourers to academically Key term
and professionally qualified managers. CSCS cards
last a maximum of five years before the holders have Site induction: an occasion when all new visitors
and workers on a construction site are informed
to reapply, however once an apprentice or trainee card
about potential hazards and the control measures
has expired it cannot be renewed. There is no legal used to protect people from harm
requirement for workers to hold a CSCS card, although
most principal contractors and clients require people to
have them as a way of managing health and safety on
sites under their control. 5 Safety conscious procedures
To qualify for a basic CSCS card, a candidate must
first successfully complete the CITB (Site Safety Plus)
5.1 Procedures that promote and
Health and Safety Awareness course and test. They support safety consciousness
must then pass the online CITB Health, Safety and HASAWA states that employers have a duty to
Environment test before they are allowed to apply for provide information, instruction and training to their
an appropriate CSCS card. employees, so that they know how to work safely
without risks to health. Employees and the self-
4.6 Site Management Safety Training employed should be made aware of:
Scheme  the hazards and risks they may face
 control measures that are in place to deal with hazards
Principal contractors and clients usually require
 what to do in the event of an emergency, for
people with planning, organising, controlling
example assemble at the designated muster point
and monitoring responsibilities (for example site
(assembly point).
managers) to hold the Site Management Safety
Training Scheme (SMSTS) qualification. This Employers must pay particular attention to certain
qualification ensures that the holder is up to date with groups, such as young people, new recruits and people
health, safety, welfare and environmental legislation, changing roles, because they are less likely to be aware
so that they can fulfil their legal responsibilities. of potential risks and therefore require additional
Every five years, the holder has to complete the Site training and support.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

Under the Construction (Design and Management)

(CDM) Regulations 2015, principal contractors must
engage with workers about their health, safety
and welfare, and provide a site-specific induction
and any other information and training that they
need. Before entering a workplace, people should be
made aware of potential hazards and the measures
they need to take to protect themselves and others.
On construction sites, this is usually achieved by
following the site rules displayed on notice boards
and safety signs. All workers and visitors to site
have to sign in, so that the site manager is aware
of who is on site at all times, especially in the event
▲ Figure 1.9 A hot works permit-to-work activity
of an emergency. Visitors and new workers will
have to attend a site induction, where they will be
The duration of a site induction will depend on
informed about:
the size and nature of the work and the personnel
 hazards
undertaking the training. Experienced workers or
 site rules
designers (architects and engineers) may only need
 personal protective equipment (PPE)
to attend a brief site induction, whereas someone
 welfare facilities
that is newly qualified will need to attend a full
 first aid
induction. Inductions must be completed for every
 fire extinguishers
new site that is visited, regardless of whether the
 emergency procedures
person is working for the same employer or principal
 key personnel (for example site manager, assistant
contractor.
manager, supervisors, first aider)
 pedestrian routes It is likely that the conditions and hazards on a site will
 parking evolve as work progresses, after people have attended
 working hours a site induction. Workers will need to be updated on
 waste and the environment any matters of health and safety when necessary.
 boundaries Short presentations known as toolbox talks are often
 working at height used to provide this information to workers. These are
 traffic-management plans usually delivered to small groups of workers, in an area
 permits to work of the workplace where they should not be disturbed.
 security These talks usually cover a single aspect of health and
 risk assessments and method statements (RAMS). safety, such as good housekeeping (keeping areas
clean and clear).

Key term
Key term
Permits to work: documents issued by site
managers to workers undertaking high-risk activities Toolbox talks: short training sessions arranged at
as a method of control; they authorise certain regular intervals at a place of work to discuss health
people to carry out specific work tasks within a and safety issues; they give safety reminders and
given timeframe and set out the precautions needed inform personnel about new hazards that may have
to complete the work safely recently arisen

Research
Make a list of activities that should be controlled by
a permit-to-work system. Choose one activity from
your list and create a detailed permit to work using a
template from the HSE’s website.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

5.2 Benefits of procedures that Improve your maths

promote and support safety
consciousness In 2020, the HSE published a profile of non-fatal
workplace injuries by accident kind:
It is important to remember that employees have duties  falls from a height 8%
under HASAWA, as well as employers, and that every  struck by a moving object 11%
effort must be made to comply with the law.  slips, trips or falls on the same level 29%
 acts of violence 9%
The law states that employees must:  handling, lifting or carrying 19%
 take care of their own health and safety and that of  other 24%.
others Produce a pie chart on a computer to illustrate this
 report any work situations that present a serious data.
and imminent risk
 co-operate with their employer to help them comply
with health and safety legislation
 follow any instructions or health and safety training 6 Safety inspection of a work
provided by their employer environment
 inform their employer of any shortcomings they
identify in their health and safety arrangements. 6.1 Methods used to inspect a
When an employee fails in these responsibilities or does workplace to ensure it is safe
not follow their employer’s health and safety procedures, Employers have a responsibility to monitor health and
they are essentially breaking the law and could be putting safety arrangements in the workplace, to ensure they
themselves and others at risk of injury, illness or death. are effectively controlling risks.
Accidents and near misses in the workplace often cost There are two types of monitoring system that are
the employer in terms of time, effort and money. There typically used in the construction industry:
may also be penalties imposed on them by the HSE  Active monitoring is the monitoring of people,
and civil claims made against them. procedures, premises and plant in the workplace
A workplace accident could also result in indirect costs in order to identify potential hazards before an
for the employer, such as: accident or incident occurs, so that control measures
 project timescales slipping and missed deadlines can be taken to prevent harm.
 time spent training new staff  Reactive monitoring is an inspection completed
 increased insurance premiums. after an incident has taken place, for example a
review of accident forms or statistics which might
Employers with a poor health and safety record usually
identify an area of concern, such as skin burns from
have difficulty retaining staff, because they do not feel
welding equipment or falls from height.
safe in their place of work. It also leads to low morale
and a negative health and safety culture, which in turn Although reactive monitoring is a review of performance
makes it challenging to recruit new employees. standards, it is a useful method of identifying problems
to prevent further accidents and incidents occurring and
Poor standards of health and safety can also have a
should be used alongside active monitoring.
detrimental effect on future contracts and potentially
result in losing business.
Key terms
Test yourself
Active monitoring: monitoring people, procedures,
1 What powers does the HSE have to enforce premises and plant in the workplace in order to identify
HASAWA? potential hazards before an accident or incident occurs,
2 What impact do you think an accident at work so that control measures can be taken to prevent harm
could have on an injured employee? Reactive monitoring: an inspection completed after
an incident has taken place to prevent further incidents
occurring

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

There are various types of health and safety inspection

that can be implemented in the workplace:
 Health and safety audits (also known as desktop
audits) are used to inspect health and safety
documentation used in the workplace.
 Safety sampling is used to focus an investigation on
a representative sample of a workplace standard, for
example a random selection of portable electrical
equipment could be selected to check if portable
appliance testing (PAT) is up to date. If a big enough
sample is selected, then it is likely to reflect any
▲ Figure 1.10 A site manager inspecting work on a issues that may be identified on a wider scale within
construction site
the company.
6.2 Monitoring health and safety in  Safety surveys are often used to focus a detailed
health and safety investigation on a particular topic
the workplace
or issue, rather than the workplace as a whole.
As part of a good health and safety management  Safety tours are full inspections of entire
system, employers should plan a programme of workplaces to identify any hazards or shortcomings
statutory, routine, periodic and pre-use inspections in employers’ or employees’ health and safety
of equipment and their workplace. The frequency of responsibilities.
the inspections will be determined by a number of  Incident inspections are carried out after an
factors, for example pre-use inspections of safety accident, a near miss or a case of reported ill health
equipment may be completed daily by employees, to the HSE.
whereas a periodic inspection of lifting equipment
Routine health and safety inspections are often guided
could be every six months, as determined by
by checklists and templates of set items that must be
the Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment
covered. These provide excellent prompts and are easy
Regulations (LOLER) 1998.
to complete with little training. They are also cheap,
easy to reproduce and provide a consistent approach
for every inspection, regardless of who completes
it. The disadvantage is that hazards can often be
overlooked if they are not listed, and therefore this
form of inspection is not always preferred.
A random visual or sensory inspection of a work area
by a team of representatives is sometimes a better way
of identifying all potential hazards, because inspectors
are not restricted by a checklist or template.

6.3 Types and use of recording

documentation
▲ Figure 1.11 A construction crane covered by LOLER
Employers and their safety representatives are
responsible for recording all inspections in a clear
Active monitoring should involve structured, well-
written report, as soon as possible after they have
planned and organised examinations carried out by
taken place. In some cases, this is a legal duty.
competent, experienced inspectors. Employers must
decide: The report should contain:
 what type of inspections need to be completed  the date the inspection took place
 who needs to be involved  any potential hazards or defects found
 what analytical equipment may be needed, even if  when the next inspection is due.
this means consulting specialists.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Inspection reports are then used to inform an action and construction are considered high-risk industries;
plan to put right any problems identified. An action therefore the HSE is the authority responsible for
plan should detail: enforcing the relevant legislation.
 any corrective actions needed
The following people have general duties under health
 people with responsibilities for carrying out the
and safety law:
corrective actions
 employers
 the timescale in which the corrective actions must
 employees
be completed.
 people in control of premises
 manufacturers of products, goods or materials used
Research in the construction industry.
Research HSE forms F2534 and F2533 – documents The general duties of employers towards their
that can be used to record the results of inspections employees are to:
and notify an employer of any unsafe or unhealthy  protect the health, safety and welfare of their
working practices and unsatisfactory welfare facilities.
employees so far as is reasonably practicable
 ensure plant and systems of work are maintained
Under the Provision and Use of Work Equipment and safe
Regulations (PUWER) 1998, employers have specific  ensure the safe use, handling, storage and transport
duties to ensure that equipment provided for use at of articles and substances
work is:  provide information, instruction, training and
supervision to their employees
‘… maintained in a safe condition and inspected  ensure any place of work under their control is safe and
to ensure it is correctly installed and does not without risks to health, including access and egress
subsequently deteriorate.’  ensure the provision and maintenance of adequate
Other legislation, such as the Lifting Operations and welfare facilities.
Lifting Equipment Regulations (LOLER) 1998, the
Pressure Systems Safety Regulations (PSSR) 2000, the Key terms
Work at Height Regulations 2005 and the Personal
Reasonably practicable: a term used in health and
Protective Equipment Regulations 2002, also give
safety law to describe realistic steps that should be
specific duties to employers to examine work equipment taken to comply with the law in terms of time, effort
and keep an up-to-date register of all inspections. and money
It is important that employers maintain these inspection Plant: heavy construction machinery, equipment
records because they may be referred to in the event and vehicles, for example a crane or dumper
of an investigation into an accident or near miss in the
workplace. Inspection records, maintenance schedules and
service plans could also be requested by HSE inspectors or Test yourself
required by an employer’s insurance company.
Make a list of the general duties employees have
7 Implications to those working under HASAWA.

within the BSE industry of not

following health and safety Research
legislation Which other enforcement authorities have the same
powers as the HSE?
7.1 Roles and responsibilities of those
working in the BSE industry
The main roles and responsibilities of people working Research
in the building services engineering industry are
What responsibilities do other duty holders have,
no different from those of people working in the besides employers and their employees?
construction industry. Building services engineering

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

The implications of not following health and safety

legislation were made clear in section 1.3 of this chapter:
improvement notices, prohibition notices and prosecution.

8 Safe working practices for the

safe isolation of systems
During the installation and maintenance of Building
Services Engineering systems, engineers are required
to isolate a range of supplies:
 water supplies (hot and cold)
 gas supplies
 electrical supplies.

It is important that isolation is carried out safely and in

accordance with relevant guidance documents and set
procedures.
Prior to isolating any building services system, the
responsible person should be informed and should also
be advised as to how long the system will be out of ▲ Figure 1.12 Service valve supplying a cold water
action (decommissioned). Where applicable you should storage cistern
always arrange for alternative services to be provided.

Key terms
Decommissioning: the process of isolating a system and
taking it out of action either permanently or temporarily

8.1 Water supplies (hot and cold)

When working on both cold and hot water supplies, it
is important to know where to safely isolate the system.
Isolation valves turn off (isolate) either complete
systems, parts of systems or individual appliances.
They can be divided into the following types:
 those that isolate high-pressure systems, such as
stop valves
 those that isolate low-pressure systems, such as
full-way gate valves
 those that isolate appliances and terminal fittings
on either high- or low-pressure systems.
Where isolation valves are not in place, a pipe freezing
kit can be used to isolate the system.
Direct cold water systems can be completely isolated
at the main stop valve where the supply enters the
building. If this is used to isolate the water supply, both
the hot and cold water will be isolated.
Indirect cold water systems can be isolated at the gate
valve located on the distribution pipe connected to
the cold water storage cistern. If the cold water storage
cistern requires replacement, it will need to be isolated ▲ Figure 1.13 Isolating an indirect cold water system
at the service valve supplying it.
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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Unvented hot water systems can be isolated at the

service valve on the cold water supply to the cylinder.

22 mm vent pipe
Isolation valve discharging into the
CWSC and sealed
with a grommet

22 mm or 28 mm full-way gate valve or

lever type spherical ball valve

22 mm draw-off to the bath then

reduced to 15 mm to all other appliances

22 mm
primary
circulating
pipes connect
the heat sorce
to the cylinder Heat source. Gas circulator
or back boiler behind a
solid fuel fire

▲ Figure 1.14 Isolating an unvented hot water system

Where hot water in a property is supplied from a

combination boiler or water heater, this should be
isolated at the service valve located under the boiler.
▲ Figure 1.16 Isolating a vented hot water system
(Remember to isolate the electrical supply.)
At the point of isolation, a warning notice should be
displayed informing people that the system is out of
order and not to use it. This will prevent the system
being turned on while it is being worked on.

▲ Figure 1.15 Isolating a combination boiler or water

heater

Vented hot water systems are isolated at the gate valve

supplying the hot water cylinder.

Health and safety ▲ Figure 1.17 Warning notice

Care should be taken when draining down hot Where there are open ends on hot and cold water
water systems to prevent scalding.
supply pipework, these should be capped off using a
suitable fitting.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

Test yourself

1 Where is the cold water supply to the entire

property isolated?
2 Where hot water is supplied from a combination
boiler or water heater where do we isolate it?
3 Where is the hot water supply from a vented hot
water system isolated?

8.2 Gas supplies

It is not permitted to isolate a gas supply in the event of ▲ Figure 1.19 Appliance gas isolation valve
an emergency, unless you are a Gas Safe engineer.
Located at the inlet of the gas meter is an emergency Industry tip
control valve (ECV) which is used to isolate the gas
supply to a property. The ECV should: It is an offence to leave an open end on gas supply
 fall to the ‘off’ position pipework. All open ends must be capped using a
 have on/off tape indicating the direction to close the suitable stop end.
valve
 move freely.
8.3 Electrical supplies
Before any work is carried out on electrical systems, the
isolation procedure should be carried out to ensure the
installation is safe to be worked on.
When you isolate an electricity supply, there will be
disruption. Careful planning should precede isolation
of circuits. For example, when isolating a section of
a nursing home where elderly residents live, you will
need to consult the nursing home staff to consider the
possible consequences of isolation and to prepare a
procedure.
The following questions are useful:
1 How will the isolation affect the staff and other
personnel? For example, think about loss of power
to lifts, heating and other essential systems.
▲ Figure 1.18 Gas meter showing the position of the 2 How could the isolation affect the residents and
ECV clients? For example, some residents may rely
on oxygen, medical drips and ripple beds to aid
In the event of an emergency gas situation, the circulation. These critical systems usually have
following procedure should be followed: battery back-up facilities for short durations.
 Turn off the ECV 3 How could the isolation affect the members of the
 Open doors and windows to ventilate the property public? For example, fire alarms, nurse call systems,
 Call the National Gas Emergency Service number emergency lighting and other systems may stop
 DON’T turn any power or light switches on or off working.
 DON’T light any sort of flame within the property 4 How can an isolation affect systems? For example,
 DON’T use any appliances that could cause a spark. IT programs and data systems could be affected;
As stated in the Gas Safety (Installation and Use) timing devices could be disrupted. In this scenario,
Regulations 1998, there should be an isolation valve at you must make the employers, employees, clients,
the inlet of all gas appliances to aid localised isolation residents and members of the public aware of the
of the supply. planned isolation.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Alternative electrical back-up supplies may be required Safe isolation of electrical systems
in the form of generators or uninterruptable power
The following equipment is required to undertake the
supply systems.
safe isolation of electrical systems:
The main incoming electrical supply can be isolated  a voltage indicator which has been manufactured
at the consumer unit or distribution board. This and maintained in accordance with Health and
component contains a main switch which will isolate Safety Executive (HSE) Guidance Note GS38
all the power within a property. Each individual  a proving unit compatible with the voltage indicator
circuit will have its own miniature circuit breaker  a lock and/or multi-lock system
(MCB) and means of isolation allowing isolation of  warning notices which identify the work being
individual circuits such as lighting, sockets, cooker carried out
points, immersion heaters and appliances.  relevant personal protective equipment (PPE) that
adheres to all site PPE rules.
Procedure
1 Obtain permission to start work. In some
environments a permit to work may be needed
2 Locate and identify circuit or equipment to be
worked on
3 Identify means of isolation
4 Ensure isolation of circuit or equipment by
switching off and:
– withdrawing fuses
– locking off
– isolating switches or circuit breakers
– fitting warning notice at point of isolation
▲ Figure 1.20 Distribution board

▲ Figures 1.21 and 1.22 Switched fuse unit (left) and

locked fuse (right)

The electricity supply to appliances and components

is usually provided by a fused spur, either switched or
unswitched. These appliances can be isolated at this
point by isolating and removal of the cartridge fuse.
▲ Figure 1.23 Warning notice at point of isolation
Industry tip
5 Select an approved test lamp or voltage indicating
The electricity supply to a macerator should be device
provided via an unswitched fused spur.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

For employers:
 lower productivity
 higher employee turnover
 an unmotivated workforce
 financial problems, for example due to higher
insurance premiums or legal costs
 damage to business reputation.

For the general public:

 accidents and near misses
 ill health
 injuries
 fatalities
 environmental issues.
These implications are covered throughout this chapter.
During the design and planning of a building or
structure, it is important to consider the health, safety
▲ Figure 1.24 Voltage proving meter to indicate voltage and welfare of workers undertaking the construction
6 Verify that the device is functioning correctly on a phase. However, it is equally important to plan for the
known supply or proving unit protection of people carrying out routine inspections of
7 Verify that the circuit or equipment to be worked the building or maintenance work.
on is dead using a voltage indicating device, testing
between all line conductors (three phase): 10 Recording and reporting of
– Line – Earth
– Line – Neutral
safety incidents and near misses
– Neutral – Earth
10.1 Reporting an incident or near
8 Recheck that the voltage indicating device is
functioning correctly on a known supply or proving miss in the workplace
unit Workplace accidents and incidents must be reported to
9 Begin work employers so that they can be properly dealt with and
investigated to help develop potential solutions and
Test yourself reduce the risk of them reoccurring.
Under the Social Security (Claims and Payments)
1 Prior to working on an electrical system, what
Regulations 1979, employers must record details of
should be carried out?
any workplace accident in an accident book. It is best
2 How can we inform people that a system has
been isolated? to complete the entry as soon as possible after the
accident has occurred, so that important information is
not left out.

9 Implications of poor health and

safety on building performance Key term
and individual stakeholders Accident book: a formal document used to record
details of accidents that occur in the workplace,
There are many implications of poor health and safety. whether to an employee or visitor
For workers:
 accidents (such as slips, trips and falls) and near As this book contains sensitive information about the
misses accident and personal details about the injured person,
 ill health it must be stored safely and securely to prevent a
 injuries breach of confidentiality.
 fatalities.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

By making reports and keeping records of accidents  non-fatal accidents to non-workers, for example
on site, it is possible to see patterns that may be a member of the general public; however, this
emerging, possibly due to bad habits or incorrect work only needs to be reported if the person received
practices. These records can assist in planning future treatment at hospital
work activities to reduce the occurrence of accidents  occupational diseases:
and may be used when legal matters arise related to – asthma
an accident or emergency. Accident records can be – cancer
requested and looked at by an employer’s insurance – carpal tunnel syndrome
company, if a claim is made against them, or the – dermatitis
HSE as part of an investigation into an accident or – disease attributed to exposure to a biological
dangerous occurrence. The law states that employers agent
must keep accident records for at least three years – hand–arm vibration syndrome
after the date they were completed. – severe cramp of the forearm or hand
– tendonitis of the forearm or hand
 specified injuries caused by workplace accidents:
– amputations
– injuries arising from working in an enclosed
space
– any scalping requiring hospital treatment
– crush injuries to the torso or head
– fractures, other than to fingers, toes and thumbs
– loss of consciousness caused by asphyxia or a
head injury
– permanent loss of sight or reduction in sight
– serious burns (including scalding)
 over seven consecutive days’ absences when a
worker is unable to perform their duties as a result
of a workplace accident.
If an employee has been absent from work for three
days as a result of an accident, it does not need to be
reported to the HSE; however the employer must keep
a record. A copy of a report in an accident book is
usually sufficient.

▲ Figure 1.25 An accident book

Employers have a duty to report the following to the

HSE under RIDDOR:
 the death of any person caused by a workplace
accident
 dangerous occurrences (also known as ‘near-miss
accidents’)
 gas incidents where someone has died, lost
▲ Figure 1.26 A dangerous occurrence
consciousness, or been taken to hospital for
treatment

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

 terrorist threats, for example while undertaking

Test yourself construction work on government buildings
 water leak, for example boring (drilling) into the
When should an employee be made aware of their
employer’s accident and incident reporting policy? ground and coming into contact with a mains
water pipe
 carbon monoxide, for example from a poorly
Research installed or maintained boiler
 electric shock, for example an operative cutting
Find out how to report a dangerous occurrence to into a masonry wall with a disc cutter coming
the HSE under RIDDOR. into contact with buried services such as
electrical wires.
As part of their health and safety preparations, an
11 Emergency procedures for employer (as a responsible person) must nominate
unsafe situations a competent person to make an emergency plan,
complete a fire risk assessment and inform workers
11.1 Procedures to follow in unsafe about the findings.
situations
Key term
An emergency situation in the workplace can often
result in delays with construction work, missed Responsible person: (in law) usually the employer
deadlines and additional costs for the principal (assuming control of the workplace), a person with
control of the premises or an owner; that person can
contractor, not to mention the risk to workers’ lives.
then nominate other competent people to perform
To reduce the potential impact of an unforeseen
legal responsibilities, for example to manage fire
incident, employers have a duty under the CDM safety
Regulations to plan for emergencies on construction
sites as part of their pre-construction work. Under
Fire risk assessments are intended to identify fire
the Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005,
hazards in a workplace and those at risk of harm.
employers also have a duty to plan for emergencies on
The level of risk should then be evaluated and a plan
other sites such as offices, factories and warehouses.
should be prepared by the responsible person. Where
an employer has five or more employees, the fire risk
assessment should be recorded.
Workers on construction sites are usually informed
about plans for emergencies and fire risk assessments
during their site induction. The actions to follow are
often reinforced on safety notices and information
boards displayed in work areas.
An emergency plan should be prepared at the start of
every project and cover the following areas:
 safe evacuation of the site in the event of an emergency
 emergency escape routes
 safety signage (for example directional signs and
▲ Figure 1.27 A fire on a construction site assembly points)
 safe storage of hazardous and flammable materials,
Examples of unsafe or emergency situations in a
including waste
workplace include:
 site security to minimise the risk of arson
 fire, for example welding pipes using a blow torch
 assembly points and registers of workers on site
providing a source of ignition
 fire wardens
 gas leaks, for example groundworks with a multi-
 fire detection and alarms
purpose excavator causing damage to a buried
 designated spill kits to deal with hazardous
gas pipe
chemical, fuel or oil spillages and leaks

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

 training for workers on emergency equipment and 11.2 Actions to be taken when dealing
fire safety (for example use of fire extinguishers,
spill kits, and how to raise the alarm)
with fire situations
 procedures for calling the emergency services In the event of a fire in the workplace, workers must
 emergency lighting follow their employer’s procedures. The main steps in a
 fire extinguishers fire procedure are outlined in Figure 1.29.
 maintenance of escape routes and fire doors to keep
them clear at all times
 hot works permit systems
Raise the alarm and inform others.
 arrangements for smoking
 arrangements for vehicles and plant, for example
refuelling
 emergency plant shut down and isolation to make
processes safe.

Walk quickly, following the directional signs, to the closest

available emergency exit. Make sure you close all the fire
doors behind you. Do not use any lifts between floors.

Only attempt to tackle a small fire if it is blocking your safe

exit and if you are trained to use the equipment.

▲ Figure 1.28 A fire marshal

Key terms
Arson: the criminal act of deliberately setting fire to
property
Report to the assembly point and stay there until you are
Hot works: any construction work involving open
told to leave.
flames or generating heat or friction; hot works are
particularly high-risk activities that have the potential
to cause fires if they are not controlled properly with
a permit-to-work system

Research
Research permits to work and list as many Call the emergency services.
construction activities as possible that may need one.

Research ▲ Figure 1.29 Fire procedure

Research the role of a fire warden and list their

responsibilities in the event of a fire in a workplace.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

Employers should prepare for an emergency by 11.3 Fire extinguishers and their uses
practising evacuation procedures, without notice, to
make sure everyone understands their roles to act Fires need three elements to burn:
promptly and appropriately. The control measures  heat – such as a spark or naked flame
should be monitored, maintained and reviewed by the  fuel – any material or substance that is combustible
appointed person to make sure they are effective and  oxygen – a gas that occurs naturally in the air.
do not deteriorate over time, for example a fire drill If all three are present, a fire is unavoidable. If one
that is over-rehearsed could be disregarded by workers element is missing, a fire cannot occur. This is often
in a real emergency situation. referred to as the ‘fire triangle’.
Fire extinguishers are designed to put out fire by
Research removing one or more of these elements; however, if
the wrong extinguisher is used, it could make the fire
Look up the Gas Industry Unsafe Situations
worse or increase the risk of harm.
Procedure (GIUSP) and Gas Safety (Installation and
Use) Regulations (GSIUR) 1998. Write a short report The fire risk assessment should identify the appropriate
on the role of an engineer when an appliance or fire extinguishers for a workplace and where they
installation poses an immediate danger to life or should be situated (known as a fire point). They are
property.
usually placed close to exits and where there is an
increased risk of a fire, for example hot works.
Fires are classified according to the type of fuel that is
burning:
 Class A (flammable solids) – paper, cardboard, fabric
 Class B (flammable liquids) – paints, adhesives, petrol
 Class C (flammable gases) – liquid petroleum gas
(LPG), natural gas
 Class D (flammable metals) – magnesium, lithium,
aluminium
 Electrical (not classed as E because electrical fires
are a source of ignition, not fuel)
 Class F (cooking fats and oils) – chip pan or grease
fires.
▲ Figure 1.30 A first aider attending to a casualty on The CDM Regulations state that everyone at
a construction site work should be instructed on the safe use of fire
extinguishers and understand the colour-coding
system used to distinguish different types. All fire
Research extinguishers should have a red body with a colour-
What are the emergency procedures to deal with
coded panel to identify their content and the type of
electric shock? fire that they can safely be used to extinguish.
Table 1.2 describes the range of fire extinguishers.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

▼ Table 1.2 Fire extinguishers

Type of extinguisher Colour of label Fire classification Special considerations How it works
Water Red Class A Do not use on Class B or Cools the fire to
electrical fires remove the heat

Dry powder Blue Class A Extinguishers leave a Smothers the fire to

residue that may be remove the oxygen
Class B
harmful to sensitive
Class C electronics
Class D
Electrical

Foam Cream Class A Do not aim the Floats on the surface

extinguisher directly at of the burning liquid to
Class B
liquid fires create a seal, starving
the fire of fuel
Do not use on electrical
or Class F fires

Carbon dioxide (CO2) Black Class B Horn can become Displaces (shifts) the
very cold when it oxygen in the air
Electrical
is discharged and
may freeze, although
frost-free versions are
available
Not to be used in a
confined space

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

Type of extinguisher Colour of label Fire classification Special considerations How it works
Wet chemical Yellow Class A Prevents splashing of Cools the fire to
hot fats and oils remove the heat
Class F

Research Key term

Research other types of equipment that can be used Respiratory protective equipment (RPE): personal
to extinguish a fire and explain why they would be protective equipment that protects the user’s
preferred to fire extinguishers. respiratory system

Under the Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) at

12 Types of PPE Work Regulations 1992, employers have legal duties to
provide adequate information, instruction and training
12.1 The purpose and correct use to their employees on the safe use of PPE. The law
of PPE also states that employers should provide PPE free of
When the principles of prevention are applied charge, and that their employees should understand
to mitigate the risk of harm, personal protective how to use and take care of it.
equipment (PPE) is always considered a last resort PPE is a last line of defence and will only work properly
because it only protects the user. Only after employers if the correct type has been selected, it fits correctly
have considered all other methods of protecting their and it is in good condition. Therefore, employees must:
employees, for example eliminating or controlling  wear PPE when instructed to do so by their
risks at source, should they provide suitable PPE or employer
respiratory protective equipment (RPE).  wear and adjust PPE correctly to work safely as
trained
 store PPE after use and maintain it
 report any defects in, damage to or loss of PPE.

If more than one item of PPE has to be worn at

the same time, you must make sure that they are
compatible with each other and that this does not
affect the level of protection they provide. PPE that is
uncomfortable to wear and does not suit the user can
sometimes create further hazards, and discourage
workers from using it.
Table 1.3 illustrates types of PPE and the hazards they
protect against.
▲ Figure 1.31 A respirator

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

▼ Table 1.3 Types of PPE

Body part protected Hazards Types of PPE Correct use

Ears Noise – average • Ear defenders Ear protection should reduce noise levels
weekly exposure above • Ear muffs to an acceptable level, so that you are still
85 dB and other stated • Ear plugs able to communicate while wearing it.
levels. • Canal caps/semi-insert
Ear protectors are manufactured with a
ear plugs
single number rating (SNR) system, which
allows the acoustic pressure on your
ears to be calculated. For example, ear
plugs with an SNR of 38 dB (decibels)
will reduce a noise of 87 dB by 38 dB
to a safe level of 49 dB. To put this into
context, a hammer drill produces in
excess of 100 dB.
Disposable foam ear plugs should be fully
inserted in the ear to work properly and
disposed of after each use.
Eyes • Sparks • Goggles Eye protection should be compatible
• Dust • Safety spectacles with other PPE worn, adjustable and
• Chemicals • Face screens stored correctly to prevent damage to the
• Debris • Face shields lenses.
• Full-face visors
• Sunglasses
Feet and legs • Slips • Safety trainers, shoes, Footwear should have a good grip for
• Falling objects boots and wellingtons different surfaces, for example oil and
• Objects penetrating with toecaps and mud, and be replaced when it becomes
the sole (for example protective mid-soles damaged.
nails sticking out of • Chainsaw and foundry
The risk assessment will identify which
timber) boots
footwear should be worn.
• Knee pads
• Kneeling pads
Hands and arms • Cuts and abrasions • Anti-vibration gloves Care should be taken to select the correct
• Impacts • Nitrile foam coated type of gloves to protect against hazards.
• Chemicals gloves They must not create further risks, such
• Temperature • Gloves with cuffs as entanglement in machinery, when they
extremes • Gauntlets are being used.
• Biological agents • Protective arm sleeves
• Hand-arm vibration • Elbow pads
syndrome (HAVS)
Head and neck • Falling objects • Hard hats PPE should be worn as directed by the
• Hair entanglement • Bump caps manufacturer. In general, hard hats
• Chemicals • Snoods should be square on your head with the
• Adverse weather • Hair nets peak facing forwards. Avoid wearing caps
or beanies underneath hard hats, unless
they are designed for this. Avoid marking
hats with paint or pens, because the
chemicals damage them.
Bump caps are no substitute for hard hats
and should only be worn when there is a
very low risk of bumping your head.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

Body part protected Hazards Types of PPE Correct use

Lungs (respiratory • Dust Respiratory protective Masks should form a good seal around
system) • Vapours equipment (RPE): the user’s face to protect them properly.
• Mists • disposable half-mask Employers often assess the performance
• Gases respirators and suitability of masks provided for
• Atmospheres with • reusable half-mask their employees by undertaking face-fit
low or no oxygen respirators with a filter testing.
• full-face mask respirators
The type of masks and filters used should
• powered respirators with
reflect the hazards. Employees should
a mask/hood or helmet
understand when and how to replace
• breathing apparatus (BA)
respirator filters.
When masks are not in use, they should
be stored correctly to prevent them
being contaminated with hazardous
substances.
Whole body • Chemicals • Aprons Whole-body protective equipment must
• Temperature • Overalls be worn according to the manufacturer’s
extremes • Boiler suits instructions and should not cause a
• Adverse weather • Chemical suits risk of entanglement with equipment or
• Dust • High-visibility clothing machinery.
• Metal splashes
Contaminated PPE should be cleaned or
disposed of properly and never mixed
with personal clothing.

Key term Health and safety

Bump caps: a type of PPE designed to protect the Always check the expiry dates of safety helmets to
user’s head when there is a low risk of bumping it; ensure they offer the correct level of protection in
it is not designed to take an impact from an object the event of an accident. Your employer should tell
falling from height you how to find this information as part of your PPE
training.

Emergency equipment may be required for those

working near water, in confined spaces, at height or Health and safety
in oxygen-deficient atmospheres. This includes life
jackets, safety harnesses, safety ropes and breathing The Personal Protective Equipment (Enforcement)
apparatus. You must be trained in the safe use of Regulations 2018 state that PPE must be carefully
emergency equipment and report any damage to it. selected to make sure it is manufactured to
European standards. Always check your PPE
before using it to make sure it bears CE marking.
If it does not, inform your employer immediately
and replace it. Note that rules on CE marking on
PPE are due to be replaced with UK Conformity
Assessed (UKCA) marking on 1 January 2023.

Key term
CE marking: a mark on a product that shows it
has been designed and manufactured to meet
EU safety, health or environmental requirements;
CE is an abbreviation of a French term ‘conformité
européenne’, meaning ‘European conformity’
▲ Figure 1.32 A construction worker wearing PPE

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Key term
Lone workers: those who work by themselves
without close or direct supervision by their employer
or work colleagues; they may work in a remote
location or in a workplace with members of the
public

▲ Figure 1.33 PPE with CE marking

13 First-aid facilities
13.1 First-aid facilities that must be
available in the work area
The Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations 1981
place legal duties on all employers to provide adequate
and appropriate first-aid equipment, facilities and ▲ Figure 1.34 First-aid facilities on a construction site

people to assist their employees if they are injured

Employers responsible for work activities in low-risk
or taken ill at work. To establish what is considered
environments have to provide a first-aid kit for their
adequate and appropriate, employers must first carry
workers. They must also appoint a person to take
out a workplace-specific first-aid assessment to
charge of their first-aid arrangements, for example
determine their needs.
checking first-aid boxes are adequately stocked and
A first-aid assessment should take into consideration: calling the emergency services when necessary.
 the nature of work being carried out and any
In workplaces where there is a significant risk to
specific hazards
employees’ health and safety, employers must also
 the number of staff on site at any one time
have a trained first aider. In the event of the first aider’s
 the spread of the workforce
absence, due to any unforeseen circumstances, the
 lone workers
appointed person should be able to provide emergency
 the amount of first aiders and cover needed for
cover for them.
holidays/absences
 the number of first-aid boxes and their contents
 first-aid resources needed, for example a first-aid
room, stretcher and defibrillator
 staff training, information and instruction.

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The HSE publication ‘First aid at work’ recommends

the contents of a basic first-aid box. However, an
14 Warning signs for the main
employer’s first-aid assessment will usually determine groups of hazardous substance
their exact needs.
14.1 Categories of safety sign
The first-aid equipment and facilities provided
by employers should be kept clean and dry and Safety signs and notices are often displayed around
made easily accessible. They should also be clearly work areas and construction sites to convey important
signposted, in accordance with the Health and Safety health and safety information. The Health and Safety
(Safety Signs and Signals) Regulations 1996. (Safety Signs and Signals) Regulations 1996 categorise
safety signs by their geometrical shape, colour and a
Employers have a legal duty to inform their employees simple pictogram. They may also be supported with
about their first-aid arrangements, including who their supplementary text in the same colour as the sign.
first aiders are, how to contact them and the location
of the first-aid provision. This information is usually The main categories of safety sign are listed in Table 1.4.
shared with workers when they first arrive at work, as ▼ Table 1.4 Categories of safety sign
part of their site or workplace induction.
Type of safety sign Description
Mandatory A circle with a blue
background and white
symbol or text
Tells you that something
must be done, for example
eye protection must be
worn

Safe condition A square or rectangle with

a green background
Shows directions to areas
of safety and medical
assistance in case of
emergency

▲ Figure 1.35 First-aid eyewash kit

Prohibition A circle with a red outline

Research and a red line from the top
left to the bottom right
What provision has your industry placement Tells you that something
employer made for lone workers? must not be done, for
example no smoking or no
pedestrian access

Health and safety

The HSE recommends that tablets and medicines
are not kept in a first-aid box.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

▼ Table 1.4 Categories of safety sign

Test yourself
Type of safety sign Description
Warning A yellow triangle with a What are the five main classifications of safety sign?
black outline
Makes you aware of
nearby danger Case study
The principal contractor for a construction project
is in the pre-construction stage of planning for work
on a new building site. The project is expected to
last longer than 30 working days and have more
than 20 workers on site at any one time during the
Fire fighting A red rectangle or square construction phase.
with a white pictogram Explain what safety signs and notices would legally
Marks the location of have to be displayed around the site under the
fire-fighting equipment Construction (Design and Management) Regulations
and fire-alarm activation 2015.
points
What do you think are the advantages of using
safety signs and notices, rather than other safety
control measures?

14.2 Symbols for hazardous waste

The law states that safety signs should only be used when
Manufacturers, importers, distributors and other
there is a significant risk to health and safety that cannot
users of chemicals in the UK have legal duties under
be removed or controlled in other ways, or when they can
the Classification, Labelling and Packaging (CLP)
reduce a risk further. If too many signs are displayed in
Regulation 2010 to use appropriate safety signs for the
close proximity to each other, they can cause confusion
classification, labelling and packaging of hazardous
and the main points may be overlooked; therefore
substances and waste. These signs are explained in
employers must select and position them carefully.
Table 1.5.

Health and safety

Safety signs should not be used as a substitute for
other control methods, for example engineering
controls such as safety guards.

▼ Table 1.5 CLP Regulations safety signs

Safety sign Meaning Encountered when using …

Explosive Explosive, self-reactive Gas

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

Safety sign Meaning Encountered when using …

Flammable • Flammable gases, solids, liquids and • Expanding foam
aerosols • Nail-gun canisters
• Self-heating, self-reactive • Solvent cement
• Contact with water creates flammable gas • Paint stripper

Oxidising • Oxidising gases, liquids and solids Chemicals

• May cause fire or explosion
• May intensify fire

Gas under pressure • Contains gas under pressure Carbon-dioxide cylinders used in
• May explode if heated welding
• Contains refrigerated gas which may cause
cryogenic burns

Corrosive • Corrosive to metals • Portland cement

• Causes severe skin burns and eye damage • Hydrated lime
• Brick cleaner
• Batteries

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

▼ Table 1.5 CLP Regulations safety signs

Safety sign Meaning Encountered when using …

Acute toxicity • Toxic from single or multiple exposure • Materials containing formaldehyde
• Toxic/fatal if swallowed, in contact with skin • Hazardous air pollutants
or inhaled

Health hazard/hazardous to the • May cause respiratory, eye or skin irritation • Expanding foam
ozone layer • May cause drowsiness or dizziness • Grab adhesive
• Harmful if swallowed, inhaled or in contact • Wood adhesive
with skin • Solvent cement
• Harms the environment by destroying the • Portland cement
ozone layer • Paint stripper

Hazardous to the environment Toxic to the surrounding natural environment, • Wood preservative
especially aquatic life • White spirit
• Diesel, petrol and paraffin oils
• Epoxy resin
• Bitumen paint

Serious health hazard • May be fatal if swallowed or enters airways • Expanding foam
• May cause damage to organs • Grab adhesive
• May damage fertility or cause genetic • Paint stripper
defects • Wood dust
• May cause cancer • White spirit
• May cause allergy, asthma or breathing • Asphalt
difficulties if inhaled • Silica dust

Research
Find one example for each of the CLP Regulation classifications listed in Table 1.5 and describe how they should
be safely handled and disposed of as hazardous waste.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

The Carriage of Dangerous Goods and Use of be used by trained, competent and authorised people
Transportable Pressure Equipment Regulations 2009 in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
deal with potentially hazardous substances that are
transported by road or rail. These regulations have a Ladders
slightly different set of diamond-shaped safety signs,
designed to suit their classifications of predominant
hazards.

Research Strong upper

resting point
Research the classifications of safety sign under
Adequate lap on
the Carriage of Dangerous Goods and Use of extension ladders
Transportable Pressure Equipment Regulations
2009.
Make a list of some of the materials you may have
used that would require these signs to be displayed
on the vehicles transporting them, and explain how
waste materials and packaging were disposed of
after use.

15 Safe practices and

procedures for the use of
access equipment and manual
handling
15.1 Types of access equipment Ground back slope
should not exceed 6°
The HSE reported that 111 workers died as a result
of falling from height in 2019–20 in the UK, and
40 of those people worked in the construction Ground side slope should not
industry. exceed 16°; ground should be
clean and free of slippery algae
If there is a risk of people falling any distance above and moss
or below ground that could result in an injury, the ▲ Figure 1.36 Ladder
employer must take necessary precautions to eliminate
the hazard completely or reduce the risk of harm to an A ladder should be:
acceptable level by assessing the risks.  set at an angle of 75° or a ratio of 1:4 (the distance
between the wall and the base of the ladder should
Where a risk remains, employers should use equipment
be one quarter of the ladder’s height)
or other measures to minimise the distance and
 placed on firm, level ground
consequences of a fall, for example safety nets or air
 placed against a stable surface
bags, or PPE such as a safety harness and lanyard. In
 extended 1 m above a working platform
the event of an accident, employers should have a well-
 secured to prevent slipping/moving
rehearsed plan and equipment designed to rescue and
 used for light work and short durations.
evacuate people from height.
The user should have three points of contact with the
Equipment specifically designed for working safely at
ladder at all times and never overreach.
height is referred to as access equipment. It should only

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Mobile scaffold towers Scaffolding

Two-rung guardrail
frame 1.07m

Standards
Working platform
End toe boards
Side toe boards Toe board

Ledgers
Platform (fixed
and trap door
decks) 1.8m
Horizontal brace

Ladder frame Diagonal brace

Transoms
Tube wedged in window
Span frame for tying in

Wall

Sole plate

▲ Figure 1.38 Scaffolding

▲ Figure 1.37 Mobile scaffold tower
Scaffolding should:
A mobile scaffold tower should:  only be erected, inspected, adjusted and dismantled
 be set up on firm, level ground by trained and competent scaffolders
 be erected in accordance with the manufacturer’s  be designed and erected in accordance with British
instructions Standards and the Work at Height Regulations 2005
 not be overloaded  have handrails 950 mm high, with no more than a
 use guardrails and toe boards 470 mm gap between guardrails
 have brakes applied on castors before use  have toe boards 150 mm high
 have its outriggers correctly positioned and secured  have platforms kept clean and clear.
when necessary to gain extra height
 not be repositioned with people, materials or
equipment still on it.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

Steps Podiums

Working from the

side can make
stepladders
unstable, so
do not overreach

Do not stand
on the top
three steps

Stepladder
should be
fully open ▲ Figure 1.40 Podiums

Lock the Podiums should:

stepladder open
 be set up on firm, level ground
firm and level
on the ground  be erected in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions
▲ Figure 1.39 Steps
 have the gate locked while working
 have brakes applied on castors before use.
Steps should be:
 fully opened
 placed on firm, level ground
 positioned facing the work, not sideways
 used for light work and short durations.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Staging boards Mobile elevating work platforms (MEWPs)

▲ Figure 1.41 Staging boards

Staging boards are designed to create a safe working

platform between two supports, with guard rails on
one or both sides.
You should never exceed the safe working load of
staging boards with materials and people.

Trestles ▲ Figure 1.43 Boom lift (top) and scissor lift (bottom)

Toe boards and

hand rails Intermediate rail There are a number of different types of mobile elevating
Not overloaded work platform, each one designed for access, safety and
Free from trip
hazards or gaps work at height. Only suitably trained, experienced and
No debris or through which competent workers should operate a MEWP.
trip hazards persons or
materials
could fall 15.2 Safety checks on access
Sufficient dimensions
to allow safe equipment
passage and safe
use of equipment Under the Provision and Use of Work Equipment
and materials Regulations (PUWER) 1998, employers must ensure
Level and
that access equipment is suitable for its intended use,
stable ground safe and well maintained.
▲ Figure 1.42 Trestles They must also regularly inspect the components of
access equipment for signs of wear and damage, to
Trestles should: ensure they have not deteriorated. Records should be
 be set up on firm, level ground kept of weekly, monthly and annual inspections by the
 be erected in accordance with the manufacturer’s people that supply the access equipment, for example
instructions employers and hire companies. A tagging system may
 not be overloaded be adopted, with tags attached to different types of
 have staging boards kept clean and clear access equipment as a way of recording inspections
 allow safe access and egress. and identifying when it is safe to use.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

15.3 Selecting access equipment

Access equipment must be appropriate for the
work intended. This will be determined by the risk
assessment and method statement, not its availability
and cost.
Before working at any height, employers must
consider the safest way to complete the task, its
duration and the frequency with which access
equipment will be used.
Other points to consider when selecting access
equipment include:
 whether it is for internal or external use
 the ground conditions, for example uneven, sloped
or soft
 the weather conditions, for example high winds or
snow/ice
 safe access and egress
 the height at which it will be used
 the space needed for people and materials
 how materials and equipment will be loaded onto it
 the weight it will carry
 nearby hazards, for example overhead power lines
and fragile roofs
 the type of work being undertaken
▲ Figure 1.44 A tag on access equipment  training, information, instruction and supervision.

Some work equipment may be subject to other The risk of a fall from ladders and steps is relatively
regulations which have specific requirements regarding high; therefore they should only be used for a short
inspections, such as LOLER. Scaffolding, for example, duration and no longer than 30 minutes at a time. If
should be inspected before use and every seven days after this is not possible, the risk must be reduced by using a
that. However, further inspections may be necessary if safer type of equipment, such as a podium.
there has been adverse weather or an accident/incident. Certain types of access equipment have action
Daily visual pre-use inspections of access equipment points for heights; for example a tower scaffold needs
should be completed by competent employees, to outriggers to support the equipment when it exceeds
ensure there are no defects and the equipment is safe heights specified in the manufacturer’s instructions.
to use. These inspections should include checking that Further advice and guidance on the safe use of access
the non-slip feet on ladders and step ladders are not equipment can be found on the HSE website.
missing or damaged, and the stiles, steps and rungs
are not bent or missing. Even the smallest amount 15.4 Manual handling operations
of damage to access equipment can compromise its Manual handling is defined as any lifting, carrying,
strength; therefore it should always be reported as supporting or moving of a load using bodily force.
soon as possible and damaged equipment should never Employees working in the construction industry will
be used. inevitably be involved in carrying out manual handling
operations and therefore have an increased risk of an
injury or chronic muscular damage. These types of injury

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

are referred to as musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) and Manual handling injuries often occur because activities
affect different parts of the body, including the back, are badly performed or planned. Employers have a
shoulders, arms, legs, feet and toes. The HSE reported in duty to make sure their workers have the necessary
the year 2019–20 that half a million people were suffering information, instruction and training. They must
with a new or existing work-related musculoskeletal consider the following points when assessing manual
disorder, and this figure does not include workers who handling activities:
have not reported injuries under RIDDOR.  Task:
– What does the task involve?
Where employees are expected to undertake manual
– Does the task involve more than one person?
handling operations in the workplace, their employers
– How far will the load have to be carried?
must take reasonably practicable measures to protect
– How often will the task take place?
them from harm. The Manual Handling Operations
 Individual:
Regulations 1992 state that this should be done by:
– Is the worker physically and mentally able to
 avoiding carrying out manual handling if possible –
carry out the task?
consider completing the task another way, for
– Does the worker have the necessary knowledge
example with a forklift, telehandler or crane
to complete the task safely?
 assessing the hazards when it is not possible to
– Has the worker received the necessary training?
avoid manual handling activities by completing
– Does the worker have the right PPE, for example
a suitable and sufficient manual handling risk
gloves or footwear with a good grip?
assessment
 Load:
 reducing the risk as much as is reasonably
– Consider the size, shape, weight, centre of
practicable.
gravity and temperature of the load.
If this is not possible, workers should use good kinetic – Is the load sharp?
lifting techniques or be provided with mechanical – Is the load likely to move?
lifting aids, such as a pallet truck or sack truck. Where  Environment:
this is not possible, consider changes to the task, load – Consider the weather and ground conditions.
and working environment. – Will the route be clear or are there likely to
be obstructions or obstacles, such as stairs or
Key term scaffolding?

Kinetic lifting: the act of manual handling

▲ Figure 1.45 Safe manual handling sequence for a

single person ▲ Figure 1.46 Manual handling as a team

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

Employees have a legal duty to follow their Excavations are most likely to fail if they are too deep
employer’s safe system of work, to protect and unsupported, or if the soil conditions are weak.
themselves and others from the risk of injury from The walls of an excavation may also become unstable
manual handling operations. They must also use if there is vibration in the ground caused by vehicle
lifting equipment and machinery provided by movement around the site or nearby public roads.
their employer, if they are trained to use it, and Additionally, they can weaken and collapse if the soil
report any unsafe conditions they identify to their of an excavation dries out in hot weather, expands after
supervisor as soon as possible. a heavy frost or becomes saturated with rain water.

▲ Figure 1.47 Examples of mechanical lifting aids: a

pallet truck (left) and a sack truck (right)

Improve your English

▲ Figure 1.48 An excavation on a construction site
Think of a word that can be used to describe a
condition that develops suddenly or in a short space Plant operators must be competent and take
of time. Use this word in a sentence to explain a precautions while excavating with machinery to ensure
particular risk to health in your industry. they do not come into contact with buried services,
such as gas pipes or live electricity cables. Special care
should also be taken when digging next to adjacent
Health and safety structures and buildings, to make sure they are not
disturbed or undermined, causing them to become
There are no safe working loads when you are unstable or collapse.
manual handling. Even light loads carry a risk of injury.
If the construction site has previously been used for
manufacturing, industrial or agricultural purposes,
the soil may have been contaminated with hazardous
16 Safe practices and waste or chemicals that have been buried or have
procedures for working in naturally occurred in the ground.
excavations and confined spaces Under the CDM Regulations, the client has a duty
to provide information to the contractor about
16.1 Dangers associated with the location of buried services, any underground
excavations structures or any other relevant information before
work starts on site. This will allow the contractor
Excavations are often created on construction sites to
to prepare a pre-construction health and safety
form trenches and holes for building foundations, or
plan, reducing the risk of an accident or dangerous
to gain access to underground services and drainage.
occurrence.
Pedestrians, materials and vehicles are all at risk of falling
into exposed excavations unless satisfactory preventative
measures are taken to keep them at a safe distance. Key term
Working in an excavation can be extremely dangerous Plant operators: people in control of heavy
because of the risk of flooding or collapse causing construction machinery and equipment
people to be crushed. There could be reduced levels of
oxygen and poisonous or explosive atmospheres.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

 Adopt a permit-to-work system to dig and work in

the excavation.
 Provide adequate ventilation to workers in the
excavation.
 Identify and protect exposed services.
 Carry out daily inspections of the excavation.
 Ensure a competent person carries out atmospheric
testing at various points within the excavation
before anyone enters, at the start of each shift
and after breaks, and continuously thereafter if
indicated by the risk assessment and permit to
work. Personal monitors may also be worn by
individuals working in the excavation.
▲ Figure 1.49 A plant operator
 Use appropriate portable gas-detection equipment.
 Ensure good communication methods between
16.2 Safety when working in workers in the excavation and the supervisor.
excavations  Put in place a rescue plan to recover an injured
person and provide appropriate rescue equipment.
All excavations should be individually planned and
carried out in a safe way by competent workers
and supervisors. Wherever possible, working in an
excavation should be avoided and only considered as a
last resort.
Employers have a duty to reduce the likelihood of an
accident or injury in an excavation by assessing the
risks and introducing control measures such as the
following:
 Isolate the hazard by erecting suitable edge
protection barriers, for example Heras-style
fencing (temporary metal fence panels), to prevent
unauthorised access and to protect the general
public. ▲ Figure 1.50 A trench box supporting an excavation
 Install ‘stop blocks’ a safe distance away from the
excavation to prevent vehicles getting too close 16.3 Dangers associated with
and reduce the risk of hazardous exhaust fumes
confined spaces
entering the excavation.
 Display safety signs and notices to raise awareness The definition of a confined space is a workplace
of the hazards and the precautions to be taken. which may be substantially but not always entirely
 Provide adequate lighting. enclosed, where there is a foreseeable serious risk of
 Provide safe access (entry) to and egress (exit) injury because of the conditions or from hazardous
from the excavation, for example using ladders or substances. Excavations, loft spaces, sewers or wells
temporary stairs. could be described as confined spaces, because they
 Use a temporary support system to prevent the are enclosed with restricted access and egress.
excavation from collapsing, for example a trench Confined spaces may already contain hazards, such as
box (metal sidewalls held apart with struts). a lack of oxygen or a risk of an explosion. Hazards can
 Provide safe designated crossing points.
also be created by workers with electrical equipment,
 Test the soil for contamination.
machinery, materials and substances such as petrol
and solvents. Some confined spaces may also contain

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety in construction

toxic atmospheres created by gases such as naturally 16.4 Safety when working in confined
occurring methane, nitrogen or carbon dioxide.
Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are particularly
spaces
dangerous because they are colourless, odourless and The Confined Spaces Regulations 1997 state that
tasteless, making them more difficult to detect without working in a confined space should be avoided wherever
specialist testing equipment. possible, and work should be completed in another
The air we breathe contains a mixture of different way without entering the space. If this cannot be done
gases, with oxygen making up about 21 per cent. If and there is still a significant risk of injury, then the
the oxygen in the atmosphere is reduced just below work must be properly planned and organised with
this level, it affects our ability to function normally; if appropriate control measures in place before it starts.
depleted further to 6 per cent or below, it will result in The Management of Health and Safety at Work
almost certain death. Regulations 1999 state that employers and the self-
Additional hazards that may be found in confined employed must complete a suitable and sufficient risk
spaces include: assessment for work in a confined space. This is used to
 fire
identify hazards and determine what precautions need
 extremes of heat and cold
to be taken to reduce the risk of injury. It will also help
 dust, fumes and vapours
employers to prepare a safe system of work.
 flooding resulting in drowning Everyone involved in working in a confined space must
 free-flowing solids causing suffocation, for example be competent and specifically trained to undertake
sand their tasks. This includes managers, supervisors and
 entrapment. emergency personnel.
If a permit-to-work system is adopted, it would limit
the number of people and time spent in a confined
space and safely control work activities. Before a permit
is issued, workers are told about:
 the risks to health and safety and how to control
them
 methods used to communicate from the inside to
their supervisor or sentry on the outside
 how to raise the alarm in an emergency
 testing and monitoring of the atmosphere
 PPE or RPE to be worn
 arrangements to recover them from the confined
space if necessary (a rescue plan).
▲ Figure 1.51 A confined space

Key term
Research
Sentry: a person who supervises workers from the
Which solvents that you use in your trade would access/egress points of a confined space
be particularly hazardous in a confined space?
Consider what alternative substances you could use.

Test yourself
Which regulations control the use of hazardous
substances?

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Assessment practice

Short answer Long answer

1 Which organisation enforces the Health and 6 Explain the duty every employer has under the
Safety at Work etc. Act 1974? Control of Vibration at Work Regulations 2005
2 What are the five main categories of safety to protect people from the harmful effects of
sign? exposure to vibration.
3 Which regulations require specific accidents, 7 Explain the term ‘safe system of work’.
injuries and near misses to be reported to the 8 Explain what a toolbox talk is and when it might
HSE? be used.
4 What should not be kept in a first-aid box? 9 Give a definition of ‘confined space’.
5 When should you be informed about the site 10 Explain the best way to avoid the hazards of
rules at work? working in a confined space.

Project practice
Your industry placement employer has reported about the number of people at work that may have
a significant rise in the number of employees had an MSD. This could be achieved by studying
absent from work in the last twelve months due to health and safety records, interviewing workers or
musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). At the last health conducting a survey.
and safety meeting, the management team decided  Review the current manual handling risk
to conduct a health and safety audit of the reported assessment and method statements and identify
accidents and injuries over the past year and a safety any areas that could be improved.
survey, with a view to reducing the risk of MSDs.  Produce a digital toolbox talk for a manual handling
activity and present this to a small group of
Your task is as follows:
workers.
 Work collaboratively with your workplace mentor or
employer to gather as much information as you can

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 Chapter 2 Construction science
principles

Introduction
In this chapter, we will explore scientific principles that underpin
all the career pathways you may choose. Later in your studies,
you will use these scientific foundations and build on them with
specialised principles.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will understand:
1 the International System of Units (SI)
2 derived SI units
3 materials science principles
4 mechanical science principles
5 electricity principles
6 structural science principles
7 heat principles
8 light principles
9 acoustics principles
10 earth science principles.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

The ‘power of’ numbers are given names that are

1 The International System of explained in Table 2.1. There is less chance of making
Units (SI) an error using this method.

Imagine a job building a house where the carpenter ▼ Table 2.1 Numbers expressed as indices (to the
measures everything in inches, the plumber measures power of 10)
in centimetres, the bricklayer uses feet, and the
Actual number Number shown to Prefix used
electrician uses metres. What do you think the the power of 10
outcome would be?
1 000 000 000 000 1012 tera (T)
Equally, in science, if someone performed a calculation 1 000 000 000 109 giga (G)
using one unit of measurement, and another person
1 000 000 106 mega (M)
used a different unit, they would produce different
results which could lead to confusion. 1000 103 kilo (k)
100 102 hecto (h)
As a result, the International System of Units, known
as SI units, was introduced. The system sets out what 10 101 deca (da)
units of measurement, symbols and indices are used to 0.1 10−1 deci (d)
calculate quantities. 0.01 10−2 centi (c)
Before we look at the SI units, it would be a good idea to 0.001 10−3 milli (m)
understand what indices are. Indices are used to replace 0.000 001 10−6 micro (µ)
repetitive multiplications. For example, 10 × 10 × 10 = 0.000 000 001 10−9 nano (n)
1000. This calculation can be written easily as 103, which
0.000 000 000 001 10−12 pico (p)
means ten multiplied by itself three times, or three lots
of ten multiplied together.
Test yourself
Where indices are negative, the value becomes a
fraction, because the value moves to the right of the What is 30 kilometres multiplied by 500 millimetres?
decimal point, becoming smaller. For example:
1
5-1 = or 0.2 Improve your maths
5
1
5-2 = or 0.04 Calculators are different depending on the
25 manufacturer and when they were made. Using the
1
5-3 = or 0.008 internet, your calculator instructions, or by simply
125 experimenting with your calculator, find out what the
Most calculators have an   x 2   button to square a following functions do. Note that what appears on
number, and scientific calculators also have an   x y the button may differ depending on the calculator.
button, which allows a number to be raised to any  x−1 or 1
power or index. For example, to calculate 55, use x
 ENG and shift ENG
buttons   5     x y   5     =   3125. This is much easier than
 x10x or EXP
keying 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 into a calculator.
 x2 and x3
Generally, in construction science and principles,
large values are used, such as thousands of watts or
millions of joules. Other aspects of building services SI units are broken down into two different categories:
 base SI units
engineering or construction work deal with tiny
 derived SI units.
amounts, such as millionths of a metre or thousandths
of an ohm. This can become a problem in calculations, Base SI units are the main category used, whereas
as errors may occur if the correct number of zeros is derived units require the base functions to determine
not entered into the calculator. them. Base SI units are shown in Table 2.2.
Instead of inserting the actual number with lots of Key term
zeros, we use ‘to the power of ten’.
Watt: SI unit of power

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 Chapter 2 Construction science principles

▼ Table 2.2 Base SI units As well as knowing the base SI units of measurement,
you may be required to carry out simple calculations
Quantity Unit of Identification
using them.
measurement symbol
Mass kilogram (kg) m Calculations using base SI units obtain other values
l
called derived SI units. For example, length multiplied
Length metre (m)
by width of a rectangle gives the rectangle’s area
Time second (s) t
(or m × m = m2).
Temperature kelvin (K) T
Electric current ampere (A) l 2 Derived SI units
Luminous intensity candela (cd) l
There are many derived SI units of measurement.
Note: the amount of a substance in moles is also a base Table 2.3 shows those relevant to construction-based
unit but not relevant to the subjects in this book. activities, including the formulae used to calculate them.

▼ Table 2.3 Derived SI units of measurement and associated calculations

Quantity Unit of measurement Identification symbol Base formula (where relevant)

Area (or cross- Square metre (m2) A For squares or rectangles:
sectional area)
length × width
For circles:
π × radius2
or
πr 2
Volume Cubic metre (m3) For cuboids:
V
length × width × depth
or
area × depth
For cylinders:
πr 2 × depth
or
area × depth
Flow Kilograms per second mdot (ṁ) volume litres
(kg/s) or commonly litres or
per second (l/s) time second
Velocity (speed) Metres per second (m/s) v distance
time
or
metres
second
Acceleration Metres per second a velocity
squared (m/s2)
time

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Quantity Unit of measurement Identification symbol Base formula (where relevant)

Electromotive force Volt (V) ε ε = BLv
Based on the length of conductor (L) in a
field of magnetic flux density (B) and the
velocity of movement of the conductor
through the field (v)
Electrical resistance Ohm (Ω) Ω ρL
A

Based on material resistivity (ρ), length of the

conductor (L) and cross-sectional area of the
conductor (A)
Illuminance (light on a Lux (lx) E Lumens per m2, where lumens are the
surface) measure of visible light emitted by a source
Internal pressure Pascal (N/m2) Pa N
m2

or
J
m3
Atmospheric pressure Bar bar Equal to 100 000 Pa
Energy (work) Joule (J) E force × distance
or
f ×d
or

power × time
or
watts × seconds
Force Newtons (N) F mass × acceleration
Density kg/m3 ρ mass
volume

Power Watts (W) P energy

time
or
joules
seconds
In electrical circuits:
volts × amperes
or
V×I
Specific heat capacity Joules per kilogram per Cp J × kg × ( t 2 − t1 )
degree Celsius (J/kg/°C)
Total energy (J) required to raise the
temperature of a mass (kg) from temperature
1 (T1) to temperature 2 (T2)

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 Chapter 2 Construction science principles

Industry tip 3 Materials science principles

You will need to apply indices when calculating room 3.1 Materials and their properties
sizes from plan drawings, as plans use mm (× 10−3) and
area and volume SI units are m2 and m3 respectively. Construction work and BSE installations use many
different materials based on their properties. Some of
these materials are described in Tables 2.4 and 2.5.
Improve your maths
A room measures 5 m wide by 8 m long and has
a ceiling height of 2.5 m. The air mass in the room
is required to calculate heating needs. If air has a
density of 0.946 kg/m3, what is the mass of air in the
room?

▼ Table 2.4 Properties and common uses of metals

Material Properties Common uses Reasons for use Other information

(where relevant)
Iron • Produced by melting • Versatile material used • Common element • Prone to oxidising
mined iron ore for decorative fences which is mined (rusting) when
• Very heavy ferrous and gates, as well as worldwide exposed to the
metal with a high stoves • Resistant to high weather if not suitably
melting point • Widely used for temperatures but treated, such as by
structural supports can be formed and painting
before steel shaped when heated,
providing decorative
structures
Steel • Technically an alloy, • Structural supports • Very strong dense • Prone to rusting if not
made from iron and • Rebar material which treated during or after
carbon • Catenary wires provides long-lasting production
• Ferrous metal that is • Support cables structural support
very rigid • Sheet materials, such as and expands at the
stainless-steel sinks or same rate as concrete,
splashbacks so used widely for
• Cable reinforcement reinforcement
Copper • Fairly soft but rigid • Pipes • Durable, corrosion- • Common material
non-ferrous metal • Cable conductors resistant metal which is easily
which is mined as ore • Architectural features with low thermal recycled (which is why
• Often not pure and expansion it may be an alloy, due
mixed to make an • Anti-microbial, to impurities during
alloy meaning it remains the recycling process)
• Corrosion resistant clean from bacteria • Can form a green
• Good electrical coating known as
conductor patina
Aluminium • Very lightweight and • Sometimes used as a • Low thermal • Can react with other
durable non-ferrous cable conductor where expansion materials
metal lightweight heavy-duty • Easily formed or • Not suitable for
• Corrosion resistant to cables are needed fabricated applications such as
weather • Used widely in • Lightweight material piping, due to reaction
construction for facias/ with salt and other
cladding and window chemicals
frames
• Used extensively for
flexible ducting systems

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Material Properties Common uses Reasons for use Other information

(where relevant)
Alloys • Customised metals Made specifically for an Ability to produce a
made by adding application by mixing material suitable for an
different metals metals with the desired intended application,
together properties, for example such as low thermal
• Common examples adding chromium to steel expansion materials
include nickel, produces stainless steel or corrosion-resistant
tungsten and metals
manganese
• Can be ferrous if iron
or steel is used in the
process

Key terms Catenary wires: strong wires which are tied at each
end and used to support other objects, such as cables
Ferrous metal: a metal that contains iron and is which may stretch or break under their own weight
magnetic when hung between two buildings
Rebar: reinforced steel bar commonly used in concrete Thermal: related to heat or temperature
to act as a frame to stop it moving and cracking

Table 2.5 identifies other common materials used

in construction, together with their properties and
common uses. None of these contain metal, so they are
not ferrous.

▼ Table 2.5 Properties and common uses of non-metals

Material Properties Common uses Reasons for use Other information

(where relevant)
Thermoplastics Soft plastics which Cable insulation and • Flexible
and thermosetting are more flexible and sheathing • Can operate at high
plastics suitable for higher temperatures while
temperatures than remaining good
general PVC insulators
Unplasticised More rigid material than • Window and door • Does not expand Shatters easily when
polyvinyl chloride PVC but has a lower frames at the same rate as hit, as far less flexible
(uPVC) thermal expansion rate • Guttering, facias and PVC than plastic
cladding • Durable, non-
corrosive product
which can be
moulded into
any shape during
production
Rubber Very flexible material • Cable insulation Although a natural
which can maintain • Flexible joints resource, can be
electrical insulation at • Water seals replicated using a
higher temperatures, manufacturing process
such as 125°C to provide a highly
durable yet very
flexible material that
is corrosion and water
resistant

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 Chapter 2 Construction science principles

Material Properties Common uses Reasons for use Other information

(where relevant)
Ceramics • Include a broad • Heat-resistant bricks • High durability when
range of materials (firebricks), tiles, exposed to heat
manufactured from sinks and worktops • Corrosion resistant,
minerals, sometimes • Retain and slowly tough materials
with added metals release heat in
to provide high storage heaters
degrees of strength • Electrical insulators
• Hard, durable and in high-temperature
resistant to heat and applications
fire
Plaster Made from gypsum, • Provides a smooth • Cheap to • Only suitable for
lime or cement mixed finish to walls and manufacture interior uses
with water and sand ceilings • When in a wet state, • Requires cladding
• Can be moulded to easy to apply to or coating if used in
make decorative uneven and out- generally wet areas,
features of-line surfaces to such as shower
• Can be pre- provide a smooth, rooms
manufactured into level finish
sheets for boarding • Can provide a
and partitioning reasonable fire
barrier, slowing the
spread of fire in a
building
Concrete • Contains aggregate, Building foundations or • Cheap to produce • Can be
sand and a binder supporting structures and easy to lay in a strengthened with
such as cement when used with wet state, as it flows steel reinforcement
• Sometimes contains reinforcement bars into place • Can be pre-
additives to give such as steel • When tamped stressed during
flexibility or quick- down, leaves no manufacturing,
drying properties air gaps or unfilled where the
spaces concrete is tightly
compressed to form
blocks or decks
used as floors in
high-rise buildings

 thermal expansion
Key terms  UV radiation.
Mineral: a solid, naturally occurring, inorganic
Electrolytic and galvanic corrosion
substance
(metals)
Aggregate: material in the form of grains or
This is a chemical reaction where two metals are
particles, such as sand, gravel or crushed stone
separated by an electrolyte which causes one metal
Tamped down: pressed down by a succession of to corrode at an accelerated rate. Without suitable
blows
protection, these types of corrosion can cause
Voltage: the amount of potential energy between two structural parts of a building to fail.
points in an electrical circuit, expressed as volts or V
Electrolytic corrosion occurs where electrical current
is induced into nearby metals from other influences,
Other environmental effects on materials to consider in such as buried high-voltage cables. This causes a
more detail include: voltage difference between the metals, which in turn
 electrolytic and galvanic corrosion (metals) creates a circuit. As current is a flow of electrons, the
 dissimilar metals electrons from one metal are drawn to the other, which

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

means the metal is losing electrons and corroding. Electric

The electrolyte is whatever is between the two metals, wire
such as soil or clay, and allows electric current to flow
through it.
Galvanic corrosion is where two dissimilar metals Brass
are in close proximity and separated by an Iron

electrolyte or the two metals are touching. If one

metal is more chemically active than the other, such Bimetallic
Rivet
strip
as stainless steel to zinc, the proximity is similar to
Base
creating a battery and this causes current to flow
between them, which again results in loss of electrons Electric
wire
and corrosion.

Research
Aluminium can be used as a cable conductor
as it has good conductive properties but is a
lightweight material, meaning that the cables are Heat
significantly lighter than equivalent copper cables. Base
However, aluminium also has some disadvantages;
for example it is prone to electrolytic corrosion if ▲ Figure 2.1 Bimetallic strip used as a heat-operated
preventative measures are not taken. switch, such as in a thermostat (top: in normal state;
bottom: when heat is applied and the strip bends)
Research where this problem of electrolytic
corrosion occurs and why, and suggest measures to Thermal expansion
reduce the risk of it occurring.
Different materials expand at different rates. This can
cause failure of building structures and services if
Dissimilar metals correct measures are not taken.
Although two dissimilar metals in close proximity can One example is PVC conduit used to protect electric
cause electrolytic or galvanic corrosion, by carefully cables. It is usually fixed to a wall using saddles. The
selecting the two metals we can use their different amount of expansion, in metres, for PVC conduit
properties – such as thermal expansion – to an is, on average, 52 × 10− 6 for every metre length
advantage. of conduit, per °C rise in temperature (52 × 10− 6
By fixing two dissimilar metals together, such as m/m/°C). This is known as its linear temperature
iron and brass, a bimetallic strip is created. When the expansion coefficient.
metals are heated, one expands more than the other and If a 6 m run of conduit was installed at 20°C but the
this causes them both to bend. temperature of the space was increased to 45°C (as
Figure 2.1 shows how this process can be used in a might occur in a loft space), by how much would it
heat-controlled switch, such as a thermostat controlling expand?
room temperature for a cooling system. When the
room gets too hot, the metal bends, closing the switch )
52 × 10-6 × 6 m × ( 45° - 20° = 0.0078 m or 7.8 mm
which activates the cooling system.
If the conduit was installed without taking the
expansion into consideration, the additional 7.8 mm
Key terms
Bimetallic strip: a temperature-sensitive component
comprising two different metals bound together;
when heated, each metal expands at a different rate,
causing the strip to bend and activate a switch

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 Chapter 2 Construction science principles

would cause it to bend between supports, making it The radiation breaks down polymers in the plastic
look wavy instead of straight. which normally allow it to be flexible. When the
polymers break down, the plastic becomes brittle
As a result, PVC conduit systems should have
and can break easily. This is why white PVC pipes
expansion couplers evenly spaced in the installation to
or cables should never be used outdoors in direct
provide a space for the conduit to expand into and stop
sunlight.
it from buckling or waving.
Space allowance
Some plastics are specially treated to withstand UV
for expansion radiation, such as black plastics. This is why most
outdoor plastic pipes are black or grey. Unplasticised
PVC (uPVC) is also UV resistant and is commonly
used as a plastic material where white colouring and
Expansion strength are required, such as for guttering or windows
coupler
and window sills.
Saddles securing
PVC conduit

▲ Figure 2.2 PVC conduit with expansion coupler to

4 Mechanical science principles
stop it buckling It is important to understand the ways in which
mechanical loads are measured. You need to know the
Concrete and steel expand at similar rates. If they did difference between mass and weight, as well as energy
not, many structures made of concrete and reinforced and power. Energy and power can be mechanical as
with steel would crumble, with one material expanding well as electrical.
more quickly than the other.
The fundamental relationship between mass and
Other linear temperature expansion coefficients for weight is defined by Newton’s second law. According
common materials are shown in Table 2.6. to this law:
▼ Table 2.6 Linear temperature expansion
F = ma
coefficients for common materials
where:
Material Linear temperature expansion  F = force (N)
coefficient (m/m/ °C)
 m = mass (kg)
Aluminium 21–24 × 10−6  a = acceleration (m/s2).
Brick (masonry) 5 × 10−6
Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in an
Cast iron 10 × 10−6 object. It is not dependent on gravity and is therefore
Concrete 12–14 × 10−6 different (but proportional) to weight.
Copper 16–17 × 10−6 Weight is the downwards gravitational force acting on
Plate glass 9 × 10−6 a mass. Newton’s second law can be transformed to
Plaster 17 × 10−6 express weight as a force by replacing acceleration (a)
PVC 54–110 × 10−6 with acceleration due to gravity (g):
Steel 10–12 × 10−6
W = mg
Wood across its grain 30 × 10−6
where:
Wood along its grain 3 × 10−6
 W = weight (N)
 m = mass (kg)
Ultra-violet radiation  g = acceleration due to gravity (on Earth, this is
Ultra-violet (UV) radiation comes from direct sunlight 9.81 m/s2).
and can cause some plastic-based materials such as
white PVC to degrade.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

4.1 Acceleration In Figure 2.3, the force applied downwards can be

four times less than the load, as the lever on the force
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with (effort) side of the fulcrum is four times longer than the
time: lever on the load side.
v
a = 400 N 100 N
t (load) (effort)
where:
 a = acceleration (m/s2) 0.5 m 2m

 ∆v = change in velocity (m/s)

 t = time (s).
Fulcrum
As acceleration is a measurement of the rate of change
of speed in metres per second (m/s) each second (s), ▲ Figure 2.3 Class 1 lever
the unit is metres per second per second, or metres per
second squared (m/s2). Examples of class 1 levers are seesaws, crowbars and
claw hammers when used to lift nails. The advantage
4.2 How levers work gained by a lever is referred to as mechanical
advantage (MA), which is calculated as:
Levers are tools that exert a large force when applying
a lesser force. They come in all shapes and sizes, such load
MA =
as crowbars, claws on claw hammers, wheelbarrows or effort
even seesaws in playgrounds. So, for the lever in Figure 2.3, the mechanical
While levers give an advantage in terms of the force advantage is:
applied, the distance travelled is increased, meaning 400
=4
the energy used is essentially the same. This is 100
because the turning moments (torque) applied to the
ends of a lever must be equal but opposite. Therefore: Class 2 levers
In a class 2 lever, the load is between the force and the
force × distance = force × distance fulcrum.
Torque is measured in newton-metres (Nm). This is The calculations remain the same, but the load is more
the product of the force (N) applied to a lever and the limited because it is between the two points, and the
distance (m) of the force from the fulcrum. force and the desired movement are both in the same
direction. An example of a class 2 lever is a wheelbarrow.
Key term 2.5 m

Fulcrum: the pivot point of a lever 500 N (load) 100 N (effort)

0.5 m
Levers are categorised into three classes.

Class 1 levers Fulcrum

▲ Figure 2.4 Class 2 lever
In a class 1 lever, the force and the load are on different
sides of the fulcrum. The effectiveness of the force In the example in Figure 2.4, the force of effort of 100 N
depends on its distance from the fulcrum; the greater is applied 2.5 m from the fulcrum, and the load is
the distance, the greater the effect of the force. applied 0.5 m from the fulcrum.

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 Chapter 2 Construction science principles

The load that can be lifted is calculated as follows: Looking at Figure 2.6, we can determine the force
required to raise the mass of 1000 kg. As the load
force of load × distance from fulcrum = force of effort × distance fromdescribed
has been fulcrum as a mass, first determine the
ad × distance from fulcrum = force of effort × distance from fulcrum downward force of the load:
Therefore, the force of the load in Figure 2.4 can be
force = mass × gravity
calculated by:
f = 1000 × 9.81 = 9810 N
force of load × 0.5 m = 100 N × 2.5 m
Remember: gravity is acceleration, which averages
This can then be represented as:
9.81 m/s2.
100 N × 2.5 m
force of load = = 500 N As the system has four pulleys compared to one
0.5 m
pulling rope, the mechanical advantage is 4:1.
Class 3 levers
Remember:
In a class 3 lever, the force is between the load and
the fulcrum. Examples of class 3 levers include fishing load
MA =
rods, tweezers, tongs and the human arm. effort

The advantage with class 3 levers is not so much the Rearrange the formula for mechanical advantage to
effort needed, but the distance travelled. find the effort required:
d load
effort =
MA
Effort
9810
d = 2452 N
Load 4
Therefore, a downward force (or effort) of 2452.5 N is
required to raise the load.
Fulcrum

▲ Figure 2.5 Class 3 lever

Although the pulley gives a mechanical advantage, the
pulling rope will need to be pulled four times further
than the load is raised. This means to raise the load by
4.3 Pulleys 1 m, the pulling rope needs to be pulled 4 m.
A pulley is an effective way of gaining a mechanical
advantage when lifting an object. By running a rope Test yourself
through a four-pulley system, a mechanical advantage
of four is gained. A mass of 2575 kg needs to be raised 2 m by a
pulley with a mechanical advantage of six. How
much effort is required?

4.4 Work
If the force applied to a body results in movement, then
work has been done. This applies to forces that lift,
push or twist objects.
Force or effort
When an object moves in the same direction as the
force exerted, the work done is equal to the force
exerted multiplied by the distance moved:

work = force × distance

1000 kg
Or, to include the values used to determine force:
▲ Figure 2.6 A pulley system lifting a mass of 1000 kg
against gravity work = mass × gravity × distance

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Mechanical work is measured in joules (J). (Newton- The unit of power is joules per second (J/s), and 1 J/s is
metres (Nm) can be used for mechanical work, but are equivalent to 1 watt (W).
also used as a measurement for torque.) Other units of
The output (mechanical) power required for a motor
work or energy, which are not SI units but commonly
to raise a mass of 1000 kg to a height of 5 m above the
used for specific applications, include:
ground in one minute is calculated as:
 kilowatt hour (kWh), used by electricity supply
companies to measure electrical energy m×a ×d
P=
 calorie, often used as a measure of food energy t
 BTU (British Thermal Unit), often used for heat So:
source applications such as burning gas. 1000 × 9.81 × 5
P= = 817.5 W
60
Key term If the same motor raised the same load in 10 seconds,
the output power required by the motor would be:
Joules: the unit of measurement for energy. Where
energy is expressed as mechanical energy, it is 1000 × 9.81 × 5
P= = 4905 W
known as work 10
The amount of energy used is the same, no matter
Let us work through an example. If a mass of 100 kg is how quickly the task is carried out, but more power is
lifted 10 m, calculate the work done: required to do the work in a shorter time.

Force = weight = m × a = 100 × 9.81 = 981 N Test yourself

Work done = force × distance = 981 × 10 = 9810 J
How much power is needed to raise a load of 90 kg
If the mass is doubled, the work done is: a distance of 150 m in 20 seconds?
Force = weight = m × a = 200 × 9.81 = 1962 N or 1.962 kN
Force = weight = m × a = 200 × 9.81 = 1962 N or 1.962 kN
4.6 Efficiency
Work done = force × distance = 1962 × 10 = 19620 J
The law of conservation of energy states that energy
Energy can exist in many forms but is categorised into cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from
two main groups: one form to another. However, during the transformation
 kinetic energy (the energy an object has due to its process, some of the energy may be turned into unwanted
motion, such as a rotating machine) forms, such as noise or heat, known as energy losses.
 potential energy (stored energy held by an object Such losses are common in mechanical processes.
because of its position or state, for example a coiled The efficiency of a mechanical system is the ratio of
spring). output power compared to input power expressed as a
The potential energy of gravity keeps a mass on the percentage:
ground. If the mass is raised, then a machine uses output power
% efficiency = × 100
kinetic energy. If the input of kinetic energy ceases, the input power
potential energy tries to bring the mass back down to
the ground. Key term
4.5 Power Efficiency: the ratio of output power compared to
input power expressed as a percentage
Power is defined as the rate of doing work. It is
calculated by dividing work done by the time taken to
carry out that work: It is more common for efficiency to be expressed in
work done terms of power rather than energy, although energy
average power = could replace power in this formula.
time taken

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 Chapter 2 Construction science principles

If a machine with a 200 kW output has an input power Centre of

of 220 kW, the machine efficiency is: gravity

200
% efficiency = × 100 = 90.9%
220

Test yourself
Centre of gravity over the pivot means the object
An electric motor drives a hoist which is to raise a remains balanced
weight of 400 N to a height of 25 m in 120 seconds.
Centre of
If the motor and mechanical losses are 20 per cent,
gravity
calculate the electrical power input to the motor.

As well as occurring in mechanical systems such as

machines, losses in efficiency can also occur in specific
BSE systems:
 Electrical systems: the passage of an electric If the centre of gravity is moved away from the pivot, the
object falls or becomes unstable
current represents a flow of power or energy.
When current flows in a circuit, power loss occurs ▲ Figure 2.7 Effects of centre of gravity
in the conductors due to resistance. This causes
heat dissipation and voltage drop, which are also 4.8 Moments or torque
losses.
 Heating systems: pipework can lose heat. Long Torque is a term often used in building services and
systems can dissipate a lot of heat if measures such mechanics. It refers to how tight something needs to
as lagging are not used. Pipe systems with small be, such as a nut, bolt or screw. Too tight and it may
diameters or many bends can also lose pressure, break the thread or snap, not tight enough and it may
meaning more power is required to pump fluids come loose.
through the system.
 Forced air systems: these can lose pressure if
ducting contains many bends or reduced diameters,
which in turn will require more power to force the
air through.

4.7 Centre of gravity

The centre of gravity of an object is an imaginary point
where the weight of the object is concentrated.
Figure 2.7 shows a uniform object, where the centre
of gravity is in the centre of the object. If a pivot is
placed under the centre of gravity, the object remains
balanced, but if the pivot is placed under any other part ▲ Figure 2.8 A torque screwdriver with adjustable
of the object, the object is unstable and falls. settings

When lifting or manually handling, it is easier to carry Torque, or moment, is measured in Newton metres
an object if it is supported under the centre of gravity. (Nm) and determined by:
This state, where the object is perfectly balanced, is
known as equilibrium. M = force ( F) × distance (d )

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Figure 2.10 shows a body of fluid before a weight is

placed into it. The 500 kg weight displaces 400 kg of
water, so the object sinks. But when a 300 kg object
displaces 400 kg of water, the object floats due to the
buoyant forces acting on it.

500 kg

0
15
mc

N
50

▲ Figure 2.9 Force applied to a spanner in the form of 0 400

torque 500 kg

The torque applied by the spanner in Figure 2.9 can

be calculated, first ensuring the 15 cm is converted to
0.15 m: 300 kg

Moment or torque = 50 N × 0.15 m = 7.5 Nm

0 400

Buoyant force
Test yourself
▲ Figure 2.10 When an object is heavier than the
A nut requires 12 Nm torque by a wrench that has displaced fluid, the object sinks; when it is lighter, it
a length of 320 mm. How much force needs to be floats
applied?

5 Electricity principles
4.9 Archimedes’ principle of Whichever career path you take in construction,
displacement you will work on or near electricity, particularly in
building services engineering. Knowing basic electrical
Archimedes’ principle relates to how fluid is displaced
principles will help you to work safely.
by an object placed in it. It states that an upwards
buoyant force exerted on an object immersed or There are three key areas for delivering an electrical
partly immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight supply to an installation:
of the fluid it displaces. If the weight of the fluid  generation
displaced is equal to or greater than the weight of the  transmission
object, the object will float; if the object is heavier, it  distribution.
will sink.
5.1 Generation
Key terms Electricity can be generated in many ways due to a
large-scale move towards renewable resources. The
Renewable resources: resources that can be
use of fossil fuels in the UK is now in decline, due to
replaced over time by natural processes, for
example wind energy or solar energy the need to protect the environment, although they are
better suited to times of peak demand.
Fossil fuels: fuels such as coal, oil and gas that
are mined from the earth and burned to produce Peak demand refers to times when consumer demand
energy for electricity is at its highest, for example on cold, dark

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 Chapter 2 Construction science principles

days when more heat and light are needed. Another stations remaining. Most of these are only used
example would be at half-time during a big televised during periods of peak demand. Coal-fired power
football match, when large numbers of people boil a stations were traditionally located near to UK sources
kettle to make tea. of coal, such as South Wales, Yorkshire and the North
East of England.
Fossil-fuel sources
In 2017, the UK went 24 hours without using a single
Fossil fuels all work in the same way. Fuel is burned,
coal-fired power station, for the first time since 1882.
which heats water to form high-pressure steam. This
In 2020, the entire summer months went without coal
steam turns a turbine, which rotates a generator at
being burned. This is a huge step forward in reducing
high speeds to produce electricity.
pollution and climate change.
Fossil fuels are not renewable. They are very polluting
and release carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases Renewable fuel sources
when burned, leading to climate change. Wind
Wind power turns a propeller, which directly drives a
Key term generator. Wind is a natural resource, so no pollution
is created or resources are required after production of
Turbine: a machine that uses a moving stream of air,
the turbine.
water, steam or hot gas to turn a wheel and generate
power The use of wind energy is ideal for the UK, as an island
Climate change: a large-scale, long-term change with a lot of wind from the sea. Electricity generation from
in the Earth’s weather patterns and average wind power is increasing each year, with many offshore
temperatures wind farms being constructed several miles out to sea.
Wave
Gas The sea produces a huge amount of energy, both in
Gas is the most widely used fossil fuel. It can produce the form of waves and as the tide moves in and out
instant heat, so gas generators can heat water to steam each day. This movement of water can be used to turn
much more quickly than coal generators. electrical generators through a rotating waterwheel
effect or using a back-and-forth motion.
While its use is in decline, due to the need to reduce
greenhouse gases produced when it is burned, it Hydro
remained the largest energy source in the UK in 2021. There are three types of hydro generation:
Location of the power plant is not critical, as gas can be  Run of river: this uses the natural downward flow
piped to most mainland areas of the UK. of rivers and harnesses the water’s energy by using
existing weirs.
Oil
 Storage: watercourses are held back by a dam
Oil is used for many regional generators, which power
and released through pipes that divert the water
local areas at times of peak demand. The generators
through turbines.
can deliver electricity immediately.
 Pumped storage: a large volume of water is held in a
Oil is also used for private standby generators, for reservoir high up on hills or mountains until needed.
buildings such as hospitals that require a continuous When there is high demand for electricity, the water
power supply during mains power cuts. is released from the reservoir through turbines. When
the station is offline, the water is pumped back up to
Traditionally, oil-fired power stations are located near
the reservoir, ready for the next time it is needed.
coastal oil refineries, to minimise transportation of
the oil.
Key term
Coal
Coal used to be the most widely used fuel to produce Weirs: low dams across a river, which increase the
high-pressure steam for turbines. However, it is force of the water as it flows over the top; sections of
highly polluting and its use has therefore been scaled a weir can be raised or lowered to regulate the force
of the water
down in the UK, with only a few coal-fired power

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Photovoltaic To calculate the current demand based on power and

Photovoltaic (PV) cells convert solar energy into voltage values, use:
electricity without any moving parts. You can see these P
I=
on the roofs of some houses and in fields called solar V
farms. So, at 400 kV and remembering that 80 MW is
80 × 106 watts:
Research 80 × 106
= 200 A
Biofuel is increasingly being used to generate 400000
electricity and provide a fuel source for boilers in So, the cables need to be big enough to carry 200 A to
offices and houses. What is biofuel and is it carbon the area of demand.
neutral?
To calculate the current demand at 400 V, the same
process is used, so:
Electricity is generated at power stations using
80 × 106
a three-phase system. A three-phase system is = 200000 A or 200 kA
400
one where the rotation of the generator is used
to maximum effect by having three windings, so At this level of current, the cables would need to be
one turn of the generator gives three times the huge. The benefit of increasing the voltage is to reduce
current distributed over three wires. A single-phase the current, making cable sizes much more realistic.
generator would only distribute current in one wire Where cables have resistance (see section 5.5),
with a neutral return path. This means much of the this resistance leads to power loss in the form of
magnetic field is unused during one revolution of a voltage drop. The amount of voltage drop is directly
large generator. To maximise output, most generators proportional to the amount of current and the value of
are three-phase, with only small-scale portable resistance as:
generators being single-phase.
voltage drop = current × resistance
5.2 Transmission systems So, if a section of transmission cable had a resistance
In the UK, the transmission system is called the of 20 Ω and carried a current of 200 A, the voltage drop
National Grid. It is a network of mainly overground would be:
cables used to send electricity all around the UK from 200 × 20 = 4000 V
the generator stations. As transmission systems are
hundreds of miles long and send vast amounts of
electrical power, they use a range of very high voltages:
Test yourself
 400 kV (known as the super grid)
If a section of a transmission system has a resistance
 275 kV of 30 Ω and supplies a locality with a demand of
 132 kV. 25MW, what is the voltage loss at 400 kV and 132 kV?
There are two main reasons why high voltages are
used:
 High voltages mean reduced current, so smaller Key terms
conductor sizes can be used.
 As the cables travel vast distances, the voltage lost National Grid: the network of power lines supplying
due to cable resistance has less of an impact on high electrical energy around the country
voltages than it would on lower voltages.
As an example, a locality consumes 80 MW of
electricity. Calculate the current demand at 400 kV and
400 V.

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 Chapter 2 Construction science principles

There are issues with transmitting at higher voltages:

 High voltages can break down insulation. When Test yourself
cables are overground, air is used as an insulator
Why are high voltages used over long distances?
between conductors. In underground cables,
materials such as PVC are used as insulators Why are high voltages, such as 400 kV, not used all
between conductors. the way up to the local substation?
 Conductors need to be suspended high above the
ground and several metres away from each other,
as high voltages can jump across or break down air,
5.3 Distribution systems
especially when the air has a high water content At points around the National Grid, electricity
(i.e. relative humidity). is tapped off to be distributed to the user. These
systems are known as distribution systems. They
The towers used to carry electricity cables are known as
are looked after by distribution network operators
pylons. The higher the voltage used in the transmission
(DNOs).
system, the bigger the pylons must be. Pylons used for
the 400 kV super grid are as high as a tower block and As distribution is much more localised, the voltages
have six cables suspended from them (three on each can be stepped down to lower values. This keeps the
side). There is a single cable running between the tops of pylon sizes smaller. Lower voltages mean cables in
pylons, which acts as a common earth. urban areas can be run underground, keeping the
supplies invisible. As underground systems are more
Transformers are used to change voltages within the
expensive, rural areas normally use cheaper overhead
transmission system, by either stepping up the voltage
supplies.
(for example from 132 kV to 400 kV) or stepping it
down. If voltage is increased, current will decrease; if Depending on how far the electricity needs to be
voltage is decreased, current will increase. This relates distributed, distribution voltages may be:
to the number of primary (input) windings in the  33 kV (three-phase)
transformer compared with the number of secondary  11 kV (three-phase)
(output) windings, shown by:  400 V (three-phase)
 230 V (single-phase).
Np Vp Is
= = In most cases, the underground cables in towns and
Ns Vs Ip
cities are 11 kV. These supply the many substation
transformers.
Key term
Key term
Transformers: devices that convert voltages and
current, proportionately, to different values
Substation: equipment that transforms voltage to a
suitable level for consumers
All transmission voltages are three-phase, so the
transformers used to step up or step down the voltage On the outgoing side of the substation (to consumers’
in the transmission system need to be three-phase installations), the supplies are 400 V three-phase or 230
as well. This means they have three incoming wires V single-phase, depending on overall current demand.
into three windings, which step up or step down the As a general rule:
voltage into three outgoing wires.  buildings with a demand over 100 A will have a
Where transmission systems enter urban areas or pass three-phase supply
through the countryside but need to be hidden, they  buildings with a demand below 100 A will have a
may need to run underground. In this case, the voltage single-phase supply.
will be stepped down (for example to 132 kV) so it does
not damage the insulation between the conductors in
the underground cable.

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Three single-phase two-wire A three-phase

230 V supplies four-wire 400 V
supply with 230 V
between any Line
and Neutral

Sub-station
transformer
L1

L2

L3

N
A three-phase four-wire 400 V distribution cable

▲ Figure 2.11 Three-phase and single-phase distribution to consumers

Large buildings and facilities may have their own substation transformer. These places may be supplied at 11 kV
or 33 kV.

Step down
Step down grid to
transformer 275 kV distribution
transformer

Step up 400 kV
G transformer
25 kV

33 kV

Step down Step down

Step down grid to 400 kV grid to Step down
11 kV transformer 33 kV distribution distribution 33 kV transformer
transformer transformer

11 kV

Step up
G transformer Step down
25 kV substation
transformer

400/230 V

▲ Figure 2.12 Generators (G) supplying the consumer via transmission/distribution systems

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 Chapter 2 Construction science principles

5.4 Basic electrical circuit principles When 6.24 × 1018 electrons flow in one direction, this is
one coulomb of charge.
Electricity is the flow of electrons from one atom to
another. Materials that are good conductors have Key terms
electrons which move out of orbit from atom to atom.
When the material is connected to an electromotive Conductors: materials that have atoms less densely
force (emf) such as a battery, the flow can be controlled packed together and allow electron flow
in one direction. This is because the electrons are Charge: the measure of electron flow (Q) in a
attracted to the positive plate of the battery. material, measured in coulombs (C)
This flow of electrons is called charge and happens Insulators: materials that have atoms which are
in materials that are good conductors, such as copper, densely packed together so that electrons cannot
iron and steel. readily move

Materials whose atoms keep their electrons in orbit

make good insulators, such as rubber or PVC.
5.5 Properties of an electrical circuit
What makes materials or elements different is the
structure of their atoms. The number of electrons Table 2.7 shows key electrical values, their SI units of
orbiting the nucleus is different for different types of measurement and formulae used to calculate them.
material. For example, copper has 29 electrons but iron
has 26. The number of electrons in an atom equals the
number of protons.

▼ Table 2.7 Properties of an electrical circuit

What needs calculating SI unit of measurement Symbol Associated formulae

Charge Coulomb (C) Q 1 C = 6.24 × 1018 electrons
Q = It
Current Ampere (A) I Q
I=
t
or
V
I=
R
Electromotive force or circuit Volt (V) V V=I×R
voltage
Resistivity Ohm-metre (Ω-m) ρ See resistance below

Resistance Ohm (Ω) V=I×R V

R=
I
or
ρL
R=
A
Power Watt (W) P P=V×I
or

P = I2 × R

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Conductors and resistivity When calculating resistivity, if you always use a resistivity
value in µΩ-m (micro-ohm-metres or × 10−6) and the CSA
Before we study Ohm’s law in detail, we need to look at
in mm2 (× 10−6), then the two values of × 10−6 cancel out.
conductors and insulators, and how much resistance a
You can simply input the values without using the × 10−6.
circuit has based on the material used as the conductor.
This is based on the resistivity ( ρ ) of the material. What is the resistance, at 20°C, for 30 m of copper cable
having a CSA of 2.5 mm2?
Key term ρL
R=
A
Ohm’s law: a law that states the relationship So:
between current, voltage and resistance in an
electrical circuit 0.0172 × 10-6 × 30
R= = 0.21 Ω
2.5 × 10-6
As different materials have different numbers of
electrons, they conduct electricity differently. Each Test yourself
material has a resistivity value based on the measurement
of the resistance of a 1 m3 block of the material at 20°C. Calculate the resistance of an aluminium cable at
Table 2.8 shows some common resistivity values. 20°C with a length of 100 m and a CSA of 25 mm2.

Research Ohm’s law

The elements in the periodic table are all given an Ohm’s law explains the relationship between current,
atomic number. What do these numbers represent? voltage and resistance in any electric circuit. It is
applied to work out the quantities of a DC circuit and
can be expressed as:
Key term V = IR

Resistance: the measure of how well a material

conducts electricity in ohms (Ω); the lower the value V
of resistance, the better it conducts
÷

▼ Table 2.8 Common materials and their resistivity

Material Resistivity value (ρ)

Common Copper 0.0172 × 10−6 Ω-m
materials l × R
Aluminium 0.028 × 10−6 Ω-m
used as
conductors Gold 0.024 × 10−6 Ω-m ▲ Figure 2.13 Ohm’s law
Steel (used in cables) 0.46 × 10−6 Ω-m
To remember Ohm’s law, use the triangle in Figure 2.13
Common Hard rubber 1 × 1013 Ω-m
materials and cover the value you wish to find. It will leave the
Glass (average 1 × 1012 Ω-m
used as two other values and tell you whether they need to be
value)
insulators divided or multiplied.
Dry wood 1 × 1014 Ω-m
PVC (average) 1 × 1015 Ω-m
R

To work out the value of resistance, we use the I

material’s length (L) and cross-sectional area (CSA) (A)
and apply the resistivity calculation:
V
ρL
R=
A ▲ Figure 2.14 Simple DC circuit
Remember, when you see a formula with no sign between
two values, multiply them. So ρL is actually ρ × L.

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 Chapter 2 Construction science principles

Figure 2.14 shows a simple circuit with a resistor (R), As the current is based on the total circuit resistance,
a current (I) and an electromotive force (emf) (V). this needs to be determined first:
We can apply Ohm’s law to calculate values based
R t = 10 + 25 + 15 = 50 Ω
on those we know. If the circuit in Figure 2.14 has a
voltage of 12 V and a resistance of 8 Ω, what is the Now Ohm’s law can be applied to determine the circuit
current? current:
V = IR 200
I= =4A
50
So, transposed to find the current:
V Test yourself
I=
R
So: What is the circuit current if a circuit has a supply
12 voltage of 400 V and 12 Ω, 8 Ω, 16 Ω and 22 Ω
= 1.5 A resistors in series?
8

Test yourself In a series circuit, the current remains the same

through each resistor, but the voltage across each
If the circuit in Figure 2.14 has a current of 6 A and a
voltage of 120 V, what is the circuit resistance? resistor is different. The voltage across each resistor can
be calculated by applying Ohm’s law to that resistor.
The value of all the voltages must equal the total circuit
Series circuits voltage.
When resistors in a circuit are connected one after the To calculate the voltage across each resistor in
other, they are connected in series. The total resistance Figure 2.16:
is found by adding all the resistances together:
V1 = 4 × 10 = 40 V
R total = R1 + R 2 + R 3 ….. and so on
V2 = 4 × 15 = 60 V
R1 R2 R3
V3 = 4 × 25 = 100 V
I And to check the values equal the circuit voltage:
40 + 60 + 100 = 200 V
V

▲ Figure 2.15 Circuit with three resistors in series

Test yourself
The circuit shown in Figure 2.16 has a supply voltage
of 200 V and three resistors of 10 Ω, 15 Ω and 25 Ω in V1 V2 V3
series. Let us calculate the circuit current.
2W 9W XW

V1 V2 V3 12 A

10 W 15 W 25 W

4A
180 V
▲ Figure 2.17

200 V
For the circuit in Figure 2.17, determine the:
▲ Figure 2.16 Measuring voltage in a series circuit  value of resistor X
 voltages V1, V2 and V3.

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Parallel circuits And to check:

When resistors are arranged in parallel (see Figure 2.18), 20 A + 13.33… A + 10 A = 43.33… A
the supply voltage remains constant across all resistors,
To work out the total resistance on a calculator, use
but the current in each branch changes.
the x −1 button. So, for the values in the worked
R1 example, push:
I1
[20] [ ] [+] [30] [x −1] [+] [40] [x −1] [=] [x −1] [=]

R2
I2
Test yourself

R1 R2 R3
R3
I3
IS I

V V

▲ Figure 2.18 Parallel resistors in a circuit ▲ Figure 2.19

The value of current in each branch is based on the The circuit in Figure 2.19 has the following values:
value of resistance and voltage in each branch. The  R1 = 5 Ω
 R2 = 100 Ω
total of each branch will equal the supply current (Is).
 R3 = 200 Ω
The total resistance for the circuit is calculated by:  V = 100 V
1 1 1 1 Calculate the total circuit resistance and each
= + + …and so on
R total R1 R 2 R 3 current value.
A golden rule is that the total resistance must be less
than the lowest resistor in the circuit.
Improve your maths
When calculating parallel resistances, do not forget
that the total is divided into 1 at the end. A 10 m run of steel conduit contains a 1.5 mm2
copper circuit protective conductor (CPC), which is
Let us calculate the total resistance and each value of connected to the earth of a socket outlet at the end
current, if the circuit in Figure 2.18 has the following values: of the conduit run. The conduit has a 20 mm outside
 R1 = 20 Ω diameter and an 18 mm internal diameter (the bit the
 R 2 = 30 Ω cables go in).
 R 3 = 40 Ω As the conduit acts as an earth in parallel to the
 V = 400 V. CPC, what is the overall resistance of the conductor?
1 1 1 1 1
= + + = = 9.23 Ω
R total 20 30 40 0.108…
V 400
I1 = = = 20 A
R1 20
V 400
I2 = = = 13.33… A
R2 30
V 400
I3 = = = 10 A
R 3 40
V 400
Is = = = 43.33… A
R total 9.23

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 Chapter 2 Construction science principles

Power in parallel and series circuits Current I2 has the same properties:
Let us look at a circuit with series and parallel resistors, V2 100
I2 = = = 10 A
then calculate the power. 10 10
V2 As the total circuit current is 20 A, the current is split
evenly over the two equal resistances in parallel.
10 W
Power dissipated in a circuit can be calculated in two
V1 I1
ways:
5W 10 W
I2 P = V × I or P = I 2 R
Is

Key term
200 V
Dissipated: energy consumed by converting to heat
▲ Figure 2.20 Circuit with series and parallel resistors energy

Looking at the circuit in Figure 2.20:

 The current in the 5 Ω resistor is the same as the 100 V
supply current (Is).
10 W
 The current through each 10 Ω resistor is calculated
100 V 10 A
in the same way as for a parallel circuit and must
total the supply current. 5W 10 W
 The voltage V2 is the same across each 10 Ω resistor 10 A
and V1 + V2 must equal the supply voltage. 20 A

So, we can calculate:

 total resistance of the parallel section (R P) 200 V
 total circuit resistance
▲ Figure 2.21 Calculating power in a circuit
 circuit current Is
 voltages V1 and V2
Figure 2.21 shows the circuit from the previous
 currents I1 and I2.
example with calculated values. Remember that the
1 1 1 1 total circuit resistance was 10 Ω.
= + = =5Ω
R p 10 10 0.2
To work out the power of the whole circuit, we can use
As the parallel branch totalling 5 Ω is in series with the the total circuit or supply values, so:
5 Ω resistance, the total resistance of the circuit is: P = V × I = 200 × 20 = 4000 W or 4 kW
R total = 5 + 5 = 10 Ω
Equally:
So Is can be found using Ohm’s law: P = I 2 R = 202 × 10 = 4000 W or 4 kW
V 200
Is = = = 20 A So, either formula can be used depending on the values
R total 10 known.
Voltage V1 is then found by: The power dissipated by the 5 Ω resistor is:
V1 = Is × R = 20 × 5 = 100 V 20 A × 100 V = 2000 W or 2 kW
Voltage V2 will also be 100 V, as the total resistance of The power dissipated by one of the 10 Ω resistors is,
the parallel section is also 5 Ω. using the other formula:
Current I1 is found by applying Ohm’s law to that 10 A 2 × 10 Ω = 1000 W
section:
As the other 10 Ω resistor is the same, a total of 2000 W
V2100 is dissipated in the parallel part of the circuit.
I1 = = = 10 A
10 10

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Test yourself

V1 V2 V3 Using the circuit shown in Figure 2.22, calculate the:

 total resistance of the circuit
10 W 15 W 25 W  current Is
 power dissipated by the 35 Ω resistor
4A  power dissipated by the parallel section
 total power dissipated by the circuit.

200 V

▲ Figure 2.22

5.6 Measurement of electrical circuits

Instruments used to measure electrical quantities are listed in Table 2.9 and are connected as shown in
Figure 2.23.

▼ Table 2.9 Measurement of electrical circuits

Quantity to be Instrument Connection Notes

measured used
Voltage Voltmeter In parallel to the item A voltmeter measures voltage difference from one side of a
being measured load to the other. This is called potential difference.
Current Ammeter In series with the load Ammeters can measure small currents this way, but for much
larger currents a current transformer is needed (see section 5.4).
Resistance Ohmmeter In parallel to the item An ohmmeter only works if the circuit or item being measured is
being measured disconnected from any power source.
Power Wattmeter In both parallel and A wattmeter measures the voltage and current and then
series calculates the resulting power.

Key term 5.7 Circuit protective devices

There are four main groups of protective devices.
Potential difference: the difference in voltage from
one terminal to another
Fuses
Fuses have a wire element which heats up with current.
R
V If the current steadily reaches high values due to
W overloads, the wire melts over a period of time and the
Load
circuit disconnects.
If the current suddenly reaches high values due to
A
a fault, the wire melts very quickly and the circuit
disconnects.

W Circuit breakers
Circuit breakers have a magnetic coil. When a fault
current reaches a pre-set value, the magnetic field
V
causes mechanical movement and rapidly trips a
▲ Figure 2.23 How instruments are connected to switch, disconnecting the circuit.
measure circuit quantities

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 Chapter 2 Construction science principles

They also have a thermal trip (normally a bimetallic Devices also have two different ratings:
strip), which causes gradual mechanical movement  Nominal rating (I n) is the current value that
when heated by lower overload currents. This also the device can tolerate in continued service.
causes the switch to trip, disconnecting the circuit. For example, a 32 A circuit breaker can carry
a 32 A load current for the lifetime specified
Residual current devices (RCDs) by the manufacturer, without breaking or
RCDs have either electronic devices or a small toroidal deteriorating.
transformer. They monitor the current entering a  Activation current (Ia) is the amount of current
circuit through the live wire and the current returning needed to disconnect the device in the time required
through the neutral wire. by the type of circuit. For example, a socket-outlet
circuit must disconnect within 0.4 seconds.
If the circuit is healthy, the two currents remain
identical. If a small fault happens, current flows to earth;
the live wire has more current than the neutral wire. 6 Structural science principles
If the imbalance in current exceeds the device’s Buildings need to stand up to a lot of stresses and
residual current setting, it trips instantly. The most forces. Approved Document A of the Building
common residual current setting for an RCD is 30 mA Regulations 2010 requires a building to be constructed
or 0.03 A, so these devices are highly sensitive. in such a way as to withstand the combined dead,
imposed and wind loads without deformation or
Residual circuit breaker with overload
movement that will affect stability. Therefore, the
(RCBO)
effects of forces need to be considered.
These are a miniature circuit breaker and RCD in the
same body. They have the characteristics of both types 6.1 Forces acting on a building
of device.
Five types of force can act on a building or part of a
Key term building. These force are described in Table 2.10 and
shown in Figure 2.24.

Toroidal: circular or doughnut shaped

▼ Table 2.10 Forces

Force Description Example How to resist it

Tension Force that tries to stretch a The tension on vertical cables Use steel, which has good
building or its components in used in a suspension bridge, tensile strength, especially
opposite directions which hang the deck from the when wound into cables
main cables
Compression Force that tries to crush a A column in a building with the Use materials such as concrete,
component by pushing on both weight of the building resting stone or masonry, which act
ends on it and the force acting on the well under compression
ground below
Bending Force that acts on the centre Beams that provide horizontal Use reinforced concrete for long
of a beam that is supported at support, such as wooden floor spans, or steel or wooden joists
each end joists, or support steels like for shorter lengths
rolled-steel joists (RSJs)
Torsion Force that tries to twist the An entire building when Use a closed hollow section,
component in opposite subjected to strong wind such as a steel box section, or
directions circular structural elements such
as poles

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Force Description Example How to resist it

Shear Force that tries to split or divide Wind in different directions at Use brick or concrete walls
a component the top and bottom of a building
Shearing can occur in cement
Shearing forces work in joints, so steel bracing helps
opposite directions but do not
have the same line of action,
although they can be close

6.2 Structural members

Health and safety
The supporting parts of a building are known as
When you see a beam with ‘SWL 500 kg’ stamped structural members.
on it, never suspend any more than 500 kg from it.
SWL stands for ‘safe working load’, and any load Trusses
beyond this may bend or break the beam.

Beams or
girders
Wall
Columns

Foundation (substructure)
Footings
Floor boards
Lintel
Joists
Window
Beam or girder

▲ Figure 2.25 Structural members used in a building

In Figure 2.25, you can see the following parts:

 Foundation: this is the lowest part of the
Tension Compression Shear substructure, supporting the building from sinking
into the ground. Metal or concrete piles may be
required where a foundation is unable to meet a solid
base; these are drilled or driven deep into the ground
to make sure the building is on a firm substructure.
 Substructure: this is the complete section of a
building extending below ground floor level.
 Footings: these are the sections of masonry from
the foundation to ground-floor level. They are
normally linked to a particular member, such as a
Torsion Bending wall, not to the entire structure.
▲ Figure 2.24 Forces acting on buildings and  Columns: these are upright supports and can be
components steel or concrete. When columns are made from
brick, they are often referred to as pillars.
There are other terms used to describe forces which act  Beams or girders: these are horizontal elements
on a building: that form the support for floors. In a house, beams
 Vertical forces act upwards or downwards on a are used as main structural supports for first-floor
building and result in tension or compression. walls that do not have a wall on the ground floor to
 Horizontal forces act on the sides of a building and support them.
result in shear or torsion. They may be:  Joists: these are similar to beams but are often wooden
– lateral – acting across the width of the building and many in number. They are used to support a
– longitudinal – acting along the length of the flooring system above them and a ceiling below them.
building. They are supported either by walls or by beams.

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 Chapter 2 Construction science principles

 Trusses: these are normally associated with roofing If a wall is 400 mm thick, chases should be no deeper
systems and form triangles to provide support along than:
large spans. Where trusses are used in walls, they 400
are called braces. Vertical = = 133 mm
3
 Lintels: these are used to provide structural
400
support above windows and doors. Horizontal = = 66.6 mm
6
For a structure to remain sturdy and withstand all
expected forces, it is important that the thickness and Improve your maths
strength of all members are carefully calculated by
structural engineers. What is the maximum depth of a vertical chase in a
wall which is 0.2 m deep?
6.3 Drilling, notching and chasing
Where services such as electrical wires, pipes and ducts Key term
are installed in buildings, they need to be run through
some structural parts. Chases: cuts in a masonry or plaster wall to contain
pipes or cables; once the pipes or cables have been
Building regulations stipulate where notches or holes
fitted, they are covered with plaster or similar
can be cut into a joist or beam so as not to weaken it, as
shown in Figure 2.26.

Notches on top and in a zone 6.4 Other effects on structures

between 0.07 and 0.25
× overall span There are many other factors that can affect a structure
and increase the risk of weakening its stability.

Other buildings
Neighbouring buildings can have several effects on
each other, such as creating increased wind speeds.
Holes on centre line and in a zone
between 0.25 and 0.4 × overall span Currents of air moving around structures travel at
different speeds, and these forces can have damaging
▲ Figure 2.26 Notching and cutting holes in a joist or
beam effects on buildings.
Foundations from other buildings also have an impact,
Other things to note when cutting joists include: as the force of the building’s weight is transferred into
 The maximum diameter of holes should be 0.25 × the ground at 45-degree angles. This could cause soil
joist depth. movement beneath or close to adjacent buildings.
 Holes in the same joist must be at least three hole
diameters apart. Drains and sewers
 The maximum depth of notch should be 0.125 × These underground systems can collapse if buildings
joist depth. are built on top of them, causing buildings to lean as
one section of the foundation drops.
Test yourself
Proximity to drains and sewers also influences the
A 30 mm notch needs to be cut into a wooden beam depth of a foundation. Building weight is transferred to
that is 8 m long. At what maximum length from the the ground from the foundation at a 45-degree angle
end of the beam can the notch start? from the footprint. As a result, there is potential for
damage to drains and sewers if they are located within
that 45-degree area. This means that the foundation is
To avoid weakening the structure: typically excavated to a depth that is at least the same
 vertical chases in walls should be no deeper than as the deepest part of the drain or sewer.
one third of the wall thickness
 horizontal chases should be no deeper than one Trees
sixth of the wall thickness. The roots of trees, especially fast-growing trees, can
damage building foundations. As trees absorb moisture

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

from the ground, this can cause uneven drying of soils

under foundations or footings. Shrinkage of soils can Key term
cause foundations to collapse or crack.
Heat: does not, in BSE terms, mean hot; it simply
means heat energy, which can be hot or cold
Different soil structures
Soils shrink and expand depending on rainfall and
levels of the water table. Soils which are permeable Convection
(allow water to drain through) are more stable than
Convection occurs when air or water is heated and
non-permeable soils, such as clay.
then moves away from the source of the heat, carrying
Soils can also shift or move. If this happens under part thermal energy.
of a building, it can cause subsidence, meaning one
For example, a wall-mounted convection heater or
side of the building drops or moves away from other
radiator heats the air around it, causing the hot air
parts. The initial signs of subsidence are cracks forming
to rise. This is moved into the room by cooler air
in walls.
entering the bottom of the heater or radiator, creating
Key term convection currents which rotate around a room.
The term ‘radiator’ is a misnomer, as most of the
Subsidence: the sinking of a structure into the
heat output is via convection. They are not called
ground
convectors, however, because a true convector has a
heat source that is not exposed.
7 Heat principles
Warm air rises
There is much more to heating a building than just
considering the source of the heat. Buildings need to
be kept warm in winter and cool in summer. Equally, Air falls as
temperature control and air changes are important to it cools
Heating element
prevent condensation, which can lead to damp and heating air
mould growth.

Health and safety

You may need to consider the effects of
temperature on particular groups of people, such
Cold air drawn in
as elderly people. as warm air rises
 21°C is the recommended comfortable living
temperature.
 Respiratory problems can start when subjected
▲ Figure 2.27 The convection cycle
to long periods at 16°C.
 If exposed to a temperature of 12°C for more than
two hours, elderly people are at risk from raised Convection also occurs when an immersion heater
blood pressure and heart attack. conducts heat to the water close to the element. This
causes hot water to rise in the vessel, allowing the
element to heat cooler water that replaces the hot,
7.1 Heat transfer rising water.
Convection heaters:
There are three methods of transferring heat:
 are a good way to heat most sizes of room
 convection
 can be wall mounted
 conduction
 can use elements or pipes buried in the floor to heat
 radiation.
a large space
 are less effective in small spaces with limited air
circulation.

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Conduction 7.2 Characteristics of air

Conduction is when heat is transferred directly into
Modern buildings strive to be more energy efficient by
a material, for example brick in the case of a storage
keeping heat in, but this can also cause problems if a
heater. When a substance is heated, the molecules gain
building does not allow air changes to occur. Air will
more energy and vibrate more. They then bump into
become stale and contaminated, causing breathing
other nearby molecules and transfer some of their energy
problems.
to them. Conduction is therefore not appropriate for
heating air directly, as the molecules are too far apart. In addition, if a building is allowed to heat up but moist
warm air comes into contact with colder surfaces, such
Key term as windows, condensation forms, which in turn can
cause mildew or rot. Air contains water vapour, and
Storage heater: an electric heater that stores the amount of water vapour in the air is known as the
thermal energy; it heats up internal ceramic bricks level of humidity. Warmer air can hold more water
when electricity is cheaper at night and then vapour, but if that air touches cooler surfaces, or the
releases heat gradually during the day, acting in
air is rapidly cooled by mechanical means such as an
the same way as a convection heater
air-conditioning system, the humid air vapour will
condense into liquid water.
The following are examples of heating systems using
conduction:
 Floor-heating systems conduct heat to the floor,
which causes air convection above it.
 Hot-water immersion systems directly heat water
around the element.
 Instantaneous water heaters have an element that is
wound around a metal water pipe. Heat is conducted
through the pipe into the water. As the amount of
water in the pipe is small, it heats up quickly.
Radiation
Radiant heaters:
 use infrared radiation to heat bodies, but not the air ▲ Figure 2.29 Mould in the corner of a window
around them
 are directional – there must be a line of sight in Getting the balance right is difficult, so if a building does
order to heat a person not have a forced air change by fans, it needs to occur
 are particularly useful in large areas where heating naturally. This can happen by pressure differences, which
the air is not required or efficient, for example can be caused by wind or the convection effect created
outdoor patio heaters by differences in temperature or humidity. In either
 require a large amount of power and are therefore case, the amount of ventilation depends on the size and
less efficient than convection heaters. positioning of openings in the building.
Buildings with a staircase or an open chimney will
create air changes by the stack effect, where warm,
less-dense air rises, drawing cooler dense air into the
base of a building through any opening. As air warms,
it expands and becomes less dense, as there is less air
occupying a space, but as it cools it contracts, meaning
more air occupies a space, so it becomes denser.
Ideally, a normal room in a house should have a
minimum of four air changes per hour. A minimum
of six changes per hour should occur in bathrooms and
toilets, but these are likely to have forced air systems
such as extraction fans creating more changes.
▲ Figure 2.28 A radiant heater
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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

In public places, this increases to a minimum of ten Note the units for R-value: watts per metre squared
changes per hour in normal occupied rooms, and 12 in Kelvin or W/m2.K.
places such as restaurants.

7.3 Heat loss in buildings Test yourself

Buildings lose heat through the different construction Using Table 2.11, determine the R-values for:
materials used. Even if walls are well insulated, doors  25 mm thick chipboard
and windows can cause heat loss.  500 mm thick concrete.

All materials used in construction have ratings of

thermal conductivity, known as K-values. These are U-values
values given by manufacturers of the materials. A U-value is the rate of heat transfer for a wall, ceiling
Table 2.11 gives examples of commonly used materials or floor.
and their average thermal conductivity (K) value in
watts per metre Kelvin (W/m K).
Key term
U-value: a unit of measurement used to record
▼ Table 2.11 Thermal conductivity of common
thermal transmittance through a building material
materials

Material Average K-value (W/m K) To calculate the total heat loss for a wall, determine the
Light blockwork 0.38 U-value based on the materials used.
Dense blockwork 1.63
For example, consider a wall constructed using the
Exposed brick 0.84 following materials:
Chipboard 0.15  12.5 mm thick plasterboard (R1) mounted on
Concrete 1.1 100 mm light blockwork (R 2)
Glass 1.05  a 50 mm air cavity (Ra)
Gypsum plaster 0.46  100 mm exposed brick (R 3).
Plasterboard 0.25
In addition to building materials in the wall, external
Steel 20–40 air resistance and internal air resistance need to be
Granite 2.5 taken into account. These have predetermined R-values
Timber (softwood) 0.14 of:
Timber (hardwood) 0.16  internal air resistance (R si) 0.13 W/m K
Mineral-wool insulation 0.035  external air resistance (R se) 0.04 W/m K.
Rigid foam board 0.026
So, to calculate the U-value of the wall:
Air in a cavity 0.18
0.0125
R1 = = 0.05 W / m 2 .K
R-values 0.25
Once a K-value is known for a material, the amount of 0.1
R2 = = 0.26 W / m 2 .K
heat resistance the material offers can be calculated. 0.38
This is known as the R-value. 0.05
Ra = = 0.28 W / m 2 .K
The R-value can be calculated based on the thickness 0.18
of the material: 0.1
R3 = = 0.12 W / m 2 .K
R value =
thickness of material ( m ) 0.84
1
K value ( W / mK ) Total U value =
R si + R1 + R 2 + R a + R 3 + R se
W / m 2 .K

Using Table 2.11, the R-value for 12.5 mm (0.0125 m)

So, for our wall:
thick plasterboard can be determined as:
0.0125 1
R= = 0.05 W / m 2 .K U= = 1.136 W / m 2 .K
0.25 0.13 + 0.05 + 0.26 + 0.28 + 0.12 + 0.04

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 Chapter 2 Construction science principles

Some manufacturers provide U-values for their Door heat loss

products, such as doors and windows. As an example,
these could be:
(1 × 1.8) × ( 20 - 2) × 2.9 = 93.96 W
 3 W/m2.K for a double-glazed window that has Wall heat loss:
12 mm spacing between the panes of glass Wall area:
 2.5 W/m2.K for an external door which has a
standard fire rating. 2.5 × 2.6 = 6.5 m 2 × 2 = 13 m 2

Using U-values, we can calculate the heat loss in watts 6 × 2.6 = 15.6 m 2 × 2 = 31.2 m 2
through various parts of a building: 31.2 + 13 = 44.2 m 2

area of surface × temperature difference × Less window and door:

U-value for surface ) )
44.2 - (1 × 1.8 - (1.7 × 1.5 = 39.85 m 2
The temperature difference relates to the desired room So, loss is:
temperature and the average lowest outdoor temperature.
So, if a room needs to be heated to 20°C, and the outdoor )
39.85 × ( 20 - 2 × 0.35 = 251.1 W
temperature has an average low of −3°C, the difference is Floor and ceiling heat loss (as both have the same
23°C. Once each surface heat loss has been determined, dimension and U-value):
including the heat loss through air changes, these are
added to calculate the overall heat loss.
)
6 × 2.5 × ( 20 - 2 × 0.25 = 67.5 W × 2 = 135 W
Air-change loss needs to consider the volume of the
room, the number of air changes and the U-value for
1.7 × 1.5 m the air loss, which is 0.33:
)
39 × ( 20 - 2 × 2 × 0.33 = 463.3 W
2.5 m

So, the total heat loss is:

6m
133 + 93.6 + 251.1 + 135 + 463.3 = 1076 W or 1.076 kW
1 × 1.8 m
Therefore, the room would require some form of
heating system to counter this loss and maintain the
required temperature.

▲ Figure 2.30 A room with heat loss

7.4 Methods of heating a building
Several types of building services system can be used
Figure 2.30 shows a room with dimensions. Assuming to provide heat, for example:
the height of the room is 2.6 m, we can calculate the  electric wall-mounted convection heaters (including
overall heat loss if the desired temperature is 20°C and storage heaters)
the outside average low is 2°C. Let us assume all the  electric floor-heating elements
R-values have been calculated so that the following  wet floor-heating systems
U-values are given, and we will assume the room  wet heat-emitting radiators
undergoes two air changes per hour:  ground or air source heat pumps.
 Walls: 0.35
 Floor: 0.25 Electric convection heaters, known as panel heaters,
 Ceiling: 0.25 contain electric heating elements. Cool air is drawn
 Windows: 2.9 into the bottom of the unit, passes over the heating
 Door: 2.9 element and rises out of the unit as warmed air.
 Air change: 0.33. Electric storage heaters contain bricks that sandwich
Room volume: heating elements. The elements heat the bricks, which
then store the heat and gently release it into the room
6 × 2.5 × 2.6 = 39 m 2 using the convection cycle. The advantage of storage
Window heat loss: heaters is they can consume electricity at times when
costs are lower, such as night time, then release the
(1.7 × 1.5) × ( 20 - 2) × 2.9 = 133.11 W heat at other times.
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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Wet heating systems have boilers that heat water Biomass heating systems use specially made wood
and pump it around the building to radiators or pellets, which are burned to produce the heat source
floor-heating pipework. The fuel used for the boiler for the pumped water system. They are said to be
can be: carbon neutral, or low carbon, as the carbon dioxide
 gas (CO2) released by burning the wood is equal to the CO2
 oil released by the wood if it were left to decay naturally. We
 biomass. will explore this, ground/air source heat pumps and other
technologies used to heat or cool a building, in Chapter 5.
Gas can be delivered by mains pipes into the building,
and this is metered at supply. Alternatively, tanks can
be used to store gas delivered to the property.
8 Light principles
Oil is also delivered to a property and stored in tanks Lighting design has become a very specialist area
for future use. because of the vast range of lighting and luminaires
available. Light-emitting diode (LED) technology is
Health and safety used as the main form of lighting, due to its energy-
efficient performance and light quality.
Gas components can only be installed and certified
by engineers registered with Gas Safe.
Key term
Luminaires: complete electric lighting units,
Key term including the casing, lamp and any internal
controlling devices or electronic equipment (known
Gas Safe: a professional organisation that controls as control gear or drivers)
the health and safety of work completed on gas
systems in the UK
8.1 Main lighting terms
Table 2.12 considers the main lighting terms.
▼ Table 2.12 Main lighting terms

Term Definition
Luminous intensity This is the amount of light emitted per solid angle or in a given direction.
It is denoted by the symbol l and measured in candela (cd).
Luminous flux This is the total amount of light emitted from a source.
It is denoted by the symbol F and measured in lumens (lm).
Illuminance This is the amount of light falling on a surface.
It is denoted by the symbol E and measured in lumens per metre2 (lux).
Efficacy This is the efficiency of a lamp or luminaire and compares the amount of light emitted to the
electrical power consumed.
It is denoted by the symbol K and measured in lumens per watt (lm/W).
Maintenance factor (mf) These are factors used to derate the light output of a lamp, allowing for dust.
Light loss factor (llf) The factor used depends on the environment.
An average office environment would have a factor of 0.8, whereas a factory where lots of
dust accumulates may have a factor of 0.4.
Coefficient of utilisation This is a measure of the efficiency of a lamp in transferring light energy to a surface, such as a
or utilisation factor (uf) wall or ceiling.
Emitted light bounces off reflective walls, making more effective use of the light.
An average factor for a room is 0.6. The lighter the colour of the room, the higher the factor.
Glare Glare is a very bright light that is difficult to look at.
Poor positioning of luminaires can cause glare, resulting in people squinting, getting
headaches or experiencing general discomfort.

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 Chapter 2 Construction science principles

Term Definition
Diffuser/louvre Diffusers are normally translucent plastic or glass covers that refract harsh light, dispersing it
to create an even light from a single source.
A louvre is polished metal which reflects light in different directions, dispersing a harsh glare
into softer dispersed light.
Colour rendering This is the appearance of light in terms of colour.
Lamps produce either orange light or blue light, depending on the gases used in them. This
in turn can make objects under the lights look different in colour. For example, sodium lamps
were once commonly used for street lighting, but this gives the appearance that everything
lit by them is orange. This was never considered much of a problem, as hazards could still be
seen and avoided. In more modern times, whiter colours are preferred as they are better for
CCTV images and also make people feel safer.

8.2 Choosing the right type of lamp

Test yourself
Artificial lighting consumes a lot of energy. Even
A lamp has a lumen output of 2500 and consumes during daylight hours, many offices, shops and public
50 W. What is its efficacy? buildings have lights switched on. It is therefore
important to choose lamps that:
 provide a good-quality light with the correct colour
Research rendering
 consume power efficiently.
How does the colour rendering of street and utility
lighting affect crime? Table 2.13 shows the different types of lamp available,
their basic operating principles and their characteristics
including efficacy (an indication of power to light
performance).
▼ Table 2.13 Types of lamp

Lamp type Basic operating principles Characteristics and applications

General lighting A filament is suspended in a vacuum. When GLS lamps rated above 100 W were banned due to
service (GLS) current flows through the filament, it glows their poor efficacy (approximately 14 lumens/watt).
white hot, producing light. Caps are usually bayonet (BC) or Edison screw (ES).
Tungsten halogen A filament is suspended in halogen gas, which These were widely available in ratings up to 500 W
prevents evaporation. This allows the lamp to but have been superseded by LED lighting. Smaller
run at much higher temperatures than standard G4 or G9 lamps are still common in table or display
GLS lamps, meaning a brighter light. lamps.
Halogen lamps have an average efficacy of
17 lumens/watt.
High-pressure Current strikes across low-temperature sodium These were widely used for car park or street
sodium (SON) gas in a tube, causing it to heat up and ionise, lighting, as they are suited to the illumination of
producing light. The lamps are known as large areas. The colour output is slightly orange.
discharge lamps. Average efficacy is 120 lumens/watt.
Low-pressure These work on a similar principle to high- These were widely used for street lighting due to
sodium (SOX) pressure sodium lamps but they have larger their very high efficacy but colour rendering is poor,
gas-filled tubes, with lower sodium gas with a dull orange light output. Average efficacy is
pressures, and are usually U shaped. 180 lumens/watt. Although still around today, they are
rarely used in new lighting schemes.
High-pressure These work on a similar principle to high- These are commonly used for utility/communal
mercury (MBFU) pressure sodium lamps, but have tubes filled lighting because of their better colour rendering,
with mercury gas. which is white with a slight blue tinge. Efficacy
values are on average 80 lumens/watt.

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▼ Table 2.13 Types of lamp

Lamp type Basic operating principles Characteristics and applications

Metal halide (HID) These discharge lamps are similar in operation These produce a bright white light but efficacy is
to high-pressure sodium lamps but they use a lower as a result and averages 60 lumens/watt.
mixture of mercury and sodium gases.
Low-pressure Commonly known as fluorescent tubes, these These are still widely available but are slowly being
mercury mercury-filled tubes have an inner coating of replaced by LED tubes. Efficacy is on average
(fluorescent) phosphor powder, making a blue ultraviolet 100 lumens/watt.
light inside the tube and various types of white
light on the outside.
Compact These are small versions of fluorescent tubes, Designed to replace the GLS lamps banned by EU
fluorescent (CFL) where the tube is often bent to occupy smaller directives, these often have ES or BC caps. Efficacy
areas. is on average 65 lumens/watt.
LED Made up of several light emitting diodes LED lamps and luminaires are now widely used
(LEDs), these lamps require control gear, for all applications, from general room lighting to
known as drivers, to reduce and rectify voltage street lighting and stadium illumination. Efficacy is
and govern current. on average 120 lumens/watt but this is improving all
the time.

LED lighting is becoming the most common form of

Key term
lighting due to:
 good efficacy Acoustics: the transmission of sound
 the ability to change colour rendering to suit a
location, for example warm white, daylight or
Different materials and the shape of those materials
coloured
affect the way sound waves move. In most construction
 longer-lasting lamps.
applications, the desire is to provide acoustic comfort
rather than to enhance acoustics, such as in a concert
9 Acoustics principles hall. Poor acoustic protection can lead to severe health
conditions, such as hearing loss, high blood pressure,
9.1 Acoustics in buildings headaches and sleep deprivation.

Acoustics is a term used to describe the study of 9.2 Factors that affect acoustics
mechanical waves that travel through gases, solids
and liquids causing vibration and sound. This could be Before we consider methods of providing acoustic
from somebody speaking, a loudspeaker playing music comfort, we need to understand some terms used in
or someone banging on something like a drum. the study of acoustics.

▼ Table 2.14 Terms used in the study of acoustics

Term Description
Reverberation Reverberation is the persistence of a sound following its creation. It is caused when sound
reflects off surfaces and decays. Even when the initial source of the sound stops, the reflections
can continue, with their amplitude decreasing until zero is reached.
Reverberation time Reverberation time is a measurement, in seconds, of the time it takes for a sound to decay and
stop entirely. For small rooms, it should typically be under a second, and no more than two
seconds for larger rooms.
Frequency Frequency is the number of waves that occur in a period of time. For sound waves, this
determines the pitch of a sound. Low-frequency sounds (fewer waves per second) are lower in
pitch than high-frequency sounds.

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 Chapter 2 Construction science principles

Term Description
Resonance Materials have different natural resonant frequencies. This is simply the frequency of sound and
pressure which causes the material to move easily and vibrate. For example, if a loudspeaker is
placed in front of a glass and the frequency of the sound is increased (low pitch to high pitch),
there will be a point where the glass shatters because it vibrates to the point of destruction.
Sound absorption Sound absorption is where sound waves are suppressed or absorbed by an item or structure,
rather than being reflected.
Sound transmission An STC rating is a numerical value showing how well a structure reduces sound transmission. It is
class (STC) rating commonly used to rate doors, walls, windows, ceilings and floors. The higher the value, the better
the structure is at reducing sound travel. A well soundproofed wall typically has an STC rating
above 50.
Sound barrier A sound barrier is a material that can be placed on a structure (such as a wall, ceiling or floor) to
increase its STC rating.
Attenuation Attenuation is the gradual loss of intensity. It refers to a structure’s ability to limit sound
transmission.
Baffle Acoustic baffles are devices which reduce the strength of airborne sound. They absorb sound,
reducing echo and lowering reverberation time. When baffles are designed to be suspended from
a ceiling, they are referred to as clouds.
Decibel The decibel is the unit of measurement for sound.
Flanking sound Flanking sound is sound that travels between two areas, such as through air vents and ducts to
reach another room.
Footfall Footfall is the sound made by walking on a surface.

9.3 Principles of sound If equipment is located outdoors, such as air source

heat pumps, the sound from the fans can cause sound
If you have ever been in a large open space with bare, pollution.
hard walls, you will have experienced a very echoey
environment. Soft materials, such as fabrics and foams,
create a sound-absorbent surface where sound does
not reverberate.
The following can help to absorb sound waves and
prevent reverberation:
 cavity wall insulation, such as rock wool or fibre
wool
 isolation membrane (a thin barrier in walls, ceiling
voids and doors)
 flooring materials, such as carpets or wood
 soundproof foam panels (usually shaped into small ▲ Figure 2.31 Ceiling-mounted, sound-absorbing
pyramids). panels used to reduce echo in large spaces
When considering the installation of building systems,
their location will have a bearing on the noise they
Health and safety
produce. If a system component, such as a gas boiler or
circulation pump, vibrates in operation, this will create Noise exposure of 80 decibels (dBA) for two hours
sound. Any materials in contact with the component can cause hearing damage.
can also vibrate, which in turn can amplify this sound.
In some cases, acoustic hangers or fixings may be
required to reduce the transfer of vibrations.

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9.4 Laws and regulations on noise 10 Earth science principles

restriction
Earth science is a wide-ranging subject, covering
Laws restrict noise levels between 11 p.m. and 7 a.m., ground structures, watercourses, water cycles and
and councils must investigate any complaints of noise earth forces such as earthquakes. For buildings to
above permitted levels. As a guide, constant underlying remain safe and stable for their lifespan, they rely on
noise levels of 24 decibels (dBA) are permitted, with the ground being stable below them.
increases to 34 dBA intermittently.
In this section, we will look at basic ground structures,
Approved Document E of the Building Regulations watercourses and the water cycle, and how earth forces
covers resistance to sound and sets out standards can be detrimental to buildings and structures in the UK.
for new homes and conversions. While the statutory
requirements are barely one page long, the guidance 10.1 Ground structure
for complying with the requirements is very detailed,
We usually consider changing soil conditionsin the
including information on:
context of the ground being muddy, hard or good
 soundproofing, including the transmission of sound
for growing things. However, this only relates to
between walls, ceilings, windows and floors
the first layer of topsoil we encounter in our daily
 prevention of unwanted sound travel within
lives. When constructing buildings, we need to
different areas of a building, including flats and
consider the soil structure deeper below the topsoil;
connecting buildings
and in the case of high-rise buildings, we must go
 the structure of materials and formation of elements
deeper still. Figure 2.33 shows the different layers of
of the building, including building services,
soil. Although the illustrations show the layers in a
especially where these services penetrate walls,
relatively small depth, in reality the bedrock layer
floors and ceilings
can be very deep.
 the need to lag pipework or soundproof socket
outlets recessed into a partition wall.
Key term
Firework 140 dB Threshold of pain
Bedrock: solid rock usually found beneath the
Jet plane 130 dB weaker surface materials of the ground
Siren 120 dB

Trombone 110 dB Extremely loud

Helicopter 100 d

Hairdryer 90 dB

Truck 80 dB Very loud

Car 70 dB Loud

Conversation 60 dB Moderate to quiet

Topsoil
Rainfall 50 dB
Subsoil
Fridge humming 40 dB Faint

Whispering Groundwater
30 dB

Leaves rustling 20 dB
Bedrock
Breathing 10 dB

0 dB Threshold of hearing ▲ Figure 2.33 Layers of soil

▲ Figure 2.32 Comparison of different noise levels

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 Chapter 2 Construction science principles

Low-rise buildings with shallow foundations typically term explosion risk. Other sources of contamination
have footings or foundations at least 1 m deep in clay- include chemical seepage from old factory sites.
type subsoils, as these soils are prone to shrinkage
or freezing due to their water content up to 0.75 m in 10.2 Watercourses
depth. Stony subsoils, where water is less likely to be
A watercourse is a channel through which water
held, may allow for shallower foundations, but this
flows. Examples include a wide river, a small stream,
depends on the water table.
a ditch which is dry for most parts of the year, or an
underground river.
Key term Watercourses are important as they drain the land.
Without them, water would cause soils to become
Water table: the level below which the ground is
saturated with water; this level can rise with rainfall unstable, leading to subsidence or even landslips. It is
and fall with periods of dry weather therefore important that watercourses of any type are
kept free of obstruction and not overloaded.
When new developments are built, surface water
Where buildings require more stability, such as high-
needs to be drained into local watercourses, which can
rise buildings, foundations need to be in contact with
create flood risks if not managed correctly. Surface-
the bedrock layer. This is normally achieved using
water flooding is now the biggest cause of property
piles. Figure 2.34 shows piles being drilled into the
flooding. Water that falls as rain on fields takes time
ground, where reinforced concrete is then poured to
to filter through the soils into the natural drain. When
give a solid connection to the bedrock.
water falls on hard surfaces, such as roads, pavements
and roofs, this water drains into the watercourses
much more quickly, causing flash floods. With more
developments comes more risk of flash floods.

Key terms
Surface water: water that collects on the ground or
above surface structures and buildings, normally in
the form of rain
Flash floods: floods that appear suddenly following
heavy, above-average rainfall

▲ Figure 2.34 Piles being drilled, with reinforcement Measures used to manage surface water, known as
being dropped into the pile hole ready for concrete attenuation, include:
to be poured
 underground flood tanks that store water and
gradually release it into local watercourses
In addition, soil cleanliness is important. On all
 the creation of ponds or reedbeds to store or absorb
proposed development sites, soil samples must be
surface water or gradually release it into local
taken and analysed before any building works begin,
watercourses such as streams, brooks or rivers
to ensure the ground has not been contaminated by
 soakaways, which disperse surface water into the
previous activities. Many years ago, some locations
ground where it slowly drains into watercourses.
had uses that were never documented or recorded,
such as landfill-type waste tips. In these situations, When considering flood risks, it is worth looking
the decomposing waste could have caused pockets of at the water cycle and the way land drains after
methane gas to build up in the ground, creating a long- rainfall. Figure 2.35 shows how rainfall seeps through

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permeable soils and forms the water table. Water rivers or lakes. These eventually drain to the sea, where
seeps through soils to either aquifers, which are like evaporation starts the water cycle by forming rain
underground rivers or lakes, or into above-ground clouds.

▲ Figure 2.35 How rainfall naturally drains

10.3 Earth forces Other earth forces that are closer to home are those
caused by weather and tides.
The Earth’s crust is made up of large, moving pieces
known as tectonic plates. At a boundary, plates can While wind can cause serious damage to buildings
move apart, move together or slide past each other. and structures during storms, persistent wind and rain
The joins at plate boundaries are known as fault can also cause slow but damaging erosion to some
lines, and these are danger zones for earthquakes. materials. One example is limestone, which dissolves
On occasion, the moving plates become jammed when it comes into contact with carbonic acid, common
so tension and forces build. Eventually the forces in rainwater. Mortar used for pointing between bricks
become too great and the sudden release results is also prone to weathering, especially in areas such
in an earthquake, shaking the ground violently. as chimneys. Where building services equipment is
The UK is not close to any fault lines, so the risk of located in exposed outdoor areas, it can also become
earthquakes is low. That does not mean, however, damaged through weathering.
that they do not happen, as some minor tremors Flooding through storm water is becoming a
have affected the UK. more frequent occurrence due to global warming.

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 Chapter 2 Construction science principles

Storm water is not just a huge amount of rainwater

released into drains, as discussed above with Key terms
watercourses. High tidal conditions, caused by
Spring tides: exceptionally high tides that occur
spring tides and storm surges, also restrict river twice monthly at the time of the new moon and
drainage, because high levels of seawater act as a the full moon, when the moon’s orbit aligns with
barrier to the draining river water. the sun to create a greater gravitational pull; they
are known as spring tides because they act like a
Climate change is increasing the likelihood of
spring
heavy rain in the UK, particularly during the winter
months, leading to higher risks of flooding and less Storm surges: large-scale rises in sea level caused
stable soils. by storms; high winds push the seawater towards
the coast and low pressure at the centre of the
storm pulls up the water level

Assessment practice

Short answer 7 Explain how an RCD provides earth fault

protection.
1 a State the SI unit of measurement for density.
8 Explain why glare from artificial lighting should
b Calculate the area of a circle with a diameter
be avoided and describe measures that can be
of 840 mm.
taken to minimise it.
2 List three pure metals that are non-ferrous.
9 Describe how sound attenuation is achieved in a
3 A lever is to raise a load with a mass of 180 kg.
large open room.
The load is placed 0.5 m from the fulcrum and a
10 A room measures 3 m × 2 m and has a height
force acts 3 m from the fulcrum on the other side.
of 3 m. There is one door leading into the room,
Calculate the force required to raise the load.
with a dimension of 2 m × 0.9 m.
4 A weight of 5820 N is to be raised 28 m in 1.5
The walls have a U-value of 0.4. The room
minutes. Determine the power required.
temperature is 28°C, and the outside temperature
5 A circuit has a total resistance of 58 Ω and is
is −5°C.
connected to a 20 V DC supply. Calculate the
Calculate the heat loss from the room through
power dissipated by the circuit.
the walls.
Long answer
6 Explain how pumped storage hydro plants
provide additional power during peak times.

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 Chapter 3 Construction design
principles

Introduction
This chapter compares modern and traditional building
methods, and investigates how good design can reduce the
impact of construction work on the wider environment. It
considers how modern building methods can reduce project
durations, lower costs and improve the health and safety of
workers by manufacturing off site.
It then explores the role of different disciplines in the design
process from conception to completion, together with factors
that influence the design of a building project.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will understand:
1 benefits of good design
2 design principles
3 the role of different disciplines involved in design
4 the design process from conception to completion
5 the concept of the ‘whole building’, including life cycle
assessment.

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 Chapter 3 Construction design principles

By contrast, the substructure of a building is the

1 Benefits of good design part below ground level. For more information on
superstructure and substructure, see Chapter 7.
1.1 Factors of good design
Environmental impact
Design function
The way we construct and use buildings for all types
Before choosing a method of construction, it is
of purpose will have an impact on the environment.
important to understand how the building will
However, with considerate planning and the use of
achieve its design function. All buildings are initially
modern and innovative building materials, this impact
designed to meet the client’s specification because
can be minimised.
without them to finance the work, there is no project.
However, sometimes the needs of the client have to Without tight monitoring systems and control
be compromised to satisfy local restrictions, planning measures, construction work on greenfield sites and
laws, building regulations and environmental other types of land such as conservation areas may
requirements. In addition, designers have to consider: result in damage or destruction of natural wildlife
 the aesthetics of the building and how it will fit into habitats. (There is further information on greenfield
its proposed environment and brownfield sites in section 1.3 of this chapter.)
 access and egress
Inconsiderate construction and inappropriate disposal
 security
of waste materials can lead to pollution of the land,
 internal layout and arrangement of rooms/spaces
the air and natural watercourses, such as streams,
 energy efficiency.
rivers and lakes. This can damage or destroy whole
Once these aspects have been determined, designers ecosystems, outside the boundary of the site and
and clients must decide what form of construction to beyond the lifetime of the development.
use for the superstructure of the building. There are
several important factors to consider when selecting Key terms
a method of construction, for example, build speed,
familiarity with the building system and cost. Greenfield sites: areas of land that have not been
previously developed or built on, above or below
ground
Key terms
Brownfield sites: areas of land that have been
Specification: a detailed description of the materials previously developed or built on, even if there is no
and working methods that must be used for a project physical evidence of earlier use
Superstructure: the part of a building above ground
level, built on the basement or foundation

Superstructure
(above ground)

Substructure
(below ground)

▲ Figure 3.1 Superstructure and substructure of a ▲ Figure 3.2 A greenfield site

building

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Research
Search online for ‘Schedule 3 of The Town
and Country Planning (Environmental Impact
Assessment) Regulations 2017’. You can access
it here: www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2017/571
schedule/3/made
Use the screening criteria to determine the
environmental impact of construction work you have
recently been involved in.

Energy performance certificate (EPC)

EPCs are a legal requirement for domestic and
▲ Figure 3.3 A brownfield site
commercial properties in the UK that are available to
buy or rent. However, some buildings may be exempt,
The environmental impact of a building’s design,
for example, residential buildings that are intended
construction and use is controlled and monitored by:
to be used for less than four months a year and listed
 an environmental impact assessment (EIA)
buildings.
 an energy performance certificate (EPC)
 the Code for Sustainable Homes To obtain an EPC, an accredited assessor must evaluate
 a site waste management plan (SWMP) the energy efficiency of a building. They will check that
 building regulations (Part L). loft and wall insulation has been correctly installed,
and they will review records of energy use (also
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) referred to as heat demand) for the past two years.
The Town and Country Planning (Environmental Once satisfied, they will award an energy efficiency
Impact Assessment) Regulations 2017 require rating from A (most efficient) to G (least efficient) and a
developers to identify significant effects on the certificate containing information about the property’s
environment of their proposed construction project energy use and average energy costs. The certificate
at the planning application stage. If the type of may also make recommendations about how to reduce
development is listed in Schedule 2 of the regulations energy use and save money on energy bills in the
and exceeds the thresholds set out there, the local future.
authority must screen the proposals to determine the
likely environmental impact and decide whether an EPC assessments are valid for ten years for domestic
EIA is required. This also allows the public an early properties and are available to view on the Landmark
opportunity to be involved with decision-making Register in England and Wales, and the Scottish EPC
procedures. Register in Scotland.

The regulations affect only a small proportion of

private and public projects that require planning
permission; however, they could also apply to some
permitted development.

Key term
Permitted development: building work that does
not require planning permission from the local
authority but must still be constructed according to
building regulations

▲ Figure 3.4 Loft insulation

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 Chapter 3 Construction design principles

The plan should be prepared by the client, along with

the design team, contractor and subcontractor, and it
should identify:
 the different types of waste that will be created
throughout the project
 where the waste is expected to be found
 the minimum estimated quantities of each type of
waste
 the actions that the client and principal contractor
intend to take to minimise the amount of waste by
reusing and recycling.
For more information on waste management and
▲ Figure 3.5 Energy performance certificates SWMPs, see Chapter 5, section 8.

Case study
You decide to rent out your home. You do not have
an EPC, so you appoint an EPC assessor to inspect
your property.
 What energy efficiency rating do you think the
assessor would award your property? Explain
your answer.
 What recommendations do you think the
assessor would make to improve the energy
performance of your property and reduce your
energy costs?

▲ Figure 3.6 Construction site waste being recycled

Code for Sustainable Homes
in skips
Launched in 2006, the Code for Sustainable Homes
was a government-led environmental assessment
Building regulations (Part L)
method for rating and certifying the performance of
Part L of the building regulations is concerned with
new homes in the UK. It set national standards for the
the conservation of fuel and power in new buildings
design and construction of new domestic properties,
(Approved Document L1A) and existing buildings
with the aim of improving sustainable building
(Approved Document L1B). (There is further
methods.
information on Approved Documents in section 2.1 of
The government withdrew the code in 2015 and this chapter.)
consolidated some of the benchmarks into existing
To help the government meet its targets to reduce
building regulations. Although adherence to the code
carbon emissions, the regulations identify measurable
is no longer a condition for new planning proposals, it
rates to determine the energy efficiency of a building.
still endures where outline planning permission was
 The calculated rate of CO2 emissions from a
granted before March 2015 or where there are existing
dwelling (the Dwelling CO2 Emission Rate, DER)
contractual arrangements.
must not exceed the Target CO2 Emission Rate
Site waste management plan (SWMP) (TER).
A site waste management plan (SWMP) sets out how  The Dwelling Fabric Energy Efficiency (DFEE) rate
waste will be managed and disposed of during a must not exceed the Target Fabric Energy Efficiency
construction project. (TFEE) rate.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

The regulations also provide technical guidance on the

quality of materials and standards of work to achieve
the TER and TFEE rates in areas such as secondary
heating and lighting.

Test yourself
What part of a building is the superstructure?

1.2 The benefits of good design and

the potential implications of poor
design
A building that has been properly thought out and ▲ Figure 3.7 Newly constructed domestic houses for
planned will benefit the end user in many ways. sale
Prospective buyers often look for the following
qualities in new homes. Impact on the local community
 Aesthetics – the building should have ‘kerb appeal’ A building must meet the needs of both the client
(it should be attractive when viewed from the financing the project (the ‘project sponsor’) and the
road) and have modern amenities. It should be in local community, now and for future generations.
keeping with its surroundings and add value to the A development that serves the purpose of the client
community. but is not well designed or managed throughout the
 Efficiency – the building should have a good energy construction phase can cause disruption to the local
efficiency rating, allowing it to be cost-effective to community with noise, light and air pollution, not to
run. mention increased construction traffic and on-street
 Sustainability – the use of sustainable materials and parking.
alternative energy sources could make the property
more desirable. A poorly planned development could have a negative
 Wellbeing and improved quality of life – these impact on both the local economy and the way the
can be achieved by maximising natural light and area functions, for example, consider the effect it might
ensuring efficient ventilation within the building, have on local infrastructure. On average, most of the
as well as enabling access to outdoor living spaces new occupants will drive some form of vehicle that will
such as gardens, terraces or balconies. increase the amount of traffic in the area, particularly
 Affordable quality – ‘affordable’ is considered a at peak times. This may result in delays, wear and tear
median household income or lower, determined by on the roads, increased pollution and limited parking.
the local or national government. Careful selection The higher population will increase demand on local
of building materials, methods and processes schools, healthcare facilities, shops and the job market.
without unforeseen delays will bring in the
construction project on budget. Key term
 Improved local/community facilities – this could
include accessible parks, woodland, play areas, Infrastructure: the basic systems and services that
community outdoor gyms, sports clubs, leisure a country or organisation needs in order to function
facilities and shops. properly, including transportation systems (roads,
footpaths, railways, bridges, tunnels and airports),
 Improved infrastructure – this could include
water supplies, sewers and telecommunications
footpaths, roads, parking, bus routes and pedestrian
systems
bridges.

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 Chapter 3 Construction design principles

needs will be reflected in slow sales and reduced

profitability.
Large housing developments are usually divided
into smaller phases by the building management
team. Each phase is completed and sold in turn, to
finance further phases of the overall development. If
the development and buildings have not been well
designed and constructed in the right area at the
right time, then slow sales at an early stage in the
development can have a major impact on a number of
different parties in the construction chain:
 The client may be unable to finance further phases
or to make repayments to the project sponsor (for
▲ Figure 3.8 Infrastructure of a community example, a bank, a shareholder or an investor).
Broken repayment agreements could result in
Building new houses creates short-term employment financial penalties for the client. A failed venture
opportunities for the development team. However, could damage the client’s reputation and impact on
when the building phase is completed, those houses the financing of future developments.
will be sold and occupied by people with social and  The project sponsor may not finance any further
economic needs. building work or future developments.
 Construction work might be paused, leading to a
To ease the shortage of affordable housing, it is often
reduction in size of the project team until sales pick
a condition of planning approval that a percentage of
up and further phases of construction work are
all newly built homes are allocated to meet this need.
started. This could cause difficulties when building
The National Planning Policy Framework states that at
recommences in terms of re-employing contractors
least ten per cent of most new developments should be
and subcontractors at the right time, leading to
affordable housing.
further delays.
 Suppliers may not be paid on time by contractors
Key term and subcontractors, because they are no longer
employed. This can lead to a loss of confidence
Affordable housing: housing for sale or rent, for and goodwill, making it difficult to find suppliers
those whose needs are not met by the market willing to provide further building materials or
(including housing that provides a subsidised route
credit terms. Material costs could increase the
to home ownership and/or is for essential local
workers); this means that low-income households longer the development is delayed.
can buy or rent properties at an affordable price,
based on their earnings Impact of poor design and poor quality of
work
Poor design and poor quality of work can result in a
Improve your maths building failing to perform as expected after transfer
of ownership to the end user. This can result in further
Research the average wages for five different trades negative impacts on the customer and client, such
in your area, then determine the annual median as high energy bills and the fabric of the building
wage. degrading.
Materials that have been inappropriately specified,
selected, stored and used during construction work can
Impact on parties in the construction chain
often lead to failures at a later stage. Building materials
A new housing development needs to enable a local can fail when exposed to certain conditions, as shown
community to function and grow, and to bring in Table 3.1.
employment opportunities. A failure to meet these

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

▼ Table 3.1 Common failures in building materials

Building material Failure Cause

Ferrous metal Corrosion (an electrochemical process) Exposure to moisture and other
chemicals

Timber Decay/collapse (when the timber Fungal attack (dry/wet rot) due to
contains no chlorophyll) moisture content above 20 per cent
Woodworm
Warps, splits and shakes Poor storage (unsupported/exposed to
the elements/poor seasoning)
Burning Unprotected timber positioned too
close to a heat source

Brickwork and concrete Deterioration and cracking of concrete Frost attack as a result of water
or mortar joints expanding as it freezes in porous
materials
Splitting of bricks and blocks
Sulphate attack
Incorrect ratios of materials used in the
mixing of mortar and concrete

Efflorescence Water containing salt in the materials

migrating to the surface and drying

Paint Flaking/peeling Ultraviolet light (sunlight) attacking the

paint
Inadequate paint preparation and poor
choice of primers

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 Chapter 3 Construction design principles

Building material Failure Cause

Plastic Becoming brittle Ultraviolet light (sunlight) attacking the
plastic
Expansion and contraction Extreme temperatures (heat/cold)
Discolouration Low-grade plastic

Glass Misting Failure of seals between double-/

triple-glazed units, allowing the thermal
gases to escape and moisture to enter
between the layers of glass

 resources (labour, plant and equipment)

Key terms
 environmental impact
Ferrous metals: metals that contain iron and are  scheduling
vulnerable to rust when exposed to moisture  appraisal of the proposed development site
Sulphate attack: a chemical process where
regarding existing services, waterways, boundaries
sulphates cause the cement in concrete to and topography
deteriorate, often resulting in cracking  investigations into the history of the land above and
below ground, identifying any unforeseen features
that have the potential to make building work more
Test yourself complicated and costly, such as old wells, tunnels
and mines
What are the benefits of good design and the  historical architectural interest or any existing
implications of poor design? features, structures or buildings that could delay
construction work or even prevent it from going
ahead.
1.3 Factors that can impact on the
profitability of projects Key terms
At the planning stage of any development, a
Feasibility study: an investigation to establish the
feasibility study is usually carried out by the client
likely success of a proposed project
and the management team, to check that the project
is both viable and potentially profitable. The study Topography: the physical features and shape of
usually considers areas such as: land surfaces
 finances (profits/losses)
 budgets

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construction. Traditionally, construction methods did

not follow contemporary mainstream architectural
designs, until the Victorian period when building
materials and styles became increasingly standardised.
Given the distinct regional characteristics of such
buildings, it is problematic to design and specify this
form of construction anywhere other than where it
is usually found. It would be difficult to achieve the
same standards of work without employing labour and
sourcing materials from further away.

▲ Figure 3.9 The topography of a piece of land

Greenfield and brownfield sites

Reusing a brownfield site for a new development
makes environmental sense. However, from a financial
point of view it is more costly, because existing
buildings need to be removed and the ground needs to
be prepared (for example, by clearing contaminated soil
and waste).
For ease of building purposes and to maximise profits,
▲ Figure 3.10 This stone house in the Cotswolds, built
many developers would prefer to use a greenfield
with local materials, is an example of vernacular
site. Building work can usually start quickly on these construction
sites with less preparation, and contractors do not
have to contend with any existing hazardous waste Corporate social responsibility (CSR)
or unforeseen development issues. However, building Although construction businesses need to make a
on a greenfield site is controversial, as many people profit, this should not be at the expense of the world
believe we have a moral responsibility to protect around them. Corporate social responsibility (CSR)
the environment. There may also be local planning refers to strategies adopted by businesses to ensure
restrictions in place to preserve greenfield sites and only they monitor and manage their social, economic and
allow new developments when certain criteria are met. environmental impact on all aspects of society.
Over-specification and difficulty of assembly The CSR business model is self-regulated and can
Developments that are over-specified or over- take many different forms, depending on the type
engineered can result in lower profits, even before of industry. It supports companies in being socially
construction work has begun. Unique design ideas accountable to themselves, their stakeholders and the
and complicated assembly of components often result general public, in order to have a positive influence
in difficulties during manufacturing and construction, on the world. Businesses using this model not only
due to the workforce’s lack of familiarity, knowledge benefit society but also themselves, by boosting morale
and skills. These complications can lead to increased between employers and employees and improving the
timescales, missed deadlines and stretched budgets. reputation of their corporate brand.

Vernacular construction Key term

The design of the houses in a development may be
sympathetic or particular to a region, relying on locally Corporate social responsibility: the commitment of
sourced materials and traditional skills that have an organisation to carry out its business activities in
a socially and environmentally responsible way
developed over generations. This method of region-
specific house building is referred to as vernacular

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Typical examples of CSR in construction include: development, which is not always feasible and may
 providing services for the community cause damage to the natural environment. Special
 supporting charitable activities permission may also need to be obtained if this
 using ethically and sustainably sourced building involves working on someone else’s land.
materials
Even if the proposed new development is on a brownfield
 reducing the environmental impact of construction
site, there is no guarantee that the services provided will
work.
be in good order, for example, older water pipes may have
low pressure or the water supply may be contaminated if
Research the pipes are made of lead or corroded steel.
Search online for the International Organization for In remote locations where mains water cannot be
Standardization’s guidance document ‘Discovering accessed, a borehole may have to be drilled into the
ISO 26000’. You can access it here: www.iso.org/ ground to find a natural water source. This can be
files/live/sites/isoorg/files/store/en/PUB100258.pdf very expensive, because the depth of the hole and the
Research what social and ethical responsibilities could ground conditions are relatively unknown until the
be adopted by your work-placement employer to drilling starts, and any water that is found will have to
manage their impact on society and the environment. be filtered and purified before use.
A client may choose to have a self-contained site using
Test yourself alternative energy sources, such as photovoltaic panels
for electricity and lighting, ground and air source heat
What factors could have an impact on the pumps to supply heating and hot water, and storage
profitability of a building project? tanks for sewage. The main benefit of this approach is
that it does not rely on the use of finite fossil fuels to
generate power, and although the initial installation
2 Design principles costs can be quite high, these will be offset with
reduced energy bills over a period of time. For more
information on energy sources, see Chapter 5.
2.1 Factors to be considered during
the design of building services
A client must consider many factors as part of their
concept for a building, and some of these are more
obvious than others, for example:
 building capacity
 number of bedrooms and bathrooms
 internal arrangement of rooms and other spaces
 parking and garages
 aesthetics (design features, choice of materials and
use of colour).

Key term
Concept: a principle or idea

One of the most important factors to consider when

planning a building project is the availability of mains
services, such as electricity, water and drainage. If
all these services are not easily accessible at the site
(for example, in rural locations), then it could be
expensive to connect to them. This usually involves
paying service providers to dig long trenches in the
ground to run pipes and cables to the boundary of the ▲ Figure 3.11 Services being connected

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Approved Documents If a client wants to alter, extend or change the use of a

listed building, they must apply to the local authority
In many ways, the design of a building and the
for ‘listed building consent’ and be granted permission
choice of construction method are influenced by
before any work begins. The grade of listing usually
local authority planning restrictions and building
determines what changes can be made and how they
regulations. The Ministry of Housing, Communities
should be implemented, although any work will have
and Local Government publishes guidance on how
to be carried out sensitively in order to protect the
to comply with building regulations in the form of
character and history of the building or structure.
Approved Documents. These provide general advice
on the performance expected of materials and building
work, and practical solutions to some of the more
common building situations.
Approved Documents are divided into the key areas
listed below:
 Structure: Approved Document A
 Fire safety: Approved Document B
 Site preparation and resistance to contaminants and
moisture: Approved Document C
 Toxic substances: Approved Document D
 Resistance to sound: Approved Document E
 Ventilation: Approved Document F
 Sanitation, hot water safety and water efficiency:
▲ Figure 3.12 A listed building
Approved Document G
 Drainage and waste disposal: Approved Document H
 Combustion appliances and fuel storage systems: Traditional versus modern building methods
Approved Document J It is important during the planning stage of any
 Protection from falling, collision and impact: building project to consider carefully which
Approved Document K construction method will be most appropriate.
 Conservation of fuel and power: Approved
Traditional methods of constructing walls, floors and
Document L
roofs for low-rise buildings have evolved in recent
 Access to and use of buildings: Approved
years, in order to meet regulations and building
Document M
standards on energy efficiency and sustainability.
 Electrical safety: Approved Document P
However, this type of construction can be labour-
 Security in dwellings: Approved Document Q
intensive and usually results in longer build times,
 High-speed electronic communications networks:
because the entire superstructure is completed on site
Approved Document R
with low levels of mechanisation. During the initial
 Materials and workmanship: Approved Document 7.
stages of the construction work, before the building
Listed and heritage building regulations is watertight, the progress made is often weather
dependent, for example, bricklayers cannot lay bricks
Existing buildings may be protected by listed and
at temperatures below 2°C or during periods of heavy
heritage building regulations. If a building has special
rain. Traditional construction methods also tend to
architectural or historical interest, not only will the
produce a lot of waste.
structure of the building be protected, but also any
other attached structures or features, including interiors.
Key terms
Listed buildings are graded according to their national
importance: Low-rise buildings: buildings with four storeys or
 Grade I (one) – buildings of exceptional interest fewer
 Grade II* (two star) – particularly important Mechanisation: the use of machines or automatic
buildings of more than special interest devices
 Grade II (two) – buildings of special interest
warranting every effort to preserve them.

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 Chapter 3 Construction design principles

Table 3.2 compares some of the most common traditional and modern construction methods.
▼ Table 3.2 Comparison of traditional and modern construction methods

Method of construction Traditional/ Advantages Disadvantages

modern
Brick and block Traditional • Familiar • Thick walls due to insulation
Cavity Outside • Good thermal performance between inside and outside
Wall tie insulation skin • Good sound insulation skin
Inside • Can be used with concrete • Takes time to dry out
skin
upper floors • Cannot be carried out
• Good structural performance in heavy rain or freezing
• Durable conditions
• Good fire resistance • Production of cement creates
• Good weather exclusion high levels of carbon, which is
harmful for the environment

Open panel – timber frame Traditional • Sustainable building material • Can be more expensive than
if the timber is from a other building methods
managed forest • Water can stain the exposed
• Factory-built framework timber in the early stages of
reduces onsite build times construction
• Good thermal performance
and sound insulation
(although this is reliant on
the infill panels between the
open frames)

Straw-bale construction (non- Traditional • Sustainable • At risk of damage from

structural/infill system) • Low cost vermin
• Quick to build • Increased risk of fire
• Good thermal performance • Uneven wall-surface finishes
• Good sound insulation • Straw rots easily if exposed to
• No drying out required moisture

Panelised – timber frame Modern • Manufactured off site in a • Unable to support concrete
factory, thereby reducing upper floors
onsite build times, labour • Long lead time for panels to
requirements/costs and be made off site
health and safety risks (for • Liable to rot if exposed to
example, working at height) moisture
• Quick to erect the shell of the
building to make it watertight
• Sustainable building material
• Good thermal performance
• Reduced waste (factory
manufactured)
• Accurate, easy to adjust and
fix to
• Thinner walls compared with
other methods

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

▼ Table 3.2 Comparison of traditional and modern construction methods

Method of construction Traditional/ Advantages Disadvantages

modern
Insulated concrete formwork (ICF) Modern • Excellent thermal • Inexperienced workers may
performance need training to use the
• Good sound insulation system
• Good weather exclusion • Poor preparation of the
• Durable formwork (concrete mould)
• Excellent structural can lead to difficult and
performance expensive repairs once the
• Good fire resistance concrete has been poured
and cured

Steel-frame construction Traditional • Quick to erect • Expensive

• Excellent weather resistance • Heavy
• Durable • Requires a crane to lift the
• Excellent structural steel frame into position
performance • Can distort if exposed to
• Could support concrete extreme heat (for example, in
upper floors a fire)
• Good fire resistance

Thin-joint blockwork/masonry Modern • No drying out of mortar joints • Slightly more expensive
needed compared to traditional bricks
• Quick to build and blocks
• Excellent weather exclusion • Accurate foundations needed
• Durable to build on, because it is
• Excellent structural difficult to correct blockwork
performance courses at a later stage as the
• Fire resistant walls are built
• Excellent thermal
performance
• Good sound insulation
Structural insulated panels (SIPs) Modern • Good thermal performance • Precise foundations required
• Manufactured off site in a to align the SIPs; any
factory, thereby reducing deviation could result in
onsite build times, labour costly delays
requirements/costs and • Requires a crane to lift the
health and safety risks (for panels into position
example, working at height)

Volumetric (pod/modular) Modern • Manufactured off site in a • Initially more expensive

factory, therefore reducing • Requires a crane to move the
onsite build times, labour pods into position, which can
requirements/costs and be expensive to acquire if not
health and safety risks already on site
• Better quality control and
accuracy maintained in a
factory because of the level
of automation used

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 Chapter 3 Construction design principles

Key terms Key term

Skin: a single thick masonry wall Buildability: the simplicity of manufacturing or
constructing a building through its design
Watertight: when a building is at the stage of
construction where the weather cannot penetrate
it (for example, the roof is on and the windows and Choosing a method of construction
doors have been fitted)
It can be difficult deciding whether to construct using
Lead time: the period of time between ordering and traditional or modern building methods and materials.
receiving goods or materials
Traditional construction generally uses less-sustainable
technologies and materials that produce high levels
of CO2 during manufacture. However, the costs of
Test yourself
maintaining modern methods are normally higher over
What are the advantages of modern construction the lifetime of the building. For more information on
methods compared with traditional methods? sustainable methods of construction, see Chapter 5.
Whichever method is chosen, it has to meet the
Buildability minimum standards determined by building regulations.
However, some buildings will naturally perform better
Some modern construction methods involve parts or
than others with regards to heat retention and acoustics.
sections of a building being manufactured away from the
The ability of a building to maintain an ambient
site location. Large sections of walls and floors (referred to
temperature for its occupants is influenced not only by
as cassettes), roof trusses and even whole rooms (known
the U-value of the walls, floors and roof, but also by the
as pods) can be prefabricated more quickly in factories,
construction of doors, windows and roof lights.
with better quality control. Production is not delayed
due to adverse weather conditions, and off-site factory
Key term
manufacturing also reduces onsite build times, labour
requirements/costs and some health and safety risks. Feasibility: how easy or difficult it is to do something
This method of combining factory-produced, pre-
engineered units (or modules) to form major elements
Large windows, roof lanterns and bi-folding or sliding
of a structure is referred to as modular construction. It
doors are popular features of modern homes. These
results in improved ‘buildability’, because potential
allow natural daylight to illuminate large areas of
assembly issues are usually designed out at an early
the building, providing a feeling of more space and a
stage for ease of construction onsite. However, the
connection between indoor and outdoor living.
feasibility of using heavy lifting equipment and cranes
on site to lift the large building sections into place, The direction that a building faces on a plot and the
alongside the increased risks to the safety of workers and carefully planned positioning of glazing will allow
others, have to be factored into the planning of a project. sunlight to warm a building through solar gain (the sun).
This heat can also be stored in the fabric of the building
during the day and released during the evening, which
will reduce reliance on other sources of energy, decrease
bills and maintain a comfortable living environment.
Windows and doors are important design features for
access and egress (including for those with disabilities).
They are also a means of escape in the event of a
fire. In order to maintain the health and wellbeing
of the occupants of a building, openings in windows
and doors allow for ventilation, whereby stale air is
removed from the building and replaced with natural
fresh air.
▲ Figure 3.13 A cassette being lifted into position on
site

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Research
Search online for the ‘Building Research
Establishment Environmental Assessment Method’
(BREEAM) and explain the role it plays in the design
of the built environment.

Test yourself
What factors need to be considered during the
design of building services?

▲ Figure 3.14 Natural light entering a building

2.2 Stages and outcomes of the
through a roof lantern Royal Institute of British Architects
(RIBA) Plan of Work
Improve your English The RIBA Plan of Work is a design and process
management tool used by the UK building industry to
‘Luminaire’ is a word used to describe a source of
artificial light. Write a paragraph to explain the use of bring greater clarity for the client at different stages of
different types of luminaire in a building, and explain a project.
why natural light is always a better source of energy. It organises the process of briefing, designing,
constructing and operating building projects into
eight stages. Each stage has intended outcomes, core
Test yourself tasks and information that should be exchanged with
different parties.
The installation and use of windows and doors are
controlled by building regulations. Which Approved In recent years, the Plan of Work has been updated
Documents provide information and guidance on this? to reflect changes in the industry and to support the
government’s target to be net zero carbon by 2050.
▼ Table 3.3 RIBA Plan of Work Stages and Stage Outcomes

Stage Outcome
Pre-design 0 Strategic definition Determine the best way of achieving the client’s requirements and the most
appropriate solution.
1 Preparation and Develop the client’s concept and make sure it can be accommodated on site.
briefing Make sure everything needed for the next stage is in place.
Design 2 Concept design Make sure the look and feel of the building is meeting the client’s expectations
and budget.
3 Spatial co-ordination Design the spaces within the structure of the building, before preparing detailed
information about manufacturing and construction.
4 Technical design Develop information received from the design team and specialist
subcontractors for the manufacture and construction of the building.
Construction 5 Manufacturing and Manufacture and construct the building.
construction
Handover 6 Handover Complete the building works and address any defects that have been identified,
to conclude the building contract between the client and the contractor.
In use 7 Use The building should be used, operated and maintained efficiently until the end
of its life. At this stage, the client may consider appointing professionals for
aftercare activities such as servicing and maintenance.

Source: RIBA Plan of Work 2020 Stages and Stage Outcomes, reproduced courtesy of the Royal Institute of British Architects

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 Chapter 3 Construction design principles

Many contractors start out as tradespeople to gain

Improve your English experience of the construction industry, before they
progress into supervisory or principal contractor roles
The term ‘spatial’ is used in the RIBA Plan of Work to
describe the space, position, area or size of things to manage building projects for clients.
within a building. Write a sentence that includes the
word ‘spatial’ to describe the arrangement of rooms
Operatives
on a level in a dwelling. Operatives support different tradespeople at every
stage of a building project by completing manual
labour tasks, such as stacking and storing materials,
3 The role of different mixing mortar and tidying the site. The availability
of skilled labourers for a construction project and
disciplines involved in design their experience of working with a particular building
method may influence the design.
3.1 Key job roles within construction Skilled general operatives may progress into a trade,
design and with further experience into supervisory roles such
as trade foreperson (there is further information on this
There are many diverse disciplines that contribute to
role in Chapter 4).
the design and execution of a building project. Each
member of the project team is appointed by the client Architects
to provide specialist knowledge, skills and services. Architects are normally appointed by the client to
The size of the development often determines how design new buildings or structures, or to conserve or
many people are involved, and many of them may have redevelop old ones. Part of their role is to work closely
never worked together before. Complex information with clients, the local authority and main contractors to
is communicated throughout the building and design prepare:
team at various stages in the construction project,  detailed drawings
therefore it is important that roles and responsibilities  specifications
are defined clearly at an early stage and recorded in the  feasibility studies
appointment documentation.  a project brief
 planning applications
It is likely that some members of the project team will
 tender documents.
play only a brief role, and that the structure of the team
will change throughout the development. In order to
work effectively as a team and in the best interests of the Key term
client, communication needs to be clear and efficient, so
Tender documents: documents prepared to seek
that everyone is aware of what actions they need to take.
offers for the supply of goods or services; the
Let’s look at some of the personnel who could be involved client will use these documents to identify the most
in the design and construction of a development. suitable contractor for a project

Contractors
Architects may also be contracted to:
Contractors may be given responsibility by the client to
 prepare other documents, for example, a site waste
design, plan, organise and control a construction project;
management plan
this is commonly referred to as ‘design and build’. Under
 undertake site inspections
the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations
 offer advice to the client at various stages of the
2015, a principal contractor must be appointed when
building work to resolve any technical difficulties.
there is more than one contractor working on a project.
The principal contractor then either appoints designers, Knowledgeable architects who work within a larger
or uses one of their own in-house designers, to manage company may progress to a senior position as a
this process as part of their project team. lead architect or choose to work for themselves as a
freelance consultant.
The main benefit of this approach is that the client has
fewer points of contact to communicate with at each
phase of the development.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

The role of the BCO is to inspect plans submitted for

full planning approval, making sure they meet current
building regulations. At intervals agreed between the
BCO and the contractor, they will visit the construction
site and check that it meets with regulatory standards
of design and safety.
The progression route for a BCO might involve becoming
a member of the local authority planning committee.

▲ Figure 3.15 An architect using computer-aided

design (CAD)

Planners
The role of planners is to ensure that land in villages,
towns, cities, the countryside and commercial sites
is used effectively to meet economic, social and
environmental needs. Their objective is to achieve a
balance between encouraging innovation and growth
in the development of housing, industry, agriculture,
recreation and transport while trying to preserve the
historical environment. ▲ Figure 3.16 A building control officer (BCO) on a
construction site
Planners can also work as consultants for clients and
provide advice on local planning policy to architects
and developers. They can consult with stakeholders to Industry tip
determine planning applications, contest appeals and
enforce planning legislation. Never deviate from approved working drawings
during the construction phase without written
Experienced planners may leave the local planning consent from either Local Authority Building
department to become independent, advising Control or a government-approved private building
contractors and clients on planning and design to inspector. Changes to the design without permission
meet the local authority’s requirements with regards to can be expensive to put right if the work fails to
planning applications. meet building regulations approval.

Building control officers/private building

inspectors Manufacturers
Building control officers (BCOs) work for Local Manufacturers are responsible for the design,
Authority Building Control (LABC). Private building production and sale of building materials and goods.
inspectors work for government-approved building- Before their products are sold and distributed to the
inspection companies. Private building inspectors do end user, they are tested and certified to ensure they
not have the same powers of enforcement as BCOs, adhere to industry standards and regulations (for
which means that their role may have to be transferred example, the Ecodesign for Energy-Related Products
to LABC if there is a problem that cannot be resolved Regulations 2010).
without its intervention.
Designers may choose certain materials based on their
sustainability, eco-design and energy rating, which
Key term
means that manufacturers can influence the design
Local Authority Building Control: local authority and use of buildings through their products.
department responsible for inspecting building
work against building regulations and signing-off
completed projects

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 Chapter 3 Construction design principles

Mechanical building services (design) Mechanical engineer CAD technicians

engineers CAD technicians produce technical information and
Mechanical building services (design) engineers consult 2D/3D mechanical diagrams using computer-aided
and advise clients on the design, installation, operation design (CAD). They create manufacturing drawings and
and maintenance of building services such as: work instructions for the building services team. This
 heating systems information is then used to improve the buildability of
 ventilation systems the project and reduce construction costs for the client.
 air-conditioning systems
 renewable-energy systems BIM designers
 sustainable technologies. BIM designers work with clients to implement Building
Information Modelling (BIM). BIM is an intelligent,
Their technical knowledge of building services may also
streamlined process of sharing digital information
be utilised by the client for the production of detailed
(for example, 3D models, drawings, specifications and
drawings, specifications and calculations to meet with
schedules) between all parties and stakeholders. This
design standards and regulatory requirements. They may
cost-effective process allows a collaborative approach
be involved in bids and tenders for work, and mentor the
at every stage of planning, designing, building
client from the start to the completion of a project.
and managing a project, to improve efficiency and
productivity throughout the life cycle of the building.
Electrical building services (design)
engineers Key terms
Electrical building services (design) engineers consult
and advise clients on the design, installation, operation Building Information Modelling (BIM): the
and maintenance of electrical systems for domestic, use of digital technology to share construction
documentation and provide a platform for
commercial and industrial projects, such as:
collaboration
 lighting systems
 fire-safety systems Digital: in electronic form
 security systems Retrofit: the process of adding new components to
 renewable-energy systems, for example, solar older structures
photovoltaic (PV) panels and electric-car charging
points.
Retrofit assessors
Mechanical design engineers (building Retrofit assessors assess of existing buildings in order
services) to compile energy efficiency improvement plans for
clients. They may also visit sites to:
Mechanical design engineers use their specialist
 resolve issues (for example, maximising the use of
knowledge of complex mechanical systems to design,
PV panels on a building with a complex roof shape)
manage and supervise projects for the client, from
 review projects
concept to completion.
 carry out audits to ensure health and safety and
They often work closely with electrical engineers to performance standards are being met.
ensure the design and installation work is carried out
safely and in accordance with industry codes of practice.
Retrofit co-ordinators
Retrofit co-ordinators liaise with retrofit assessors,
Mechanical engineer design co-ordinators retrofit installers and clients about the installation of
Mechanical engineer design co-ordinators are usually renewable-energy technologies in existing buildings,
appointed to assist the mechanical design engineers for example, solar thermal, biomass and air/ground
on larger projects, using their technical expertise source heat pumps.
to create innovative solutions to building-services An important part of their role is to gather data from
problems. They may also organise tendering, project the retrofit assessors, then check its accuracy and
management, reporting and scheduling for the client produce an improvement plan for the client. The client
when required. may also make arrangements for a co-ordinator to
appoint an approved installer to carry out the work
identified in the plan.
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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Retrofit installers investigated to identify any potential issues early and

reduce the risk of additional costs later in the build.
Retrofit installers (also known as retrofit installer
technicians) are responsible for the installation, Individuals or organisations responsible for preparing
commissioning and final handover to the client of or modifying designs for construction projects have
renewable energy systems and measures. Installers legal duties under the Construction (Design and
must be PAS 2030:2019 certified and meet these Management) Regulations 2015.
standards on all retrofit projects.
Designers must:
Competent and experienced retrofit installers may  ensure the client is aware of their duties under the
progress in their careers to become retrofit assessors. CDM Regulations and help them to comply with
those duties
Research  take into account any preconstruction information
provided by the client
Search online for ‘PAS 2030:2019 Specification for  eliminate foreseeable health and safety risks where
the installation of energy efficiency measures in
possible
existing dwellings and insulation in residential park
homes’.  seek to reduce or control any health and safety risk
that cannot be eliminated
Identify the standards of PAS 2030:2019 for  provide design information for inclusion in the
retrofit installers and explain how they benefit the
health and safety file for the project
construction industry.
 co-ordinate with other designers working on the
project on matters of health and safety during the
construction phase and beyond
 co-ordinate, communicate and co-operate with all
contractors working on the project, taking into account
their knowledge and experience of building design.
Further information on the CDM Regulations can be
found in Chapter 1.
In this section, we will look at the importance of
researching and analysing building plots, as well as the
process of applying for planning permission, through
to the final sign-off of the building work.

Test yourself
▲ Figure 3.17 Retrofit installer fitting an energy-
What legal duties do designers have under the
efficient boiler Construction (Design and Management)
Regulations 2015?
4 Design process from
conception to completion Research
Before construction work begins, a desktop survey
4.1 Key stages of the design process, is usually undertaken to identify and record details
about previous and current uses of the site. The main
and factors that may impact or objective of this survey is to support the design and
influence design changes construction processes, by allowing correct decisions to
House building can be a relatively straightforward be made when planning the site layout.
process when good design principles are applied,
the project has been well planned and there are Key term
no unforeseen problems encountered during the
Desktop survey: an investigation into a piece of land
construction phase. However, when you are dealing
completed without visiting the site or taking physical
with the natural environment no two sites are ever the samples of soil etc.
same. It is therefore essential that the land is properly
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 Chapter 3 Construction design principles

A desktop survey will look to establish the following

information: Key terms
 site history
Hydrology: the study of water in the earth and its
 waste records relationship with the environment
 geology and hydrology
 contamination reports Environmental risk assessment: a document used
to identify and control potential risks to the natural
 site boundaries
environment from construction work
 position of existing services
 existing structures or buildings Flora: plants and trees in a particular region
 local roads Fauna: animals or insects in a particular region
 access to the site
 topography of the land
 hedges, trees and fences
Case study
 wildlife and habitats.
Much of this information can be gathered from existing A feasibility study for the construction of 75 new
plans and records held by the Environment Agency homes has identified the existence of fauna on the
and the Land Registry. proposed building site.

If a specialist or consultant is appointed, they will also Explain in detail what animals are protected and
the potential outcomes now that these indigenous
produce an environmental risk assessment. This
species have been discovered on the land.
document is used to identify potential risks to the
natural environment from the proposed building work.
A site of special scientific interest (SSSI) may be identified Site analysis
in the initial survey. This is an area that must be Once the desktop survey has been completed, a
protected from construction activities due to its rare flora walkover survey is usually undertaken. This is a
or fauna, or its physiographical or geological features. physical inspection of the building site to identify any
geological, ecological or topographical issues that may
impact the project.
It involves drilling boreholes into the ground at various
positions on the site to investigate the:
 composition of the soil
 load-bearing capacity of the ground
 position of the water table.

The water table is the point below the ground where

the soil becomes saturated; this depth will vary
depending on the location of the site.
▲ Figure 3.18 Some sites must be protected due to their
features of special interest, such as their rare flora The information gathered from the walkover survey
is interpreted and used to determine the most
appropriate form of foundation to suit the ground
conditions.

Key term
Walkover survey: a physical inspection of a building
site

▲ Figure 3.19 Some sites can become SSSIs due to

their fauna

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

To improve the efficiency of the application process and

reduce any potential financial losses, a pre-planning
application should be made to the local planning
department. This type of application is usually
processed much more quickly than a full application,
where detailed drawings and specifications are often
needed. Local planning departments encourage
pre-applications so that they can offer support and
guidance to resolve any issues in the proposal,
improving the chance of the final application being
successful.
If planning permission is required for a project, an
application must be made to the local authority by
▲ Figure 3.20 The water table the client or planning team, accompanied by a fee
and supporting documentation. The design plans
for the site will identify the boundary, frontage line
Research and building line. These may be stipulated by the
local planning department as a condition of planning
Search online for the various methods of soil
investigation and explain why they are used. approval.
At this stage, details of the planning application
are advertised by the planning department in
Planning local newspapers and at the site of the proposal.
Under permitted development rights, you can extend Consultation letters are sent to neighbours, informing
or make certain alterations to an existing domestic them about the application and advising how they can
property without the need for planning permission view the plans online or raise any valid objections to
from the local authority. However, if the proposed the project going ahead within a period of 21 days from
changes are beyond the specific limitations of the rules, the date of publishing.
or new dwellings are to be constructed, then planning
permission must be sought and granted. Research

Industry tip Find out what documents and types of drawing are
needed to make a full planning application to a local
Regardless of whether or not planning permission planning department. Suggest the possible outcome
is needed, all building work must be completed in if some of this detail is not provided.
accordance with current building regulations.

Key terms
The process of making an application for planning
approval through to the final decision made by the Frontage line: the front part of a building that faces
planning committee can be lengthy and expensive, a road
especially when you consider the investment in time,
Building line: a boundary line set by the local
effort and money in designing the project. authority beyond which building work must not
project

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 Chapter 3 Construction design principles

the work not complying with building regulations and

therefore having to be dismantled or corrected after it
has been completed. It is therefore recommended that a
building notice is used only for minor building works,
or if the contractor has good knowledge of current
building regulations.

Building Regulations
Building Notice Application
* Applicant's Details (see notes 1 and 3) Agent’s Details(if applicable)
Send invoice to applicant/agent (delete as appropriate)
Title: Mr/Mrs/Miss/Ms Other……………… Name

Surname:

Forename:

Address: Address:

▲ Figure 3.21 A planning application notice * Postcode Tel H

__________________________
Postcode Tel H
__________________________
__________ Tel M ___________ Tel M
_________________________ _________________________
_ Tel W Tel W

During the consultation period, a planning officer Email

_________________________
Email
_________________________

____________________________________ ___________________________________
from the local planning department will visit the site, Is the work being done through an agent? YES /
NO
Planning Application Reference Number
(If Applicable)………………………………….

where they will take into account information provided If so, please fill in Agent’s details above.

Location of building to which work relates

in the application and any responses from the public
Name of Builder: Builder’s Tel (W) Builder’s Tel (M)
or their representatives. They may also gather further
site-specific information, such as measurements Proposed work (see exclusions overleaf)
Description:

and photographs, in order to make their ‘officer’s Use of building

1 If new building or extension please state proposed use:
report’. The planning officer is not responsible for 2 If existing building state present use:
Fees (see note 3 and separate Guidance Note on Fees for information)
making a planning decision at this stage, but will 1 If Table A work please state number of dwellings
2 If Table B work please state floor area: _______ m2
IN ALL CASES please state 100% of estimated cost of work excluding VAT: £________________________
make recommendations for the authorised person or Gross Plan fee: £
Means of water supply (see note 3.3) Means of drainage 1: Foul Drainage
planning committee to base their final decision on. 2: Surface Water
* Statement
This notice is given in relation to the building work as described, is submitted in accordance with Regulation 12(2)(a)

The final outcome for the majority of domestic and is accompanied by the appropriate fee.

Name:…………………………………………Signature:………………………………………………Date:………………………

planning applications is decided by senior officers, BUILDING NOTICE CHECK LIST FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

under delegated powers from the planning committee. Completed and signed this Form? / No need to sign if electronic.
Enclosed the block plan mentioned in point 3 overleaf.
Purpose Group:
EST COST:
Building within 3m of sewer or public lateral drain (see note 3.2)? B.N. FEE: £
FEE PAID: £
Fee – Card payment link will be forwarded once processed.
There are three possible outcomes for a planning Or, Card payment can be processed over the telephone.
Fee Checked by:

application:
 approved ▲ Figure 3.22 A building notice application
 approved with conditions that must be complied
with (for example, ‘No further windows can be
added to the proposal on the east elevation of the Research
property’)
Search online to find out how to submit a building
 refused.
notice to your local planning department. Download
Applications that have been refused can be appealed, and complete (without submitting it!) a building
however this can be a lengthy and expensive process notice application for a fictitious extension to your
home.
that is not always successful.
Construction work can be carried out on domestic
buildings by submitting a ‘building notice’ to the Approval/review
local planning department, without the need to Once building work has commenced on site, it must
submit a full planning application. Although work be inspected at regular intervals by either a building
can start immediately once a building notice has been control officer (BCO) from Local Authority Building
submitted, lack of detail in the notice could result in Control (LABC) or a private building inspector.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

The quality and standards of work are checked against It is inevitable that certain events during construction
building regulations at the following stages: work will impact on progress, for example, poor
 excavation of the foundation weather, equipment failure or accidents. However,
 laying of foundation concrete these can be factored into a programme of work as
 installation of damp-proof course (DPC) and damp- and when they happen, so that adjustments can be
proof membranes (DPM) made to reduce the impact further down the line.
 laying of drains
 completion of the roof structure
 completion of first-fix installations (before
plastering or dry lining)
 testing of drains
 completion of the project.

Where the standard of work falls below that expected,

recommendations are made by the inspector to meet
legislation.
Building regulations state that any person intending to
carry out building work must notify LABC to determine
stages of work and when they will be inspected. This is
known as an ‘inspection service plan’.
▲ Figure 3.23 A site manager monitoring progress
Project sign-off against the programme of work
As soon as possible after a building project has
finished, the contractor or client must notify LABC, so Key term
that it can arrange a final visit to the site. During the
inspection, the BCO will check that any outstanding Programme of work: a document used by
actions from previous visits have been completed construction managers to plan and organise
and verify that the dwelling meets with building resources for a building project
regulations. Once satisfied with the building work,
they will issue a completion certificate. Until this
Construction scheduling software is often used to
certificate is issued, a building is not ‘signed-off’
prepare programmes of work as part of BIM, because
and therefore should not be occupied, and it may be
it produces documents that are clear, simple to amend
difficult to insure it or secure a mortgage.
and easy to share with all project stakeholders.
Key term The most commonly used programmes of work are:
 Gantt charts
Signed-off: approved by a building control officer  critical path analysis (CPA).

Gantt charts
4.2 Project planning Gantt charts are a type of bar chart. They are used to
record the project start and completion times, and the
Part of successful planning for a construction project
sequence in which construction activities are scheduled
involves scheduling resources, materials and labour for
to take place in between. Different coloured references
various times throughout the building phase. If this is
are used to:
not given careful consideration at the planning stage,
 highlight planned activity durations
it could result in delays on site, missed completion
 plot the current status of the project
deadlines and financial penalties for the contractor.
 flag any amendments that need to be made to
complete the project on time and within budget.

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 Chapter 3 Construction design principles

Planned March April May June

Task Start date End date duration
(days) 1 8 15 22 29 5 12 19 26 3 10 17 24 31 7 14 21
1 Layout and preparation 02/03 06/03 5
2 Excavation 09/03 17/03 9
3 Reinforcement and formwork 16/03 27/03 12
4 Foundation construction 23/03 27/03 5
5 Structural steel 30/03 18/04 20
6 Masonry 14/04 01/05 18
7 Plumbing 21/04 25/04 5
8 Electrical 21/04 23/04 3
9 HVAC 21/04 25/04 5
10 Roofing 28/04 08/05 11
11 Plastering 08/05 12/05 5
12 Carpentry 11/05 22/05 12
13 Installation of windows and doors 18/05 22/05 5
14 Terrazzo 18/05 29/05 12
15 Glazing 01/06 12/06 12
16 Hardware 15/06 19/06 5
17 Painting 15/06 23/06 9
18 Exterior concrete 15/06 25/06 11

Key:
Red = planned activity durations
Blue = current status of the project
Green = amendments that need to be made to complete the project on time and within budget

▲ Figure 3.24 A Gantt chart

Critical path analysis (CPA)

Critical path analysis (CPA) is a decision-making tool CPA is used by the project management team to
used to plan complex building projects. The order identify when each activity can start and opportunities
and expected duration of activities are plotted using to relocate resources to improve efficiency; these are
a networking diagram, connected by a series of node referred to as ‘float times’.
points containing critical information.

2 5

3
D(10)
B(1)

Earliest start time Latest finish time

0 0 A(1) 1 1 12 15

1 2 6

Node/event number F(4)

C(2)

3 6 E(5) 8 11

4 5

▲ Figure 3.25 Critical path analysis (CPA)

Key term Improve your maths

Node point: an intersection of lines or pathways in a Search on YouTube for a tutorial on how to create
diagram a critical path analysis (CPA). Work with one of your
peers to design a programme of work on a computer
for a simple construction activity.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

5 The concept of the ‘whole

Raw material
building’, including life cycle supply

assessment Disposal/end
of life
Energy
consumption

5.1 Life cycle assessment

Throughout this chapter, we have looked at how Manufacturing
Recycling of construction
design and construction are influenced by different products
factors, such as legislation, and at the impact building
works might have on the natural environment if
measures are not taken to protect it. In order to
design and construct ‘green buildings’, we need to Demolition Transport
consider the ‘whole building’ and understand how
different construction systems work together and
how this can determine project planning. Construction
Occupation
process
The term ‘sustainable home’ is sometimes broadly
used when designing or planning; however, not all
construction materials perform equally with regards ▲ Figure 3.26 Life cycle of building materials
to their carbon footprint. There is increasing demand
among stakeholders for more sustainable and energy- LCA is a reliable source of data, controlled by
efficient buildings, in order to reduce the effects on international standards. Its findings identify areas in
climate change. It is therefore important to understand the building design that have the biggest impact on
the life cycle of construction materials, from their the environment. These areas can then be targeted by
creation to their final use/disposal. designers to alter the design or the materials used, to
The impact that construction materials have on the reduce the environmental impact.
environment can be calculated using a science-based
tool known as ‘life cycle assessment’ (LCA). LCA
accurately evaluates the effect that materials have at Resources
each stage of their life cycle, using data from Building
Information Modelling (BIM) and other sources of
information, and produces a report.
End of life Processing

Key terms
Green buildings: buildings that have a low impact
on the environment, during both their construction
and use
Whole building: the impact of a building in terms of
resources and effect on the natural environment, Use Manufacturing
from the initial sourcing of raw building materials to
manufacturing and construction etc.

Distribution

▲ Figure 3.27 Life cycle assessment (LCA)

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 Chapter 3 Construction design principles

Assessment practice

Short answer Long answer

1 Which Approved Document influences the 6 Explain the difference between brownfield and
design of a building’s energy sources? greenfield sites.
2 Under what rights are contractors and individuals 7 Explain what is meant by vernacular construction
allowed to carry out certain construction projects and why it can impact on the profitability of
without planning permission? projects.
3 Identify three stages of building work that are 8 Explain the role of a BIM designer.
usually inspected by a building control officer. 9 What factors could influence changes to a
4 What is the name of the design and process building design?
management tool used to bring greater clarity for 10 List the steps for obtaining planning permission
the client at different stages of a building project? from the local planning department.
5 Name one modern building method where
components are constructed off site.

Project practice
A principal contractor has been appointed by a client Bearing in mind the possible reasons you have
for a ‘design and build’ project. A rural greenfield site identified for rejecting the planning application,
has already been acquired by the client, but it does not prepare a new application to address each of the
have planning permission. issues. To achieve this, you may need to:
 research construction materials to ascertain their
An application has been made to the local planning
properties and suitability
department, with plans for six new 3- and 4-bedroom
 consider sustainable construction solutions
low-rise dwellings. However, the plans have been
 research corporate social responsibility towards the
initially refused by Local Authority Building Control.
community.
Discuss in a group the potential grounds for LABC to
oppose the planning application.

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 Chapter 4 Construction and the built
environment industry

Introduction
In this chapter, we will look at how the construction industry
is structured and its contribution to the UK economy. We
will identify the wide range of professionals and operatives
who collaborate on various types of residential, commercial
and industrial projects and examine the role of continuing
professional development (CPD) in keeping their skills current.
We will then analyse the benefits of Building Information
Modelling (BIM) for creating and managing information on
a construction project, and look at the different types of
documentation used.
We will also examine internal and external factors that may
influence current and future building projects.
The chapter concludes by looking at handover procedures.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will understand: 6 roles and responsibilities of construction
1 the structure of the construction industry professionals and operatives
2 how the construction industry serves the economy 7 the role of continuing professional development
as a whole (CPD) in developing the knowledge and skills of
3 integration of the supply chain through partnering those working in the sector
and collaborative practices 8 Building Information Modelling (BIM)
4 procurement of projects within the construction 9 PESTLE factors
sector 10 documentation used in construction projects
5 managing change requests from various parties 11 procedures for handing over projects to clients.

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 Chapter 4 Construction and the built environment industry

1 Structure of the construction

industry
1.1 The construction industry
Construction is one of the biggest employment sectors
in the UK, employing around 3.1 million people, with
some of the largest contractors generating annual
turnovers of several billion pounds. In 2018, the
construction industry contributed £117 billion to the
UK economy.
Construction work is broadly divided into three main
categories: ▲ Figure 4.3 Infrastructure
 residential building (housing)
 non-residential building (for example universities) Work in the construction industry involves anything
 infrastructure (civil engineering). from building and maintaining homes, schools, offices,
hospitals and factories to civil engineering projects,
such as the creation of roads, bridges and airports.
Demand for the construction sector is increasing, with
the UK government expected to spend around £600
billion between 2021 and 2031, including £44 billion on
residential housing.

Key term
Civil engineering: a profession involving the design,
construction and maintenance of infrastructure
that supports human activities, for example roads,
bridges, airports and railways

▲ Figure 4.1 Residential building

Research
Define the following types of client and outline
some examples of construction work they might be
responsible for:
 government
 public limited company
 commercial
 private.

Improve your maths

Research the number of people working in each
▲ Figure 4.2 Non-residential building
trade in the construction industry and produce a
graph to illustrate this data. Analyse the information
in your graph, and suggest reasons why some trade
areas may be underrepresented.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Test yourself Improve your maths

What are the three main categories that construction If the VAT rate is 20 per cent, calculate the amount
work is divided into? of VAT that a contractor would have to pay HMRC if
they had a turnover of £137,000.

1.2 Business types

Contractors
The size and scale of a project often determine
Contractors work for a limited company registered with
which type of organisation is involved. For example,
Companies House. Although they are responsible for
established and experienced contractors with proven
the affairs and day-to-day running of the company,
track records of similar projects are usually on the
they have no personal liability for any of its financial
preferred suppliers list for tenders. Private clients,
losses if things go wrong. Limited companies are given
who have a smaller amount of money to invest, may
more credibility than other types of business, and their
appoint subcontractors to complete their building work
owners also have greater control of their business with
based on recommendations from previous customers/
tax benefits.
clients.
There are several disadvantages of managing a limited
Outlined below are examples of different business
company, including the number of shareholders
types that may be involved in the construction sector.
cannot exceed 50. Setting up a limited company
Further information on business types can be found in
also involves a slightly more complicated process
Chapter 11, section 1.1 (page 283).
than setting up as a sole trader. To become a limited
Sole traders company, it must first have a suitable business name
before paying an administration fee and registering
A sole trader runs their own business as an individual
with Companies House www.gov.uk/government/
and is self-employed. They are responsible for keeping
organisations/companies-house.
financial business records of their sales and expenses.
They also have to file a self-assessment tax return with
HMRC each year, declare any profits and pay any tax Key terms
due. Sole traders are personally liable for any debts or
losses incurred by the business. Companies House: a government body that
registers and stores information on all the limited
If annual turnover (sales) exceeds £85,000, the company companies in the UK and makes it available to the
must become VAT (value added tax) registered with public
HMRC. It must then charge VAT on all taxable sales it Shareholders: investors in a company who have
makes to its customers. As of August 2021, the VAT rate purchased at least one share of a company’s stock
is 20 per cent, but this is subject to change.

Key terms
Research
Self-employed: the state of working for oneself
Visit www.gov.uk/topic/company-registration-
rather than an employer; a self-employed person is
filing/starting-company and find out the process for
responsible for paying their own tax and National
registering a business as a limited company.
Insurance contributions on any earnings
Liable: legally responsible
VAT: value added tax – a sales duty that businesses
have to charge their customers and pay to HMRC if
their annual turnover exceeds £85,000

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 Chapter 4 Construction and the built environment industry

Subcontractors complex than in smaller businesses. This often causes

delays, with information being processed at each level
Subcontractors are self-employed tradespeople who
before being filtered down through the organisation.
are hired by principal contractors to undertake specific
Smaller organisations have a simpler structure,
work on building projects.
resulting in decisions being made more easily. It is
Self-employed workers are responsible for every part of important to establish a hierarchy in an organisation,
running a business, for example estimating, invoicing, so that everyone understands lines of communication
ordering and accounts, although they may appoint an and areas of responsibility.
accountant to manage some of their financial affairs.
They do not receive some of the benefits that employed Key terms
people enjoy, for example:
 holiday pay (including bank holidays) Corporation: a business owned by its shareholders,
 sick pay who often appoint a board of directors to manage
 maternity or paternity leave or pay. the day-to-day running of its activities; the business
is a legal entity and the shareholders have no
In order to cover the potential losses listed above, personal liability for its actions and finances
subcontractors have to charge their clients more. They
Turnover: the amount of money that a business or
also have to consider the days or even weeks that individual has been paid by their clients for services
they may be absent through sickness. During these they have provided
unforeseen periods, the business will cease trading
Overheads: regular repeated costs associated with
and earning money while the self-employed person
the day-to-day running of a business, for example
recovers. rent and insurances
Small, medium-sized and large Hierarchical structure: the arrangement of people
organisations and the positions they hold in an organisation
according to their level of authority; there is a chain
An organisation can be privately owned, a partnership or of command from those in the most senior positions
a corporation. Its size can be measured in terms of the to those in subordinate positions
number of employees, annual turnover, profits or assets.
According to Companies House guidance:
 a small organisation employs on average no more Test yourself
than 50 people and has an annual turnover of
£10.2 million or less Explain the term ‘turnover’ in regard to business
finance.
 a medium-sized organisation employs on average
no more than 250 people and has an annual
turnover of £36 million or less
 a large organisation employs at least 250 people and 1.3 The range of work undertaken in
has an annual turnover in excess of £50 million. the construction industry
Small construction businesses tend to have fewer The impact of the construction industry is everywhere
resources and overheads than larger ones, therefore you look – from homes to public buildings to
they often recruit local labour to work within a infrastructure. While structures may be diverse in their
particular area or region of the country. The bigger an design, method of construction and intended purpose,
organisation becomes, the more resources it has at its they all illustrate just how much we depend on the
disposal and the further it branches out nationally or construction industry to live, work and travel.
internationally to compete for lucrative government or
Construction work usually falls into one of a number
commercial construction contracts.
of different categories, depending on the client and
The hierarchical structure of personnel within purpose. Table 4.1 outlines the wide range of work
medium-sized and large organisations is much more undertaken in the construction industry.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

▼ Table 4.1 Range of work undertaken in the construction industry

Category of Examples of buildings/structures

construction work
Commercial Offices, private hospitals, hotels and restaurants
Residential Private and affordable housing, flats, apartment blocks, retirement villages and student
accommodation
Industrial Large buildings designed to manufacture goods, for example factories, agricultural buildings,
warehouses and power plants
Health Health centres, hospitals, clinics, treatment centres and GP surgeries
Retail High-street shops, supermarkets, superstores, shopping centres, retail parks and distribution
centres
Recreational Stadiums, swimming pools, gymnasiums, golf and tennis facilities
Leisure Public libraries, amusement parks, fitness centres, spas, cinemas and community centres
Utilities Building services systems, for example water, electricity, gas, telecommunications and sewerage
Transport Roads, railways, train stations, airports, bridges, footpaths and tunnels
New build New housing developments
Retrofit Modernisation or adaption of existing buildings to make them more energy efficient and
sustainable

government often invests heavily in further and higher

education, training and skills to meet the demand;
however, this can be influenced by the government in
power at the time and its priorities.
When people are employed and have realistic
opportunities to progress their careers, they become
financially stable and often spend or borrow money
to invest in assets such as housing and cars. These
investments create more demand for different
types of buildings such as housing, transport and
better infrastructure, leisure facilities, education
establishments and hospitals, which in turn leads
▲ Figure 4.4 Industrial construction to greater employment and continues the cycle.
Improvements of this nature in neglected urban areas
or areas previously used for industry often lead to the
2 How the construction industry regeneration of whole areas, which increases the value
serves the economy as a whole of property, creates employment and reduces crime in
the local community.
Earlier in this chapter, we highlighted the importance
of the construction industry and how the wealth The UK government is determined to continue
generated from construction developments contributes investment in new technologies in the construction
to the UK economy. sector, to meet the national housing shortage and
the need for more affordable homes. It has also
The industry is showing no signs of slowing down
made a commitment to tackle climate change and
in terms of growth, which creates well-paid job
the negative impact that construction has on the
opportunities for skilled workers. Where there are
environment.
skills gaps or shortages of labour, local and national

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 Chapter 4 Construction and the built environment industry

▲ Figure 4.5 Gas hob using a finite fossil fuel ▲ Figure 4.6 Installing solar panels can improve
energy efficiency
The UK government passed the Climate Change Act
in November 2008, setting a target to reduce carbon
emissions to net zero (carbon neutral) by 2050. To meet
this target, the government proposed spending caps
and total greenhouse gas emission targets for five-year
periods, which should not be exceeded. So far, the
country has met each target; however, if it were to miss
the carbon budget for an agreed period, it could be
challenged in a court of law.
Changes are being introduced in the construction
industry to improve efficiencies and address the need
for a cleaner environment, including:
 increased off-site manufacturing to reduce waste
and speed up production ▲ Figure 4.7 Electric vehicle charging point

 installing smart technologies in homes

 using sustainable building materials Test yourself
 creating energy-efficient buildings
 installing electric vehicle charging points What are the objectives of the Climate Change Act
2008?
 installing alternative heating systems, for example
ground and air source heat pumps
 retrofitting existing buildings to improve energy
efficiency 3 Integration of the supply
 preparing infrastructure for the impact of climate chain through partnering and
change, for example flood defences
 adapting existing infrastructure to changes in collaborative practices
technologies to protect the environment. Table 4.2 shows the integration and collaboration of
partners in the supply chain for a building project.
Key terms
Carbon: a chemical element that can be released
into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned
Retrofitting: the process of adding new features and
technologies to existing buildings

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

▼ Table 4.2 Integration and collaboration of partners in the supply chain (continued)

Position Role Responsibilities

Customer Client (individual or • Develops the initial concept for a project
organisation) • Appoints a design, management and building team
• Finances the project
• Complies with legal duties, for example the Construction (Design and
Management) (CDM) Regulations 2015
Client’s Clerk of works (CoW) Checks drawings and specifications, to ensure work is completed to the
representative standards agreed in the building contract
Designers – Architect • Interprets the client’s design brief to produce detailed drawings and
planning team specifications
• Complies with CDM duties
• Leads the project team at the design stage
• Oversees the construction phase
• Makes the client aware of their legal responsibilities
Surveyor Quantity • Studies building information and drawings/BIM to prepare tender packages
• Controls budgets and costs
• Provides professional advice to the client
Land • Plots, measures and gathers data on land for construction and civil-
engineering projects
• Advises the client on planning and construction
Building • Undertakes onsite property surveys
• Identifies defects and makes recommendations for remedial work
• Completes reports and advises the client on legal, planning or
environmental issues
Engineer Structural Collaborates with the rest of the design team to prepare structural calculations
and designs for construction and civil-engineering projects
Building Designs, plans and supervises the installation of building services, such as
services heating, water and electricity
Civil Designs, plans and supervises the construction and maintenance of public
infrastructure, such as roads, railways, bridges and tunnels
CAD operative/ • Creates and modifies technical drawings using computer-assisted design
draughtsperson (CAD)
• Visits sites to co-ordinate with architects, engineers and building services
teams
BIM manager/ • Creates management and planning documentation
technician • Creates 2D and 3D BIM models
Building Local Authority Building • Consults and offers advice on planning applications
regulators Control (LABC) • Grants or refuses planning applications
Building control officer • Inspects building work against planning permission granted and building
(BCO) regulations
• Monitors health and safety on construction sites
• Signs off building work against building regulations
Health and Safety • Enforces the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 (HASAWA) in high-risk
Executive (HSE) work environments
• Carries out inspections, investigations and enforcement action where
necessary
Fire and Rescue • Has the same powers as the HSE to enforce HASAWA
Authority • Responsible for fire-safety measures in work environments
Local Authority Enforces HASAWA in low-risk work environments
Environmental Health
Department

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 Chapter 4 Construction and the built environment industry

Position Role Responsibilities

Contractor – Managing director • As the most senior person in the company, oversees the direction of the
construction company
management • Meets with clients
team • Manages budgets, targets, business growth, personnel and performance
• Makes sure the organisation’s legal and contractual obligations are met
Contracts/project • Negotiates/completes tenders
manager • Prepares contracts
• Plans and co-ordinates projects
• Prepares reports
• Liaises with the client
• Manages costs and timescales
Site manager • Manages progress and budgets on construction projects
• Supervises workers and subcontractors on site
• Manages health, safety and welfare
• Collaborates with the project team and client to ensure work is completed to
standard and on schedule
• Conducts site inductions
Assistant site manager • Helps the site manager to fulfil their responsibilities on site
• Monitors progress and supervises workers
• Co-ordinates operations and the procurement of materials and other
resources
• Enforces the contractor’s health and safety site rules
Health and safety • Advises the contractor on health and safety matters
advisor • Prepares risk assessments and method statements
• Monitors health and safety performance
• Audits and investigates accidents
Estimator • Researches costs and sources materials, labour and equipment for contracts
• Assists the contracts manager with tender bids
• Supports buying activities
Buyer • Works closely with the company estimator
• Procures resources for construction projects
• Maintains accurate records of spending to maximise efficiencies
Trade foreperson • Supervises a small team of tradespeople
• Liaises with the site manager on topics such as progress, materials and
safety
Fire marshal • Carries out fire risk assessments
• Makes sure everyone leaves the building safely in an emergency via the
escape routes
• Checks alarms, fire-fighting equipment and safety signage
• Performs safety checks
• Makes sure workers and visitors are aware of what to do in an emergency
on site
First aider • Administers first-aid treatment
• Looks after first-aid provisions and equipment, for example the first-aid box
and eye-wash stations
• Reports accidents
Operatives/ Tradesperson (for • Carries out their specific trade role on site
subcontractors example carpenter, • Produces risk assessments and method statements
bricklayer, gas fitter) • Follows health and safety legislation and site rules
• Attends toolbox talks
• Reports unsafe conditions to the site manager
General operative • Assists tradespeople with moving and handling building materials
• Carries out general housekeeping on site

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▼ Table 4.2 Integration and collaboration of partners in the supply chain (continued)

Position Role Responsibilities

Scaffolder • Installs, maintains and inspects scaffolding systems to industry standards
• Makes sure they do not put themselves and others at risk of harm due to
their work activities
Plant operator • Inspects and operates heavy plant/equipment on site, for example
telehandlers and dumpers
• Follows safe working practices
Manufacturers Manufacturer of Carries out manufacturing routinely through the supply chain or makes items to
building materials, order, for example windows and doors
resources and products
for suppliers
Suppliers Supplier of standard • Provides goods to contractors, subcontractors and the general public from a
building materials, shop, warehouse or yard
equipment, machinery • Enters into credit agreements with contractors, with special rates and
and tools payment terms

Test yourself
Explain the role of a clerk of works.

▲ Figure 4.8 Land surveyor

▲ Figure 4.10 Clerk of works

4 Procurement of projects within

the construction sector
4.1 Need/demand
Construction work often requires huge financial
investment by clients at each stage of a project, with
▲ Figure 4.9 Building surveyor an element of risk involved depending on the type of
work undertaken. A client that has obtained a building
If a project team does not collaborate effectively with plot without planning permission on it and drawn up
stakeholders at the planning stage of a project, it often proposals with an architect may risk the concept being
results in disruption during the construction phase, refused by Local Authority Building Control. However,
increased building costs and damage to the reputation if planning permission has been granted and there is
of the contractor. a demand for the project, it has every chance of being
successful.

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 Chapter 4 Construction and the built environment industry

Before investing in construction work, it is important to

establish the need for the project, in order to mitigate Key term
risk and avoid potential financial loss.
Tendering: the process of inviting bids from
If the proposed project is speculative, with a view contractors to carry out specific projects
to selling or renting the building/s, the client must
try to forecast these sales and potential income.
It is not uncommon for building work on housing Two-stage tender
developments to stop if homes are not selling as well as If the client would like to secure the services of a
expected, until sales pick up. contractor early, without having all the relevant
If the work is a government contract for a new school design information in place, they can appoint them
or hospital, then it already has a purpose and does not using a two-stage tender. This involves an agreement
have to be sold upon completion of the building work. with the contractor for work that they are able to
price for based on the information provided, so that
they are able to start work. At the second stage,
4.2 Tendering and bidding processes when all the design information has been supplied,
Once the design for a project has been approved the contractor is able to negotiate a fixed price for
by Local Authority Building Control, the process of completion of the contract.
finding a suitable contractor begins. There are several
Preferred supplier (selective)
methods the client can use to establish the right
contractor for a project, however the following factors Clients with previous experience working on similar
need to be considered when deciding on the most projects may have developed successful relationships
suitable procurement method: with a range of contractors. Some of these contractors
 financing and budgets may be included on the client’s list of preferred
 time suppliers. From this list, the client may select a
 quality number of contractors and invite them to tender for
 risk a contract, although the contractor is not obliged to
 project limitations. submit a bid.

The client may already know which contractor Negotiated tendering

they would like to use for their project, based on Where a client has invited just one contractor to price
recommendations from others or having previously for a project, this is referred to as negotiated tendering.
appointed them on another project. However, while Before building contracts are signed, the client usually
the client may have total confidence in the contractor’s negotiates the best price for the work.
ability to complete the job to the standards expected,
they will not have any comparable quotes from other
contractors, and therefore may not be getting the best Test yourself
value for money.
List the different methods of tendering, and explain
Open tendering why they may be used by a client.

The client may invite offers for the contract from

anyone, based on the information provided. This is
Industry tip
referred to as open tendering.
The advantage of open tendering is that the process is Selecting the contractor that has provided the
fair and without bias. However, the client may have to cheapest tender is not always the best option.
Clients should also consider:
choose a contractor they are not familiar with or one
 the size of the contractor’s company
that may not have experience of completing similar
 the contractor’s experience of completing similar
projects. The client may have no alternative but to projects
appoint a contractor based on their quotation and  references from the contractor’s previous clients
references from previous clients.  the contractor’s health and safety records,
including possible HSE enforcement actions.

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4.3 Tender documentation  Letter inviting the contractor to submit a bid for the
work
The client or client’s representative is responsible for  Outline of the proposal
gathering all the documentation needed for the tender  Form of tender and timeline to return the
package. The same tender package is usually sent to completed bid
three or four contractors, depending on the tendering  Form of contract and conditions (including the
process used, so that they can calculate their costs process for payments and interim valuations)
fairly based on exactly the same information, before  Programme of work
returning it to the client with their final estimate.  Design drawings
The information contained in a tender package will be  Specifications
specific to each project. However, it may contain some  Site-specific information or issues
of the following documents:  Preliminaries
 Special planning-permission requirements
 Bill of quantities (cost framework)
 Tender return document.

Specification
102 External cavity walling
Walling below ground:
- Type: Cavity wall, concrete filled.
- Masonry units: Common bricks.
- Mortar: Class M6 mortar.
DPC at ground floor: Flexible cavity trays.
Walling above ground:
- External leaf above ground:
Masonry units: Facing bricks.
Bond or coursing: Flemish bond.
- Internal leaf above ground:
Masonry units: Aerated concrete blocks.
- Mortar:
Type: Class M4 mortar.
Joint profile to
external faces: Bucket handle.
- Wall ties: Insulation retaining wall ties.
- Cavity insulation: Full fill cavity insulation.
- Ventilation components: Air bricks and sub-floor ventilation ducts.
Openings:
- Lintels:
Type: Manufactured stone lintels.
Cavity tray cover: Flexible cavity trays.
- Cavity closers: Flexible insulated DPCs.
- Sills:
Type:
DPC below: Manufactured stone sills.
Abutments: Natural stone sills.
Cavity trays and DPCs: Precast concrete sills.
Flashings built into masonry: As drawings.

▲ Figure 4.11 Specification

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 Chapter 4 Construction and the built environment industry

Item No. Description Unit Rate Amount

1 Setting out works Lump sum
2 Temporary works e.g. Welfare facilities, site Lump sum
office and canteen
3 Scaffolding Lump sum
4 Power, heating and lighting Lump sum
5 Clear construction site on completion Lump sum
▲ Figure 4.12 Preliminaries

Key terms 5 Managing change requests

from various parties
Preliminaries: pre-construction information that
outlines items that are necessary for a contractor to It is inevitable that principal design ideas will change
complete the works but are not actually part of the as a project develops, until they meet the needs of
works, for example general plant, welfare facilities everyone involved in or affected by the proposal.
and site security
When the architect or client makes changes to a design
Bill of quantities: a document that breaks down a
at an early stage in a development, the implications are
construction project into an itemised list of work to
be carried out, including quality, quantities and costs usually minor because there are few people involved
and the development is still at the drawing-board stage.
With each amendment to the design, the architect will
add references on the plans and other documentation, so
Improve your English
that the client is aware of the most up-to-date versions.
Draft a formal letter inviting a contractor to submit a The more professionals joining the design team and
tender bid for a construction project.
collaborating on a project, the greater the need for
the principal designer to keep everyone aware of
The contractor is often asked to provide information developments, especially if collaborative technology is
about their business and previous work they have not being used to communicate efficiently or effectively.
completed. This will include proof of employer’s Later we will look at the benefits of investing in
insurance and public liability insurance, information collaborative working between all stakeholders using
about the key personnel that will represent their technology such as Building Information Modelling
business on site and references from previous clients. (BIM), and how changes in the design can be quickly
shared.
Research
As soon as a project has been given approval and a
The most common procurement routes for contractor has been appointed, a building contract
construction projects are listed below. Research will be signed between both parties, stating the
each type and explain why it may be selected by terms and conditions of the agreement. Once the
the client: legal document has been signed and building work
 Contractor led has started, changes are often much more difficult for
 Design and build everyone involved. For example, if the client wanted
 Fast track
to include an additional window in a design, it could
 Lump sum
 Single stage have the following implications:
 Two stage.  A meeting would need to happen with the client
and project team to discuss the proposal.
 An architect would need to be instructed to amend
the design.
 Building regulations approval may be needed.
 Subcontractors may be unable to complete the
walls, floors and roof.
 The contractor may have to reschedule the
subcontractors for a later date, and risk them not
being available.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

 If approval is granted, then the additional window Architects

will have to be ordered and made.
When a client has a concept for a construction project,
 An additional lintel will be required to support the
they usually appoint a professional architect, also
wall above the window.
known as a designer, to discuss their ideas, needs
 Building materials will be wasted.
and budget. A client’s project could be a new housing
development, an extension or alterations to an
All of the implications listed above will cause delays, existing building. It could also involve the restoration
additional building costs and missed completion dates, or conservation of older buildings of historical
which could trigger a financial penalty clause in the interest.
building contract.
Architects initially translate information provided by
If minor amendments can be agreed between the clients and surveys into 2D drawings and 3D digital
client, architect and contractor without impacting on models, using computer-aided design (CAD). While
the schedule or agreed costs, then the architect will planning a project, they have a responsibility to protect
issue a written document known as the ‘architect’s the environment through their designs, choice of
instructions’ to formalise the changes. materials and construction methods.
If the client or architect makes changes that compromise Initial designs often evolve and include further
the terms and conditions of the building contract, then building documentation, until the client is satisfied
the costs and schedule may have to be renegotiated that the proposal is ready to be submitted for planning
and agreed in writing before the work is completed. In approval if necessary. Design information provided by
this situation, an accurate record of the changes and an architect also informs the BIM process shared with
agreement will be made in a document known as a the project team. For example, information from the
change order, also referred to as a variation order. architect might allow structural engineers to calculate
loads and stresses on different parts of a building to
determine the size of structural components such as
Test yourself
steel beams and foundations.
Explain the process and documentation used to An architect could be an individual or organisation;
make changes to a building contract once the
however, where there is more than one architect
construction phase has started on site.
working on a single project, the client must appoint
a principal designer under the Construction (Design
and Management) Regulations 2015. The role of the
6 Roles and responsibilities of principal designer is to lead the project by planning,
construction professionals and managing, monitoring and co-ordinating health and
safety during the pre-construction phase.
operatives
While there is no requirement to use an architect,
6.1 Construction professionals their expert knowledge of the construction industry,
building regulations and materials makes the design
A construction professional is someone who is
and build process much easier for the client. The client
trained and qualified in their chosen field. Training
could even extend the services of an architect beyond
may involve many years of study in order to gain a
the design stages to advise them during the building
recognised qualification. They may also be a member
phase and oversee the whole construction project.
of a professional organisation or body.
For example, an architect will have completed a degree Key terms
in architecture and be a member of the Architects
Registration Board (ARB) or Royal Institute of British Restoration: the process of returning a building to
Architects (RIBA). The importance of professional its original condition
membership is explained later in this chapter. Computer-aided design (CAD): using computer
software to develop designs for buildings and
Some of the key professional job roles in the structures
construction industry are outlined below.

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 Chapter 4 Construction and the built environment industry

▲ Figure 4.13 Architect ▲ Figure 4.15 Civil engineering

There are many different subdisciplines in civil

engineering. People usually specialise in one of the
following fields:
 transportation engineering
 structural engineering
 environmental engineering
 geotechnical engineering
 hydraulic engineering
 construction engineering.

As civil engineers are responsible for the design and

implementation of infrastructure in construction
projects, their collaboration with other professionals in
▲ Figure 4.14 Computer-aided design (CAD) the design and construction team is vital to the success
of any project.
Test yourself
Key term
Explain the difference between computer-aided
design (CAD) and Building Information Modelling Geotechnical engineering: a field of civil
(BIM). engineering that deals with the behaviour of earth
materials such as soil and rock

Civil engineers
Civil engineers are also classified as designers,
although they manage the design, construction and
maintenance of infrastructure rather than buildings.
Typically, they are involved in projects such as:
 roads
 bridges
 tunnels
 airports
 harbours
 railways
 water and sewage systems
 power plants.
▲ Figure 4.16 Geotechnical civil engineering

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Building services design engineers  supervising specialist contractors during installations

 taking the lead on health and safety
Building services design engineers consult and advise
 commissioning systems while minimising the
clients on the concepts and possible approaches that
impact construction work has on the environment
could be integrated into their buildings to supply the
 monitoring quality control, recording progress and
following services:
reporting to the project team during installations.
 heating
 ventilation
Key term
 air conditioning
 renewable energy, for example solar photovoltaic Commissioning: the process of ensuring that a
(PV) panels and electric car charging points building system is performing or working as it has
 sustainable technologies been designed
 lighting
 fire and security systems.
Building services engineering site
Key terms managers
Building services engineering site managers oversee
Renewable energy: energy that comes from natural
sources or processes that are replenished or the installation of complex environmental systems in
replaced, such as water, sun and wind construction projects, such as heating, lighting and
electrical power. During the construction phase, they
Solar photovoltaic (PV) panels: panels that use
work closely with the project team to make sure the
solar cells to make clean, renewable energy by
converting sunlight directly into electricity design information is understood, in order to maintain
quality and productivity during installation on site.

▲ Figure 4.18 Building services engineer

▲ Figure 4.17 Renewable energy

Their technical knowledge of building services may also Facilities managers

be utilised by the client for the production of detailed Facilities managers take responsibility for the operation,
drawings, specifications and calculations to meet with servicing and maintenance of building services once
design standards and regulatory requirements. They the building work has been completed, signed-off
may also be involved in bids and tenders for work and and handed over to the client. When contractors are
advise the client from start to completion of a project. needed for work on the systems, the facilities manager
will prepare tender documents, schedule repairs
Building services engineer technicians and monitor work under their control to minimise
Building services engineer technicians are responsible disruption and protect people from work activities.
for:
 assisting the project team with design solutions, Client representatives
specifications and planning for building services It is not always possible or practical for the client to be
engineering systems (for example water and on site all of the time during the construction phase
drainage, lighting and power) of a project, and their technical knowledge about the

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 Chapter 4 Construction and the built environment industry

building industry may be limited. Consequently, either  take responsibility for the health, safety and
the principal designer or the client will appoint a clerk welfare of workers and others that may be
of works (CoW). affected by work activities; this involves making
arrangements to protect people from harm
The CoW acts as the client’s representative on site to
and ensuring workers are suitably trained and
oversee the quality and safety of work on the project.
informed about risks and control measures,
In the interests of the client, they work closely with the
usually through a site induction.
construction staff, surveyors and engineers to make sure
plans and specifications are followed properly. In doing Health and safety standards are closely monitored by
so, the CoW will refer to working drawings, building the site manager against risk assessments, method
regulations and health and safety legislation. Where statements and health and safety legislation, and
standards have not been achieved in terms of the quality where necessary they will take action to maintain or
of work, materials or safety, the CoW will report to the improve safety on site.
site manager and make suggestions for improvement.
Throughout the construction phase, the site manager
As progress is made throughout the construction will liaise with other professionals, such as the
phase, the CoW will keep the client informed with quantity surveyor to discuss budgets and the architect
accurate reports/records from the site, at intervals or surveyors regarding design issues or amendments.
agreed at the start of the project. They may also have to deal with accidents, near misses
or other emergency situations.
Contract managers
Contract managers are employed by contractors to While key information on progress and budgets can
assist in preparing tenders for clients and securing quickly be communicated through the project team
future business. When tender bids have been accepted using collaborative methods, regular site/progress
by a client, a legal contract is drawn up by the contract meetings are often chaired by the site manager.
manager. The terms and conditions of the contract are
negotiated with the client and other stakeholders with
regards to budget, the service that will be provided
and project timescales. The contract manager is
usually the main point of contact for the client and the
site/project managers for the duration of the project.
Once construction work has started on site, the
contract manager will monitor progress against the
agreed schedule and technical standards by attending
regular site meetings with the management team.
Where unexpected costs arise or the terms of the
contract change during the project, the contract
manager will have to resolve these issues as quickly
▲ Figure 4.19 Site manager
and effectively as possible.
Site managers
Site managers, also known as site supervisors, are
responsible for organising work on construction sites
to ensure it is completed safely, on time and within the
client’s budget. They are usually based in a temporary
site office and will remain on site throughout the
construction phase of the project to organise labour,
equipment and materials for each stage of the build.
Site managers:
 supervise workers, subcontractors and visitors, for
example delivery drivers
 monitor the quality of work and the progress made
against the programme of work ▲ Figure 4.20 Site induction

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

6.2 Construction operatives

Most construction operatives are experienced and
skilled workers that specialise in a particular area
of the building industry. The level of qualifications
and registrations needed to become a tradesperson
are often determined by the occupation, however
the most widely recognised are National Vocational
Qualifications (NVQs, SNVQs in Scotland) and
Apprenticeship Standards.
In addition to these qualifications, construction
operatives may also need a current CSCS card to
demonstrate to their employer that they have the ▲ Figure 4.22 Joiner
minimum level of health and safety knowledge to
work safely on site; the CSCS card scheme is covered Key terms
in more detail in Chapter 1.
First fix: a phase of construction work completed
Carpenters and joiners before plastering
Carpenters and joiners both work with wood: Second fix: a phase of construction work completed
 Joiners are usually based in a workshop, where after plastering, for example installing kitchens,
they manufacture purpose-made items to order, for doors and tiling
example doors, windows, frames and staircases,
using a range of machinery, power tools and hand
tools. Plasterers
 Carpenters usually work on construction sites.
Plasterers are tradespeople used by contractors to
First-fix carpentry includes the installation
apply smooth and textured finishes to internal walls
of floors, roofs, walls and stairs, and second-
and ceilings, using a range of materials such as
fix carpentry involves the fitting of skirting,
gypsum, cement or lime. Highly skilled plasterers
architraves, doors and kitchens.
also have the ability to carry out repairs or cast
Carpenters and joiners both work from drawings and ornamental mouldings in plaster to match existing
specifications provided by the design team; however, period features in a property. Plasterers can also apply
they may need to gather further information from the smooth or textured finishes to external walls, using
management team during a site visit before they begin lime, cement or flexible modern materials such as
any manufacturing off site. polymer or acrylic renders.
Plasterers can usually start to apply finishes to the
internal walls and ceilings as soon as tradespeople
have completed the installation of their respective first-
fix items. Where work is needed externally, this is often
weather dependent, unless the work is under cover or
protected, therefore plasterers will often work closely
with the site manager to schedule this type of work
when the weather permits.

Key term
Gypsum: a natural mineral, often used in building
products such as plaster and plasterboard

▲ Figure 4.21 Carpenter

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 Chapter 4 Construction and the built environment industry

Key term
Cavity walls: external, load-bearing, structural walls
consisting of two individual leaves (skins) of masonry
with a gap (cavity) between them

▲ Figure 4.23 Gypsum plaster

Tilers
Tilers may be subcontracted by the principal
contractor to lay decorative and protective wall and
floor tiles. Tiles can be ceramic, clay, marble, slate or
glass and are available in a range of different sizes,
shapes, designs and textures. ▲ Figure 4.24 Bricklayer

A tiler will often calculate, cut and lay tiles in

kitchens and bathrooms, as areas most exposed
Plumbers
to high levels of moisture. A tiler could also be Plumbers install, maintain and repair water, heating
appointed to work outdoors to lay tiles on patios, and drainage systems in new and existing buildings.
terraces or swimming pools. These tasks will be This includes cutting, shaping and fixing pipes and
completed in the final stages of a project, to protect fixtures for the installation, testing and commissioning
the areas from damage from other building work. of the following:
 hot and cold running water
Bricklayers  heating systems
Bricklayers set out, build and repair walls, piers and  baths
archways for domestic and commercial projects.  sinks
They work from plans and design specifications to  toilets
calculate costs for clients and quantities of materials  showers
needed.  dishwashers and washing machines.

Bricklayers can build single as well as double cavity During the first-fix stage of work, plumbers prepare for
walls using a range of different bricks, blocks or the installation of services on site by fitting pipework.
stone, for internal or external projects. Their job is In domestic projects, pipework is run through floors,
very physical and often involves working at height walls and ceiling voids where possible, so that it can be
using a range of access equipment; therefore, it is hidden from view. On other projects, such as industrial
essential that they have a strong understanding of or commercial, the specification may state that
health and safety practices. pipework has to be located in surface-mounted ducting,
so that it can easily be maintained or adapted without
The stages at which bricklayers are scheduled into a
causing damage.
project are determined by the build method chosen.
However, the majority of their work is often structural, At the second-fix stage, plumbers must work closely
which would result in them being on site once the with other trades to co-ordinate the installation of
foundations have been poured. fixtures and fittings, to protect them from damage and
to avoid complications for work that follows.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Gas fitters
A gas fitter specialises in the installation, servicing and
maintenance of gas systems and appliances. Once all
the structural work has been completed on a project,
the first-fix installation of the new system can begin.
The gas fitter follows the prepared design drawings
and specifications to route their gas pipework safely
through the building, where it is least likely to be
damaged by other construction work.
At the second-fix stage, the gas fitter connects the
client’s appliances and pressure tests the system to
check for leaks, before connecting to the main gas
▲ Figure 4.25 Plumber supply entering the construction site.
Once the gas fitter has completed all the safety checks
Electricians
and is satisfied that the work has been completed safely
Electricians are responsible for designing, installing, to building regulations, they will commission the
servicing and repairing electrical systems in new and system. It is then the responsibility of the gas fitter to
existing buildings. At the first-fix stage, electricians inform their local authority of the installation within
interpret wiring diagrams and the client’s specification 30 days, so that a Building Regulations Compliance
to run the wiring system throughout the building Certificate can be issued to the client.
to power lighting, sockets and alarm systems. Later
in the project they will be scheduled by the project
manager to return to site to install/connect the second-
fix electrical fixtures and fittings, for example the fuse
board, light fittings and switches.
Once the system has been installed, the electrician will
test and commission it to make sure it is safe to put
into service. If a new electrical system has been fitted,
the electrician will issue the client with an Electrical
Installation Certificate (EIC) to show that it has been
installed to a satisfactory standard. If the electrician
has carried out work on an existing system, they will
issue the client with a Minor Electrical Installation
Works Certificate (MEIWC) to demonstrate that the
work they have completed is safe.

Heating and ventilation fitters

Heating and ventilation fitters plan, install and
maintain large heating and ventilation systems. They
follow the designer’s plan and specification to ensure
work is completed safely to industry standards and to
meet the client’s requirements.
Once the installation work has been completed, the
heating and ventilation fitter will test and commission
the system. At the end of the project, they may be
appointed by the client to carry out routine servicing
of the system, to ensure it is working safely and
▲ Figure 4.26 Building Regulations Compliance
efficiently. Any work completed by the fitter must be
Certificate
recorded in the client’s building log book.

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 Chapter 4 Construction and the built environment industry

Only heat-producing gas appliances, such as boilers Trade supervisors

and fires, need a Building Regulations Compliance
Trade supervisors are often experienced construction
Certificate and this is only a requirement in England
workers who have progressed from their chosen
and Wales. The requirements are different in Scotland
profession to a supervisory role, where they are
and Northern Ireland.
responsible for a small team of tradespeople working
on a particular project. In most situations, they remain
Health and safety
‘on the tools’ throughout the building phase, while
Plumbers and gas fitters (or anyone else) are not managing the standard of work, resources and health
permitted to work with domestic gas heating and safety of operatives under their control.
systems unless they are on the Gas Safe Register.
Trade supervisors may be required to attend scheduled
Gas Safe engineers can only work on the areas that
they are qualified for. For example, an engineer site meetings with the construction management team
may be permitted to work on domestic natural gas to represent their trade area, report their progress
boilers, but not on gas fires. and raise any concerns that they are unable to resolve
themselves.

Non-skilled operatives
Non-skilled operatives usually undertake manual-
labouring tasks to support tradespeople and other
skilled workers on site, such as preparing building
materials, moving equipment and general housekeeping
to keep people safe. They play an important role in the
success of any construction project.

▲ Figure 4.27 Gas Safe logo

Test yourself
Explain the legal responsibility of a gas fitter once they
have installed and commissioned a new gas system.

Decorators
Decorators are usually one of the last trades to be
scheduled during a construction project. Part of their
role is to prepare surfaces such as walls, ceilings, metal
and woodwork for decorative and protective finishes.
Some of these finishes can be applied internally or
externally with brushes, rags, sponges, rollers or
▲ Figure 4.28 Non-skilled operative
spray systems. Skilled decorators can also apply other
finishes, such as hanging wallpaper, stencilling,
graining and creating marbling effects. Research
There are other roles that are necessary on a
Key term construction project. Research the roles and
responsibilities of a plant operator and ground
Graining: a method used by decorators to create worker, and explain during which stages they would
woodgrain effects on different surfaces be involved.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

contracts of employment or codes of practice. There

is further information on chartered, professional,
accreditation and certification bodies in Chapter 7.
Often people working in the construction industry
have to undertake CPD to demonstrate the currency
of their professional competence. For this reason,
they may focus on a particular area of weakness that
they have identified or that has been brought to their
attention, such as:
 legislation and regulations
 management and supervision
 health, safety and welfare
▲ Figure 4.29 Plant operator  digital technology
 conservation and refurbishment
 sustainability
Research  maintenance
 tools and equipment
Find out the qualifications needed to become a
tradesperson for each of the occupations listed  industry standards and best practice.
above and explain why they are so important.
Key term

7 The role of continuing Continuing professional development (CPD): the

process of maintaining, improving and developing
professional development (CPD) knowledge and skills related to one’s profession in
in developing the knowledge order to demonstrate competence

and skills of those working in

the sector 7.2 Types of CPD
CPD does not have to be the completion of onerous
7.1 Role of CPD formal qualifications at another organisation. Examples
Construction and building services engineering are of CPD include:
fast-moving industries, and the people working within  work experience
them must keep pace with any new developments.  a short bespoke training session taught in-house by
an employer or external training provider
Professionals and skilled operatives beginning a career  an onsite toolbox talk presented by a site manager
in the sector must undertake training and demonstrate on a particular topic of health and safety
competence in order to achieve formal qualifications.  a self-learning online course.
These achievements often create employment
opportunities, allowing those new to the industry to
gain valuable work experience and develop a greater 7.3 Benefits of CPD
understanding of their job role.
CPD is a legal requirement for some professionals.
Some professionals and operatives have legal However, there are also many benefits for employers
responsibilities to belong to professional, accredited or and individuals in upskilling, including:
certified organisations in order to actively continue with  protecting clients, customers and the public
their job roles, for example gas fitters have to keep a yearly  keeping up to date with the latest regulation
registration with Gas Safe. This often involves having changes, product developments and technological
to maintain professional standards and keep records of advancements
continuing professional development (CPD).  developing product knowledge
 working more efficiently
Many businesses insist on employees maintaining
 improving knowledge and skills
professional CPD and outline workforce planning in

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 Chapter 4 Construction and the built environment industry

 enhancing the company image

 career progression. Key term
Smart technology: computers, smartphones and
tablets with software that connects to the internet in
order to control, report, monitor and analyse devices
and appliances remotely

▲ Figure 4.30 Construction workers updating their CPD

Businesses that actively encourage employee CPD will

not only have a highly skilled and professional team, but
also members of staff that are committed and remain
loyal. The more businesses invest time, money and effort
▲ Figure 4.31 Building Information Modelling (BIM)
in the development of their staff, the safer and more
skilled the building industry will become as a whole.
8.1 BIM process
Research At the start of a project, the client usually meets with
the designer and contractor to discuss the information
Research the following organisations and suggest they want to receive at each stage up until handover,
which professionals may belong to them: and how this will be shared with them through BIM.
 Chartered Institute of Building (CIOB) This detail is recorded in a document known as the
 Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS)
Employer’s Information Requirements (EIR), so that
 Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA).
the construction team understands the service it needs
to provide to the client.

Improve your English Designers usually start the BIM process by translating
information captured from the construction site and
Create a template on your computer and input the the client’s drawings into digital 3D models of the
CPD you have completed over the past year. Reflect building and the infrastructure around it. Clients and
on each area and how it may have benefited you in other stakeholders can use BIM for virtual-reality tours
your job role. Ask your tutor to check your spelling, throughout the building before it has been constructed,
grammar and punctuation. helping them to gain a better understanding of the
structure.
BIM illustrates every detail of the project in graphical
8 Building Information Modelling form (drawings) and non-graphical form (written
(BIM) information), recording the relationships between
components and how they all fit together. This
Building Information Modelling (BIM) uses
information can be shared easily with all members of
smart technology to allow effective and efficient
the project team, so that they can analyse every aspect
collaboration between designers and the construction
of the design, and where necessary make changes to
team at every stage of a building project. It is
the model in real time.
adaptable to suit the size and complexity of each
project and allows technical information to be shared BIM brings different professionals together to show
throughout the management and construction teams. how their work fits into the overall project by analysing

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

data and exploring visualisations to help understand 8.2 BIM levels

how a building is to be constructed. Working
collaboratively on complex building projects using BIM The extent to which BIM is used will vary, depending
can eliminate mistakes before they happen, save costs on the nature and size of a project. The government
and achieve better project outcomes. recognises the positive steps the construction
industry has taken towards the adoption of BIM
At the design stage, the intelligent model process
and how it has contributed to substantial savings.
is used to generate documentation for construction
It also understands the complexity of BIM and how
specifications and schedules for the building phase
it could be used broadly to describe many different
of the project, referred to as the Digital Plan of Work
systems.
(DPoW). During the building phase, this information
is used by the contractor and subcontractors to inform To bring clarity to how BIM is used in a project, the
planning and organise resources for an efficient site, government has defined a number of levels:
and ensure the smooth running of the project.  Level 0 – Designers are using computer-aided
design (CAD) to produce 2D drawings and plans,
Another advantage of BIM is that it can be accessed by
however this information has to be printed to be
any member of the project team on the construction
shared with the project team. There is no digital
site using a mobile device, and it is often used with
collaboration between stakeholders using the same
augmented reality (AR) technology. In AR, digitally
platform.
generated images are superimposed over real-world
 Level 1 – A Common Data Environment (CDE)
images in real time. This technology is useful for
is established, usually by the contractor, allowing
building services engineers when planning the
graphical and non-graphical information to
arrangement of services, such as air-conditioning ducts
be stored centrally and accessed by the whole
and vents.
project team. CAD is used in the production of 2D
drawings, 3D BIM models and other construction
documentation. Clear roles and responsibilities are
established in the project team, and common forms
of data are used to share information between
different parties.
 Level 2 – Any CAD software can be used at this
level, but it must be capable of being exported to
common file formats. The project team will also be
able to work collaboratively using different systems
throughout a construction project. This is the
minimum level required by the government for all
public construction projects.
 Level 3 – This level is in its preliminary stages of
▲ Figure 4.32 Augmented reality (AR) development, however it is intended to improve
on level 2 BIM with the use of a single server.
This will allow an ‘open data’ standard, so that all
Key term
stakeholders are able to work simultaneously on the
Visualisations: digital or virtual representations of a same project, from anywhere in the world.
structure

Research
Find out about the use of augmented reality (AR)
in construction. Explain how it can be used by the
project team to manage building work.

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 Chapter 4 Construction and the built environment industry

It is important that businesses develop strategies

to prepare for these factors before they happen, by
analysing their market from many different angles and
the environment as a whole.
Factors that are beyond the control of a business are
known by the acronym PESTLE:
 Political – political situations could affect local and
national government spending in the construction
sector, for example a change of government.
 Economic –
– If people are not spending money, the UK
economy will slow down. When this happens,
the building industry is one of the first to be
impacted.
– Changes in gross domestic product (GDP) value
▲ Figure 4.33 BIM: 2D computer-aided design (CAD)
and exchange rates will affect the market value
of construction goods and services.
8.3 Data warehouse – When interest rates increase, people are more
likely to save rather than spend their money. If
Once a building project has been completed,
interest rates decrease, people will often borrow
contractors usually measure its success by analysing
money to spend on new homes or invest in
data and project outcomes. Besides the technical
improvements to their existing properties.
information distributed through BIM, contractors
– Higher taxation also has an impact on
usually want to focus on particular subject areas,
businesses and the self-employed, because it
such as the procurement of resources or finance.
results in increased costs of building materials
In order to do this successfully, the most recent
and labour.
information is gathered from different sources and
 Social – population demographics and the
fed into a single digital storage system known as a
movement of social and community groups can
data warehouse.
influence the type of buildings and structures
Data warehouse software systems are designed to constructed in particular areas to meet the needs of
meet the needs of each contractor by structuring the community.
the information, evaluating it and presenting visual  Technology – technological innovations could
reports. Harnessing the data in this way enables the affect how a building or structure is designed and
contractor to make informed business decisions for constructed, for example the use of green energy as
future construction projects. a source of power.
 Legal – legislation made by Parliament can
influence the planning, design and construction
Test yourself
of buildings. For example, following the Grenfell
Explain the main benefits of using BIM. Tower fire in 2017 there was a review of the
Building Regulations 2010 and Approved Document
B (Fire safety), effectively banning the use of
combustible cladding in external walls of relevant
9 PESTLE factors high-rise buildings.
There are many internal and external factors that can  Environment – companies have corporate social
affect the way a business is controlled. Some of these responsibility (CSR) and protect the environment
factors can be planned for and managed, however by lowering carbon emissions produced during
there are some that are beyond the control of the manufacturing and construction.
business and will inevitably happen.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Test yourself
Political
List the internal and external factors that can affect
a business over which a contractor may have no
control.
Environmental Economic

10 Documentation used in
construction projects
PESTLE
At every stage of a construction project, people have to
collaborate to share different types of information. If
Legal Social these lines of communication are not efficient, or the
information is not clear, it could be detrimental to the
project in terms of mistakes and financial implications.
While verbal communication is quick and effective in
Technological
many situations, it can be misunderstood or forgotten,
and there is nothing to refer back to at a later date or if
a dispute occurs.
In the construction industry, important information is
▲ Figure 4.34 PESTLE recorded in different types of written documentation.
It is advantageous to record information in this way
because it is clear, understood by everyone and can
easily be duplicated and distributed at various levels in
the project team.
Other than health and safety documentation (which
is covered in Chapter 1), the following documents are
The Building Regulations 2010 commonly used in construction projects:

B
 take-off sheets
 contracts
Fire safety
 schedule of rates
 estimates
 quotations
APPROVED DOCUMENT
 delivery notes
 purchase orders
 bills of quantities
Volume 1: Dwellings
 wiring diagrams.
Requirement B1: Means of warning and escape
Requirement B2: Internal fire spread (linings)
Requirement B3: Internal fire spread (structure) 10.1 Take-off sheets
Requirement B4: External fire spread
Requirement B5: Access and facilities for the fire service
Regulations: 6(3), 7(2) and 38
To calculate quantities of building materials and labour
costs for a construction project, estimators complete
take-off sheets (also referred to as material take-off)
using information contained in working drawings and
2019 edition incorporating 2020 amendments –
specifications.
for use in England
While this estimation process may not be necessary
for small construction jobs, it is always used for major
projects to determine their feasibility, as well as being a
▲ Figure 4.35 A PESTLE factor that can affect
financial planning tool. Take-off sheets are also used by
construction businesses
estimators to produce bills of quantities for the tendering
process, and to support bids for future contracts.
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 Chapter 4 Construction and the built environment industry

Take-off sheets can be completed manually, referring Requisitioning materials necessary for a construction
to hard copies of drawings to determine measurements project from take-off sheets can result in workers
and quantities using a scale rule. However, this is getting the resources they need on time, for smoother
reliant on the methodical approach of an estimator and running of the job.
is at risk from human error. Accurate take-off sheets
can be created using computer software, providing Test yourself
estimates that can easily be shared between the office
Explain the purpose of take-off sheets.
and construction sites.

DOOR & WINDOW TAKE-OFF

Project: Sheet # 1 of 1
Take-off by: Date:
DOORS
How No. Width Height Thickness Type Material Glass Frame Frame Jamb Notes
many type material size
(2) 1’6” Ponderosa
1 3’0 6’8 1 3
4“ S/C Birch sidelights pine 4 1 4“ 6’0×6’8 opening

2 6’0 6’8 Sliding Glass 1/4” Aluminium 4 9/16” Includes screen

insulated
3 2’8 6’8 1 3
8“ H/C Birch Ponderosa
pine “
4 3’0 6’8 1 3 4“ S/C - “ “ 4-1/4” jamb for door from garage to garden
5 2’4 6’8 1 3 4“ H/C - “ “
6 7’0 8’0 Overhead Wood “ 4 1 4“ Sectional garage door

** Allow £150 for exterior doors

*** £190 allowance for all hardware

WINDOWS
How No. Width Height Thickness Type Material Glass Frame Frame Jamb Notes
many type material size
1 6’0 5’0 Casement Wood
2 4’0 3’0 “ “
3 3’0 4’0 “ “
4 4’0 4’0 “ “

▲ Figure 4.36 Take-off sheets

10.2 Contracts the understanding that the client will be charged

the prime cost of the materials, labour and plant
Lump-sum and measurement contracts for the project, plus an additional fee to cover the
Once a client has decided which contractor they are contractor’s profit margin and overheads. This is
going to appoint for a project, either through the known as a cost-reimbursement contract. The extra
tendering process or otherwise, they can formally charges added to the prime cost can be based on a
secure their services with a lump-sum contract. A lump percentage of the overall project value, or a fixed sum of
sum is a fixed price for the project based on drawings, money decided before the contract is agreed.
specifications and the bill of quantities (see 10.8). Where the services of a contractor may be required for
If a lump sum cannot be accurately determined by the design and build, management only or construction
contractor before work starts on site, a measurement management purposes, other forms of contract can be
contract may be used. This type of contract is based designed to suit these requirements.
on agreed values or rates (prices) for work between the
client and the contractor, where the total cost is not Key term
finalised until the end of the project.
Prime cost: the actual value of goods and services
When neither of these options can be used, a without any additional costs added, for example
contract can be agreed for work to be completed on profit margins

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

When both parties have agreed to the terms and to be made in advance of each significant stage of
conditions of a contract, they will sign it in the building work, for example:
presence of a witness to complete the legally binding  the first payment when the contracts have been
document. This is known as an agreement. signed
 the second payment when the foundations are built
Research and inspected
 and so on for each stage of the project.
Research the Joint Contracts Tribunal (JCT) for
further information on standard forms of building Most clients prefer to pay contractors interim payments
contracts. Explain the factors that may influence for work completed. This reduces the risk for the client
the choice of contract agreed between a client and if the contractor is unable to complete the project after
their contractor. payments have been made.
Retention
Clients sometimes withhold a percentage of money due
to the contractor at each stage of the building work;
this is known as a retention. The exact percentage of
money to be withheld has to be agreed between the
client and contractor before work starts and is usually
3–5 per cent. The retention acts as financial security
for the client, to make sure the contractor finishes the
building work and any snagging within a reasonable
amount of time after completion of the work; this is
known as the defects liability period.
If the contractor does not return to complete the work
within the period agreed in the contract, the client
has reasonable grounds to use the money to instruct
other contractors to undertake the outstanding work.
On the other hand, if the contractor does complete the
project and resolve all of the defects identified within
the defects liability period, the client must release the
outstanding retention payment without delay.

▲ Figure 4.37 Building contract

Payment schedule
An important part of the terms and conditions of
any building contract is the payment schedule. This
determines how and when the client will pay the
contractor for the agreed work. Where minor works are
undertaken for a short duration, one payment could be
agreed to be made at the end of the project. However, ▲ Figure 4.38 Snagging
for bigger contracts payments are usually made
regularly throughout the project until completion. Key term
Without interim payments, the contractor will have to
Snagging: corrective work undertaken by a
finance the client’s project by paying labour, materials
contractor or their subcontractors that has been
and plant for the duration of the contract, which could identified by the client or their representative
cause cash-flow problems. Payments can be agreed

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 Chapter 4 Construction and the built environment industry

Penalty clauses When a client is considering the affordability of

a project, they may not be able to provide all the
To ensure a building project is completed by the date
information needed by the contractor, for example
stipulated in the contract, a penalty clause is usually
the final details of finishes. A percentage of money
included. In the event that the contractor does not
is usually added to the estimate as a contingency,
finish the agreed work by the completion date, a sum
to cover any unknown financial risk until more
of money will be owed to the client by the contractor.
information becomes available.
This amount will increase with every day past the
original deadline, until the project is completed.
Key term
Other documents
Contingency: provision for an unforeseen
There are various other documents included in a circumstance; financial contingencies are often
contract between a client and a contractor, which may considered when planning for a construction project
include:
 Building Information Modelling (BIM)
 working drawings
 specifications
 a schedule of work.
A & E BUILDERS LTD.
JOB ESTIMATE DATE:
10.3 Schedule of rates MATERIALS
ITEM QUANTITY UNIT COST SHIPPING AMOUNT
The cost of building materials will naturally increase
over a long period of time due to inflation. However,
it can also quickly rise above this level if there is an
increase in transport costs or demand and a shortage of
materials.
When prices for materials are not stable, it can cause
difficulties for contractors and subcontractors in the DIRECT MATERIALS COST
LABOUR
period between pricing or tendering for contracts and
actually starting the projects when purchase orders are
placed.
So that contractors are not caught out by price
increases, suppliers often agree a schedule of rates
for a set period of time. This allows contractors to
determine more accurate quotations for clients,
without having to overcompensate for unforeseen NOTES
DIRECT LABOUR COST

price increases after they have submitted their fixed DIRECT MATERIAL COST
DIRECT LABOUR COST
price for work. COST OF GOODS

10.4 Estimates
An estimate is a prediction of costs for building ▲ Figure 4.39 Written estimate
work provided by contractors for clients, based on
all the information provided for a job. Although
there has to be a degree of accuracy in an estimate,
Industry tip
there are factors that are liable to change after the Never agree to verbal estimates; they often lead
costs have been finally calculated, which could to disputes with the client once the work has been
lead to additional charges once the work has been completed.
completed.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Improve your maths JOB QUO

TE

& Sons
R. Walton
Research the average hourly rate for workers
employed in your area in the same trade as you. J & M Builders Ltd
Consider a routine task that you would undertake JOB QUOTE

and calculate the total cost. This should include JOB QU

OTE
labour, materials, consumables, overheads and GRIFFIN
CONST
RUCTIO
profit. You are VAT registered, therefore you will also N
have to include a further 20 per cent tax.
JOB DE
SCRIPT
ION

Improve your English

Create a template for an estimate on your computer
and include the costs calculated in the ‘Improve
your maths’ task. You could use your parent, carer or
guardian as the customer to complete all the details
needed for the estimate.
Once you have completed the task, ask your parent,
carer or guardian for feedback.

▲ Figure 4.40 Quotation

10.5 Quotations
A quotation is different to an estimate; this is a fixed Test yourself
price for goods and services offered by contractors or
Explain the difference between an estimate and a
subcontractors to potential clients. Once a quotation
quotation.
has been agreed in writing between both parties
and work has started on site, the price cannot be
amended, even if this means that the contractor has
underestimated their work. To avoid disputes over
10.6 Delivery notes
money between the client and contractor at the end of A delivery note is a document that accompanies a
the project, it is important that the quotation details shipment from a supplier and describes the goods and
exactly what services and goods are being provided. quantities being delivered.
Most written quotations have an expiry time, for When goods are delivered to site, the delivery driver
example 30 days from the date provided, after will ask for a dated signature on the delivery note from
which time the quote is no longer valid. If this date a responsible person, confirming that the correct items
is not stipulated on the document, then the cost of have been received in good condition and that they
construction materials and overheads may increase due match the original purchase order. Any damaged or
to increased transport costs or demand, which could missing goods must be recorded on the delivery note
reduce profit margins for the contractor. Where the before signing it or allowing the driver to leave. Defects
client is responsible for a sizable project, they will often or missing goods unreported when a delivery is made
request quotations from different contractors as part of are much more difficult to justify to the supplier or put
the tendering process. right at a later date.

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While the format for delivery notes varies between contractor will receive a statement listing each invoice
different suppliers, the information contained on them number and cost, amounting to the total money due
is basically the same and includes: for that period.
 purchase order number or reference
 purchaser’s name or company 10.7 Purchase orders (POs)
 delivery address
To keep control of spending and budgets, contractors
 order date
usually set up a credit agreement with their
 item reference/description
suppliers. Only then can goods be ordered with an
 quantities
official purchase order from the contractor or their
 sizes
nominated employees, for example a buyer. Hard-
 signatures of the delivery driver and recipient
copy purchase orders can be used, although these
 delivery date.
are often much slower to process than electronic
While paper delivery notes are still used by many versions, which can be emailed directly to the
suppliers of construction materials, some use electronic supplier without delay.
pads for signatures, with receipts emailed afterwards.
Before issuing a purchase order, the contractor or their
This avoids the need to store the documents on site
buyer will usually negotiate the best prices for the
where they could get lost or damaged, as well as
goods or services with different suppliers, until they
providing a digital copy of the delivery note that can
are satisfied that they have value for money.
easily be stored.
All purchase orders have a unique reference number or
code that links them to a particular job or contract. The
Construction Supplies Ltd same references are then used by suppliers on their
Delivery note delivery notes and invoices. This makes it easier for the
Customer name and address: Delivery Date: 16/12/14 contractor to assign money actually spent on resources
CPF Building Co Delivery time: 9am
Penburthy House for a job against estimates and quotations; it also
Falmouth prevents unauthorised purchases from suppliers.
Cornwall Order number: 26213263CPF

Item number Quantity Description Unit Price Total

Key term
X22433 100 75 mm 4 mm gauge 30p £30 Credit agreement: a legal contract made between
countersunk brass
screws slotted a person or party borrowing money and a lender; it
states the terms and conditions of the acceptance of
YK7334 100 Brass cups to suit 5p £5
credit, including how the debt will be repaid
V23879 1 litre Sadikkens water £20 £20
based clear varnish

Subtotal £55.00 10.8 Bill of quantities (BoQ)

VAT 20%
Total £66.00 A bill of quantities is a document usually produced
Discrepancies: ...........................................................
for the client by a quantity surveyor at the planning
Customer Signature: ................................
stage of a building project. It contains a list of all
Print name: ................................
the quantities of materials and resources needed to
Date: ................................
complete the work, measured in number, length, area,
volume or time.
▲ Figure 4.41 Delivery note The bill of quantities is part of tender documentation,
allowing potential contractors to provide itemised
Neither version of delivery notes contains individual costs for work based on the same specified quantities
prices, nor the total cost for the goods; those details (rather than taking off quantities from drawings and
are sent to the purchaser’s business address on an specifications). The client is then able to compare easily
invoice. Contractors that have credit accounts with both the overall cost and individual item costs between
suppliers will receive an invoice after each delivery tenderers.
or collection of goods. At the end of each month, the

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

The bill of quantities is not just used for cost planning file, and they should be kept for the lifetime of the
during the tendering process, but also later for building. They can be referred to at a later date during
construction planning, material scheduling and the any further building work, or during the repair or
valuation of interim payments for the contractor. maintenance of the electrical system.

BILL OF QUANTITIES
11 Procedures for handing over
projects to clients
Number Item description Unit Quantity Rate Amount
£ p
CLASS A: GENERAL ITEMS
Specified requirements
Testing of materials
11.1 Snagging
A250 Testing of recycled and secondary aggregates sum
Information to be provided by the contractor After the subcontractors have completed the building
A290 Production of materials management plan
Method related charges
sum
work for a project, the site management team will
Recycling plant/equipment complete a rigorous inspection for defects and
A339.01 Mobilise; fixed sum
A339.02 Operate; time-related sum
record any that they find on a document known as a
A339.03 De-mobilise; fixed sum snagging list. The defects identified could be minor,
CLASS D: DEMOLITION AND SITE CLEARANCE
such as a scuff mark on paintwork or a door binding in
Other structures
D522.01 Other structures; concrete sum its frame, or something more serious, for example the
D522.02 Grading/processing of demolition material to m3 70
produce recycled and secondary aggregates drainage system not working.
D522.03 Disposal of demolition material offsite m3 30
CLASS E: EARTHWORKS Once the list has been completed, the contractor
Excavation ancillaries
usually instructs the relevant subcontractors to rectify
E542 Double handling of recycled and secondary m3 70
aggregates produced from demolition material the defects at their own expense. Once all the defects
Filling
E615 Importing primary aggregates for filling to m3 15
have been resolved to a satisfactory standard, the
E619.1
structures
15
property is ready to hand over to the client.
Importing recycled and secondary aggregates m3
for filling to structures

Key term
▲ Figure 4.42 Bill of quantities (BoQ)

Snagging list: a document used to record faults and

Test yourself defects discovered in building work or materials

What is the difference between a bill of quantities

and a take-off sheet? 11.2 Handover package
Besides the simple act of handing over the keys
10.9 Wiring diagrams or fobs (an alternative to keys, used for keyless
entry) for a property to the client, the contractor
Wiring diagrams are technical drawings provided is also responsible for the smooth transition from
by the client to building services engineers, such as construction to ownership.
electricians, for the installation of electrical systems
and circuits. They are simplified visual representations To maintain a consistent approach for this process, the
of the layout of electrical systems or circuits. They site management team usually has a checklist of key
show how electrical wires are interconnected and points that the client must understand so they can be
where fixtures such as switches, sockets and lighting confident using the building and operating the services
components are positioned, both internally and within it.
externally on every level of the building. Symbols, Part of the handover process involves a member of the
abbreviations and notes are used on the diagrams site management team walking the client through the
to indicate the incoming power source, explain how building, demonstrating the use of essential services
components relate to one another and provide other and appliances such as heating, hot and cold water and
important information such as voltages and ratings, as electricity for lighting. The client will also be provided
well as the size and capacity of the system. with a handover package containing a number of
At the end of the project, the wiring diagrams are essential documents:
handed over to the occupants in the health and safety

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 Chapter 4 Construction and the built environment industry

 the building owner’s manual and user guide

 guidance documents on defects reporting and Health and safety
aftercare
The Construction (Design and Management) (CDM)
 operational and maintenance manuals Regulations 2015 require clients, designers and
 a building regulations completion certificate contractors to plan, manage and control health and
 the health and safety file (including construction safety for construction activities, from start to finish.
drawings/BIM) Everyone involved with construction projects has
 the building log book a part to play in protecting people from harm, and
 testing and commissioning certificates, for example these regulations define the roles of duty holders.
a Building Regulations Compliance Certificate for Further information can be found in Chapter 1.
gas installations
 the building warranty/insurance certificate and
policy booklet. 11.4 Log book
Once the occupant has taken ownership of a property, In order to comply with building regulations and
they may discover small faults with the standard of work Approved Document L2A, the handover package for a
or the quality of materials used. In this case, the owner new building (other than a domestic property) given to
would follow the information in the handover package the client must contain a building log book.
to compile their own snagging list and report the faults The log book is a management tool that contains
directly to the contractor so that they can put them right. information about the services in the building and
how they can be operated properly and efficiently. If
any changes are made to the original design of the
building, the details must be updated in the log book
by the facilities manager or others responsible for the
management of the building.
Building Log Book
Do not remove from: Designated location
Log book author to remove/overwrite anything in blue italics
Facilities manager to complete green italic sections

Building log book

Building name
Building address
▲ Figure 4.43 Handover
Building address
Building address
Post code
11.3 Health and safety file Main telephone number
Building owner
The Construction (Design and Management) (CDM)
Regulations 2015 place a legal duty on the designer (or Main occupants (If different)
Include sub tenancies where appropriate
the principal designer, where there is more than one) to
produce a health and safety file for projects they have Facilities manager responsible for log-book: Name Signed:

Emergency contact details

worked on.
This building log book was prepared by Individual’s name and organisation
The file is prepared during the pre-construction phase Address, telephone number,
and e-mail address

of a project and contains relevant health and safety Log book version: [number] Date: [date]

design information that may be used by the contractor This building log book is analogous to a car handbook, providing the facilities manager with
easily understood information about how the building is intended to work. It also allows
in the construction phase, and again once the project ongoing building energy performance and major alterations to be recorded.

Please ensure that this log book is kept up-to-date and in a readily accessible (designated)
is completed, when further work may be carried out on position, e.g. in the main building operations room. It contains important information for
anyone carrying out work on the building and its services.
the building, for example servicing, maintenance and
This log book is to be kept at all times in: Room name/no. and location in that room
alterations. Electronic master is kept at: Server/PC directory name and file name

A copy of the health and safety file should remain with Building name Page 1/25 Prepared by: Name and date

the property owner and be available for reference for © 2006 CIBSE

the lifetime of the building. ▲ Figure 4.44 Building log book

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

11.5 Insurance schemes 11.6 Storage of documents

Most contractors provide the client with a warranty to Many of the documents included in the handover
protect them against the builder becoming insolvent package must be stored safely by the client for the
and problems occurring in the building within the first lifetime of the building, in order to comply with legal
ten years. There are three approved insurance schemes requirements. For example, fire safety information
widely recognised and used by contractors in the must be kept in order to meet regulation 38 of the
construction industry: Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005.
 Local Authority Building Control (LABC)
An effective way to do this is to store the documents in
Warranty
an online repository, where they can be accessed and
 Premier Guarantee
managed by the occupiers, Local Authority Building
 National House Building Council (NHBC)
Control or emergency services when they are needed.
Buildmark Warranty.
Various companies offer to store building documentation
When one of these policies has been implemented
online in a digital format, known as a ‘building passport’.
by the contractor, the building work will usually be
inspected at various stages by the insurance company
to make sure it adheres to standards of work and Key term
materials.
Repository: a central location where something can
The advantage of choosing LABC Warranty is that it be stored
works in partnership with Local Authority Building
Control. This avoids having more than one body
inspect the building work and can be a cheaper option.
Improve your English
Like most building warranties, the Premier Warranty
offers a ten-year cover period following completion. This Write a sentence about the construction industry
is split into two periods – the defects insurance period, and built environment that includes the word
‘repository’.
which covers the first two years, and the structural
insurance period, which covers years three to ten.
The disadvantage of both these policies is that the
client must pay an excess of £1000 for each claim,
Case study
therefore the majority of new homes are covered by Theo and his family live in a detached two-storey
the NHBC Buildmark Warranty. Buildmark provides house in a suburban area of Leicester. The number
insurance for new or converted homes from exchange of family members has grown since buying the
of contracts to a maximum of ten years after legal property; therefore they would like to extend the
completion. back of the house to increase the current size of the
kitchen and add a further bedroom upstairs. The
property is not listed, nor is it in a conservation area.
 Does Theo need planning permission for the
extension?
 List the building regulations that would have to
be complied with for the project.
 Explain the process that Theo would have to
follow to design and build the proposal.
 Research the professionals that would be
involved in this process and explain their roles in
the project.
▲ Figure 4.45 National House Building Council
(NHBC) logo

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 Chapter 4 Construction and the built environment industry

Assessment practice

Short answer Long answer

1 When must a business become VAT registered? 6 List the disadvantages of being a self-employed
2 Identify one type of client that may have subcontractor.
construction work undertaken by a contractor. 7 Explain the purpose of Building Information
3 Name one document that would be included in a Modelling (BIM).
handover package. 8 Explain the term ‘retention’ often found in a
4 Which document is used to record building faults building contract.
and defects discovered in work or materials in the 9 Explain the benefits of continuous professional
construction industry? development (CPD).
5 Identify one factor that can have an impact on a 10 List the documents that should be included in a
business that it is unable to control. tender package.

Project practice
Your employer has noticed that the construction team  create a hierarchy of job roles within the
has not been collaborating well recently, which has company on a computer, illustrating the lines of
reduced its efficiency and caused inaccuracies in communication throughout the team
information that has been shared.  present your work to the team, explaining how it
will improve collaborative working.
Your task is to:
 outline the roles and responsibilities of each
member of the construction team

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 Chapter 5 Sustainability
principles

Introduction
This chapter explores principles of sustainability in the
construction industry, which play an important role when
planning and delivering projects. It identifies a range of
sustainable solutions, including different materials currently
available.
We will then look at responsibilities under environmental
legislation and the key measures for environmental
performance. In particular, we will focus on the importance
of waste management, as well as on how renewable energy
and energy conservation systems can be incorporated into
buildings.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will understand: 6 lean construction
1 sustainability when planning and delivering a 7 waste management legislation
construction project 8 waste management
2 types of sustainable solutions 9 energy production and energy use
3 environmental legislation 10 renewable energy and energy conservation
4 environmental performance measures 11 digital technologies.
5 principles of heritage and conservation

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 Chapter 5 Sustainability principles

1 Sustainability when planning Research

and delivering a construction Look up the BREEAM rating benchmarks and list
project each one.

1.1 Sustainability
BREEAM is an example of life cycle assessment,
When planning and delivering a construction project, which covers all stages in the life of a construction
sustainability is achieved by: project, including the transportation of goods, the
 using renewable and recyclable resources extraction and manufacture of raw building materials,
 sourcing materials locally demolition of the building, and how much of the
 protecting resources building is reused or repurposed.
 reusing and refurbishing materials
 reducing energy consumption and waste
Key terms
 creating a healthy and eco-friendly environment
 protecting the natural environment. Life cycle assessment: assessing the total
environmental impact of a building, considering all
stages of the life of the products and processes
Research used in it
Choose one of the following stages of project Demolition: when something (such as a building) is
development: torn down and destroyed
 design
 planning
 delivery.
Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Find out about the importance of sustainability Design (LEED)
at this stage of the construction process. Present
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
your findings to a classmate: why is it important to
consider sustainability at this point? (LEED) is an environmental certification scheme,
developed by the US Green Building Council. It offers a
set of rating systems covering the design, construction,
1.2 Assessment methods operation and maintenance of green buildings, homes
and neighbourhoods, and provides third-party
Various assessment methods are used to determine verification that a project meets high standards of
how well a building performs against environmental, sustainability. It aims to help building owners and
social and economic standards. Buildings are evaluated operators be environmentally responsible and use
according to regional, national and global criteria, to resources efficiently.
assist architects and planners during the design stages
of a project. LEED-certified buildings are healthier, more productive
places that reduce stress on the environment. They
Building Research Establishment are energy and resource efficient, and enjoy increased
Environmental Assessment Method building value and decreased utility costs.
(BREEAM)
The Building Research Establishment (BRE) has Key term
created best practice standards for the environmental
Third-party verification: confirmation from an
performance of buildings through their design,
independent party that a project meets standards
specification, construction and operation. BREEAM
sets out benchmarks for standard categories of
development and also offers a scheme for non-
standard buildings. The assessment method
can be applied to both new developments and
refurbishment projects.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

WELL Building Standard

Test yourself
The WELL Building Standard measures, certifies and
List five ways sustainability can be achieved when monitors aspects of the built environment that affect
planning and delivering a construction project. human health and wellbeing. It looks at seven different
factors:
 Air: achieve optimum air quality by preventing and
removing contaminants and purifying the air.
Research
 Water: achieve optimum water quality by using
Visit the following websites: filtration and treatment, and ensure water is
accessible by placing water points in optimum
www.breeam.com/
positions.
http://leed.usgbc.org/  Nourishment: ensure the availability of and access
Research and compare the strengths and to healthier food choices, and encourage better
weaknesses of BREEAM and LEED. Present your eating habits by providing information to users of
findings in a PowerPoint presentation. the building.
 Light: ensure lighting levels are appropriate for the
tasks carried out in the building through the design
Timber Research and Development of windows and lighting.
Association (TRADA)  Fitness: provide opportunities for physical activity for
The Timber Research and Development Association users of the building, to maintain a fitness regime.
(TRADA) is an international membership organisation  Comfort: create a soothing and comforting
dedicated to inspiring and informing best practice environment, for example by ensuring that
design, specification and use of wood in the built thermal and acoustic parameters that might cause
environment and related fields. discomfort can be controlled.
 Mind: support mental and emotional health by
It has a comprehensive online library, which is free
providing building users with relaxation spaces and
to access for its members. Among its resources are
knowledge about their environment.
wood information sheets, case studies and technical
guidance relating to healthy buildings.
1.3 Retrofitting to improve energy
TRADA also provides training and events throughout efficiency
the country to educate designers and engineers.
PAS 2035:2019
To ensure the UK can meet its obligations under the
Climate Change Act 2008, the energy efficiency of all
its existing building stock needs to be improved.
PAS 2035 provides a specification and best practice
guidance on retrofitting dwellings (domestic buildings)
for improved energy efficiency. It covers how to:
 assess dwellings for retrofit
 identify and evaluate improvement options
 design and specify energy efficiency measures
(EEMs)
 monitor and evaluate retrofit projects.
▲ Figure 5.1 Use of timber in construction
Key term
Research
Energy efficiency measures (EEMs): measures
Research the different types of wood information intended to reduce energy use, including insulation,
provided on the TRADA website and produce a glazing upgrades and the installation of green
written report. technologies such as heat pumps

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 Chapter 5 Sustainability principles

The standard requires a whole-house approach. This

involves identifying and installing all energy-saving Test yourself
interventions at the same time, to ensure they interact
List the seven factors that the WELL Building
in such a way as to optimise energy efficiency.
Standard considers.
PAS 2035 also specifies five new retrofit roles: Explain two new retrofit roles specified by PAS
 Retrofit assessors undertake retrofit assessments for 2035:2019.
dwellings in accordance with PAS 2035.
 Retrofit co-ordinators provide a project
management role. Research
 Retrofit advisors provide advice to clients and
homeowners on the retrofit process. Research and give two examples of EEMs that can
 Retrofit designers prepare a safe and effective be retrofitted in an existing terraced property.
retrofit design.
 Retrofit evaluators monitor the impact of installed
EEMs to ensure they meet the intended outcomes. 2 Types of sustainable solutions
PAS 2038:2021 Sustainability involves a commitment to
This specification sets out requirements for retrofitting environmental, economic and social objectives:
non-domestic buildings for improved energy efficiency.  Environmental sustainability is about acting
It covers all buildings except those used as private responsibly to avoid the depletion of or damage
dwellings, including multi-residential buildings in to natural resources. It involves protecting the
which occupants share some communal facilities (for environment from the impact of emissions, sewage
example hotels and student accommodation). and waste.
 Economic sustainability is about supporting long-
The PAS defines technically robust and responsible
term economic growth and ensuring profitability.
whole-building retrofit processes that support:
It involves making more efficient use of resources
‘improved functionality, usability and durability of such as labour, materials, energy and water.
buildings  Social sustainability focuses on wellbeing and
quality of life. It involves recognising the needs of
improved comfort, wellbeing, health and safety
everyone impacted by construction projects, from
(including fire safety) and productivity of building
design to demolition. This includes construction
occupants and visitors
workers, local communities, project supply chains
enabling buildings to use low- or zero-carbon and users of the building.
energy supplies Sustainable construction is guided by these objectives
improved energy efficiency, leading to reduced fuel during all stages of a project.
use, fuel costs and pollution (especially greenhouse
gas emissions associated with energy use) 2.1 Sustainable solutions
reduced environmental impacts of buildings Prefabricated construction
Prefabricated construction combines pre-engineered
protection and enhancement of the architectural
units to form major elements of a building. They are
and cultural heritage as represented by the
manufactured in factories and then transported to site
building stock
where they are assembled.
avoidance of unintended consequences related to
Benefits of prefabricated construction include:
any of the above, and
 reduced waste (a huge environmental benefit)
minimisation of the ‘performance gap’ that occurs  lower build costs
when reductions in fuel use, fuel cost and carbon  design and build flexibility
dioxide emissions are not as large as intended or  consistent accuracy and quality of components
predicted.’  reduced construction time.
Source: PAS 2038:2021

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

See Chapter 3, section 2.1 and Chapter 7, section 1.2 for

more details.

Self-healing concrete
Self-healing concrete contains the spores of limestone-
producing bacteria and a food source. When cracks
occur, moisture in the air causes the spores to
germinate. The reactivated bacteria then eat the food
source and excrete calcite to heal the crack.

Green roofs
A green roof, also known as a living roof, is an
▲ Figure 5.3 Smart glass
attractive and sustainable roof system that involves
installing additional waterproof membranes and Grey water
drainage mediums, onto which soil is added to allow
Grey water refers to waste water generated from hand
growth of vegetation.
basins, washing machines, showers and baths. Rather
The benefits of green roofs include: than sending it down the drain, it can be reused for
 reduction of water run-off from roof areas watering plants and flushing toilets.
 extended roof life
For more information on grey water, see section 10 of
 insulation of the building (keeping it warm in
this chapter.
winter and cool in summer)
 sound insulation Reed beds
 providing a habitat for wildlife.
Reed beds are artificially constructed wetlands that use
natural filtration and biological processes to break down
organic matter in waste water and sewage effluent.
There are two different types:
 horizontal flow
 vertical flow.

Key terms
Grey water: water that has not been purified for the
purpose of drinking, for example recycled water
from a sink
Effluent: liquid waste or wastewater
▲ Figure 5.2 Green roof

Smart glass Case study

Smart glass (also known as switchable glass) changes
from transparent to translucent (and vice versa) when John and his family live in a remote detached
property in the Scottish Highlands. As there is no
exposed to specific levels of voltage, heat or light.
access to mains drainage, they would like to explore
Benefits of smart glass include: the use of reed beds as a form of sustainable
 reduced energy costs drainage.
 increased privacy  Research the types of reed bed suitable for the
property.
 controlled room temperatures
 Provide an overview of the working principles of
 improved security.
each type of reed bed.
 List the building regulations that would have to
be complied with for the project.

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 Chapter 5 Sustainability principles

Soakaways  giving powers to enable the government to

introduce trading schemes to lower emissions
Soakaways are an effective way of dealing with surface
 providing a procedure for assessing the risks of
water. They are essentially large underground holes,
climate change
filled with coarse stones or purpose-made plastic
 requiring the government to develop an adaptation
crates, which allow water to filter through and soak
programme for sustainable development
into the ground.
 supporting emissions reductions through various
Smart cement policy measures, such as amendments to improve
Smart cement contains potassium ions, which allow it renewable transport fuel obligations, powers to
to store electricity for long periods of time. If a building introduce charges for single-use plastic bags and
was constructed using this cement, and connected to a powers to trial incentive schemes for household
power source such as photovoltaic panels, it could store waste minimisation and recycling.
power during the day and release it at night.
3.3 Clean Air Act 1993
Research The Clean Air Act was first enacted in 1956, in
response to the Great Smog of London of 1952 – a
Find out how the following materials are used in the dense yellow smog that descended on London and
construction of buildings and roofs: contributed to an estimated 4,000 deaths. It was
 recycled bricks modified by the Clean Air Act 1968, and repealed by
 recycled tiles/slates
the Clean Air Act 1993.
 sustainable timber.
The act covers a range of topics, including:
 prohibition of dark smoke from chimneys
Test yourself  prohibition of dark smoke from industrial or trade
premises
Describe two benefits of a green roof.  the requirement for new furnaces to be smokeless
(so far as is reasonably practicable)
 the emission of grit and dust from furnaces
3 Environmental legislation  the height of chimneys for furnaces
 declarations of smoke control areas by local
3.1 Environmental Protection authorities.
Act 1990 Under this legislation, local authorities may declare
the whole or part of the district of the authority to be
The Environmental Protection Act 1990 defines legal
a smoke control area, where it is an offence to emit
responsibilities for the management of waste and
smoke from the chimney of any building, furnace or
pollution, and places a duty on local authorities for
fixed boiler.
collecting waste. Under this legislation, businesses
have a duty to handle waste safely.

3.2 Climate Change Act 2008

The Climate Change Act 2008 set a target for the UK to
reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 80 per cent by
2050, compared to 1990 levels. This target was updated
in 2019 to 100 per cent – net zero.
The main elements of the act are:
 setting emissions reduction targets and carbon
budgeting
 establishing a system for annual government
reporting on emissions
 creating an independent advisory body (the ▲ Figure 5.4 It is an offence to emit smoke in a smoke
Committee on Climate Change) control area

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Improve your English Key term

Your client lives in a smoke control area and Water undertakers: suppliers of wholesome water
therefore cannot emit smoke from their chimney and sewerage services to properties
unless they use authorised fuels or exempt
appliances.
Research either authorised fuels or exempt
3.5 Building Regulations 2010
appliances and write an email to your client Nearly all new construction work and alterations to
explaining the options available to them. What do
existing structures have to comply with the Building
you recommend?
Regulations 2010. The requirements are set out in
Schedule 1 and cover a range of topics:
 Part A: Structure
3.4 Water Act 2014  Part B: Fire safety
The main aims of the Water Act 2014 were to:  Part C: Site preparation and resistance to
 reform the water industry to make it more contaminants and moisture
innovative and responsive to customers  Part D: Toxic substances
 increase the resilience of water supplies to natural  Part E: Resistance to the passage of sound
hazards such as droughts and floods  Part F: Ventilation
 address the availability and affordability  Part G: Sanitation, hot water safety and water efficiency
of insurance for households at high risk of  Part H: Drainage and waste disposal
flooding.  Part J: Combustion appliances and fuel storage
Source: www.gov.uk/government/publications/2010-to-2015- systems
government-policy-water-industry  Part K: Protection from falling, collision and impact
 Part L: Conservation of fuel and power
It includes information on topics such as:  Part M: Access to and use of buildings
 the water industry:  Part N: Glazing – safety in relation to impact,
– water supply licences and sewerage licences opening and cleaning
– water and sewerage undertakers  Part O: Overheating
– regulation of the water industry  Part P: Electrical safety
 water resources:  Part Q: Security in dwellings
– water abstraction reform  Part R: Infrastructure for high-speed electronic
– main rivers in England and Wales communications networks
– maps of waterworks  Part S: Infrastructure for the charging of electric
 environmental regulation vehicles.
 flood insurance:
– the flood reinsurance scheme To help people comply with the regulations, the
– flood insurance obligations. Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local
Government publishes approved documents that offer
general guidance on each part of the law (more on
these in Chapter 7, section 3.1).
Sustainability is a common theme throughout
the approved documents. For example, Approved
Document G states that water consumption in a new
building should not be greater than 125 litres per
person per day. Approved Document L sets minimum
appliance efficiencies and control requirements for gas,
oil and solid-fuel heating equipment.
The Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide
supports Approved Document L and provides
▲ Figure 5.5 Some areas are at higher risk of
guidance for the installation of fixed building services
flooding in new and existing dwellings to help compliance with

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 Chapter 5 Sustainability principles

the energy-efficiency requirements of the Building The Hazardous Waste (England and Wales) Regulations
Regulations. 2005 restrict the production, movement, receiving
and disposal of hazardous waste, such as fluorescent
The Domestic Ventilation Compliance Guide
tubes, refrigerators and asbestos. They introduced
supports Approved Document F. It helps architects,
a registration process for producers of hazardous
planners and installers to comply with the Building
waste and a new system for controlling, tracking and
Regulations by ensuring the provision of adequate
recording the movement of hazardous waste.
ventilation while minimising energy use and
environmental issues.
Research
3.6 Control of Substances Hazardous
Visit: www.gov.uk/dispose-hazardous-waste
to Health Regulations 2002
Find out the responsibilities of the following with
The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health regard to hazardous waste:
(COSHH) Regulations 2002 are intended to protect  a producer or holder (who produces or stores
people from ill health caused by exposure to hazardous waste)
substances. Details of the COSHH regulations can be  a carrier (who collects and transports waste)
found in Chapter 1.  a consignee (who receives waste for recycling or
disposal).
Manufacturers and suppliers of hazardous substances
produce safety data sheets that contain important
information about how products should be 3.8 Control of Pollution (Oil Storage)
transported, used, stored and safely disposed of after (England) Regulations 2001
use, any special conditions you should be aware of and
how to deal with the substance in an emergency. Also known as the Oil Storage Regulations or simply
OSR, these regulations were designed to reduce
The COSHH Regulations detail measures that must be incidents of oil escaping into the environment. They
taken to ensure substances do not pose a hazard to the require anyone in England who stores more than 200
environment, for example chemicals being discharged litres of oil to provide a more secure containment facility
or leaked into water sources. for tanks, drums, bulk containers and mobile bowsers.

Industry tip Key term

Manufacturers produce material data sheets, which Mobile bowser: a wheeled trailer fitted with a tank
provide all the required information relating to each for carrying oil
chemical.

All types of oil are covered by the regulations, except

Test yourself for waste mineral oil.

What is the purpose of the Water Act 2014?

Which of the 2010 Building Regulations provides
detail on conservation of fuel and power?
What was the first Clean Air Act (1956) a response to?

3.7 Hazardous Waste (England and

Wales) Regulations 2005
Under environmental legislation, waste is considered
hazardous if it contains substances or has properties
that might make it harmful to either human health or
▲ Figure 5.6 Oil storage
the environment.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

3.9 Energy Performance of Buildings When choosing materials to construct a building, it is

also important to consider their:
Directive  recyclability
The Energy Performance of Buildings Directive is  maintenance requirements
an EU legislative instrument that aims to reduce the  thermal properties.
carbon emissions produced by buildings. It requires:
 the production of an energy performance certificate
whenever a building is sold, rented out or
constructed
 the production of a display energy certificate for
large public buildings, which must be displayed in a
prominent place
 the regular inspection of air-conditioning systems
and boilers.
The requirements of the directive were implemented
on a phased basis by the Energy Performance of
Buildings (Certificates and Inspections) (England
and Wales) Regulations 2007. Later, the Energy
▲ Figure 5.7 Using locally sourced materials will
Performance (England and Wales) Regulations 2012
cause fewer carbon emissions
consolidated and revoked all previous regulations.
Energy source and consumption
Research The energy efficiency of a building depends on its use,
Visit: www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2012/3118/­
design, orientation, location and the materials used in
contents/made its construction.

Who is required to display energy certificates? What Choosing a form of heating that is based on renewable
should the display certificate include? energy, such as ground or air source heat pumps, will
improve a building’s environmental performance.
Similarly, environmentally friendly electrical systems
3.10 Waste Electrical and Electronic can generate power using solar panels or wind
Equipment Directive turbines.
It is also important to ensure a thermally efficient
Details of the Waste Electrical and Electronic
building, that reduces heat losses/gains and so requires
Equipment (WEEE) Directive can be found in section
minimal heating and cooling. Materials with a lower
7.1 of this chapter.
U-value lose less heat and are more efficient.
4 Environmental performance Maximising daylight in a building can help to reduce
measures lighting costs, as well as energy consumption due to
solar heat gain.
4.1 Performance measures
Key term
Environmental performance can be measured by
looking at a range of factors during the design, Wind turbine: a vaned wheel that is rotated by wind
construction, use and demolition of a building. to generate electricity

Source and use of materials

Sourcing materials locally has a lower environmental
impact, as it uses less transportation and therefore
causes fewer carbon emissions.

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 Chapter 5 Sustainability principles

Water source and usage  installing energy-efficient and non-polluting

systems (for example heating systems).
In order to improve a building’s environmental impact,
it is important to minimise water usage. This can be Transport
achieved by installing:
Transporting construction materials over long
 grey-water recycling systems
distances will have a negative effect on the
 rainwater harvesting systems
environment due to vehicle emissions. Therefore,
 flow-limiting valves
buildings that use locally sourced materials are
 dual-flush toilets
considered more sustainable.
 water-saving showers
 infrared taps and non-concussive percussion taps. Buildings that are easily accessible using local public
transport systems will have a lower impact on the
Flexibility environment than those that are only accessible by car.
The more easily a change of use can be accommodated
by a building, the better its sustainability. A building Demolition
should therefore be designed to allow adaptation, Well-planned management of demolition means that
conversion and extension in the future, for example building materials used during construction can be
using building components that can be easily recycled, thereby reducing environmental impact. The
disassembled and repositioned for flexibility. more of a building that can be recycled, the better. For
example:
Adapting an established structure for a new purpose
 Concrete can be broken down as aggregate.
can support sustainability, since a substantial part of
 Drywall’s paper covering can be recycled like most
the existing building fabric will be reused. Depending
paper products, and the gypsum core is ideal for
on the repurposed design, fewer new materials will
recycling as garden fertiliser.
be required, which translates into less energy being
 Glass can either be recycled into new glass or
consumed during manufacture. It also avoids the
broken down as aggregate.
negative impact of demolition on the environment.
 Steel can easily be melted down and recycled.
Durability and resilience
The environmental impact of a building depends
4.2 Schemes
on its: Several schemes can be used to certify levels of
 resistance to degradation over time (durability) environmental performance in construction, for
 ability to adapt and respond to changing conditions example:
while maintaining functionality (resilience).  Building Research Establishment Environmental
Assessment Method (BREEAM) (see section 1.2 of
A durable and resilient building will have a
this chapter)
lower environmental impact as it will require less
 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
maintenance and repair throughout its life cycle.
(LEED) (see section 1.2 of this chapter)
Pollution and waste processing  Passivhaus.
Construction that generates large amounts of waste
or causes pollution to land, air or water will have a Key term
negative environmental impact. It is important to
Passivhaus: (‘Passive house’ in English) an energy
design waste out of all the stages of a building’s life performance standard intended primarily for new
cycle, from construction to use to demolition. buildings, which ensures that buildings are so well
For example, waste can be reduced by: constructed, insulated and ventilated that they
require little energy for heating or cooling
 using standardised components (for example bricks
and blocks)
 storing materials carefully to avoid damage or
deterioration (for example cement or lengths of Test yourself
timber)
Explain what a U-value is and why it is important to
 recycling, reusing and repurposing materials (for consider when designing buildings.
example demolition materials)

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

 Any original architectural features such as doors,

5 Principles of heritage and decorative stonework, fireplaces or windows should
conservation not be altered.
Any changes and the materials used must be agreed
5.1 Listed buildings with the conservation officer.
There are three types of listed status for buildings in On a listed building, you cannot paint or render
England and Wales: stonework, demolish chimney stacks, or add new
 Grade I – buildings of exceptional interest pipework, flues or alarm boxes on principal elevations
 Grade II* – particularly important buildings of more of the property.
than special interest
 Grade II – buildings of special interest, warranting
Research
every effort to preserve them.
Buildings are listed in their entirety, even though Review this page: https://historicengland.org.
some parts may be more important than others. The uk/advice/technical-advice/buildings/building-
materials-for-historic-buildings
designation regime is set out in the Planning (Listed
Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990. What can be used for consolidating weathered
limestone? How is this substance applied? Produce
The government document Principles of Selection for a short materials guide.
Listed Buildings sets out the criteria that the Secretary of
State applies when assessing whether a building is of
special architectural or historic interest: The Heritage Protection Bill is a legislative and policy
 To be of special architectural interest, a building framework which protects the historic environment.
must be of importance in its architectural design, It requires consents and permissions to protect
decoration or craftsmanship. England’s heritage via a balanced, democratic and
 To be of special historic interest, a building must informed approach to managing changes in historic
illustrate important aspects of the nation’s social, places. The different heritage assets are protected
economic, cultural or military history. in different ways and various consents are required
when carrying out works to existing buildings and for
Listed building consent is required for all works
new development.
of demolition, alteration or extension to a listed
building that affect its character. This is to ensure 5.2 Conservation areas
the impact of any proposed changes is reviewed
before they are approved. This is usually carried out Local planning authorities have the power to
by a conservation officer within the local authority designate any area of special architectural or historic
planning department. interest as a conservation area, where the character or
appearance should be preserved. The special character
Local planning authorities may serve a building
of these areas is not just made up of buildings but
preservation notice (BPN) on the owner and occupier
can also be defined by features which contribute to
of a building which is not listed, but which they
particular scenic views, such as woodland or open
consider is of special architectural or historic interest
spaces.
and which is in danger of demolition or of alteration in
such a way as to affect its character. 5.3 Town and Country Planning
When carrying out work on listed buildings, it is Act 1990
important that you do not use modern repair methods
on traditional construction. For example: Under the Town and Country Planning Act 1990,
 Using cement on older buildings made from planning permission needs to be sought when carrying
materials such as lime mortar can cause irreparable out work to:
damage.  build a new property
 Traditional cast-iron soil stacks should be replaced  increase the size of an existing property
like for like, and not substituted with modern  make significant alterations to an existing property
plastic pipework.  change the use of an existing property.

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 Chapter 5 Sustainability principles

The process of applying for planning permission is

straightforward and completed with the local authority 6 Lean construction
planning department.
6.1 Principles
Test yourself Lean construction is a construction methodology that
aims to minimise waste in terms of costs, materials,
List and describe the three types of listed status for time and effort, while maximising productivity and
buildings in England and Wales.
value.
The principles of lean construction are:
Contact the planning department of your local authority  efficiency
for advice
 best value
 ensuring the work environment is clean and safe
Apply online via the Planning Portal or in paper format to your
local planning authority  improving planning
 continuous review and improvement.
Outline application Full application
6.2 Techniques
Submit application with the correct fee and necessary A common example of a lean construction technique
supporting documents
is just-in-time deliveries. This is a method of providing
the required materials for a project in precisely the
Local planning authority validates application and requests
any missing documents
correct order and quantity at exactly the right time for
installation.
Local planning authority acknowledges a valid application The benefits of just-in-time deliveries include:
 elimination of waste
Local planning authority publicises and consults on  less storage space needed
the application  a stabilised work schedule
 reduction in the cost of inventories and inventory
Application is considered by a planning officer or planning requirements.
committee
Another example of a lean construction technique is
Permission Application Permission Permission artificial intelligence (AI). In the construction sector,
refused not decided granted granted
within 8 with
AI is commonly used to develop safety systems for
weeks conditions construction worksites. This includes tracking the
interactions of tasks, workers, machinery and objects
Change Right of appeal to the Start work on a construction site and alerting supervisors to
proposal Secretary of State within time potential safety issues, construction errors and
and submit limit, and
a new comply with productivity issues, thereby reducing errors and
application conditions health and safety risks during the construction of
buildings.
Permission refused Permission granted Recycling is another commonly used method of
▲ Figure 5.8 Steps in planning permission lean construction. Recycling materials reduces the
requirements for the use of new raw materials during
the construction stage, eliminating waste removal from
Research site and avoiding over ordering of materials, which can
Research the local planning permission result in additional waste and an increase in the carbon
requirements and application process in your area. footprint of the building.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

workers. This assembly-line method of producing

Research major elements of a building is much more efficient
than traditional processes.
Research other methods of lean construction used
in the industry today. Explain two to a classmate  3D-printing robots build components in three
using a PowerPoint presentation. dimensions by extruding layers of material in a
sequence specified by software. In construction,
they have been used to produce individual bespoke
6.3 Advanced manufacturing items such as decorative cladding panels and
some structural components. Huge experimental
The manufacturing industry is constantly evolving. machines with robotic arms have even been
Increased use of digitalisation has resulted in processes designed to create entire buildings using specialist
that are more efficient, effective and responsive and concrete with fibre additives.
rely less on human effort.  Bricklaying robots have been invented that read
Computer numerical control (CNC) is used in from construction drawings and lay bricks and
manufacturing as a method for controlling machine mortar around a track. However, human input
tools using software. It allows data produced in CAD is still required for tasks such as pointing and
programmes to control automated operations, such as installing damp-proof courses.
milling, lathing, routing and grinding. This results in  Demolition robots can be used where risks to
rapid, accurate and repeatable machining of bespoke personnel are considered too high, for example
components. when dismantling unstable or fragile structures.
For more information, see Chapter 7.

Test yourself
Describe CNC.

7 Waste management legislation

7.1 Waste Electrical and Electronic
Equipment Regulations 2013
The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
▲ Figure 5.9 CNC machining
(WEEE) Regulations 2013 implemented in UK law
the provisions of the EU WEEE Directive. They aim
While the construction industry is always likely to rely
to support sustainable production and consumption
predominantly on physical labour performed by human
through the collection, reuse, recycling, recovery
workers, with many different trades and disciplines
and treatment of end-of-life electrical and electronic
working simultaneously on site, the development of
equipment (EEE). This both reduces the need to
manufacturing robots can automate repetitive tasks, to
produce new equipment and minimises the amount
increase production rates and efficiency, ensure greater
of waste sent to landfill, reducing associated
accuracy and protect workers from hazards.
environmental impacts.
 Robots are used in factories to produce pre-
engineered units for modular construction. These The WEEE Regulations cover the categories of
are then transported to site for assembly by human appliance shown in Table 5.1.

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 Chapter 5 Sustainability principles

▼ Table 5.1 Examples of appliances covered by the WEEE Regulations

Type of appliance Examples

Large household appliances Refrigerators, cookers, microwaves, washing machines, dishwashers, air conditioners
Small household appliances Vacuum cleaners, irons, toasters, clocks, kettles, fryers, electric knives, body care
appliances
IT and telecommunications Personal computers, copying equipment, telephones, pocket calculators, screens,
equipment printers
Consumer equipment and Radios, televisions, hi-fi equipment, camcorders, musical instruments, photovoltaic
photovoltaic panels panels, radios
Lighting equipment Straight and compact fluorescent tubes, high-intensity discharge lamps
Electrical and electronic tools Drills, saws, sewing machines, electric lawnmowers, jigsaws and other gardening
equipment
Toys, leisure and sports Electric trains, games consoles, running machines
equipment
Medical devices (Non-infected) dialysis machines, analysers, medical freezers, cardiology equipment
Monitoring and control Smoke detectors, thermostats, heating regulators, heating controls, alarm
instruments components
Automatic dispensers Hot drinks dispensers, money dispensers, snack dispensers

Under the regulations, producers of EEE have

obligations with regards to: Research
 the EEE they sell
Find out what the current UK WEEE targets are. Does
 financing the collection, treatment, recovery and data show that the UK is meeting these targets?
environmentally sound disposal of WEEE.
There are specific obligations on producers of non-
household equipment when it is discarded as waste
7.2 Waste carrier licences
by non-household end users. In practice, this means Under section 34 of the Environmental Protection Act
that electrical tools used in construction by contractors 1990, there is a duty of care to ensure that waste is
must be disposed of in the correct way. managed and disposed of properly.
The regulations also require producers to prioritise, If a business transports waste, either for itself or
where appropriate, the reuse of whole appliances. for someone else, it needs to register with the
Regulations state that if you are a large producer (i.e. Environment Agency as a waste carrier. If a business’
have more than 5 tonnes of EEE on the market), you waste is being collected by someone else, it must
must join a producer compliance scheme (PCS). The ensure that the carrier is registered.
PCS takes on your obligations to finance the collection, There are two types of licence, depending on the type
treatment, recovery and environmentally sound of waste to be transported:
disposal of household WEEE collected in the UK.  An upper-tier waste carrier transports other people’s
Distributors of EEE also have specific responsibilities. waste on a professional basis (for example a waste
They must offer to take back waste of the same (or management company) or its own construction or
similar) type as the item a customer is purchasing from demolition waste (for example a builder).
them, regardless of the method of purchase (in store,  A lower-tier waste carrier was either previously
online or via mail order) and irrespective of the brand exempt from registration or carries its own (non-
of the item. construction/non-demolition) waste on a regular
and normal basis. This might include carpet fitters
They can discharge these take-back obligations by: taking away offcuts, businesses carrying waste
 joining the Distributor Takeback Scheme (DTS) from maintenance work or businesses collecting
 offering in-store take-back confidential waste from different locations and
 providing an alternative free take-back service. transporting it to a centralised office.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

8 Waste management
The waste hierarchy sets out the order in which actions
should be taken to manage waste, from the most to
least preferable in terms of environmental impact.
There are five actions:
1 Reduce: this is about producing less waste and can
be achieved by using fewer materials during design
and manufacture, keeping products for longer,
choosing products with less packaging and using
fewer hazardous materials.
▲ Figure 5.10 Waste carriers 2 Reuse: this involves either using a product multiple
times, rather than single use, or repurposing
7.3 The Fluorinated Greenhouse products or their parts at the end of their life by
Gases Regulations (2018) checking, cleaning, repairing or refurbishing them.
3 Recycle: this involves turning waste into new
Fluorinated greenhouse gases (known as F-gases) substances or products and, if it meets quality
are synthetic and originate from human activities. protocols, composting the material.
The most common type is hydrofluorocarbons, which 4 Recover: by using the waste products as fuel to
are used in applications such as refrigeration, air provide heat and power; other methods include
conditioning, fire extinguishers and aerosols. anaerobic digestion.
While these gases are ozone friendly, and therefore 5 Landfill: this is the last resort and involves disposal
often used in place of ozone-depleting substances, and incineration without energy recovery.
they have a high global warming potential (GWP) and
therefore require regulation. Reduce Most preferred method

Under the Fluorinated Greenhouse Gases Regulations: Reuse

 the installation, leak testing, maintenance, repair
and disposal of equipment containing F-gases must Recycle
be performed by trained and certified personnel
 equipment containing F-gases must be tested Recover
regularly to check for leaks and any leaks must be
repaired as soon as possible Landfill Least preferred method

 equipment containing F-gases must be clearly

labelled with the type and quantity of the gas ▲ Figure 5.11 Waste hierarchy
(refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment
should have an information plate affixed to it)
 records must be kept of:
Key term
– types and quantities of gases in use Anaerobic digestion: a sequence of processes by
– leaks detected and repairs carried out which microorganisms break down biodegradable
– maintenance history of equipment, including material in the absence of oxygen
details of the maintenance company or operatives
 F-gases must be recovered at the end of equipment
life and managed appropriately. 8.1 Site waste management plans
Further information on the requirements for working While no longer a legal requirement, a site waste
with F-gases can be found by searching on www.gov.uk. management plan (SWMP) is an important document
for setting out how waste will be managed and disposed
Industry tip of during a construction project. It should be compiled
Operatives who work on systems that contain by the design team, contractor and subcontractors and
F-gases, for example heat pumps or air conditioning, refer to the waste hierarchy to reduce the volume of
must be F-gas qualified. waste to landfill and increase the use of sustainable

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 Chapter 5 Sustainability principles

materials. This ensures compliance with environment and repurposing, most waste was disposed of by
legislation, improves resource efficiency and increases burying it in landfill sites or burning it at extremely high
profitability. temperatures (incineration), depending on the type of
material. Some waste is still disposed of in this way.
A typical SWMP should contain information on:
 who has overall responsibility for the management Recycling or reusing materials can reduce the
of waste on site overall carbon emissions that are produced during
 which contractors will be involved in the waste manufacturing.
management process and in what capacity
 which types of waste will be generated, including Metals
hazardous waste Often, a building may appear to consist mostly of
 the expected quantity of waste that will be produced masonry or concrete. However, surprising quantities of
 how waste will be managed both on site and off site. different metals may be present in the structure. Scrap
or waste metal can be recovered and reprocessed into
Managing waste responsibly can contribute to an
new products, for example:
improved business reputation, leading to future contracts.
 structural steel columns, beams and lintels
 pipework made from lead (in older buildings) or
8.2 Waste segregation
copper
Waste segregation means dividing waste into  cables with copper or aluminium cores.
different categories for efficient disposal. Not only
Metal to be recycled is usually separated into ferrous
does this support the waste hierarchy and protect the
(containing iron) and non-ferrous before collection.
environment, by offering opportunities to reuse and
recycle waste before resorting to landfill, but it also Plastic
offers cost savings to construction businesses. Sorted
Plastic waste can be very harmful to the environment.
waste is cheaper to dispose of, and some types of waste
When it is disposed of in landfill, it can take hundreds
can even be sold as a source of income.
of years to break down, and if it ends up in our oceans,
Hazardous waste in particular should be segregated it can damage ecosystems and kill marine life.
and disposed of carefully, due to the risk of harm to
It is therefore important to segregate and recycle as
human health and the environment. There are specific
much plastic waste as possible. Waste plastic can be
regulations that cover this, namely the Hazardous Waste
reprocessed into many different products, from drinks
Regulations 2005 (see section 3.7 in this chapter).
bottles to car components to building materials.
Waste on a construction site is usually segregated into
the following streams: Timber
 general (for example insulating materials that do Offcuts of timber can be reprocessed into new
not contain asbestos) resources, such as:
 hazardous (for example asbestos)  chipboard and medium density fibreboard (MDF)
 clean fill (material that can be recycled or reused in  paper and cardboard
future construction projects)  mulch
 hard fill (for example soil, concrete, bricks and  bedding for animals
blocks)  biomass fuel.
 plastic
 metal Bricks and blocks
 wood Undamaged bricks and blocks can easily be reused
 plasterboard. in new building projects. Brick and block waste
from cutting operations can be crushed and used as
It is important that all staff on a construction site
aggregate in some types of concrete.
are trained on the site’s waste policy and the waste
hierarchy, to ensure waste segregation is maximised.
Test yourself
8.3 Recycling
Which new products can offcuts of timber be
Prior to the adoption of environmentally friendly reprocessed into?
methods of managing waste, such as recycling, reusing

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

See Chapter 2, section 5, for more information on

9 Energy production and electricity generation and transmission.
energy use
Key term
9.1 Energy production
Alternator: an electrical generator that converts
In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered that electricity mechanical energy into electrical energy
could be generated by moving a bar magnet through
a wire coil. This is the principle upon which modern
Non-renewable energy sources
generators work.
Fossil fuel is a term used to describe an energy source
In a power station generator, a huge magnet is formed by the decomposition of organic matter
mounted on a central rotating shaft; this is known beneath the Earth’s surface over millions of years:
as the rotor. Around the rotor is a series of coils  coal is formed from dead trees and plants
known as the stator, which is where the electricity  crude oil and gas are formed from dead marine
is generated by the rotating magnetic field. As the plants and animals.
rotor and stator may weigh several hundred tons,
an energy source is required to turn the rotor, for Fossil fuels are predominantly composed of carbon and
example a turbine. hydrogen. They are burned in power stations to heat
water and provide steam for turbines. However, this
In the UK, electricity is generated in several different process releases carbon dioxide, which can contribute
ways, for example by: to the greenhouse effect and climate change.
 burning fossil fuels, such as coal, gas and oil
 using nuclear fission Fossil fuels are a finite resource, which means that they
 using renewable energy, such as wind, wave, hydro, are being used up faster than they can be replaced.
biomass and solar. Nuclear power plants use reactors to split atoms,
Most power stations are steam powered. The heat causing a large amount of thermal energy to be
created by burning fossil fuels or through nuclear released. This process is called nuclear fission.
fission is used to produce superheated steam to drive Uranium is the main fuel for nuclear reactors.
a turbine. This causes the rotor to turn, creating an  Nuclear reactions generate thermal energy.
alternator as in Faraday’s prototype. The rotor turns  Thermal energy generates water vapour (steam).
at 3,000 revolutions per minute (50 revolutions per  Steam powers a turbine, producing mechanical
second) and produces an alternating current (AC) energy (kinetic energy).
with a frequency of 50 hertz (cycles per second). The  Mechanical energy actuates an electrical generator,
electromotive force causes current to flow. producing electricity.

FOSSIL FUELS
Coal Oil Gas Nuclear

22,000 275,000 or
volts AC 400,000 volts AC

POWER STATION TURBINE GENERATOR STEP UP TRANSFORMER

Steam Brushes supplying DC
current to the electromagnet

▲ Figure 5.12 How electricity is produced

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 Chapter 5 Sustainability principles

▼ Table 5.2 Advantages and disadvantages of nuclear Bioenergy

power
Bioenergy is created using biomass – organic material
Advantages • Does not produce polluting gases such as wood, plants, agricultural crops, food waste or
• Does not contribute to global warming even sewage.
• Low fuel cost
Biomass can be burned in power stations to heat water
• Low fuel quantity required
• Power station has a long life and produce high-pressure steam. The steam flows
over turbine blades, causing them to rotate, which in
Disadvantages • Costs are high for building and
decommissioning turn drives a generator and produces electricity.
• Waste is radioactive Biomass can also be converted into liquid fuels, for
• Accidents can be catastrophic example biodiesel for use in vehicles.
Wind energy
Renewable energy sources The natural kinetic energy of the wind can be used
Renewable energy sources are obtained from the to drive an aerodynamic bladed turbine, rotating a
environment around us and are naturally replenished. generator and producing electricity. Often many wind
As the availability of non-renewable energy diminishes turbines are grouped together to form a wind farm and
and the effects of global warming intensify, it is provide bulk power to the National Grid.
important that society considers the use of these
Turbines can be installed on land or offshore where
technologies as alternatives.
there is a reliable source of wind.

Generator
Secondary shaft
Gearbox
Main shaft

Main bearing

Rotor blades

Rotor hub

N
D IO
IN ECT
W IR
D
Direction of rotation Electric current to
ground station

▲ Figure 5.13 How wind turbines generate electricity

Industry tip Solar energy

Solar energy utilises photovoltaic (PV) panels to
The greater the wind speed, the faster the rotation of convert the sun’s radiation into electricity. The panels
a wind turbine’s blades, generating more electricity. can be installed on the roofs of buildings or in larger-
scale solar farms. Solar farms are capable of delivering
bulk power to the National Grid.
Key term In order to maximise the energy generated by PV
Kinetic energy: energy derived from motion
panels, is it important to install them carefully, for
example where there is enough sunlight and facing
South.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Hydroelectric energy 9.2 Energy use

Hydroelectric power plants produce energy by
The Department for Business, Energy and
channelling running water through a turbine
Industrial Strategy (BEIS) publishes an annual
connected to an electrical generator. The electricity is
statistical publication titled ‘Energy Consumption in
then fed into the National Grid for distribution.
the United Kingdom’ (ECUK). This collates data from a
They can use the natural flow of a river as it falls from variety of sources to provide a comprehensive review of
a greater to a lesser height, or artificial reservoirs UK energy consumption and changes in intensity and
and dams, which hold back water and release it as output since the 1970s.
required.
Key term
Department for Business, Energy and Industrial
Strategy (BEIS): the department of the UK
government responsible for the UK’s business,
energy and industrial strategy

Energy consumption is reported annually for the

following sectors:
 domestic
 transport
 industry
 services.
▲ Figure 5.14 Generating electricity through
Commercial,
hydroelectric power
public admin,
others
Wave and tidal energy
Energy from the movement of waves and tidal flows Industry

can be used to generate electricity. Wave and tidal

generators are similar to wind generators, except Domestic
that they use the ocean’s current to rotate the turbine
instead of wind. This type of energy production is
Transport
ever-changing, with a wide range of options available
to harness the power of waves and tides. These options 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
include absorbers, attenuators, water columns and Million tonnes of oil equivalent
pendulum devices.
▲ Figure 5.15 Energy consumption in the UK 2019
The amount of energy created is determined by the
60
wave’s height, speed, wavelength and water density.
Million tonnes of oil equivalent

Wave power is much more predictable than wind 50 2019

power and it increases during the winter, when 2020
electricity demand is at its highest. Tidal energy is also 40

predictable and consistent. 30

Research 20

10
Research the advantages and disadvantages
of using non-renewable and renewable energy
0
sources and create a table to show your findings. Coal Oil Natural Nuclear Wind, solar Bioenergy
gas and hydro and waste

▲ Figure 5.16 Primary energy consumption in the UK

in 2019 and 2020 by fuel/technology type

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 Chapter 5 Sustainability principles

Solar thermal
Test yourself
Solar thermal systems use either a roof-mounted or
Describe how energy can be harnessed from wave ground-mounted collector to harness the sun’s energy
and tidal power. and heat domestic water. A conventional boiler or
immersion heater (auxiliary heat source) is used to top
up the water temperature to 60°C.
10 Renewable energy and Solar collector

energy conservation

10.1 Uses of renewable energy

sources
As mentioned earlier, renewable energy sources are
naturally replenished, such as solar, wind, tidal and
Differential To hot
geothermal. They can be used in a wide range of temperature taps
applications, from small-scale systems such as solar controller
thermal providing hot water for one property to large- Hot water
storage cylinder
scale wind farms producing energy for national use.
Auxiliary
Non-renewable energy sources are finite and cannot heat
source
be replenished as quickly as they are used, for example
coal, oil and gas.
Cold
Energy sources fall into one of three categories Circulating water in
according to their level of carbon emissions: high pump
carbon, low carbon and zero carbon. ▲ Figure 5.17 Solar thermal system components

▼ Table 5.3 Energy sources categorised according to Key components of a solar thermal system are as
their carbon emissions follows:
 A solar collector absorbs heat radiation from the
Category Energy sources
sun. There are two types:
High carbon • Coal – a flat plate collector, consisting of a series of flat
• Oil
glass or plastic pipes with a black metal surface,
• Natural gas
• Liquified petroleum gas (LPG) used to absorb the heat
– an evacuated tube collector, consisting of a set
Low carbon • Solar thermal
• Biomass
of tubes connected to a header, used to absorb
• Heat pumps the heat and transfer it to the water contained
• Combined heat and power (CHP) within it.
• Combined cooling, heat and power  A differential temperature controller (DTC) has
(CCHP) sensors connected to the solar collector and the
• Hydrogen fuel cells
hot water cylinder. Its purpose is to monitor the
Zero carbon • Wind temperature at both points of the system and switch
• Wave/tidal
the circulating pump on and off.
• Hydroelectric
• Solar photovoltaic  A circulating pump is controlled by the DTC and
• Nuclear circulates the system’s heat transfer liquid around
the solar hot water circuit.
 A hot water storage cylinder enables the transfer
Research of heat from the solar collector circuit to the stored
water for use at terminal fittings.
Find out how hydrogen fuel cells work and what
 An auxiliary heat source is used to provide hot
they are used for.
water when solar energy is unavailable.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Industry tip
The best direction for a solar collector to face is due
south. Ground source to water
heat pump with horizontal
closed-loop collector

▼ Table 5.4 Advantages and disadvantages of solar

thermal systems Heat
pump
Advantages • Reduced carbon emissions
• Lower energy costs Building foundations
omitted for clarity
• Low maintenance
• Improved energy performance
certificate rating
Disadvantages • Not compatible with all existing hot ▲ Figure 5.18 Ground source heat pump
water systems
• Less solar energy available in the
winter months
• High initial installation costs
• Require an auxiliary heat source
Distribution system

Heat exchanger
Research
Research the different types of solar thermal
Heat pump
systems in the UK and their uses.

Ground source heat pumps (GSHPs) ▲ Figure 5.19 Slinkies

Ground source heat pumps (GSHPs) extract heat from

the ground using a system of underground pipes filled
Research
with a mixture of water and antifreeze known as
glycol. A heat exchanger then transfers the heat to the Research how a GSHP works in greater detail
pump itself, ready for distribution to: and produce a poster to showcase this to your
 warm-air heating systems (ground to air pumps) classmates.
 underfloor heating systems, radiators and hot water
cylinders (ground to water pumps).
Key components of a GSHP include: Industry tip
 a heat collection ground loop, set out in one of two
arrays: A 10 m slinky trench will produce around 1 kW of
– a horizontal array has flattened, overlapping heating load.
coils known as slinkies that are spread out in
shallow trenches about 1.5–2 m deep
– a vertical array has pipes installed in holes Research
bored to a depth of 15–60 m, depending on soil
conditions Select a GSHP manufacturer and research the
 a circulating pump, which circulates a mixture of installation requirements. Produce a pocket guide
water and antifreeze around the pipes for a classmate.
 a heat pump, which extracts heat from the ground
and transfers it for domestic use by means of an
electric compressor
 a heating system, which is used to heat the
property.

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 Chapter 5 Sustainability principles

Health and safety

Buffer tank
(accumulator)
Working in excavations can be dangerous. Ensure that
adequate control measures have been implemented Heat pump
such as trench supports and correct access.
To
heating
system
Air source heat pumps (ASHPs)
Air source heat pumps (ASHPs) extract heat from
▲ Figure 5.21 Buffer tank
outside air. Using a heat exchanger, compressor and
expansion valve, they distribute the heat to:
 warm-air convectors (air to air pumps, usually used ▼ Table 5.5 Advantages and disadvantages of heat
in commercial buildings as a reverse cycle heat pump pumps
that can be used for both heating and cooling)
Advantages • Reduced carbon emissions
 underfloor heating systems, radiators, hot water
• Typical efficiencies between 300
cylinders and even swimming pools (air to water and 500 per cent
pumps). • Low maintenance
• Improved energy performance
ASHPs can get heat from the air even when the certificate rating
temperature is as low as –15°C.
Disadvantages • Not usually suitable for connection
to existing heating systems using
panel radiators
• High initial installation costs
• Air source installations can present a
noise issue
• Ground source installations require a
large ground area or a borehole

Biomass
Biomass is plant or animal material that can be burned
to create heat. Unlike fossil fuels, which have taken
millions of years to form, biomass material has been
sourced recently.
When burned, both fossil fuels and biomass produce
carbon dioxide, which is a greenhouse gas linked to
▲ Figure 5.20 Air source heat pump
global warming. However, biomass material absorbs
carbon dioxide as it grows, reducing the amount in the
Water source heat pumps (WSHPs) atmosphere, so burning biomass does not lead to a net
Water source heat pumps (WSHPs) operate in a similar increase in levels.
way to GSHPs, with the collector located in a body of Biomass can be used to heat:
water (such as a lake) to extract heat.  individual rooms using stoves (these may be fitted
Heat pumps are not able to provide instant heat, so with a back boiler to heat water too)
they work better when they run continuously. Start-  whole properties, using boilers that supply central
stop operations will shorten their lifespan. A buffer heating and hot water systems.
tank is incorporated into the system so that when heat
is not required, the heat pump can ‘dump’ the heat into
the vessel and keep running. When heat is needed, it
can be drawn from the buffer tank.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

▼ Table 5.6 Advantages and disadvantages of Solar photovoltaics

biomass systems
As mentioned earlier, solar energy uses photovoltaic
Advantages • Carbon-neutral and inexhaustible (PV) panels to convert the sun’s radiation into
energy source electricity.
• Lower fuel costs
• Do not rely on building orientation PV systems can be divided into two categories:
or weather conditions to operate  off-grid systems, where the PV modules are used to
effectively charge batteries
Disadvantages • Require a suitable flue/chimney  on-grid systems, where the PV modules are
• High initial installation costs connected to the National Grid via an inverter.
• Require a large space to store fuel
• Not suitable for smaller properties

Solar PV panels

DC/AC
inverter

Electricity meter
AC drawn
from grid
031173
kWh

AC feed
into grid Consumer Mains supply
unit (AC power)

▲ Figure 5.22 Solar photovoltaics

▼ Table 5.7 Key components of off-grid and on-grid PV systems

Off-grid systems On-grid systems

PV modules PV modules
PV module mounting system PV module mounting system
DC cabling DC cabling
Charge controller Inverter
Deep-discharge battery bank AC cabling
Inverter Metering
Connection to the National Grid

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 Chapter 5 Sustainability principles

PV Charge AC The working principles of a wind turbine are as

Batteries Inverter
module controller equipment follows:
▲ Figure 5.23 Off-grid system components  The wind passes over the rotor blades of a turbine,
causing it to turn.
PV Consumer  The hub is connected by a low-speed shaft to a
Inverter Grid
module unit gearbox.
 The gearbox output is connected to a high-speed
shaft that drives a generator which, in turn,
AC produces electricity.
equipment
Turbines are available as either horizontal-axis wind
▲ Figure 5.24 On-grid system components turbines (HAWTs) or vertical-axis wind turbines
(VAWTs).
Health and safety
When working on solar PV systems it is important to
follow industry safe isolation procedures.

Tailfin
PV modules are available in different efficiencies: Nacelle
 Monocrystalline modules range in efficiency from
Rotor Hub
15 to 20 per cent. blades
 Polycrystalline modules range in efficiency from 13
to 16 per cent. Gearbox Generator
 Amorphous film ranges in efficiency from 5 to
7 per cent.
Photovoltaic modules can be fitted in different ways:
 On-roof systems comprise aluminium rails, which are
fixed to the roof structure by means of roof hooks. ▲ Figure 5.25 Horizontal-axis wind turbine
 In-roof systems replace roof tiles with the PV
modules. Rotor
 Ground-mount and pole-mount systems provide diameter
free-standing PV arrays, which can also be installed
as computer-controlled motorised mounting
systems that rotate and track the sun as it moves
across the sky.
An inverter converts the DC input to a 230 V AC 50 Hz
output and synchronises it with the frequency of the
mains supply.

Research
Rotor
Research the operating principles of solar blade
photovoltaic (PV) panels and provide an overview of
how they convert sunlight to electricity.

Generator
Micro-wind Gearbox

Micro-wind turbines harness energy from the wind

and turn it into electricity. The UK is an ideal location
▲ Figure 5.26 Vertical-axis wind turbine
for the installation of wind turbines, as about 40 per
cent of Europe’s wind energy passes over the UK.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

There are two types of micro-wind turbine suitable for  the canal (connecting the intake to the forebay)
domestic installation:  the forebay (a reservoir of water ensuring that the
 pole-mounted (free-standing) penstock is always pressurised and allowing surges
 building-mounted (fitted directly to the building, in demand to be catered for)
generally smaller than pole-mounted turbines).  the penstock (pipework taking water from the
forebay to the turbine)
As with solar PV, there are several connection options:
 the powerhouse (the building housing the turbine
 off-grid systems charge batteries in order to store
and generator)
electricity for later use
 the tailrace (the outlet that takes the water exiting
 on-grid (grid-tied) systems are connected in
the turbine and returns it to the mainstream of the
parallel with the grid supply via an inverter.
river).
▼ Table 5.8 Advantages and disadvantages of micro-
wind systems

Advantages • Good electricity output levels can be

achieved
Intake
• Zero-carbon technology Canal
• Effective where no mains electricity
is available
Forebay
Disadvantages • Require a mounting site away from
buildings and obstructions
• High initial installation costs
• Variable performance according to
the availability of wind and location Penstock
• Turbines can cause noise, vibration
and shadow flicker
Powerhouse
Tailrace
Key term
Shadow flicker: when the rotating blades of a wind
▲ Figure 5.27 Watercourse for a micro-hydro system
turbine create moving shadows

To ascertain the suitability of a water source for

hydroelectric generation, it is necessary to consider the
Improve your English head (vertical height difference between the proposed
Referring to your local planning requirements,
inlet position and the proposed outlet) and the amount
research the location and building requirements for of water flowing through the watercourse.
the installation of a micro-wind turbine. Draft an email
to a potential customer who is considering one. ▼ Table 5.9 Advantages and disadvantages of micro-
hydro systems

Micro-hydro Advantages • Excellent payback potential

• Zero-carbon technology
Micro-hydro is a type of hydroelectric power that • Effective where no mains electricity
harnesses kinetic energy as water moves from a higher is available
to a lower level. The water passes across or through a Disadvantages • Require a watercourse with suitable
turbine, which turns a generator and produces electricity. head and flow
• High initial installation costs
As with the other micro-generation technologies, there • Require planning permission from the
are two possible system arrangements for micro-hydro: Environment Agency
on-grid and off-grid systems.
The main components of the watercourse
Industry tip
construction are:
 intake (the point where some of the river’s water is A survey is required prior to the installation of any
diverted from the main stream) renewable technology.

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 Chapter 5 Sustainability principles

Micro combined heat and power The boiler system works as follows:
(micro CHP)  When there is a call for heat, the engine burner
fires and starts the Stirling generator. The engine
Micro combined heat and power (micro CHP) systems
burner produces about 25 per cent of the full heat
generate useable heat and electricity for properties at
output. The burner preheats the heating-system
the same time. The fuel source is usually natural gas
return water before it passes to the main heat
or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), but it could also be
exchanger.
biomass.
 Hot flue gases from the engine burner are
passed across the heat exchanger to heat the
5% Flue heating-system water even more. If there is more
demand than supply, the supplementary burner
operates.
Heat
 The Stirling generator uses the expansion and
80% contraction of internal gas (often helium) to operate
the piston. When the engine burner fires, the gas
expands, forcing the piston downwards.
 The return water from the heating system passes
15% across the engine, causing the gas to contract. A
spring mechanism in the engine returns the piston
Electricity to the stop, and the process starts again.
▲ Figure 5.28 Micro CHP boiler
▼ Table 5.10 Advantages and disadvantages of micro
The key components of a micro CHP boiler are the: CHP systems
 engine burner (1)
Advantages • Domestic units now similar in size to
 Stirling generator (2) central-heating boilers
 supplementary burner (3) • Produce free electricity while
 heat exchanger (4). generating heat
• Do not rely on building orientation
Flue gases or weather conditions to operate
effectively

Heating Disadvantages • More expensive than central-heating

flow boilers
• Not suitable for properties with low
4
heat demand
• Limited electrical generation
capacity
• Low-carbon rather than zero-carbon
3

Gas supply Combined heat and power (CHP)

1 Combined heat and power (CHP) systems (also
Helium known as cogeneration systems) use waste thermal
Heating energy from the generation of electricity for district
return or industrial heating purposes. The heat is produced
Stirling centrally at one or more locations and supplied to
engine 2
an unrestricted number of residential and industrial
Magnet customers, using either steam or high-temperature
AC water.
supply
Generator coils

▲ Figure 5.29 Components of a micro CHP boiler

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Services Domestic
distribution properties Flow Return

Stack
Electrical distribution station
Heat exchanger
Power supply
Control
panel
Thermal
store

Gas
turbine

Transformer

Natural gas supply Generator

▲ Figure 5.30 Combined heat and power system

▼ Table 5.11 Advantages and disadvantages of

combined heat and power systems

High level grey water

Advantages • Reduce energy costs
storage cistern • Reduce carbon emissions
• Wide choice of fuels available,
including coal, biogas, heating oil
and bioethanol

Grey water Disadvantages • Not suitable for all sites because

Rainwater is collected supply of constant and consistent power
from the roof by the demands
guttering system • Can be expensive: initial cost is high
where it flows down due to the technology and payback
the rainwater pipe,
periods can be very long
through a rainwater
filter and into an
underground storage
cistern
Grey water feed
10.2 Energy conservation
to cistern in the
Grey roof space
Rainwater harvesting
water Rainwater harvesting involves collecting rainwater
filter
Underground from roofs, filtering it and storing it for reuse, thereby
storage cistern saving energy, lowering carbon emissions and reducing
mains water consumption.
Submersible
pump
Systems also include a back-up mains water
connection, for when rainfall is limited.
▲ Figure 5.31 Rainwater harvesting
Harvested rainwater is not suitable for:
 drinking
 personal washing, showering and bathing
 preparing food
 dishwashing (by hand or machine).

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 Chapter 5 Sustainability principles

However, if stored correctly it can be used for: Grey-water recycling

 flushing toilets
Grey water is waste water that has been used for
 washing clothes with a washing machine
washing and is generated from hand basins, washing
 watering garden lawns, plants and flowers
machines, showers and baths. Rather than sending it
 washing cars.
down the drain, it can be reused for watering plants
▼ Table 5.12 Advantages and disadvantages of
and flushing toilets, thereby reducing mains water
rainwater harvesting usage.
There are several different types of grey-water
Advantages • Conserves water
• Indirectly reduces energy system available in the UK, but they all have similar
consumption and carbon features, including some form of treatment, a storage
emissions tank for the treated water, a pump and a distribution
• Wide range of system options system.
available
• Annual cost of water reduces Grey water should not be used for:
where a water meter is fitted  drinking
Disadvantages • Potentially long payback periods  personal washing, showering and bathing
• Not always straightforward to  food preparation
install in existing buildings  dishwashing (by hand or machine).
• Risk of contamination or cross-
connection If grey water is filtered, stored correctly and treated
• Only certain types of outlet and where necessary, it is suitable for:
appliance can be supplied  flushing toilets
 washing clothes with a washing machine (requires
treatment)
Industry tip
 watering garden lawns, plants and flowers
All harvested rainwater pipework systems must be  washing cars.
suitably marked to identify their use.

Recycled water to house

Garden and car

washing

Process lines from control box

Grey water from bathroom and laundry

Overflow to sewer
Toilet and kitchen to sewer

▲ Figure 5.32 Grey-water recycling

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

▼ Table 5.13 Advantages and disadvantages of Energy-efficient lighting

grey-water recycling
Energy-efficient lighting not only lowers electricity
Advantages • Conserves water bills but it also benefits the environment by reducing
• Indirectly reduces energy carbon emissions.
consumption and carbon emissions
• Wide range of system options Incandescent bulbs are inefficient, converting around
available five per cent of the electricity they use into visible
• Annual cost of water reduces where light. Halogen bulbs use the same filament technology
a water meter is fitted as traditional bulbs but run at a higher temperature,
Disadvantages • Potentially long payback periods making them slightly more efficient. These types of
• Not straightforward to install in lighting have now been phased out and replaced with
existing buildings
more efficient types:
• Risk of contamination or cross-
connection  Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) comprise a
• Only certain types of outlet and mercury-filled glass tube with an inner coating of
appliance can be supplied phosphor powder which glows when charged with
electricity. They use around 60–80 per cent less
Heat recovery ventilation (HRV) systems electricity than equivalent traditional bulbs and last
Heat recovery ventilation (HRV) systems reduce the around ten times longer.
 Light emitting diodes (LEDs) use 90 per cent less
heating and cooling demands of a building. Installed
at the top of a building, they extract warm, stale air energy than traditional bulbs and have begun
and pass it through a heat exchanger. The heat is then to replace CFLs. They turn on instantly at full
drawn to incoming fresh air, which is transferred back brightness and are available to fit almost any light
into the building. They recover between 60 and 95 per fitting. There may be a large number of LEDs
cent of the heat in exhaust air and markedly improve a within a single bulb to create sufficient brightness.
building’s energy efficiency.

Bathroom Bedroom

▲ Figure 5.34 Energy-efficient lightbulbs

Kitchen Living room

▲ Figure 5.33 Heat recovery

Electric vehicle charging points
New cars and vans powered wholly by petrol and
Research diesel will be banned in the UK from 2030, resulting
in a move towards electric vehicles. These are powered
Research one of the following types of heat by rechargeable batteries and there are currently three
recovery system: types of public charging point:
 counterflow heat exchangers
 Rapid chargers have outputs of 43 kW and use a
 crossflow heat exchangers
 rotary wheel heat exchangers. Type 2 connector. They are the fastest way to charge
an electric vehicle and take between 30 and 80
Explain this system to a classmate.
minutes to reach 80 per cent charge.
 Fast chargers have outputs between 7 and 22 kW
and use Type 1 or Type 2 sockets. It typically takes
Test yourself between three and four hours to charge a vehicle.
List three domestic uses for recycled water.

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 Chapter 5 Sustainability principles

 Slow chargers have a three-pin plug, like a home Energy labels are a common sight on many appliances,
charger. It can take up to ten hours to fully recharge such as white goods, grading them according to their
a vehicle. energy efficiency with a letter-based rating. These labels
were first introduced in 1995 to drive innovation and help
consumers make informed decisions about the products
they purchase. However, in 2021 a new generation of
labels was introduced for refrigerators, freezers, washing
machines, washer-dryers, dishwashers, televisions and
electronic displays, and light sources.
The energy efficiency rating system for these
appliances now runs from A (most efficient) to G (least
efficient). The energy labels also include QR codes,
clearer guidance on energy consumption and extra
information specific to product types, such as noise
levels and water usage for washing machines.
▲ Figure 5.35 Electric car charging point Energy labels on other appliances, such as tumble
dryers, ovens and air conditioners, still use the old
Research rating system of A+++ to G, although there are plans to
update these in 2022. For now, the UK is following EU
Visit the following website, which introduces electric legislation changes, although post-Brexit it also has the
vehicle charging: www.voltimum.co.uk/articles/ freedom to make its own changes.
installation-electric-vehicle-charging
Manufacturers are responsible for ensuring their
Find out: products are accurately labelled.
 What type of circuit is required?
 What type of protection is required? Since September 2015, boilers, water heaters and
 How is electric shock prevented? heating products have been labelled in the same way
as refrigerators and freezers to show how energy
efficient they are. Under the ErP Directive, boilers
Appliance efficiency ratings
must be labelled with their efficiency level from
The Energy-related Products (ErP) Directive was G (lowest efficiency) to A+++ (highest efficiency).
introduced in 2009 to help EU countries reduce energy Boiler manufacturers and retailers are responsible for
consumption and emissions. ensuring their products are accurately labelled.

Insulation for pipework and ductwork

All pipes installed in vulnerable or exposed locations
inside and outside a building, such as unheated
cellars, roof spaces, garages and outbuildings, must be
insulated to improve energy efficiency, prevent freezing
and retain heat energy.
Types of pipework insulation include:
 PVC foam
 expanded polystyrene
 extruded polystyrene
 cross-linked polyethylene foam
 expanded nitrile rubber
 expanded synthetic rubber.

Ductwork should be insulated in order to:

 keep air within the ducts at the required temperature
 prevent ducts from leaking air.
▲ Figure 5.36 Energy efficiency ratings

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Ductwork carrying warm air should be insulated to External and internal wall insulation
conserve energy. Ductwork carrying cold air should be External wall insulation involves fixing an insulating
insulated to conserve energy and control condensation layer over the existing wall, either mechanically or
on the outer surface. adhesively, and covering it with a render.
Various thermal insulation products are available for Where external insulation is not an option, for example
ducting, including rigid preformed slabs or boards and in conservation areas, internal wall insulation can
flexible rolls, blankets, mats and mattresses. be installed. This consists of thermally engineered
insulated studs and insulation slabs. The use of
Building insulation
internal wall insulation will reduce the internal space.
Insulation is needed to reduce heat loss from a building
during cold weather (see Figure 5.37). This in turn
Key term
reduces the energy required to maintain a comfortable
temperature for the occupants. Render: a pre-mixed layer of sand and cement,
similar to mortar, used to make masonry walls flat
Insulation should also reduce the heat entering a
and prepare them for top coats of finishing plaster
building in warm weather. This saves energy by
reducing the need for air-conditioning systems.
There are many different ways to insulate a building, Loft insulation
making it more energy efficient and lowering running Installing loft insulation, or upgrading existing loft
costs. insulation, is the quickest and most efficient method
of improving the thermal performance of an existing
Roof 26%
building. Loft insulation materials include:
 blown insulation material
 insulation boards
Through the
 roll loft insulation.
Windows
walls 33%
18% Current building regulations state that insulation
materials should be laid to a minimum thickness of
270 mm.
Floor insulation
Floors 8% Around 15 per cent of heat is lost through an
Draughts 12%
uninsulated floor. Insulating a ground floor will keep
Doors 3% the building warmer and reduce energy bills. This can
▲ Figure 5.37 Heat loss from a building be done using rigid board insulation.
Upstairs floors do not need to be insulated, as they are
Cavity wall insulation
within the thermal envelope of the building.
Cavity walls are constructed from two leaves of
masonry, separated by a nominal 50 mm gap. The
outer leaf is usually facing brickwork, and the inner Research
leaf is brickwork or blockwork. Insulating an existing
cavity wall involves drilling a series of holes through Research the purpose, limitations and benefits
the outer leaf and blowing or injecting the insulation of insulation materials. Copy and complete the
following table:
material into the cavity.
Cavity wall insulation materials include: Insulation method Purpose Benefits Limitations
 blown mineral fibre Foam board
 polystyrene beads (EPS)
Loose fill
 rigid board insulation (installed during
construction) Insulation roll
 urea formaldehyde foam. Sprayed foam
Reflective system
Rigid fibrous

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 Chapter 5 Sustainability principles

Movement sensors can switch building services on and

Test yourself off when required, for example lighting. As a person
enters a room, a passive infrared (PIR) sensor detects
Describe three methods that can be used to insulate
a property. them and switches on the light; when the person
leaves, the sensor is no longer able to detect them and
turns off the light.
11 Digital technologies
Key term
11.1 Internet of things
Passive infrared (PIR) sensor: an electronic sensor
The term ‘internet of things’ (IoT) refers to objects that measures infrared (IR) light radiating from
connected via a digital network. The potential for objects in its field of view
integrating the IoT into building services engineering
systems is vast, and this is covered in more detail in
Chapter 10. Infrared sensors are increasingly being used to operate
taps, toilets, urinals and shower outlets, particularly
11.2 Control and monitoring systems in public buildings and hotels. The sensors operate
solenoid valves that allow water to flow when the
Building management systems infrared beam is interrupted. These automated facilities
A building management system (BMS), sometimes not only save water, but they are also more hygienic
referred to as a building automation system (BAS), is because they are touch-free.
a computer-based system that monitors and controls a
wide range of building services, for example: Smart controls
 heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) Smart controls allow users to control and monitor a
 lighting range of building services from a mobile device such as
 energy a tablet or phone, for example:
 fire systems (smoke detection and alarms)  lighting
 security systems (CCTV, motion detectors and  heating
access controls)  security
 ICT (information and communications technology)  air conditioning
systems  ventilation.
 lifts. Smart sensors connect to consumer Wi-Fi and have a
Successful implementation of a BMS will help building companion app to control their functionality and set
managers to understand how a building is operating parameters, for example time and temperature.
in real time and allow them to control and adjust the
system to ensure optimum performance and energy
efficiency.
A BMS can provide:
 a visualisation of real-life building data with a
graphic user interface, allowing comparisons
between buildings and benchmark data
 a method for generating building usage reports
 time scheduling of building operations function,
such as lighting, heating and security controls
 notification of faults and failures through a set of
alarms and alerts.

Automated controls ▲ Figure 5.38 Smart controls

Automated controls can be used to maximise energy
efficiency in a building.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Smart meters
Assessment practice
Smart meters are replacing traditional gas and
electricity meters. They offer a number of
benefits: Short answer
 Meter readings are sent automatically to energy 1 State two common sustainability assessment
suppliers. methods.
 Energy bills are more accurate, as they do not rely 2 List three control and monitoring systems for
on estimates. BSE systems.
 Consumers can see their energy usage in real time 3 List three sustainable solutions for
and track costs via an in-home display. They can construction.
look at how much energy has been used in the past 4 Which document provides guidance for the
day, week, month and year. installation of fixed building services in new
The smart meter equipment installed by energy and existing dwellings to help compliance
suppliers usually comprises: with the energy-efficiency requirements of the
 a smart electricity or gas meter Building Regulations?
 a communications hub 5 State the three types of listed status for
 an in-home display. buildings in England and Wales.
Long answer
6 Explain how sustainability is achieved when
planning and delivering a construction project.
7 Describe five retrofit roles.
8 Explain the term ‘social sustainability’.
9 Explain what a passive house is.
10 Describe the operating principles of grey-water
recycling and rainwater harvesting systems.

Project practice
Services PLC is an established building contractor,
▲ Figure 5.39 A smart meter with branches throughout the UK. Each branch
works on different types of development, including
new-build residential and commercial retail.
Case study Services PLC is preparing a tender submission for
the building of a new school. You are part of the
Sian and her family live on the south coast of
team working together to respond to the tender.
England. They are conscious of their current energy
 Suggest a range of renewable technologies that
usage and would like to explore the use of smart
could be included in the build.
controls and renewable energy sources to produce
 Summarise the purpose of each system,
electricity. Their property is not listed, nor is it in a
including advantages and disadvantages.
conservation area.
 For each system, explain the components and
 What options could be considered for generating
their purpose.
electricity?
 Give examples of sustainable solutions that
 For each option, discuss the building regulations
could be incorporated into the building, for
that would need to be complied with.
example automatic lighting.
 Explain the smart controls that could be used to
 Give examples of how waste will be managed on
reduce electricity consumption.
the construction project, including completion of
a basic site waste management plan.
The information should be included in a project plan,
which will be discussed in a group as part of the
tender process.

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 Chapter 6 Measurement
principles

Introduction
This chapter looks at the importance of accurate and
appropriate measurement, identifying the standard units of
measurement and appropriate measurement techniques used
in construction.
By applying tried and tested construction measurement
principles, it is possible to ensure accuracy both in calculating
the quantities of materials needed for a project and in setting
out and building a structure. We will also look at the possible
consequences of inaccurate measurements for both client and
contractor.
The chapter concludes by looking at scales and tolerances
used in construction.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will understand:
1 accurate and appropriate measurement
2 standard units of measurement and measurement
techniques
3 measurement standards, guidance and practice.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

1 Accurate and appropriate Key term

measurement Design brief: a working document which specifies
what a client wants; it makes clear all the design
The methods of measurement used for construction
requirements of a project
activities vary depending on the work task and the
operational phase of the construction project.
These outcomes can only be achieved if accurate and
Well before construction work starts on site, a
appropriate methods of measurement are used during
range of personnel will have taken many accurate
all phases of construction.
measurements in order to design, plan and prepare for
a project. Measurements will continue to be taken with During the planning stage, accurate measurement of
accuracy during the subsequent construction phase. quantities of materials and components required for
the job will mean the right amounts are delivered to
site. This avoids a shortage of materials, which can
cause production delays, or a surplus of materials,
which can cause waste. Resulting cost savings can be
passed on to the client.

▲ Figure 6.1 Appropriate measurements are taken

when planning a project

Improve your English

Search online for definitions of the word ▲ Figure 6.2 Accurate calculation of materials for
‘measurement’. Select three definitions that you delivery to site avoids production delays and waste
think could be applied to construction activities and
combine them into one definition in your own words. Industry tip
Costing a project of any size is a balance between
1.1 The benefits of accurate making an acceptable profit for the contractor and
offering a fair price to the client. Accurate costings at
measurement the beginning of a project may allow a contractor to
Accurate measurement ensures a project meets the pass savings on to the client while still maintaining
healthy profit margins.
requirements of the client and runs smoothly through
to completion for the contractor.
Using established principles when calculating required
Benefits to the client quantities of materials allows for assessment of the time
When a client commissions a project, they have certain needed to use and install those materials, contributing
expectations: to the creation of a realistic work programme.
 The work should be completed within an agreed Completion targets can then be set to support efficiency
budget and timescale. and productivity and satisfy the client’s requirements for
 The design brief should be wholly fulfilled. timely handover of the building.

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 Chapter 6 Measurement principles

Creation of a work programme founded on accurate productivity and avoid potential delays due to shortfalls
calculations will also allow workforce requirements in workforce numbers. The client benefits because the
for the project to be established, which will sustain project is more likely to be delivered on time.
Week number (Monday to Friday working)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Site clearance

Foundation excavation

Pour foundation concrete

Task

Masonry to ground floor

Install floor slab

Lay drainage systems

Planned activity timings

Actual activity timings

▲ Figure 6.3 Accurate calculation of quantities of materials contributes to creating a realistic work programme

Research
Once all the quantities of materials for a project have room, for example timber for the floor and cables for
been accurately calculated, an evaluation of costs electrics. Then for each material in your list, assign a
can be carried out, and the amount of time needed to tradesperson or operative who might use it. The list will
complete specific tasks can be estimated. vary depending on the use of the room, so repeat the
exercise with a partner in a second room and discuss
Examine the room you are in carefully. Make a list
your findings. How many materials have you identified?
of all the materials you think are contained in the

In order to construct a building exactly as shown in

the drawings and in accordance with specifications,
it is vital to use accurate and appropriate methods of
measurement.
If measurement principles are not applied correctly, it
can cause adverse consequences:
 If a building that is not dimensionally accurate
or not built to square is handed over to the
client, significant problems can emerge when the
installation of items such as floor tiles is attempted,
or fittings and modular components such as
kitchen units are positioned.
▲ Figure 6.4 A new building must be constructed  Using unspecified materials or components may
using accurate measurements mean the building is not suitable for its intended
purpose, for example reducing the width of timbers
used in floor joists.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Careful use of accurate and appropriate methods of

Key terms measurement during the construction of a building
prevents errors, which may be costly to remedy.
Built to square: where all the corners of a square or
It would be especially problematic if errors were
rectangular building are accurately set at 90°
discovered once the building was occupied after
Modular components: standardised units that fit handover to the client. Avoiding errors means the
together in a number of ways
job runs smoothly and is more likely to be completed
on time.

Health and safety If a company consistently completes projects on time

and to a high standard, by accurately constructing
If a building is not constructed in accordance buildings to specification, it will over time build up
with drawings and specifications because of a good reputation and ensure continuity of work.
carelessness in measurement, the structural Carelessness and inaccurate work can quickly destroy a
integrity of the design could be compromised, hard-earned and valuable reputation.
leading to dangerous structural failure.

Test yourself
State two benefits to the client of accurate
measurement.

Benefits to the contractor

Accurate measurement allows for accurate costing of a
project, which in turn can:
 help a contractor to manage profitability and cash
flow, to maintain business activity and ensure
company growth ▲ Figure 6.6 Accurate work can result in a good
 allow a contractor to negotiate with suppliers for company reputation
favourable prices on bulk materials and specified
components, to improve company profit margins. Test yourself
State one benefit to a contractor of accurate
measurement.

1.2 Choosing appropriate methods

of measurement
Throughout the stages of a construction project,
different work activities require different methods
of measurement. These should always be applied
accurately.

▲ Figure 6.5 Costing a project must be done carefully

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 Chapter 6 Measurement principles

▼ Table 6.1 Appropriate methods of measurement and the benefits of accuracy

Construction activity Method of How the method is used Benefits of accuracy

measurement
Site survey Calculation of area A building must fit on a Accurate calculation of the
proposed site, with allowances area of the site is needed to
for roadways, paths, parking confirm that the proposed
and landscaped areas. There project is feasible. Early
should be consideration for confirmation that the site
adequate space between is suitable allows for an
the new building and existing appropriate design concept
structures. to be created.

▲ A survey of a new site must

be undertaken
Locating services on a site Linear One of the first tasks on a new Finding the precise location
measurement construction project is to locate of services by accurate
the position of any existing measurement is essential
services on the project site. so that subsequent site
Records regarding the position work can proceed safely.
and route of services are used Accidental damage to
to accurately measure from existing services could also
stated positions on site. Once cause delays and create
located, the services will be added costs.
removed or rerouted.

▲ Existing services must be

accurately located
Groundworks including removal of Calculation of Before a building can Moving large volumes
topsoil and excavations volume be constructed, the soft of soil or other similar
topsoil must be removed material involves the use
from the area on which the of heavy machinery, which
structure will be positioned. is expensive to hire or buy.
To measure the amount to Accurate measurement
be moved, the volume of of the quantity of material
material is calculated in cubic to be moved means the
metres (m³). Excavations for number of machines and
foundations and underground the time needed can be
drainage systems also require established and the cost
calculation of the volume of confirmed.
▲ Large volumes of material material to be moved.
may need to be moved
Correctly locating the new structure Linear Project drawings show where If a structure is wrongly
on the plot measurement a building will be located on positioned, it may interfere
a site. Accurate measurement with other elements of
from given reference points is the development, or its
needed to position the building position may contravene
in the correct location. planning requirements. In
extreme cases, a wrongly
located building has had to
be demolished and rebuilt
in the correct position – at
great expense.

▲ Accurate measurements are

needed when positioning a
building on a plot

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

▼ Table 6.1 Appropriate methods of measurement and the benefits of accuracy

Construction activity Method of How the method is used Benefits of accuracy

measurement
Building the new structure Linear Accurate linear measurement Accurate measurement of
measurement, is needed to set out the outline the outline and features
calculation of area, of a building, the position of a building is essential
calculation of of internal walls, doors and if the building is to be
volume windows, vertical dimensions constructed exactly as
to establish floor and roof designed. For example,
heights and much more. wrongly positioned internal
walls may interfere with
Accurate calculation of area
other design elements.
will confirm quantities of
materials required for activities Measurements to calculate
such as plastering, bricklaying quantities of materials
▲ Accurate measurements are
and roofing. must be accurate to
needed throughout the course
avoid shortfalls or excess
of construction Calculation of volume identifies
materials, affecting
requirements in cubic metres for
productivity or adding to
materials such as concrete or
costs.
screed required for solid floors.

1.3 Costing techniques for different

Key terms
projects
Linear measurement: the distance between two
Construction projects vary greatly in size and
given points along a line
complexity. A project may be relatively simple, such as
Screed: a levelled layer of material (often sand and building a boundary wall, or highly complex, such as
cement) applied to a floor or other surface
building a multi-storey office block.
Calculating the cost of such a wide variety of project
types requires the use of different techniques to arrive
Health and safety
at figures that are as accurate as possible. Let us look at
It is essential to accurately locate existing services some frequently used costing techniques.
in order to allow subsequent work to be conducted
safely:
 Damage to water services can cause flooding
and disrupt supply to others in the locality.
 Accidental contact with electricity services can
cause death or injury to workers or damage to
machinery.
 Gas services carry a risk of explosion if pipes are
damaged or breached.

Test yourself
For what type of work task would linear
measurement be used? Give two examples.

Improve your English

Write a clear explanation of the difference between
area and volume.
▲ Figure 6.7 A complex construction project in London

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 Chapter 6 Measurement principles

Job costing Batch costing is often used where the manufacturing

process takes the form of a continuous flow of mass-
This technique is usually applied to specific client
produced construction materials, such as plasterboards
requirements for a distinct project or ‘job’. It involves
or bricks.
analysing the job in detail, breaking down the costs of
each element and tracking and recording them as the Activity costing
job proceeds.
This technique assigns costs to specific activities rather
The cost elements are broken down into labour, than whole jobs or processes. Identifying the many
materials and overheads. This costing technique is activities required to produce a building provides costing
sometimes confused with process costing, where the data that can feed into the overall costing process.
steps to complete a job are identified and an average
For example, the activity of building a brick wall can be
cost is applied to each step based on past experience.
costed by using specific information:
 The dimensions of the wall allow the number of
Industry tip bricks required to be accurately calculated.
 The quantity of sand and cement for mortar can be
When a contractor prices a job, the calculated labour
and materials are sometimes referred to as ‘direct calculated.
labour’ and ‘direct materials’, since they are sourced  The hourly rate of pay for a bricklayer can be
and paid for by the contractor. precisely set.
 The number of bricks laid per hour can be
established from past work experience.
Job costing sometimes includes a ‘cost reimbursement’
condition, where the client agrees to meet the cost of By identifying quantifiable activities, the associated
job elements that cannot be accurately calculated at the costs for materials, labour, equipment and overheads
start of a project, for example if the design choice of can inform the costing process – both for the current
certain items such as windows has not been finalised. project and also for future projects with similar
characteristics.

Life cycle cost analysis

This technique is used to estimate the overall costs
of a building throughout its entire life cycle. It allows
for comparison of alternative building concepts
at the design stage, so that an evaluation can be
made of which design is most economically and
environmentally beneficial over time. The analysis
includes the cost of everything throughout the life
cycle of the building, including:
 land acquisition
 construction
 energy
▲ Figure 6.8 Various techniques can be used to cost  water
a project  operation
 maintenance and repair
Batch costing  replacement.
This can be viewed as an extension of job costing, since
Some professionals consider life cycle analysis to be
a batch (like a job) is broken down into component
little more than a ‘best guess’ of costings for a building
materials to be costed individually. For example,
that could potentially be in use for 100 years or more.
concrete is manufactured from sand, aggregate
Over such an extended time period, circumstances
and cement. The quantities of the three component
may change unpredictably.
materials can be costed separately and those costs
totalled as a batch, usually expressed in cubic metres However, with increasingly demanding environmental
(m³) in the case of concrete. regulations impacting on building design and

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

operation, refinement of this technique could provide value of a measured number can be changed simply
an important tool for costing new buildings that are by moving the decimal point (see Table 6.2 later in this
designed to be more environmentally friendly. chapter).

Research
Search online for the ‘Designing Buildings Wiki’
website. Enter ‘costing’ into the search bar and
research the differences between life cycle costing
and whole-life costing.

Test yourself
Look at the costing techniques discussed in this
section. Which technique would you use to cost the
replacement of slates on a roof?
▲ Figure 6.10 Metric units of measurement are easy to
work with

Industry tip
You may hear imperial units of measurement being
discussed on site. Material sizes are often referred
to in imperial units, even though they are now sold
in metric units. An example of this is 8ft × 4ft sheets
of plywood or plasterboard, where the correct size is
2400mm × 1200mm.

▲ Figure 6.9 A slate roof covering Key terms

Metric units: decimal units of measurement based
Improve your English on the metre and the kilogram
Decimal system: a number system based on the
There are other types of costing technique that number ten, tenth parts and powers of ten
mainly apply to manufacturing processes but
can have an application in construction. Find out Imperial units of measurement: units of
about target costing and write down your opinion measurement of the British Imperial System, used
on whether this technique could be used in a until 1965 when the metric system was adopted
construction setting.

2.1 Units of measurement

2 Standard units of measurement Some standard metric units of measurement and their
and measurement techniques abbreviations are as follows:
 Length
The UK construction industry uses metric units as – millimetres (mm)
standard. These are easy to use because they are based – centimetres (cm)
on a decimal system which provides a consistent – metres (m)
relationship between different measurement units. The – kilometres (km)

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 Chapter 6 Measurement principles

 Weight or mass
– gram (g)
– kilogram (kg)
– tonne (t)
 Liquid
– millilitre (ml)
Loadings Loadings
– litre (L or l).
Table 6.2 shows the relationships between metric units
of measurement and gives examples of how they are
applied.

▼ Table 6.2 Standard metric units of measurement

Substructure

Measurement Relationship Example

between units
Length 10 mm = 1 cm 1 mm × 10 = 1 cm Loadings Loadings
100 cm = 1 m 1 cm × 100 = 1 m ▲ Figure 6.11 The measurement unit for loadings is
1000 m = 1 km 1 m × 1000 = 1 km the newton (N)
Moving the decimal point changes the value:
• 6250 mm can be shown as 6.250 m
These forces are measured in newtons (N). For
• 6250 m can be shown as 6.250 km. example, the force exerted by pressure on concrete
can be measured as newtons per square millimetre
Weight or mass 1000 g = 1 kg 1 g × 1000 = 1 kg
(N/mm²). This measurement is used to classify the
1000 kg = 1 t 1 kg × 1000 = 1 t
amount of crushing force that concrete can withstand.
Liquid 1000 ml = 1 l 1 ml × 1000 = 1 l
Industry tip
Research Structural engineers must have a clear
understanding of the definition of the newton:
Research the units of measurement for length and
‘The force which gives a mass of 1 kilogram an
weight used in the Imperial system. Create a table
acceleration of 1 metre per second, per second
showing how they relate to each other, for example
(1 kg m/s² )’. This enables them to produce accurate
how many ounces in a pound. Can you see how
and reliable structural calculations for a building.
much easier it is to use the metric system?

Improve your maths Research

Convert 12.6 cm into millimetres. Work with someone Research the origin of the newton as a unit of
else to think up some other examples to convert. measurement.

Units of area and volume are derived from units of length: Even time has a standard unit of measurement – the
 area is measured in square units, for example second (s), which is the basis for time management in
square metres (m²) every aspect of human activity, including construction.
 volume is measured in cubic units, for example Many of these units of measurement we take for
cubic metres (m³). granted, using them every day without thinking too
Every building must be designed to withstand the much about how they fit together or have an influence
loads and pressures created by: in our lives.
 the weight of the materials it is constructed from In construction, these standard units of measurement
 the weight of equipment and occupants within it are used in specific ways using appropriate equipment.
 external forces, such as wind or the weight of snow. Let us look now at some measurement techniques.

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2.2 Measurement techniques Key term

Measuring equipment used in construction work can
Elevation: a view of the front, back or sides of a
be relatively simple or technically complex.
building
Simple equipment such as a tape measure can give
accurate results when used carefully to measure:
 height Technically complex equipment can be used to measure
 length height, length or distance to high levels of accuracy.
 distance. Laser instruments can be used to measure differences
in height and 3D laser scanning can be used to give
In any structure, it is important to measure heights accurate data about the height and length of existing
accurately, for example of floors, ceilings, door and structures during a survey.
window openings, and roofs. Any inaccuracies could
have serious consequences:
 If the height of a ceiling is not measured accurately
during the building process, it may clash with
the height measurement of the tops of doors or
windows in the room.
 If the height of floors is not measured accurately
during installation, a staircase will be placed
at the wrong angle of slope, and it may not sit
properly where the top of the stairs meets the
upper floor.

▲ Figure 6.13 A 3D laser scanner

Traditionally, an instrument called a theodolite

has been used to measure distance and height,
using mathematical methods of trigonometry
and triangulation to establish accurate angles and
measurement details for setting out new buildings or
surveying existing structures.

Improve your English

Search online for ‘how to use a theodolite’. Write
▲ Figure 6.12 Getting a height measurement wrong
a short report on the steps for setting up the
could have serious consequences
instrument.
Accurate measurement of length is also important
if the design is to function as intended. Accuracy is The optical theodolite has evolved into an instrument
vital when measuring the outline of the building, the known as a total station. This modern surveying
position of internal walls and the position of doors and instrument combines an electronic version of the
windows along an elevation of a building. theodolite (which can record location data using
GPS) with an electronic distance meter to speed up
Test yourself the measurement process. Some versions can even
be operated remotely by a single operator and the
Give two reasons why accurate measurement of
gathered data can be streamed to an office location for
height is important.
reliable storage.

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 Chapter 6 Measurement principles

Industry tip
While scales and weighing equipment are not
routinely installed on a site, if large volumes of
material such as topsoil are to be removed it may
be considered economical to install a weighbridge
to monitor and record the weight of materials being
transported off site.

Legal requirements to make new structures more

environmentally friendly have led to the use of
specialised measurement techniques for calculating
▲ Figure 6.14 A total station surveying instrument heat transfer and energy use. Energy used in the
construction and operation of a building produces
carbon. This combines with oxygen in the atmosphere
Test yourself to produce carbon dioxide (CO2) gas, which
contributes to climate change.
What is the name of the instrument that has been
developed from the theodolite? To calculate CO2 emissions, the thermal transmittance
of the building’s structure must be established. This
is known as the U-value, which expresses the rate of
To ensure efficiency and productivity throughout the transfer of heat through a structure (or more correctly
construction process, accurate measurements are through one square metre of a structure), taking
important for calculating the quantities of materials account of the difference between internal and external
required. Calculations of area and volume are used to temperatures. It is expressed in watts per metre
establish the amount of plasterboard needed for walls squared kelvin (W/m²K).
and ceilings, bricks and blocks needed for walls, and
concrete needed for foundations and solid floors.
Loft

Industry tip
Although accurate measurement is important when
calculating quantities of materials, sometimes to 0.16
speed up a specific job it might be acceptable to use
0.18–0.20
approximation. For example, you may see someone
0.20–0.22
pacing out the length of an excavated trench to 0.25–0.30
establish an approximate measurement in metres, to
0.25–0.30
quickly calculate the volume of concrete required for
a foundation. Unheated
0.20–0.22 space

Accurate measurement is also important when

establishing the weight or mass of materials and the
▲ Figure 6.15 Heat loss expressed as U-values in a
capability of lifting equipment. There is usually no
typical house
means of weighing things on site, but the weight of
items should be labelled on packaging, and equipment To control heat transfer in a building, insulation
for lifting and transporting materials should have a must be used. Measured resistance to heat transfer is
safe working load (SWL) clearly and permanently expressed as the R-value. The higher the R-value, the
indicated on it. more resistance a material provides to heat transfer.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

3 Measurement standards,
guidance and practice
Construction drawings are produced to a set of
conventions, which include particular units of
measurement, views and sheet sizes. Conventions in
measurement standards include the consistent use
and application of scale when producing drawings as
information sources.

▲ Figure 6.16 Insulation must be installed to control

heat transfer

The complex process of calculating U-values and

R-values has been simplified with the introduction
of software that analyses all relevant data in order to
calculate the values to a high degree of accuracy.

Industry tip
It is pointless calculating the required level of
▲ Figure 6.17 Construction drawings
insulation if operatives do not use appropriate
techniques when installing insulation materials.
Measures to limit heat transfer are only effective Key terms
when insulation materials are properly installed.
Conventions: agreed, consistent standards and
rules
The standard units of measurement and many of the
measuring techniques discussed in this section can Scale: when accurate sizes of an object are reduced
be linked to the use of data sources such as Building or enlarged by a stated amount
Information Modelling (BIM). This is a system
for digital storage, handling and distribution of
An architectural technician or a draughtsperson
information and data. Chapter 8 covers BIM in greater
produces drawings of a building to scale. This means
detail.
that large structures can be represented with accurate
More traditional data sources, such as drawings, are proportions on a document that is much smaller, so
commonly used to ‘take off’ information for calculating that it is easy to work with. It would obviously be
quantities of materials and establishing timescales difficult to work with a drawing of a house that was
for work programmes. Let us look at some points produced at full size.
regarding standards and practice when using this type
Scale is shown using a ratio, such as 1 to 10. This
of data source.
would usually be written in the form ‘1:10’. Using this
Improve your English scale, a drawing of a feature that is 1 m (or 1000 mm)
long in real life would be drawn 100 mm long on the
Describe the difference between U-values and paper. This is because 100 mm is a tenth of 1000 mm.
R-values.
Key term
Ratio: the amount or proportion of one thing
compared to another

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 Chapter 6 Measurement principles

300 mm

300 mm

PROJECT
<C & G >

PROJECT NO.
<001>

ISSUE
<24/08/2020>

C&G A DRAWN BY
MJ
Scale: 1:10 001

Plan view
junction
cavity wall

▲ Figure 6.18 A drawing showing a scale of 1:10

scale drawing may also use more than one unit of

Test yourself
measurement, for example to show air-flow velocity
What name is given to a set of agreed, consistent in a ventilation system an arrow 1 cm long could
standards and rules? represent a flow rate of one metre per second (1 cm =
1 m/s), regardless of the scale of the main drawing.
In some cases, more than one scale will be used on
the same drawing, with different scales being used for 3.1 Common scales
different views, perhaps to allow for greater detail to Table 6.3 shows the scales commonly used for different
be shown or a wider view to be given in context. A types of drawing.

▼ Table 6.3 Types of drawing and common scales

Type of drawing Description Scales commonly used

Detail drawing This shows accurate, large-scale details of the construction of a particular 1:1, 1:2 and 1:5
item, such as a timber-frame structural corner or the makeup of a
suspended concrete floor.
Floor plan This shows the layout of internal walls, doors and stairs in a building. In 1:50 and 1:100
a dwelling, it also shows the arrangement of special-use rooms, such as
bathrooms and kitchens.
Elevation drawing This shows the external appearance of each face of the building, with 1:50 and 1:100
features such as slope of the land, doors, windows and the roof arrangement.
Sectional drawing This is a slice or cut through of a structure to give a clear view of details 1:50 and 1:100
that would otherwise be hidden. For example, on a working drawing for a
house, a sectional drawing could allow us to clearly see the layout of the
stairs within the building.
General Sometimes referred to as a location drawing, this can be used to show a 1:50, 1:100 and 1:200,
arrangement single building element and what it should contain. It can also be used to depending on the level
drawing show the main elements of a structure, such as the external walls, internal of detail required
or partition walls, floor details and stairs.
Site plan This shows the proposed development in relation to the property boundary. 1:200 or 1:500
It also shows the positions of drainage and other services and access roads
and drives. It may show the position of trees and shrubs if they are required
as part of the planning details.
Block plan This shows the proposed development in relation to surrounding 1:1250 or 1:2500
properties. It must be based on an up-to-date map and drawn at an
identified standard metric scale.
It usually shows individual plots and road layouts on the site as a simple
outline with few dimensions.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Improve your maths Research

Show your understanding of how scale works by Table 6.4 shows standard paper sizes from A0 to
filling in the gaps in this table: A4. Research additional paper sizes and list their
measurements.
Scale size on drawing Scale Actual size (mm)
10 mm 1:10 100 mm
When using a drawing to build a structure or install
25 mm 1:20
components, written dimensions and measurements
1:50 300 mm on the drawing should be used to ensure the work is
50 mm 1:200 completed exactly as designed. Using a scale rule on
a drawing to establish dimensions for a work task can
lead to errors. However, a scale rule can be used to ‘take
In order to be used reliably during both the planning off’ measurements from a drawing when calculating
and construction stages of a project, drawings should quantities, if written dimensions are not shown.
comply with British Standards.
BS EN ISO 19650 sets out a comprehensive code of
practice for managing the production, distribution
and quality of construction information, including
drawings. It allows for the co-ordination of a range of
essential construction data and information.
To produce drawings that are consistent and can be
formatted to suit particular applications, they are
laid out on standard-sized sheets of paper. Since
different sizes of paper can be used and drawings ▲ Figure 6.19 A scale rule
can be printed and formatted in different ways, it is
important that the scale used for drawings is clearly Research
stated. Larger standard-sized paper can be used
to produce drawings to a scale that shows greater Using a scale rule to determine measurements that
detail, if required. are not shown on a drawing can cause problems.
This is because it is difficult to interpret the scaled
Table 6.4 shows the dimensions of standard paper thickness of drawn lines, especially for scales that
sizes. Note that the higher the number, the smaller greatly reduce the size of the object, such as 1:500. A
the paper. relatively thin line on a drawing could be interpreted
as having a thickness much greater than in real life.
▼ Table 6.4 Standard paper sizes Obtain a scale rule (borrow one if you do not own
one). On a blank piece of paper, use a pen to draw
Title Size (mm) two parallel lines about 100 mm apart. Find the
A0 1189 × 841 1:500 markings on the scale rule and read the
distance between the two lines you have drawn.
A1 841 × 594
Note the measurement and ask someone else to do
A2 594 × 420 the same. Are both your measurements the same?
A3 420 × 297
A4 297 × 210

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 Chapter 6 Measurement principles

Costing a project from drawings and other data stated amount. These tolerances will vary, depending
sources must be done in accordance with ‘rules of on the nature of the material. For example, a double-
measurement’. The rules most commonly used are the glazed unit has a very limited range of tolerance – if it
New Rules of Measurement (NRM), produced by the is larger than the window frame to be glazed by only
Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS). This 1 mm, it simply will not fit.
is a standard set of measurement rules and essential
guidance for the cost management of construction Key term
projects and maintenance works. Their use helps
to prevent disputes and maintain efficiency and Tolerances: allowable variations between specified
productivity. measurements and actual measurements

3.2 Tolerances By contrast, when setting out a brick wall, it may be

As stated a number of times in this chapter, accuracy necessary to adjust the size of the mortar joints to fit
when using and interpreting information from a whole brick sizes into the overall length of the wall, to
range of data sources is essential if a building is avoid cutting bricks. In this case, a tolerance of ± 3 mm
to be completed exactly as designed. However, a is allowable. This means that a 10 mm mortar joint can
building will often be constructed in conditions that be enlarged by 3 mm to 13 mm or reduced by 3 mm to
are not perfect. In addition, many materials have 7 mm to accommodate whatever is needed.
characteristics that make it difficult to produce a
Tolerances may also be used to allow for acceptable
flawless result.
variations in the strength of materials, the performance
For example, a concrete foundation or solid floor slab of a heating or ventilation system, temperature ranges
may easily be shown on a drawing with straight lines in which materials can be used and many other
to indicate its depth and position, but the properties situations.
of the material do not allow it to be installed with a
perfectly straight profile or edges. Test yourself
Give one reason why tolerances are necessary
when using certain materials.

Industry tip
Manufacturers often provide guidance on tolerances
for the installation of components and materials they
make. Building regulations and British Standards are
another source of information on tolerances that are
acceptable for a range of materials and associated
construction activities.

▲ Figure 6.20 It is difficult to install concrete with a

perfectly straight profile or edges Exceeding allowable tolerances for a given construction
task will mean that the work does not meet the
Allowances can be made for variations in the specification. The function of the structure could be
installation of certain materials and components in the compromised and other elements of the building may
form of tolerances, expressed as plus or minus (±) a not be able to be installed properly.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Assessment practice

Short answer 7 Explain the reason for the use of tolerances and
the implications of not meeting them.
1 What units are used when calculating the
quantity of topsoil to be removed from a site? 8 Explain the possible consequences to the
contractor and the client if a building is
2 What two expectations for a project must a
constructed out of square due to carelessness in
contractor fulfil to satisfy the client?
measurement.
3 Write a definition of the decimal measuring system.
9 Describe how the installation of a staircase
4 Name two work activities when constructing a
could be affected if floor levels in a building
building that use linear measurements.
are not accurately set at the designed height
5 What does NRM stand for in relation to costing a measurement.
project?
10 Explain how heat transfer related to construction
Long answer activities is measured.
6 Explain how accurately calculating quantities of
materials and components assists in the creation
of a feasible work programme.

Project practice
A new college is to be constructed on a site located on You will need to consider the work needed to:
a hillside. The site has an old farmhouse and a number  carry out demolition
of farm buildings on it, which have to be demolished  manage the flow of rainwater down sloping ground
and removed.  move soil and shape the landscape
 construct the parking area, college building and
Adequate parking must be provided for staff and
recreation facilities.
students, and a sports and recreation area is included
in the plans.
Working in a small group, list the sequence of work
from start to finish and select a suitable costing
technique for each stage of the work.

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 Chapter 7 Building technology
principles

Introduction
The construction industry is evolving rapidly, with innovations
in building technology to meet the demand for more affordable
housing while reducing the impact of construction work and
manufacturing on the environment.
In this chapter, we will look at the history of domestic buildings,
forms of construction and different building materials. We will
also compare traditional onsite construction methods with
modern off-site manufacturing, and look at sources of building
information and guidance.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will understand: 4 building standards
1 construction methods 5 regulatory bodies and guidance on technical safety
2 forms of construction and legislative aspects
3 key content and required notifications of UK 6 manufacturers’ instructions
building regulations and approved documents 7 building structure and fabric.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

1 Construction methods Key terms

1.1 Onsite construction Cob: a blend of subsoil (clay or earth), sand

and straw mixed with water to make an organic
In the early years of construction, all buildings in the UK material historically used to construct walls
were made on site, with materials often sourced locally for homes and agricultural buildings in Devon,
from the surrounding land. This led to the development Cornwall and Wales
of low-rise dwellings with walls made from heavy Wattle and daub: a building method whereby a
timbers, cob or natural stone bonded together with lime woven matrix of wooden strips (wattle) is covered
mortar, or a combination of these materials. The walls with a mud-based daub; this technique was used for
were solid and often built directly on the ground with the construction of non-load-bearing walls and infill
little or no foundations to support them. Roofs were panels in buildings for thousands of years, but since
the development of plasterboard it has become
often pitched with timber rafters and covered with slate
obsolete and is only ever used in restoration of
or thatch to protect the occupants from the elements. historical or eco buildings
Over the years, construction methods have evolved, Mullioned windows: windows divided by vertical
due to advances in construction design and technology, members, usually made of stone or wood
alongside the ability to use different building materials
Pebbledash: a coarse surface finish for external
which are manufactured and transported to site from walls consisting of small shells, gravel or pebbles
further away. applied to cement render while it is still wet
Table 7.1 illustrates how traditional and modern
construction methods have transformed the way we
build today.

▼ Table 7.1 Traditional and modern construction methods

Period Build method

Tudor (1485–1603) • Thatched or slate roofs
• Exposed timber frame with wattle and daub walls
Stuart (1603–1714) • Single-skin stone and brick walls, sometimes rendered
• Granite-framed and mullioned windows with coloured glass
• Slate floors
Queen Anne (1702–14) • Terracotta tiles and panels
• Single-skin red-brick walls
• Windows with glazing bars
Georgian (1714–1837) • Single-skin stone or handmade brick walls
• Buildings constructed either directly off firm ground, or on stone, brick or concrete
foundations
• Vertical sliding wooden sash windows
• Architecture, symmetrical facades
Victorian (1837–1901) • Single-skin brick solid walls, built on concrete, hydraulic lime or stepped brick foundations
• In some areas of the country, cavity walls were used for the first time in late Victorian
dwellings
• First use of a damp-proof course (DPC), made of materials such as lead or copper
• Pointed arches constructed over doors and wooden or metal-framed windows
(Note: most of the population still lived in small houses or cottages)
Edwardian (1901–10) • External cavity walls used in some buildings
• Introduction of electric lighting
• Some timber framing
• Hanging wall tiles
• Pebbledash walls
• Timber porches and balconies

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 Chapter 7 Building technology principles

Period Build method

Addison Act (1919) • Introduction of affordable council housing after the First World War
• Commonly 3 to 4 bedrooms, with indoor toilets, baths and hot running water
• Often constructed with brick, block or concrete walls
• Window openings designed for lots of natural light
Semi-detached (1930s) • Hipped roofs and pebbledash walls
• Many homes still constructed with single-skin brick walls bonded with lime mortar
• Recessed porches
• Mock timber framing
• Timber bay windows
Art Deco (1920s–40s) • Flat roofs
• Plain white walls
• Metal-framed windows (known as ‘Crittall’ windows)
• Open interiors with Egyptian influences used in the design
• Other forms of foundations introduced, including piles and raft
Prefabs (1940s) after the • Mass produced in factories and assembled on site
Second World War • Precast concrete columns and metal tubing
• Small windows
Terraced (1960s–70s) • Integral garages
• Clad with hanging wall tiles or weatherboarding
• Single-glazed aluminium windows and doors
• Polythene damp-proof membranes (DPM) used as a barrier at ground level for the first time
to prevent moisture entering the building
New build (1990s) • uPVC double glazing
• Insulated roofs, floors and cavity walls with a rendered finish
• Period features
New build (current day) • Energy efficient, eco-friendly building materials
• Open plan
• Good use of glass for solar gain

▲ Figure 7.1 Victorian house ▲ Figure 7.2 Art Deco house

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

▲ Figure 7.5 Modular container house

▲ Figure 7.3 A dwelling constructed from cob

Besides the construction of most new dwellings on site,

the services and fabric of existing buildings still need to
be maintained, and at some point upgraded, while in situ.
Cosmetic and structural renovation and refurbishment
of buildings are also jobs that are often only able to be
completed on site because of the nature of the work.
The use of 3D printing and robotics as methods of
onsite construction are covered later in this chapter.

1.2 Modular construction

Modular construction combines pre-engineered units
(or modules) to form major elements of a building.
▲ Figure 7.4 Wattle and daub These modules are manufactured in factories and then
transported to site where they are assembled.
There are many different forms of construction used to
After the Second World War, there was a housing
build new dwellings.
shortage in the UK. In order to provide homes quickly,
Onsite construction using traditional methods such many temporary buildings known as prefabs were
as brick and block cavity walls or timber frame can be made using precast concrete sections. However, modern
slow, and progress can often be delayed by adverse prefabricated buildings are far superior to historical
weather. examples, and modular construction is now used to
build permanent structures that are comfortable for the
In the pursuit of building sustainable homes more
occupants, attractive to look at and sustainable.
quickly, with less of an impact on the environment,
alternative methods of construction are sometimes
used. These might include the use of straw-bale walls Key term
or, less conventionally, shipping containers. Prefabs: buildings manufactured using factory-
Although the idea of building with straw bales made components or units that are transported and
ticks a lot of sustainable-construction boxes, this assembled on site
method is unlikely to be used for large housing
developments because of its limitations, for example
Approximately 13 per cent of all new houses built in the
it can only be used for low-rise buildings, as
UK use modular construction, as it offers many benefits:
well as having a limited lifespan and often rustic
 Automated systems improve accuracy and quality
appearance. On the other hand, the idea of using
control.
shipping containers to build is not as extreme as it
 Large numbers of components can be manufactured
may first appear, especially if they are converted into
efficiently with reduced waste.
habitable spaces in factories and delivered to site in
modular form.

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 Chapter 7 Building technology principles

 By carrying out a large proportion of the

construction work in a controlled factory
environment, the delays associated with adverse
weather conditions on site are avoided.
 Up to 95 per cent of a building can be constructed
in a factory, therefore reducing the number of
trades needed on site during the assembly and final
finishing of the project.
Due to the cost savings from mass production in
factories, standard houses using modular construction
can be produced more cheaply and efficiently,
with better quality control, than using traditional
bricks and mortar. It is also possible to design and
construct unique houses in modular form, although
these are usually more expensive, depending on the ▲ Figure 7.6 Pre-fab dwelling
specification.
Most modular houses are constructed using structural Test yourself
insulated panels (SIPs) or timber frame, although
Explain the advantages of using modular
heavier and less-sustainable precast concrete can construction.
also be used. SIPs are made using two layers of
oriented strand board (OSB) bonded to each side of a
polyurethane insulation core to provide a strong, rigid 1.3 First fix
and highly insulated panel.
The construction of a new building is broadly divided
There are several types of modular building, each into three areas of work, known as structural, first
providing a different level of finish: fix and second fix. As the name suggests, structural
 turnkey (pre-assembled) – fully finished with work includes the main load-bearing elements of a
plastered walls, fixtures and fittings, such as building, such as the foundations, basement (where
bathrooms and kitchens there is one), walls, precast concrete staircases, floors
 shell only (pre-assembled) – walls, floors and roof and roof.
assembled, with no fixtures and fittings or internal
finishes First-fix building work has a different meaning for
 panel system (flat pack) – the basic elements of the each trade, although it is generally considered to be the
structure provided, ready to be assembled on site. phase of work completed after the structure has been
erected and before plastering commences.
Further information on modular construction can be
found in Chapter 3. Table 7.2 outlines some of the first-fix tasks completed
by various trades.

▼ Table 7.2 Work undertaken at first fix

Construction operative/ Range of work undertaken

trade
Plumber Installation of pipes through the building for hot- and cold-water systems
Electrician Installation of cables and back boxes for switches, electrical sockets, alarms, smoke
detectors, CCTV, data-networking cables and television
Gas fitter/heating and Installation of pipes for gas distribution for boilers, underfloor heating, and ducting for
ventilation fitter heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems
Carpenter Installation of flooring, door frames, linings, staircases, stud partition walls and windows
Encasing services
Dryliner/plasterer Drylining ceilings and walls in preparation for plastering, or taping and filling the joints
between the plasterboard sheets

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

on the ceilings or walls may need to be damaged to

Key terms allow access to the hidden services.
Encasing services: creating a framework of 1.4 Second fix
materials to cover pipes, cables and other services
in a building; also referred to as boxing-in Once the various trades have completed their first-fix
Drylining: fixing plasterboard to ceiling and wall work and the plastering/drylining is finished, second-
surfaces, such as metal suspended ceilings, timber fix work can commence. Second fixing often involves
and metal stud partition walls, and masonry walls the installation of items and equipment that could have
easily been damaged or affected by earlier stages of
construction work.
Table 7.3 outlines some of the second-fix tasks
completed by various trades.
Items installed during second fix are still vulnerable
to damage from other construction workers and
equipment on site, for example tilers, painters and
decorators, therefore where necessary adequate
measures should be taken to protect them until
completion of the project.
Finishing trades such as tilers and decorators are
usually scheduled to work on site at the end of the
second-fix stage. It is important that they co-ordinate
▲ Figure 7.7 First-fix plumbing the completion of their work with the other trades,
to avoid getting in each other’s way and to prevent
The first-fix stage of construction needs to be well unnecessary damage to their work.
planned and executed, especially when installing pipes,
cables and ducting. If mistakes made at this stage are Further information on first-fix and second-fix tasks
identified later in the building process, surface finishes undertaken by different trades can be found in
Chapter 4.

▼ Table 7.3 Work undertaken at second fix

Construction operative/trade Range of work undertaken

Plumber Installation of fixtures and fittings, for example sinks, toilets, showers, baths, towel
rails and radiators
Electrician Installation of electrical fixtures and fittings, for example switches, sockets, fuse
boards (power distribution units and circuit protection) and light fittings
Testing and commissioning of new electrical systems
Gas fitter/heating and ventilation Installation, testing and commissioning of gas boilers and other heating, air-
fitter conditioning and ventilation systems
Carpenter and joiner Fixing skirting, architraves, doors, kitchens and fitted wardrobes/cupboards

1.5 Self-driving vehicles a small amount of human intervention, are already

being used in some areas of construction in the UK,
Fully autonomous vehicles can be found on for example earth-moving plant used to prepare sites
construction sites today. Due to the unpredictable ahead of building work starting.
nature of the environment, for example the movement
of workers and plant, current deployments of Key term
autonomous vehicles typically have the machines
operating within a separate, fenced-off area away from Autonomous vehicles: vehicles able to operate
people. Semi-autonomous vehicles, which depend on without human intervention

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 Chapter 7 Building technology principles

In other countries, semi-autonomous and fully

autonomous excavators, trucks, diggers and cranes
are also being used successfully for simple but time-
consuming and otherwise dangerous construction
tasks, such as digging, trenching, drilling and
excavating the ground on site.
Using autonomous vehicles for construction projects
can reduce costs by improving productivity, machine
utilisation and site progress, because they are able
to operate 24 hours a day without a driver. They also
produce fewer carbon emissions than vehicles driven
by humans, due to less erratic movements and more
efficient use. ▲ Figure 7.9 Computer-controlled manufacturing
robot

1.7 Large-scale 3D printers

Large-scale 3D printers can produce perfectly formed
walls for large buildings on demand. They function
by controlling a mobile robotic arm on site to ‘print’
cement-based mortar walls, layer by layer, until the full
height of the walls is reached.
The advantages of using 3D printers on site are similar
to those for using robots, however this method also
produces seamless walls.

▲ Figure 7.8 Self-driving (autonomous) vehicle

1.6 Computer-controlled
manufacturing robots
While manual labour will likely always be a huge
factor in building projects, the development of robots to
automate construction tasks has led to improvements
in productivity. They have been designed to undertake
repetitive and labour-intensive tasks, such as
demolition, laying bricks and blocks and plastering.
Advantages of using robots include:
 protecting workers from hazards and reducing ▲ Figure 7.10 Large-scale 3D printer

workplace injuries
 reducing operating costs and waste 1.8 Drones
 increasing production rates and efficiency
 ensuring accuracy.
Recent innovations in drone technology have provided
the construction industry with a resource that can
be used to plan, manage, report and communicate
efficiently through a number of digital platforms, for
example Building Information Modelling (BIM), Auto
CAD and mobile apps on site.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

With the right software, drones can reduce costs

and labour needs, and improve the efficiency Health and safety
of construction projects. Typical uses of drones
Drones can be used for mitigating health and
include: safety risks, by reducing the exposure of workers
 surveying land using laser scanning (topography, to hazards. They can also be used during site
volume and measuring distances) inductions and training sessions, to navigate the
 producing 2D and 3D maps construction site without risk of harm.
 identifying improvements that can be made to
infrastructure
 pre-construction site planning, for example traffic- Test yourself
management systems and welfare facilities
 performing maintenance inspections that may Describe a situation in which a drone could be used
otherwise be difficult to complete without the by a building services engineer.
risk of harm, working at height or the use of
costly access equipment, for example inspecting
a roof 2 Forms of construction
 producing thermal imaging to identify hot spots
in a building which could be potential hazards, or In the construction industry, the structure of a building
cold spots resulting in heat loss and poor energy is looked at in two parts:
efficiency  The substructure is the section of a building
 streaming live footage to the project team with the extending below the horizontal damp-proof course
use of virtual reality (VR) glasses (DPC), including basements and retaining walls.
 inspecting work for quality control  The superstructure is the section of a building from
 monitoring progress on site in real time and the level of the DPC upwards.
sharing updates with the project team
 identifying hazards and improving site Key terms
security.
Basements: habitable rooms or spaces constructed
The law states that drones used for business purposes below ground level
must be flown responsibly, following Civil Aviation
Retainer walls: structural walls designed to bear the
Authority (CAA) regulations. From 2021, drone weight of lateral loads imposed from one side; they
operators must also have several licences to fly them are built below or above ground to hold back earth,
safely and confidently. To obtain these, operators and are often battered in form
must successfully complete both of the following
Battered: a type of retaining wall designed with
qualifications: a sloped/leaning surface to provide increased
 A2 Certificate of Competency (A2 CofC) structural support
 General Visual Line of Sight Certificate (GVC).

Superstructure
(above ground)

Substructure
(below ground)
▲ Figure 7.11 Drone in use on a construction site

▲ Figure 7.12 Substructure and superstructure of

a building

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 Chapter 7 Building technology principles

2.1 Substructure
The substructure of a building is designed to bear
(support) the weight of the superstructure by
transferring the imposed loads down to the ground
below. It includes a building’s foundations. Designers,
such as structural engineers and architects, usually
determine the type and size of foundations needed by
considering the following factors:
 type of building (industrial, commercial or domestic)
 size and weight of the superstructure
 build method, for example timber frame or brick
and block
 number of levels ▲ Figure 7.13 Subsidence in a building

 location, for example exposed position where there

It is sometimes possible to undertake retrospective
are high winds or an area that is prone to flooding
structural work, known as ‘underpinning’, on existing
 topography of the land
foundations when they are unable to support current
 load-bearing capacity of the ground on site
loads or proposed additional construction work, for
 impact on the environment and sustainability
example an extension or loft conversion. This involves
 construction costs.
digging underneath the foundations, one section at
The weight of materials used to construct a building a time, to enable deeper concrete foundations to be
is referred to as the dead load. This remains constant created. These are often reinforced with steel.
and can easily be calculated for the design of building
foundations. As well as this weight, designers also
have to consider variable imposed loads, known as live
loads, such as people, furniture, snow and wind.
If the foundation of a building is inadequate or has
been poorly constructed, it will often fail and result in
subsidence. If this occurs, the building will partially
sink into the ground, either evenly or unevenly:
 A small amount of even subsidence is known as
settlement, and this sometimes happens over a
short period of time after a building has been newly
constructed. Providing this type of subsidence is ▲ Figure 7.14 Retaining wall
only short lived, it should not cause any structural
damage to the building. Improve your English
 Where uneven subsidence occurs, it often causes
structural damage, which may result in cracking Look up the meaning of the word ‘lateral’ and
of hard building materials, such as brick and block include it in a sentence about part of a building
other than a retaining wall.
walls. Cracks in masonry walls usually occur
between the openings for doors and windows,
where they follow the line of the mortar joints from The term ‘footings’ was traditionally used to describe
the ground to the top of the building. a shallow foundation of a wall constructed of stepped
brickwork. It can now be used to mean any building
Health and safety foundation below DPC level.

Any subsidence identified in a building should be Foundations are broadly divided into two categories,
inspected and carefully monitored by a building determined by their depth:
surveyor to ensure it does not get worse over time.  shallow foundations (less than 2 metres)
Subsidence can lead to the collapse of part or all of  deep foundations (2 metres or more).
a structure.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Shallow foundations DPM

There are several types of shallow foundation, used to Cavity wall

construct a variety of buildings: Oversite

DPC
 narrow strip and trench fill concrete
 wide strip
Ground
 raft level
 pad.

Narrow strip and trench fill foundations

Narrow strip foundations (also referred to as ‘strip
foundations’) are the most common type of foundation
Hardcore
for low-rise buildings. They are constructed by
digging a narrow trench approximately 600 mm wide Fine
concrete
(the width of a digger bucket, although the width will
depend on the thickness of the wall) and the length of
the building’s load-bearing walls. Approved Document Strip
A provides the minimum widths of strip foundations
determined by the type of ground. The foundations
have to be deep enough so that frost does not affect
them, usually at least 1 metre deep or until load- ▲ Figure 7.15 Narrow strip foundation

bearing soil is reached, and approved by a building

control officer. Key term
Traditional strip foundations are built with a layer of Low-rise buildings: buildings with up to four storeys
concrete filling the bottom of the trench, to provide
a strong base for the blocks laid below ground level.
Trench fill foundations are very similar to traditional
Health and safety
strip foundations, but they have a deeper strip of
concrete poured in the trench, just a couple of brick Nobody should enter or work in a deep excavation
courses below ground level. Trench fill foundations for a foundation unless it has been adequately
are often cheaper and safer to build than traditional supported using timbering or trench supports and
strip foundations, because they are quicker to risk assessed, with satisfactory control measures
construct and avoid the risk of the sides of the trench in place to protect people from harm. Further
information on excavations and confined spaces is
collapsing while bricklayers are working below
covered in Chapter 1.
ground level.
When the concrete has cured, brickwork is laid directly
on top of the foundations up to the damp-proof course
(DPC) 150 mm above finished ground level.
Where buildings are constructed on sloping sites,
the narrow foundations are usually stepped up the
gradient. This avoids unnecessary deeper foundations
on one side of the building and reduces the volume of
concrete needed.

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Industry tip
Wet concrete usually contains small pockets of trapped  using a vibrating concrete poker – a mechanical
air that can weaken the foundation if they are not tool with a vibrating head; by partially inserting the
removed before it cures. There are several methods to poker into the wet concrete, the vibration from the
remove air from wet concrete, including: tool head causes trapped air to be released deep
 tamping – tapping the surface of the wet concrete within the concrete.
with a timber batten to release the trapped air to
the surface; this method is quite basic and often
does not remove all of the air trapped at the bottom
of deeper concrete foundations, therefore it is only
suitable for floor slabs

▲ Figure 7.17 Vibrating concrete poker

▲ Figure 7.16 Tamping

Damp proof
Health and safety course
Minimum 150 mm
Extended use of a vibrating concrete poker could Ground level
be harmful to health, for example causing vibration
Excavation level to receive Cavity fill
white finger. An appropriate risk assessment must concrete floor slab
be carried out and the operator must be trained.
Backfill
Longitudinal bars
Mild steel
Wide strip foundations reinforcement
transverse bars Concrete strip
Wide strip foundations are similar in construction to
50 mm concrete Foundation
narrow strip foundations. However, they are normally blinding
at least 1.5 metres deep and much wider. This provides
enough space for bricklayers to work safely in the ▲ Figure 7.18 Wide strip foundations
trenches to build their brick and block walls to the DPC
level. They are used to support the superstructure of Raft foundations
buildings with heavier loads or where the soil has a Sometimes it is impractical or uneconomical to keep
lower bearing capacity, for example soft sandy clays, by digging into the ground until firm soil with load-bearing
distributing the weight through the reinforced concrete capacity is found for strip foundations, therefore other
foundation over a wider area. types of foundation may need to be considered.
Raft foundations are often used for small low-rise
Improve your maths domestic buildings, because they are relatively quick to
construct and use less concrete compared with other
Calculate the volume of concrete needed for a
methods.
narrow strip foundation measuring 7.5 metres ×
4.25 metres, with a depth of 1 metre and a width of
0.6 metres.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

A raft foundation consists of a slab of concrete distributed along the beams and down to the pads in
reinforced with steel frame, constructed under the the ground below.
entire footprint of a building. The concrete slab acts
like a raft would on water, by distributing any imposed Key term
loads over a large area to the ground below. Some
areas of the raft will have additional loads imposed Portal frame: a large structural frame made from
directly on them from the load-bearing walls above, load-bearing timber and steel beams and columns
for example the edge (also known as the toe). At these
points, the depth of the foundation is increased to
create a ring beam in the slab, which improves the
load-bearing capacity of the raft and prevents cracking.

Screed

▲ Figure 7.20 Portal frame

Deep foundations
Raft In ground conditions where the surface layer of soil
is unable to support the superstructure of a low-rise
building with shallow foundations or the weight of
Deep edge
beam in a high-rise building, deep pile foundations have to
poor soil be constructed. This involves driving long, pre-cast
cylindrical steel and concrete piles deep into the ground
until they reach rock or strong load-bearing soil; these are
▲ Figure 7.19 Raft foundations
referred to as driven piles. This method displaces the soil
as the piles are driven into the ground to provide a strong
Pad foundations
foundation resistant to downwards and lateral forces.
The methods used to construct industrial units and
commercial buildings are very different to those used Piles that rely on the firm soil around them to support any
for domestic houses. This is because they are designed imposed loads are referred to as friction piles, whereas
to be erected quickly and efficiently, by maximising the piles that are supported from below by bedrock or
use of large open spaces for industrial and commercial another solid surface are known as end bearing piles.
purposes rather than as places to live. These types of Piles are often designed to be evenly spaced at strategic
building are usually constructed around a steel portal positions around the footprint of the structure, where
frame, with suspended external cladding and low- they are cut off to the same level and connected at the
height walls. Most of the weight of these buildings is surface with a concrete and steel pile cap, also known
transferred from the superstructure down through the as a ring beam.
steel frame to single point loads at ground level. At these
positions, square or circular concrete pad foundations Key term
are built to support the structure by distributing the
imposed loads down to the ground below. Pre-cast: formed into a shape in a factory before
being delivered for use on site
Pad foundations can also be used to support ground
or ring beams. These connect the pad foundations
together, so that the weight of the structure can be

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 Chapter 7 Building technology principles

Driving deep piles into the ground with heavy plant is

an extremely noisy process, which could be a nuisance Test yourself
to the public. Furthermore, the amount of vibration
List the four main types of building foundations.
caused in the ground could cause damage to the
structure of nearby buildings. To overcome these issues,
piles can be cast in situ by boring holes into the ground
with long augers (drill bits) and then filling these holes Research
with wet concrete, reinforced with steel; this method of
Research screw pile foundations and explain when
construction is referred to as replacement.
and why they may be used.

Research
Research alternative types of building foundations
and explain why they might be preferred over
conventional types.

2.2 Superstructure
As previously mentioned in this chapter, the
Ring beam superstructure of a building is everything above the
DPC level on the foundations, including:
 floors
Binding  walls
 roofs
 windows
 frames and doors.

Roofs
Roofs protect occupants of a building (and their
possessions) from the elements.
Pitched roof
A basic pitched roof on a domestic building is
Piles traditionally constructed with pairs of common
rafters, connected to a spine (known as a ridge board)
▲ Figure 7.21 Pile foundation at the apex. Towards the bottom (foot) of each rafter,
a bird’s mouth joint is cut to fit over the wall plates,
Key term which are secured to the top of the inner skin of the
external walls. These joints provide secure fixing points
In situ: in position for the rafters, so that the imposed loads from the roof
can be transferred down through the load-bearing
walls to the foundations below.

Health and safety

Key terms
Steel reinforcement bars are often left exposed at
the top of pile foundations until the pile cap has Common rafters: rafters that run from a ridge board
been cast. These can be extremely hazardous to to the wall plate at 90 degrees on plan
construction workers, so bar protection caps must Apex: the top of a pitched roof
always be fitted over them to reduce the risk of injury.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

The sectional sizes of the rafters are determined by Breather

the distance they have to span and the weight of the membrane
Roof tiles
roof covering; guidance can be found in Building Roof batten
Bargeboard
Regulations Approved Document A: Structure or Rafter
the Timber Research and Development Association
Wall plate
(TRADA) tables. If the sections of the rafters become Guttering
too large, it may be more economical to reduce them Insulation

in size and support them from below, mid span, with a Eaves
heavy structural beam known as a purlin. These days, Fascia protector
metal purlins (and sometimes ridges) are preferred
rather than traditional timber ones, because they are Soffit
stronger, lighter and more durable.
▲ Figure 7.23 Typical section through a pitched roof
The process for constructing a basic pitched roof is
referred to as a ‘cut roof’ or ‘cut and pitch’. This is Roof trusses
because all the timber components are marked out Each member of a trussed roof is specifically designed
and cut (sawn) on site by highly skilled carpenters. and calculated to suit its intended use, for example
This method has now been largely replaced with roof shape, pitch, span and weight of the roof covering.
prefabricated roof trusses manufactured in factories There are many advantages of using trussed roofs,
and delivered to site where they can be erected much including:
more quickly than cut roofs.  less waste
 greater energy efficiency
Key term  greater accuracy
 reduced material costs, building times and onsite
Roof trusses: prefabricated roof sections, held labour costs
together with gang nail plates at the intersections  less-skilled labour required
(nodes)  lighter and more sustainable materials.

Top chord
or rafter Top chord
Improve your maths splice

Use a formula or scaled drawing to calculate the true

length of a rafter with a rise of 1.8 metres and a run Tension
(half the span of the roof) of 2.4 metres. webs

Compression
web
Ridge board
Common rafter Bottom Bottom chord
Connector chord or ceiling tie
Gable end Purlin plates splice
Valley rafter Wallplate

Valley jack rafter ▲ Figure 7.24 Roof truss

(cripple jack)
Eaves
Verge
Jack rafter

Wall plate

Crown rafter
Gable end
Hipped end Eaves

Hip rafter

▲ Figure 7.22 Traditional cut roof

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 Chapter 7 Building technology principles

▲ Figure 7.25 Nail plate ▲ Figure 7.27 Roof window

Loft space
The loft space created in a domestic pitched roof can be
utilised as living areas, such as bedrooms, bathrooms
and home offices. These are either designed into the
building when it is initially constructed or completed
retrospectively at a later stage. Constructing a loft
conversion in a cut roof is generally a simple process,
because the arrangement of the rafters and supporting
roof members leaves open spaces for the additional
rooms, which will require additional steelwork to
support a subfloor. However, converting a trussed roof
is much more difficult, because the supporting braces
have to be removed and the smaller sections of timber ▲ Figure 7.28 Balcony window
trusses result in a loss of structural integrity.
Where a loft has been designed for a living space, it may Research
be restricted in headroom in some areas because of the
triangular shape of the roof. To overcome this issue and to Research the planning permission and building
create a source of natural light and ventilation in the loft, regulations needed for a loft conversion in a
the roof may be extended to the back to create dormers. domestic property.
When it is not possible to use dormer windows because
of planning restrictions or a tight budget, natural light Flat roofs
and extra headroom can be created with standard roof When a cheaper form of roof construction is needed or
windows, known as skylights, or balcony windows. has been designed for all types of structures, the pitch
of a roof can be lowered to less than 10 degrees to form
a flat roof.
Flat roofs are constructed with a slight fall (pitch or
angle) to allow water to run towards the guttering
on one side of the roof and the drainage system at
ground level. If a flat roof does not have the correct
fall, it leads to rainwater sitting on the roof (referred
to as ‘ponding’) for long periods of time which could
promote weed and moss growth.
Due to the low angle of a flat roof, some roof coverings,
for example slates and tiles, are unsuitable because
driving wind will cause them to lift and rainwater
▲ Figure 7.26 Dormer could be blown underneath.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

A range of products and materials can be used to

Protective flat roof covering provide a waterproof covering to protect different-
shaped roofs from the elements. For pitched roofs,
these include:
 clay and concrete tiles
Guttering
 natural and synthetic slates
Insulation
Decking  metal, for example lead, zinc and copper
 fibreglass
Flat roof
joist  glass
Fascia  asphalt shingles
 timber shingles
Bargeboard
 thatch
 solar tiles.

▲ Figure 7.29 Typical section through a flat roof

For flat roofs, the following might be considered:
 metal, for example lead, zinc and copper
Figure 7.30 shows a range of basic roof shapes used in  fibreglass
the construction of domestic houses.  glass
 rubber
 green roofs.
Warm and cold roofs
To maintain the energy efficiency of a building and
prevent heat loss, all types of roof must be highly
insulated to conform to building regulations. The
Flat roof Lean-to roof Mono-pitch roof location of insulation in a roof is important, because
it determines the dew point. This is the place where
warm moist air rising in a building meets cold air from
outside to create condensation.
Pitched and flat roofs insulated between ceiling joists/
rafters are referred to as cold roofs. They must be
Gable-end roof Hipped-end roof Mansard roof adequately ventilated along the eaves on both sides of
the roof or the ridge where the insulation is between
the rafters, to allow moisture to escape. If the moisture
does not escape, the dew point may be within the
structure of the roof. This is known as interstitial
condensation of the roof and can cause rot in the
Valley roof Butterfly roof Curved roof timber rafters and joists.
▲ Figure 7.30 Roof shapes The thickness of insulation required in a cold roof is
usually determined by the type of insulation; however,
Protecting roofs where it is positioned between the joists/rafters, a gap
The timber framework for a pitched domestic roof is of at least 50 mm has to be maintained to provide
usually protected with a layer of breathable membrane adequate ventilation.
to prevent water entering the building; it also allows
any moist air to be ventilated from the loft space. If Key term
moist air does become trapped, it will increase the
moisture content in the roof timbers above the 20% Eaves: the part of a roof that overhangs the internal
threshold, leaving it susceptible to an attack of dry rot skin of the external walls
and possible collapse of the structure.

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 Chapter 7 Building technology principles

Alternatively, a warm roof can be used. This is where Cavity masonry walls
reflective foil rigid insulation is placed over the top A cavity masonry wall actually consists of two walls
of the rafters or flat-roof joists with an external grade (referred to as leaves or skins) constructed with a space
decking fixed either below or on top, depending on the between them, known as a cavity. The external skin
specification. Warm roofs do not need to be ventilated of a cavity wall is usually built with attractive clay
because the dew point occurs outside the building, and facing bricks bonded with 10 mm mortar joints. The
although they are initially more expensive to construct, internal walls are constructed with cheaper concrete
they are more energy efficient compared to cold roofs. blocks, because they are often covered with plaster or
plasterboard on one face, to provide a smooth surface
Key term on the inside of the building.

Decking: timber boards or sheet materials such as

Key term
chipboard or plywood used to cover structural joists
Bonded: the arrangement of staggered joints

Test yourself The internal and external skins of a cavity wall are
connected with metal wall ties, built across the cavity
Explain the difference between a traditional cut roof
into the mortar joints as the walls are constructed.
and a trussed roof.
Wall ties improve the load-bearing capacity of the
walls by preventing the skins from moving apart and
External walls (load-bearing) possibly collapsing under the weight from the load
above.
Solid walls
During the 1990s, building regulations changed,
Internal and external walls are classified as either
making it compulsory to include insulation in all
load-bearing or non-load-bearing, depending on the
cavity walls to reduce heat loss and improve the
method of construction and materials used. Traditional
energy efficiency of buildings. There are several
load-bearing external walls were often made of natural
types of insulation that can be used in a cavity wall;
resources, such as stone and cob, because these materials
some partially fill the cavity and leave a compulsory
were readily available on the land where they were being
minimum 50 mm void to comply with building
used. Although the thermal mass of solid walls kept
regulations, while others completely fill it. Where
buildings relatively warm in the winter and cool in the
an existing cavity wall does not contain insulation,
summer, they did not achieve the same levels of energy
loose-fill can be retrofitted by blowing it into
efficiency as the methods we use now.
the cavity through holes drilled into the external
wall. Blown-in insulation uses small particles of
recycled materials such as fibreglass, mineral wool
and cellulose (made from old newspapers), which
has less of an impact on the environment than
alternative types of insulation.
If insulation can be built into the walls as they are
being constructed, full-fill fibreglass batts could be
used in the cavity. These provide low-cost insulation
with excellent sound resistance. However, over time
the fibreglass batts can settle in the cavity resulting
in cold air pockets in the wall, which could result
in heat loss. To maintain the air gap in a cavity wall
and avoid moisture bridging from the external skin
to the inner skin, rigid reflective insulation is often
preferred. As a cavity wall is built, the reflective
foil sheets are positioned in the cavity and held
▲ Figure 7.31 Solid brick wall tight against the internal wall with plastic retaining

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

clips fixed over the wall ties. Although this type of foil faces are highly effective at preventing heat loss
insulation is slightly more expensive, the reflective from a building.

▲ Figure 7.32 Cavity walls with loose fill, fibreglass batt and reflective foil insulation

Key terms Industry tip

Fibreglass batts: pieces of fibreglass insulation The internal and external skins in a cavity wall
made from sand and recycled glass; besides should be constructed at the same time to keep the
providing good heat insulation, they are also fire mortar joints (bed) correctly aligned and prevent
resistant, sound absorbent and water repellent weakening a single skin if left unsupported.
Bridging: the action of water travelling across
materials Lintels
Wherever an opening is created in a masonry wall
for a window or door, the brickwork over it has to be
Industry tip supported either with a lintel or by forming a self-
Bricklayers should avoid building cavity masonry supporting brick arch. Lintels are structural beams
walls any higher than 1.5 metres in one day to avoid manufactured from steel, concrete or reinforced
overstressing the mortar joints and making the wall brickwork. Alternatively, when a feature is required,
unstable. natural stone is often used, although this is generally
more expensive. Traditionally, heavy timber beams
were also used for lintels but these are not as durable
Industry tip as metal, stone and concrete and are therefore rarely
specified for external masonry walls on new builds
Frog bricks should be laid with the frog facing up,
unless they are protected from the weather.
so that it can be filled with mortar to improve the
strength of the wall and make it more resistant to The sectional size of a lintel and the amount of
sound transmission. bearing that it has on the masonry wall either side of
an opening will determine its load-bearing capacity.
Frog Lintel sizes are usually calculated and specified by
Stretcher Arris the project designer. However, where they span
face
distances up to 1.2 metres, they must have at least
Header 100 mm bearing on the wall each side of the opening
face
and 150 mm where the opening is greater than
1.2 metres.

▲ Figure 7.33 Parts of a brick

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 Chapter 7 Building technology principles

Closing-off
Health and safety
Building regulations state that all cavity edges in
Lintels can be extremely heavy, therefore mechanical external masonry cavity walls must be closed off
lifting equipment should always be used whenever where they are exposed, for example around window
possible to prevent manual handling injuries. and door openings, around vents and at the top of
the wall. Closing the cavity at these points improves
the energy efficiency of the building by reducing heat
loss. It also prevents smoke, dangerous gases and
flames travelling up the cavity like a chimney in the
event of a fire.
There are several methods that can be used to close off
Weep hole
a cavity:
 Cavity closers can be built into the brickwork
around window and door openings. They are
available in a range of sizes to suit the width of
standard cavity openings.
 The blockwork on the internal skin of the cavity
wall can be returned, to reduce the width of
the cavity. A gap of at least 50 mm must still be
▲ Figure 7.34 Metal lintel
maintained between the internal and external
skins to prevent ‘cold bridging’. This joint is then
filled with an insulated vertical damp-proof course
(DPC), to stop water ingress around the opening in
the wall and improve its thermal efficiency.
 Cavity barriers, also known as cavity stop socks,
are often used to seal the cavity along the top of the
wall to provide fire resistance.
Note: building regulations will determine the exact
requirements for cavity closers and cavity barriers in a
cavity wall.

▲ Figure 7.35 Natural stone lintel

Weep holes
Moisture can sometimes penetrate porous brickwork
or build up in a cavity wall. To prevent this happening,
weep holes are built into the external skin above
window and door openings and towards the bottom
of the walls, just above ground level. Weep holes are
plastic vents, positioned in the vertical mortar joints
(known as perps, short for perpendicular) in the
external skin of a wall. They allow any build-up of
▲ Figure 7.36 Vertical DPC in a cavity wall
water to escape the cavity to prevent water ingress.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Internal walls with plasterboard, to provide additional fixing points

for heavy items, such as kitchen units, radiators or
Concrete block
electrical.
An internal wall used to divide a space is known as a
partition. These can either be load-bearing or non-load- Puncheon
Head plate
bearing, depending on their method of construction.
Noggins
Solid concrete blocks are often used to build load-bearing
internal walls, because they are cheaper and quicker
to build than bricks and also provide excellent sound
insulation and fire resistance. The exposed faces of a Head
concrete block wall are traditionally covered with cement
render as a base coat and finished with gypsum plaster Studs
to provide a flat, smooth surface ready for decoration.
One disadvantage of this method is the time it takes
for the cement render to set, therefore faster-drying
backing plasters are now preferred to reduce drying
times. Alternatively, the masonry of solid internal walls Sole plate
can be covered with sheets of plasterboard bonded to
▲ Figure 7.37 Non-load-bearing stud partition wall
the wall with drywall adhesive, in a process known as
dot and dab. The long edges on the plasterboard sheets
The arrangement of timbers in load-bearing partition
used for this process are slightly tapered. This allows
walls is similar to non-load-bearing walls. However,
for the joints between the boards to be covered with
the timbers used must be stress-graded. Two head
jointing tape and made flush with drywall joint filler.
plates must be fixed in these types of walls to spread
the weight of any imposed loads and there must be
Key term additional structural timbers (lintels) around any
Drywall: another name for plasterboard
openings for doors. Further timber studs should also be
used where there are specific heavy loads, for example
directly above load-bearing walls.
Test yourself
Key term
Explain the purpose of cavity walls compared to
solid walls. Stress-graded: timber that has been visually or
machine-assessed for its strength and stiffness, and
certified according to its structural classification to
Timber partition walls British Standard rules
Non-load-bearing timber partition walls are more
commonly known as stud partitions, because they
consist of vertical members known as studs. Studs Research
are usually spaced equally with 400 to 600 mm
between the centres of the uprights to suit the size of Research the methods for stress grading timber and
plasterboard wall covering and to provide support for the grading system used for each class.
fixing abutting edges, with extra studs being used to Identify which stress-graded timber classifications
form corners and junctions. are most commonly used and explain why you think
this is the case.
Each stud in a partition is fixed into a head plate at the
top of the wall and along the floor into a sole plate,
with two wire nails in each butt joint. The studs are
Industry tip
strengthened further with short noggins fixed between
them, in positions determined by the height of the Masonry walls should not be supported by timber
wall or where the wall is most vulnerable, for example floors or partition walls, because any movement in
waist height in a school or hospital. Further noggins the timber will crack the masonry.
may also be built into a partition before it is covered

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 Chapter 7 Building technology principles

Metal stud partition walls Floors

Metal stud partitions are an alternative solution for Floors are designed to provide a level surface for the
non-load-bearing walls. They are often used to divide occupants to live and work, while preventing moisture
spaces in domestic and commercial buildings. rising from the ground and weed growth. Modern
The low-cost, lightweight metal sections of this system floors are also designed and constructed to:
are easy to cut and quick to install. In positions where  prevent heat loss
additional support is needed, such as doorways or  prevent the transfer of sound from one level to another
hatches, the hollow sections of the metal studs are  slow the spread of flames in the event of a fire.
filled with timber to strengthen the wall. The timber In domestic buildings, the methods used to construct
inserts also provide strong fixing points for any door or ground floors are often different to those used for upper
hatch linings that may be fitted after the wall has been floors, mainly due to the increased risk of moisture
constructed. affecting materials in floors closest to ground level.
Each metal stud section is designed and manufactured There are two types of floor construction:
with elongated holes in it. These are used to route  solid floors
services through the walls and prevent the need for  suspended floors.
tradespeople to create holes and notches in the metal
studs themselves, as they would have to in timber. Solid floors
Solid floors are used at ground level. They are
constructed using different layers to make a solid
concrete base:
 The first layer is compacted hardcore; this consists of
materials that are chemically inert and not affected
by water. Clean, broken bricks and aggregates or
similar unbound materials can be used as hardcore,
because they easily drain water and are not affected
by the chemicals in other materials in the floor.

Key terms
Chemically inert: will not react with chemicals
Unbound: not bonded together with cement
▲ Figure 7.38 Metal stud partition wall

 A thin layer of sand blinding is used for the

Health and safety next layer, to protect the polythene damp-proof
membrane (DPM). The DPM is a protective barrier
You should always wear gloves when handling metal
to prevent moisture penetrating the floor, which
stud-wall components to protect your hands from
the razor-sharp edges. could lead to rising damp in other areas of the
building such as the walls.
 Concrete is poured over the DPM to form the floor
slab. Also referred to as oversite concrete, this layer
Improve your English provides most of the structural integrity in a solid
floor and should not be confused with the finished
Non-load-bearing walls are not limited to timber and
metal stud partitions. Research proprietary partition floor level.
walls and write a definition in your own words.  Sheets of rigid reflective foil insulation are laid over
the concrete slab to prevent heat loss through the
floor. If an underfloor heating system is being used
in the building, it will be fixed either in or on top of
the insulation at this level.
 The floor insulation is protected with a thin-
polythene sheet, before the final layer of cement
screed is laid.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Suspended upper floors

Test yourself
The block and beam system used for ground floors can
What type of timber should be used in load-bearing also be used for upper floors in domestic buildings.
partition walls? However, it is more expensive than suspended
timber floors and the additional weight would have
to be supported with deeper foundations, which
Research would increase construction costs. For these reasons,
suspended timber floors are often chosen by designers
Research dry and liquid screeds used in floor for use in low-rise domestic buildings.
construction and explain the benefits of each
Besides traditional solid timber beams, engineered
system.
joists have now been developed to span longer
distances unsupported and without the natural
Screed defects sometimes found in solid timber, for example
twisting, springing and large knots. These joists
Insulation
are wider and lighter than solid joists, making them
Concrete
easier to handle, and stronger joints are formed with
the chipboard floor covering. They are also designed
DPM so that services such as pipes and cables can easily
Sand blinding be laid through them, without weakening them by
drilling holes and notches.
Hardcore

▲ Figure 7.39 Solid floor

Suspended ground floors

Traditionally, ground floors were built using timber
joists suspended between load-bearing walls, with
low-height sleeper walls supporting them mid span.
Solid timber floor boards were laid across the joists
at right angles and fixed in position with nails. The
void underneath the floor was ventilated with air
bricks built into the external walls; this created
airflow around the timber floor and reduced the
▲ Figure 7.40 Suspended timber upper floor with
risk of rot. solid joists
Suspended timber floors at ground-floor level are not
commonly used in modern construction, because the
ends of the joists built into the external walls would
often suffer with decay from moisture penetration over
a period of time, unless they were supported with joist
hangers. These days, a durable system known as block
and beam is preferred. This involves using reinforced
concrete beams infilled with blocks. The floor can
be used as soon as the blocks and beams have been
positioned on the DPC on the inner skin of a cavity
wall, therefore construction work can continue without
delay. The exposed block and beam floor is completed
with insulation and screed in the same way that a solid ▲ Figure 7.41 Suspended timber upper floor with
floor would be finished. Eco-joists

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 Chapter 7 Building technology principles

▲ Figure 7.43 Pre-stressed concrete slabs

Concrete slab

Reinforcement

Steel deck

▲ Figure 7.44 Lightweight concrete floor system

▲ Figure 7.42 Suspended timber upper floor with Windows, doors and frames
I-beam joists Windows, doors and frames can allow heat to
escape a building if they are not correctly designed
Where timber suspended floors are unsuitable, for and installed, hence they are subject to planning
example in multi-storey buildings, pre-stressed permission and inspection by the building control
concrete slabs manufactured off site can be used. officer after they have been fitted.
This type of floor is quick to install with the use of a
crane. It also has fewer joints than the block and beam High-performance, energy-efficient doors, windows
system, meaning it has better fire resistance. and frames can be made from hardwood, softwood,
unplasticised polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) and
Alternatively, a floor constructed from a concrete aluminium. Although timber frames are not used as
slab reinforced with steel can be cast in-situ using often as the other examples, because they have to be
formwork (a temporary mould), which avoids the need maintained more regularly, they are sustainable and
for expensive cranes. Suspended floors can also be therefore have less of an impact on the environment
cast in-situ using a lightweight concrete floor system. compared with other materials.
Rather than formwork, this method uses a steel deck
which forms a permanent part of the floor. The type of glass used is just as important as the
frames. Double and triple glazing is mainly specified
for new construction projects, because the high-
Key term performance, low-emissivity (low-E) glass and argon
gas filled units act as insulators to reflect heat back into
Pre-stressed concrete: a type of concrete that has
been compressed during production to improve its a building to reduce energy bills.
strength; this is normally achieved by ‘tensioning’
(stretching) high-tensile steel wires in the concrete

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

and should therefore undertake this task, to ensure that no

Key terms damage occurs to services under the paving surface and
that the lowered kerb is adequately supported.
Low-emissivity (low-E) glass: a type of thermally effi­
cient glass that is covered with a microscopic coating Walls that form a boundary between two or more
on its surface to minimise the amount of infrared and properties are known as party walls. The Party Wall
ultraviolet light that can pass through it to keep a etc. Act 1996 is a framework of legislation that aims
building warm in the winter and cool in the summer
to prevent and resolve disputes over boundaries. The
Argon gas: a colourless and odourless gas with law states that you must inform your neighbour if
excellent thermal properties; often used to fill the you are intending to build on the boundary, work on
voids between the panes of double and triple an existing party wall or excavate near and below the
glazing to improve the energy efficiency of a building
level of their foundations. Further information on
party wall agreements can be found on the following
website: www.gov.uk/party-walls-building-works
Test yourself
3 Key content and required
Describe where a DPC is used in the superstructure
of a building. notifications of UK building
regulations and approved
2.3 Infrastructure
documents
Chapter 3 looks at how well-designed infrastructure, 3.1 Approved documents
including roads, sewage systems, railways and bridges, Virtually all new construction work and alterations
can contribute to the community and the success of to existing structures must comply with the Building
construction projects. Regulations 2010. These regulations are developed
by the government and approved by parliament.
2.4 External work Their purpose is to define the minimum standards of
External construction work could involve the following: design, building materials and work in the UK.
 paving To help people understand and comply with the
 boundaries building regulations, the Ministry of Housing,
 drainage Communities and Local Government publishes general
 parking. guidance on each part of the law in a range of approved
The infrastructure listed in section 2.3 is subject to documents. These documents provide practical
planning restrictions and building regulations. Many of the solutions and examples of ways to comply with the
main sewer systems in the UK were initially built in the late building regulations in some common situations, for
1800s, since when the population has grown substantially, example water efficiency in a dwelling.
meaning that some of them no longer work efficiently. Table 7.4 contains a list of the approved documents and
Besides raw sewage, surface water from paving and an outline of their key content.
driveways was directed into the main sewer system until
2008, when new regulations were introduced to prevent Test yourself
flooding and other environmental problems in populated
urban areas. The law states that planning permission Explain the purpose of approved documents.
is not needed if a new or replacement driveway at the
front of a property is made from porous materials (sub-
base materials and surface finishes) such as permeable Research
concrete, block paving or resin-bound gravel. These
regulations do not apply to other parts of a property. Work Find out about the Building Regulations 2010 by
in or around listed buildings may also need consent. visiting www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2010/2214/­
contents/made
Where a kerb lining a path is raised across a new driveway,
Explain the type of construction work that is exempt
permission will have to be granted before it can be lowered. from legislation.
The local authority is responsible for public roads and paths
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 Chapter 7 Building technology principles

▼ Table 7.4 Approved documents

Approved Heading Key content

document
A Structure This document covers the loadings on a building and the construction of
structural elements such as foundations, walls, floors, roofs and chimneys.
B Fire safety This document covers fire safety precautions in new and existing residential
buildings, flats, offices, schools and colleges.
C Site preparation and This document covers the removal or treatment of site waste materials, subsoil
resistance to contaminants drainage and resistance to contaminants. It also provides details about the
and moisture resistance to moisture of roofs, floors and walls, with damp-proofing and
ventilation solutions.
D Toxic substances This document provides health and safety guidance on the use of toxic
substances during building works, for example the prevention of harmful
fumes produced by urea-formaldehyde in cavity-wall insulation from entering
a building.
E Resistance to the passage This document covers resistance to the passage of sound in new domestic
of sound buildings, flats and schools, and buildings that have been converted. It also
provides information on particular areas of concern in structures, for example
between connecting buildings.
F Ventilation This document provides guidance on the design, installation, inspection,
testing and commissioning of ventilation systems in new dwellings and other
types of building. It also covers air quality and the provision of adequate
ventilation to prevent condensation.
G Sanitation, hot water This document sets out standards for the supply of softened wholesome water
safety and water in any area of a building for the purpose of washing, for example bathrooms,
efficiency kitchens, showers, sanitary conveniences and any sinks provided in food-
preparation areas. Its purpose is to ensure water is sanitary, safe and used
efficiently. It also explains where alternative sources of water can be supplied to
sanitary conveniences for flushing, for example grey water and rain water.
H Drainage and waste This document provides guidance on surface- and foul-water drainage above
disposal and below ground and includes information on:
• pipe sizes
• protection of pipes
• treatment and disposal of waste
• sewage infrastructure and maintenance
• refuse storage
• hygienic pipework, discharge and cesspools
• pollution prevention.
J Combustion appliances This document covers the supply of air, discharge of combustion products and
and fuel storage systems protection of buildings for oil, gas and solid-fuel appliances. It also provides
guidance on the safe installation of hearths, fireplaces, chimneys and flues.
K Protection from falling, This document includes guidance on designing and fitting staircases, ladders,
collision and impact ramps, guarding and vehicle barriers in and around all types of building, in
order to avoid falls, collisions and impacts.
Note: Approved Document N (Glazing) has now been combined with
Approved Document K.
L Conservation of fuel and This document provides guidance on the energy efficiency of different
power structures. It is updated regularly to reflect developments in building materials
and new technologies, therefore people must ensure they are using the most
up-to-date version.
Approved Document L is divided into four parts, with each providing specific
details on a particular building type: L1A new dwellings, L1B existing dwellings,
L2A new buildings other than dwellings, L2B existing buildings other than
dwellings.

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▼ Table 7.4 Approved documents

Approved Heading Key content

document
The documents cover the energy efficiency of heating, ventilation and air-
conditioning systems, insulation, boiler productivity, lighting and hot-water
storage.
Further information on Part L can be found in Chapter 3.
M Access to and use of This document looks at dwellings in three different categories:
buildings • Category 1 – Visitable dwellings
• Category 2 – Accessible and adaptable dwellings
• Category 3 – Wheelchair user dwellings.
It provides information about ease of access to, and use of, buildings, including
facilities for disabled visitors or occupants, and the ability to move through a
building easily. This includes accessible stairs, corridors and lifts.
O Overheating This document covers the overheating mitigation requirements. It includes
guidance on providing means of removing excess heat from residential
buildings (opening windows, ventilation systems, cooling systems).
This document applies to new residential buildings only.
P Electrical safety This document states that reasonable provision must be made in the
design and installation of electrical equipment to protect people operating,
maintaining or altering the installations from fire or injury.
Only competent people should complete electrical work in dwellings, or on
land where the supply comes from the same source.
This document also provides information on the range of work that is
considered notifiable under the building regulations.
Q Security – dwellings This document details the standards required for the design, installation and
fixing of doors/door sets and windows in new dwellings and flats, to resist
a physical attack by a ‘casual or opportunist burglar’. To achieve this aim,
doors and windows should be sufficiently robust and fitted with appropriate
ironmongery.
R Physical infrastructure This document provides guidance on the design and installation (physical
for high-speed electronic infrastructure) of high-speed electronic communications networks within
communications networks a new building or one that is undergoing major renovation works. Copper,
fibreoptic or wireless devices must be capable of delivering broadband
speeds of no less than 30 mbps.
Note: some buildings are exempt, for example in isolated areas where it is too
remote to connect to a high-speed network.
S Infrastructure for the This document provides guidance on the installation of electric vehicle charge
charging of electric points within buildings with associated parking (new build or undergoing
vehicles major renovation works). Electric vehicle charge points should have a
minimum nominal rated output of 7 kW and be fitted with a universal socket as
well as a visual display or indicator to show the equipment’s charging status.

Key terms Research

Loadings: the application of a mechanical load or In the event that electrical work is notifiable, who
force on a structure needs to be informed?
Door set: a combination of a door, frame and any
associated ironmongery
Ironmongery: metalwork such as locks, latches and
handles

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 Chapter 7 Building technology principles

The BSI also develops Publicly Available

4 Building standards Specifications (PAS). These are fast-tracked
The British Standards Institute (BSI) produces agreed standardisation documents produced to meet an
standards across a wide variety of industry sectors. In urgent market need.
construction, these relate to structures, materials and The International Organization for Standardization
sustainability. (ISO) is an independent, non-governmental
British Standards (BS) are used as common minimum organisation that develops and publishes international
standards for public-sector projects, covering areas standards.
such as BIM, fire safety and waste management. Their Table 7.5 outlines some of the standards used in
purpose is to provide general and specific guidance construction and renovation.
for the construction industry to improve working
practices.

Key term
Public-sector projects: projects funded by the
government

▼ Table 7.5 Standards used in construction and renovation

Building standards
BS 1192-4:2014 Collaborative production of information – Fulfilling employer’s information exchange
requirements using COBie. Code of practice
BS 7000-4:2013 Design management systems – Guide to managing design in construction
BS 7913:2013 Guide to the conservation of historic buildings
BS 8536-1:2015 Briefing for design and construction – Code of practice for facilities management (Buildings
infrastructure)
BS 8541 Library objects for architecture, engineering and construction
BS 9999:2017 Fire safety in the design, management and use of buildings. Code of practice
BS ISO 55000:2014 Asset management – Overview, principles and terminology
ISO 16739-1:2020 Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) for data sharing in the construction and facility
management industries – Data schema
ISO 14001:2015 Environmental management systems – Requirements with guidance for use
ISO 19650 Organization and digitization of information about buildings and civil engineering works,
including Building Information Modelling (BIM) — Information management using Building
Information Modelling
ISO 9001:2015 Quality management systems – Requirements
ISO 50001 Energy management systems
PAS 91:2013+A1:2017 Construction prequalification questionnaires
PAS 180:2014 Smart cities. Vocabulary
PAS 2035/2030:2019 Retrofitting dwellings for improved energy efficiency. Specification and guidance.
PAS 2038:2021 Retrofitting non-domestic buildings for improved energy efficiency. Specification
PAS 2080:2016 Carbon management in infrastructure
PAS 8811:2017 Temporary works. Major infrastructure client procedures. Code of practice
PD 7503:2003 Introduction to knowledge management in construction

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

5 Regulatory bodies and guidance on technical and legislative

aspects
Regulatory bodies for the building services engineering sector are vital sources of information, guidance and
support to maintain and improve industry standards for all stakeholders. Table 7.6 outlines the main regulatory
bodies in the construction industry and other sources of expert advice.

▼ Table 7.6 Regulatory bodies in the construction industry

Regulatory body Responsibilities in relation to the building services engineering sector

Chartered Institute of Building Services CIBSE sets standards, publishes guidance and codes of practice, and supports
Engineers (CIBSE) its members in the profession to maintain and enhance their professional
excellence. It promotes further and higher education through accredited and
approved training courses to achieve industry-recognised professional status.
Building Services Engineers Association BESA is a membership association where BSE contractors can access support,
(BESA) guidance and training for the design, installation, maintenance, commissioning,
management and control of BSE services and systems.
Gas Safe Gas Safe controls and regulates a list of registered businesses that are legally
and safely permitted to work on gas appliances.
Chartered Institute of Plumbing and CIPHE is a professional body for members of the heating and plumbing industry.
Heating Engineers (CIPHE) It aims to promote training, health and safety and support emerging new
technologies through the publication of research and development papers.
It encourages lifelong learning with CPD programmes for its members from
apprentices to master plumber certification.
Association of Plumbing and Heating APHC represents plumbing and heating contractors while working with key
Contractors (APHC) organisations, such as the government and local authorities, to promote best
practice, quality work and customer service. Its aim is to provide support for its
members to ensure that they can run professional and profitable businesses.
Institution of Engineering and The IET is a multidisciplinary engineering global institution that helps to create
Technology (IET) new technologies with innovative solutions to solve challenges faced in the
world today. Its vision is to inspire, influence and inform its members with
resources, events, CPD and training courses.
Federation of Environmental Trade FETA represents the interests of contractors, suppliers and installers working
Associations (FETA) in the heating, ventilation, air-conditioning and refrigeration industries. It takes
action to limit the production of greenhouse gases, improve energy efficiency
and reduce waste, with access to training, workshops, technical advice and
publications on codes of practice.
Heat Pump Association (HPA) HPA is the UK’s leading authority on heat pumps. It works with the country’s
leading manufacturers to raise awareness of heat pumps and provide
information on their functions, capabilities and long-term benefits. The
association also influences developments with legislation and other matters that
affect the industry.
Heat Pump Federation (HPF) The HPF’s aims are to:
• collaborate with other trade associations
• develop installation training and standards
• lobby for electrification of heating and cooling
• develop consumer protection and strong management.
Ground Source Heat Pump Association GSHPA aims to raise awareness of ground source heat pumps and promote
(GSHPA) their efficiency and sustainability. It also provides information and supports high
standards of training for contractors working in the industry.

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 Chapter 7 Building technology principles

Regulatory body Responsibilities in relation to the building services engineering sector

Microgeneration Certification Scheme MCS sets standards for renewable-energy and low-carbon-technology products
(MCS) and installers. It is responsible for the certification of products, installers and
their installations, as a mark of quality and compliance with industry standards.
Solar Trade Association (STA) STA works with industry leaders for the transition to clean solar energy in
the UK. It provides resources, information and advice for renewable-energy
businesses of all sizes. Registered members are listed on the STA website for
anyone looking for solar-energy installers.
Federation of Master Builders (FMB) FMB is the largest trade association in the construction industry in the UK. Its
aim is to champion small to medium-sized business to continuously improve
the quality of work in the industry. It can provide a number of services for
its members, including mediation if disputes occur with clients, a range of
insurances and warranties, and other types of support.
National Federation of Builders (NFB) NFB provides services, events and advice for its members on key aspects of the
construction industry, such as:
• legal
• health and safety
• contracts of employment
• policies
• environmental
• standard building contracts
• technical and training
• taxation.

Manufacturers of new products, importers of products

Test yourself and suppliers of significantly refurbished products must
provide adequate information concerning safety and
Explain the purpose of regulatory bodies.
the absence of risks to health, and other issues such as
the protection of the environment.

6 Manufacturers’ instructions Product information is usually supplied with goods in

the form of printed manufacturer’s instructions, with
Any product that has been designed and manufactured further copies available on the manufacturer’s website.
in the UK, or imported into the UK, must conform to This information will reflect the type of product, article
section 6 of the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 or substance. For example, if the product is a new
(HASAWA) – ‘General duties of manufacturers etc. as energy-efficient boiler, manuals should be provided to
regards articles and substances for use at work’. The explain how it must be installed, operated, serviced and
legislation states that: maintained to meet the minimum standards laid out in
 products must be designed and constructed to building regulations.
eliminate risks, so that they are safe while being
used, cleaned and maintained Industry tip
 where necessary, products must be calibrated,
tested, inspected and certified to meet with the QR codes linking to manufacturer’s instructions can
relevant product regulations be found on the body of some tools and equipment.
 adequate information must be provided for the safe
This avoids having to keep paper copies of the
instructions and can allow people to find specific
maintenance, operation and disposal of products
product information much more quickly.
 as far as is reasonably practicable, revisions of
information must be supplied if a serious risk to
health or safety concerning a product has been
Test yourself
discovered.
Further information on HASAWA can be found in Under what regulation do manufacturers have to
Chapter 1. provide information on their products?

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

most commonly used type of sheathing due to its

7 Building structure and fabric strength, durability and relatively low cost.
7.1 Structure  Breathable membrane is the moisture resistant
material used to protect the timber frame from
Working in building services engineering, it is water ingress, while allowing any moisture in the
important to recognise different building materials and structure of the wall to escape through it.
fabrics, their uses and implications.  A vapour barrier is a plastic sheet that is usually
Earlier in this chapter, we looked at methods used for fixed between a timber frame and plasterboard on
the structures of different types of building and some the inside face of the wall. The impermeable vapour
of the materials used, including: barrier prevents moisture passing through the wall.
 timber frame Vapour barriers may also be used on floors and
 steel frame ceilings in timber frame buildings.
 masonry
 concrete.

Timber frame
Timber used for structural purposes such as walls,
floors and roofs is referred to as carcassing. All
load-bearing carcassing timber must be tested and
stress graded to ensure it will support any imposed
loads. The most commonly used strength classes of
softwoods are C16 and C24, however TR26 is also
used to manufacture roof trusses and open web joists.
Hardwoods range in strength classifications from D18
to D70, although these are rarely used.
▲ Figure 7.45 Timber frame
Some hardwood and softwood species are naturally
stronger than others because of their grain and cell
▼ Table 7.7 Timber frame
structure. However, not all of these timbers are
sustainable or suitable for the structures of buildings Timber frame
because of the time they take to grow and their cost. Fixings Nails, screws, bolts, builders’ metalwork,
 Fast-grown commercial softwoods such as e.g. brackets, truss clips, restraint straps
redwood, fir and spruce (also known as whitewood) and joist hangers
imported from Scandinavia are mainly used for Implications Timber frame is at risk from dry rot, wet
carcassing work. These can be supplied with rough rot, insect attack and shrinkage.
sawn edges or planed straight and smooth. There may be defects in the timber, for
 Carcassing timber that is planed to uniformed example knots and splitting.
dimensions is referred to as regularised; this is Hazards Cutting and drilling create airborne dust.
often easier to work with than sawn timber.
 Most timber used for structural purposes has been
dried to a moisture content of 16–18 per cent and Steel frame
planed smooth with eased edges (removed with a Steel-framed buildings are often made from deep
small rounded edge). This type of timber originated section I beams (also referred to as H beams) and
in Canada and is commonly referred to as CLS columns bolted together and sometimes welded at
(Canadian lumber stock) or ALS (American lumber the joints to form rigid structures resistant to lateral
stock). movement.
 Scant is also a type of timber used for the structure
Most steel frames (also known as portal frames) are
of buildings. It is very similar to CLS, but the
made from structural steel beams, protected with primer
finished (planed) sizes are usually smaller.
paint. Where the frame may be exposed to the weather,
 Sheathing is the timber-based sheet material used to
further coats of specialist paint have to be applied, such
cover one face of a timber frame to provide strength
as epoxy or fire-resistant paint. Alternatively, the frame
to the structure. Oriented strand board (OSB) is the
could be galvanised or made from aluminium.
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 Chapter 7 Building technology principles

▼ Table 7.8 Steel frame

Key terms
Steel frame
Fixings Welded joints, bolts, brackets, plates Porosity: the measure of a substance’s ability to
Implications Steel frame is difficult to cut, drill and hold water or allow water to pass through it
secure fixings to. Pulverised fuel ash: a fine powder by-product
It is also heavy and prone to corrosion. produced in power stations from the burning of coal
to produce electricity
Hazards Grinding, welding and drilling activities
may result in fire, fumes, projectile debris,
hot metal and razor-sharp edges.
Cutting and welding expose workers to a 7.2 Fabric
very bright light source.
Timber
Masonry and in-situ and pre-cast concrete Natural timber and manufactured timber products
are commonly used in the fabric of buildings for
Masonry is a term used to describe bricks, blocks and
stairs, windows, doors, kitchens, frames, skirtings
stone bonded together with cement or lime mortar.
and architraves. Carpenters and joiners are usually
Bricks made to construct walls for dwellings are often
responsible for cutting and fixing timber products.
manufactured from clay, concrete or calcium silicate
(sand lime). The colour, texture, strength and porosity ▼ Table 7.10 Timber
of bricks can vary, depending on the choice of materials
used and how they are manufactured. Timber

Concrete is made from a mixture of Portland cement, Fixings Nails, screws, bolts, brackets, adhesive
fine aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate (gravel) and Implications Timber is at risk from dry rot, wet rot,
water. British Standard BS 8500 specifies the ratios insect attack, splitting, shrinkage and
and size of the aggregates for concrete designed expansion.
for different uses, for example foundations, paving, Hazards Cutting and drilling creates airborne dust.
reinforced concrete and general purpose.
There are two types of concrete block: Cladding
 Aggregate blocks are manufactured from cement, Cladding is the term used to describe panelling that
water and natural or man-made aggregates. covers or protects surfaces. It can be made of various
 Aircrete blocks are made from cement, lime, sand, materials.
pulverised fuel ash, aluminium powder and water.
External wall cladding (also referred to as
Both types of concrete block are made in a range of weatherboarding) is usually supplied in narrow
different densities and compressive strengths, designed widths and long lengths shaped to overlap each
to provide good thermal, acoustic and fire-resistant board or interlock with tongue and groove (T&G)
properties. In general, aggregate blocks are stronger joints to conceal any movement in the materials and
and aircrete blocks are lighter and easier to handle to protect the building from the elements. Timber
with better thermal-insulation properties. cladding can be used externally, but it must be treated
▼ Table 7.9 Masonry and concrete with preservative, chemically modified (for example
Accoya wood) or naturally resistant to water (such
Masonry and concrete as cedar).
Fixings Masonry screws/bolts, screws and plugs,
Composite cladding is a durable alternative to timber.
chemical fixings, masonry nails, cartridge
fixings It is manufactured from recycled plastic and wood in
a range of solid colours designed with woodgrain or
Implications Drilling large holes with core drills can be
slow, therefore hole positions should be smooth finishes. Composite cladding can be cut and
planned for in advance. fixed just like timber, but it does not need to be painted
Retrospectively drilling into concrete that is or stained and will not rot.
reinforced with steel can cause difficulties.
Hazards Cutting and drilling create silica dust and
projectile debris.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Fibre cement planks are also used for external wall ▼ Table 7.12 Granite, glass, marble, stone and
cladding. These are manufactured from sand, cement, concrete
cellulose, synthetic fibres and water and designed with
Granite, glass, marble, stone and concrete
a woodgrain or smooth finish. Fibre cement cladding is
extremely durable and does not need to be maintained Fixings Adhesive, mortar, grout
like other products. Implications Some masonry surfaces are difficult to drill
and fix into.
Ceramic and porcelain tiles have been used in kitchens,
Hazards Silica dust can be created when cutting,
bathrooms and shower rooms for many years. However, drilling or grinding.
PVC and acrylic resin wall panels are now being used
as well, because they are easy to install and they do not
Brick
have the issues associated with grouted joints.
Bricks are often used to build the outer skin of
external walls because they are strong, durable and
Research attractive. Common bricks, also referred to as facing
bricks, are made from fired clay and are available in
Research Accoya wood. Write a brief description to
a variety of colours and textures to suit the building
explain it properties, uses and benefits.
or structure design. Old clay bricks varied in size
and shape; however the standard size of a common
brick is now 215 mm long, 102.5 mm wide and 65
mm high.
Bricks are bonded together with 10 mm thick mortar
joints and laid so that the vertical joints are staggered,
to increase the strength of the wall. The arrangement
of the bricks is referred to as the bond. The most
common types of brick bonds used in the UK are

▲ Figure 7.46 Composite cladding

▲ Figure 7.47a English bond (left) and Stretcher bond

▼ Table 7.11 Cladding
(right)
Cladding
Fixings Screws, nails, brackets, adhesive
Implications Bare timber may have to be painted or
treated if it has been cut or drilled.
Composite and timber cladding will
expand and contract in different
temperatures.
Hazards Cutting and fixing create airborne dust.
▲ Figure 7.47b Flemish bond (left) and Header bond
Granite, glass, marble, stone and concrete (right)
Granite, glass, marble, stone and concrete are used to
provide attractive, durable and hardwearing wall, floor
and work surfaces in buildings.

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 Chapter 7 Building technology principles

▼ Table 7.13 Brick Plasterboard

Brick The studwork frames of timber and metal stud
partitions are usually clad with plasterboard fixed with
Fixings Screws and plugs, masonry screws, resin
fixings, frame and hammer fixings drywall screws, before being plastered or taped and
filled along the joints.
Implications Fixings should be positioned in the centre
of bricks or mortar joints to provide the Where the studs are spaced less than 450 mm apart,
best fixing points. 9.5 mm plasterboard can be used, otherwise 12.5 mm
If a fixing is positioned on the edge of a plasterboard is required.
soft brick it may cause the brick to crack.
There are various types of plasterboard that can be
If the mortar bond between the bricks is used to clad a partition wall, each with different
not good, it may weaken the fixing; for
characteristics. The exact type to be used will be
example, the joints between the bricks are
not completely filled with mortar, therefore specified by the designers, however it could include
creating a void and weakness in the wall. one or more of the following:
Hazards Silica dust can be created when cutting,  standard plasterboard (ivory)
drilling or grinding.  fire-rated (pink paper)
 thermal (white)
Fenestration  moisture-resistant (green paper)
 acoustic (blue)
Fenestration is a term used to describe the design and
 fixable (enhanced properties to support increased
arrangement of windows in a building. Window types
fixing weight)
were covered earlier in this chapter.
 impact resistant (ivory).
▼ Table 7.14 Fenestration
▼ Table 7.15 Plasterboard
Fenestration
Plasterboard
Fixings Masonry screws, frame anchors, brackets,
frame fixings, expanding foam Fixings Drywall screws

Implications If windows are not designed or installed Plasterboard fixings, for example:
properly, they could cause air leakage • spring toggles
and condensation and reduce the energy • plasterboard plugs
efficiency of the building. • self-drilling plasterboard fixings

Hazards Drilling into different surfaces to secure Implications It can be difficult to fix heavy items to
the frames could create airborne dust. partition plasterboard walls unless they are
fixed directly into the studs or noggins.
The work is often undertaken at height.
Standard plasterboard is unsuitable
for rooms with high humidity such as
Industry tip bathrooms.
Hazards Cutting and drilling create airborne dust.
Always try to conceal the fixings used to secure
doors and windows by either hiding them in the
rebates or using fixing brackets. Industry tip
Plasterboard must be stored flat and in a dry
Key term location. If it gets damp and distorted, it will be
difficult to cut neatly during installation.
Rebate: a profile often used in timber products such
as doors and windows

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Case study
Mia is a self-employed gas engineer and is registered  Explain the potential issues that could be caused
Gas Safe. She has been asked to install a new energy- for the occupants of the dwelling as a result of Mia
efficient boiler in a three-bedroom semi-detached drilling a hole for a flue in an external wall.
dwelling for a domestic customer. A hole needs to be  Explain the processes and procedures that should
bored in the fabric and structure of the building in an be followed to complete the task.
external wall for a new boiler flue.  List the approved documents and guidance that
Mia should refer to before installing the new boiler.

Assessment practice

Short answer Long answer

1 Which approved document provides advice and 6 Explain the purpose and benefits of off-site
guidance on fire safety? construction.
2 Which regulatory body must gas engineers be 7 Explain the difference between first fix and
registered members of? second fix.
3 What type of foundation is often used to support 8 List the benefits of using autonomous vehicles on
metal portal frame structures? construction sites.
4 What is the minimum gap permitted by building 9 List the materials used to construct a solid floor
regulations between the skins in a cavity wall? and explain the purpose of each component.
5 Name one type of fixing that can be used in a 10 Describe the implications of not following
masonry wall. manufacturer’s instructions.

Project practice
Your employer has asked you to design a free-standing  Design a garden room to meet the customer’s
modern garden room for one of his customers. requirements using computer-aided design (CAD)
software such as SketchUp.
The building should be made from as many sustainable
 Explain the type of foundations you would
materials as possible, with a single pitched roof and
recommend and why.
composite cladding. It can be constructed under
 Calculate the total cost of materials needed for
permitted development rights and therefore does not
the project and present them in a suitable digital
need planning permission.
spreadsheet.

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 Chapter 8 Information and data
principles

Introduction
This chapter explores the meaning of the term ‘data’ and how
data is used in planning, costing, constructing and operating
a building. We will discuss how data can be processed and
organised into useful and valuable information using a range of
methods.
In the construction industry, expert analysis and evaluation of
data can allow informed decisions to be made when bringing
a project to a successful completion. Projections can be made
about efficient operation of a building throughout its life cycle.
Being able to interpret information gained from data sources is
a valuable skill for those employed in the modern construction
workplace.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will understand:
1 data
2 sources of information
3 data management and confidentiality
4 drawings, circuit diagrams and schematics
5 programming and set up of digital systems using IT
resources.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

example to inform an architect regarding multiple

1 Data intricate design elements of a building.
Humans have been gathering and processing data for When a set of data is used to describe or analyse other
thousands of years to refine their understanding of data, this is referred to as metadata.
the universe. In modern times, working with data has
developed into a science that follows defined methods Key terms
to perform specific tasks.
Data interoperability: the ability of data systems to
Data and information are closely linked. Data is a exchange and use information
collection of facts, such as numbers, measurements,
Metadata: a set of data that describes or analyses
words or descriptions, that can be analysed and
other data
processed so that meaningful information is created.

Research
Test yourself
Watch an introductory explanation of what data
How must data be processed to make it usable?
science can be used for (for example, search for
‘Intro to data science’ on YouTube).
The level of detail in a set of data (or dataset) must
be regulated or even limited, so that it can clearly
1.1 Key elements of data inform users according to the required purpose of the
Every day, vast quantities of data are generated, often information.
referred to as ‘big data’. However, simply collecting Different data types that can be analysed include:
masses of data is not the key to creating useful  numerical – consisting of numbers, such as
information. Data must be correctly stored, ‘cleaned’ to dimensions and measurements
remove inaccurate or imprecise records, and identified  categorical – consisting of options, such as ‘type A,
to assign it for use. B or C’ or ‘up, down, left, right’
 ordinal – consisting of steps or sequencing
(ordering) of information.
To allow the extraction of useful information from large
datasets, a process known as generalisation can be
used. This is essentially a process of ‘pulling back’ from
the mass of raw data to give a broader, more general
view and reduce the extent of analysis required. This
makes information extraction more manageable.
For example, rather than stating the floor area of
dozens of individual rooms in a large multi-storey
building, the data could be arranged in bands to
categorise room volumes, such as 7–10 m³, 11–15 m³
▲ Figure 8.1 Vast quantities of data are generated and so on. This reduces the volume of data while still
every day providing useful information, to allow analysis of
requirements such as heating and ventilation systems
Managing data in this way can involve many complex or optimal occupancy levels in the completed building.
data-processing systems working together, requiring
them to be operationally compatible. This is known as Key term
data interoperability.
Generalisation: (in data processing) creating layers
Complex processing of data can involve one system
of summarised information from mass data
describing or analysing data in another system, for

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 Chapter 8 Information and data principles

1.2 Different sources of data

Data is generated from many different sources during
the life cycle of a building.

Data generated during design and

construction
When a building design is conceived, decisions must
be made about the shape and size of the structure.
Therefore, early in the design process, measurements
and dimensions must be established to ensure the
design will fulfil its purpose and the completed
building will function well for its occupants.
▲ Figure 8.2 Data is generated right from the
Quantities of data multiply rapidly as floor areas and beginning of the design process
volumes of rooms in the structure are calculated,
energy requirements are assessed, and thermal Building services systems require extensive data
performance of the structure is analysed. Calculations calculations to establish dynamic elements, such as:
will be made to establish structural strength and the  air flow for ventilation systems
forces generated by loadings, to make sure the building  gas supply rates for heating systems
will be structurally sound.  water flow rates and pressure levels for plumbing
systems
Improve your English  voltage and current ratings for electrical systems.

Using data to calculate loadings is the job of a

structural engineer. Research and write a short
report on the role of a structural engineer working
on a construction project.

This means that as soon as the design process

begins, data is being generated which can be used
by other members of the construction team, such as
quantity surveyors preparing costings, contractors
and subcontractors preparing tenders, and systems
designers planning building services requirements.

Industry tip ▲ Figure 8.3 Data is used to calculate dynamic

elements in building services systems
While a large project is costed by professionals
using large volumes of complex data, successfully Key term
costing even a simple project involving a small
number of workers will rely on careful use of reliable Dynamic: characterised by frequent change or
data sources, such as up-to-date lists of material motion
prices.

Test yourself
What kinds of data can be generated during the
design stage of a building project?

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

As the construction process proceeds on site, data Useful data can be generated by analysing vehicle
regarding productivity and meeting deadlines is and pedestrian movements, metering services
constantly scrutinised to manage efficient interactive provision and examining telecommunications activity.
working between site personnel. Information harvested from careful analysis can point
to emerging trends and help in planning the future
Data generated and recorded during a project is
infrastructure needs of society.
valuable. Information about factors such as speed of
operations and the effects of delays caused through
bad weather or supply issues can be used in designing
and building future projects more efficiently and
economically.
A system that is increasingly helpful in managing
large volumes of data through the complete life cycle
of a building is Building Information Modelling (BIM),
which integrates many data sources in a digital format.
The system allows authorised users to access a range of
important information during the design, construction,
occupation and even demolition of a structure. There is
more information on BIM later in this chapter, and in
Chapter 4, section 8.
▲ Figure 8.4 Analysis of infrastructure data can help
in planning for the future
Test yourself
During which phases of a building’s life cycle can Data generated on completion and
BIM be used? handover of a building
When a building is handed over from the contractor to
the client for occupation and brought into use, a great
Industry tip deal can be learned from the analysis of data generated
by a number of considerations:
BIM is used mainly for large-scale complex  How successful was the delivery of the project by
projects. However, the BIM principle of having a the contractor?
central source of accessible and accurate data and  Was the project delivered and handed over on time?
information can be applied to good effect even
If not, why not?
during a project with just a few workers.
 Does the building meet its design brief fully now it
is in use?
Structures within the built environment must have  What changes could be made to improve
provisions for access by pedestrians and vehicles, performance?
along with reliable connections to services and Gathering data to answer questions such as these is
telecommunications. These requirements mean that referred to as post-occupancy evaluation (POE). It may
extensive transport systems and services delivery be undertaken by an independent consultant or by the
infrastructure must be designed, constructed and client’s own team and can provide valuable data to
maintained. contractors who build repeat structures or specialise in
specific project types.

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 Chapter 8 Information and data principles

POE is an increasingly important tool in analysing data

to support the construction industry in meeting more Key terms
stringent environmental targets, and more rigorous
Parameters: limits which define the conditions of
regulation connected with energy use. The design
operation for a system or process
of systems delivering utilities such as electricity, gas
and water, along with waste-disposal systems, can be Software: a sequence of digital instructions
designed to operate a computer and perform
refined and improved by analysis of performance data
specific tasks
and metering of usage in completed buildings.
In most buildings, there are systems that automatically
control various functions, such as heating thermostats Research
or alarm motion sensors. In large structures,
sophisticated computer-based building management Find out the key difference between enterprise
systems can be installed to automatically control and asset management (EAM) and a computerised
monitor aspects such as general energy consumption maintenance management system (CMMS).
and distribution, lighting levels, and water
management and consumption rates. There is more
about digital control systems later in this chapter. Data generated during maintenance
EAM can be used to collect data about efficiency,
reliability and repair costs, allowing planning and
work scheduling for maintenance. As inspections take
place, data can be logged in real time, and work orders
can be sent to personnel already on site to prioritise
maintenance or repair tasks.

▲ Figure 8.5 Computer-based systems monitor and

control a range of functions

Data generated by these systems can be used by estates

and buildings managers to understand how buildings
are operating, adjust and control systems to optimise
their performance, and create reports or set alarms ▲ Figure 8.6 EAM can create ‘intelligent data’ to
to give an alert when operational parameters are manage the maintenance of a building
exceeded.
In the case of large estate facilities, such as a hospital The real-time capture of data using systems like EAM
complex or university campus, specialised computer can be linked with BIM systems to create so-called
software referred to as enterprise asset management ‘intelligent data’ that can lead to improved efficiency
(EAM) can be employed to manage the flow of data. throughout a building’s life cycle. Benefits of this type
This can inform accounting and purchasing decisions of interoperability include:
to sustain economic day-to-day operations and support  performance projections for long-term planning
planning for efficient use of individual buildings within  reliability of building services
the estate.  operational cost monitoring.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Data generated, processed and stored using 1.3 How data can be used
information and communications technology (ICT)
that is managed using equipment in multiple locations Table 8.1 identifies how data can be used to complete
allows information-rich activities to be conducted in a construction projects successfully.
collaborative way. Data is a key part of the construction
process from design to demolition, used by both Key term
personnel in construction company offices and workers
on construction sites. Procurement: the process of agreeing business terms
and acquiring goods, products and services from
suppliers
Test yourself
What are the benefits of using ‘intelligent data’?

▼ Table 8.1 How data can be used in construction projects

Data use Applications

Understanding behaviour Data can be used to analyse and understand the behaviour of personnel working on a
project.
Efficient deployment of skilled workers and the creation of workforce motivation to
achieve operational efficiency are valuable management skills. Data regarding personnel
numbers on site can be referenced to output over time to establish optimum levels of
staffing, enabling managers to support efficiency in office environments and on site.
In terms of data use, the reference to ‘behaviour’ could be extended to factors that might
impact on project success, such as the behaviour of certain materials and equipment in
variable conditions. With the emergence of new materials and the progressive adoption
of new construction methods, data about how these materials and methods function is
of real value.
Performance assessment Key performance indicators (KPIs) can be linked to appropriate data to measure
performance in areas such as:
• monitoring project costs
• tracking project progress over time
• identifying company strengths and weaknesses
• confirming client satisfaction.
Uses for performance data include:
• tracking profitability by comparing cost with budget
• highlighting trends in complaints from clients
• evaluating quantities of waste with a view to improving recycling.
Improving market When companies bid for contracts, they need to be well informed about workforce
competitiveness availability, materials and components procurement, current regulatory requirements and
fluctuating economic conditions. Accurate and current data is critical in providing reliable
information, so that a company can improve and maintain its success in competition with
other contractors.
Fully understanding the area of construction activity that a company works in through
efficient data analysis is key to making decisions on future company development.
Decisions can be made regarding investment in training and equipment needs.
Assessment of which types of construction project match the capabilities and experience of
a company will help to maintain financial profitability and a reputation for high-quality work.
Allocation of resources A company may work on a number of projects simultaneously. This means that assets and
resources will need to be actively managed to make best use of them across the range of
work being progressed.
Data on factors such as personnel placement, work activities, plant and equipment usage,
and temporary accommodation on site allows analysis of resource needs and efficient
allocation across the range of project commitments.

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 Chapter 8 Information and data principles

Case study Improve your English

After analysing footfall data in a town-centre Make a list of the ways that data is transferred using
pedestrianised area, the local authority decided that digital networks. Write a short description of each
improvements were required to footpaths, landscaped way that you identify. An example you could start
areas and lighting. The works involved the installation with is streaming films over the internet.
of gravel and paved paths, granite kerbs, stone steps,
play and sports equipment and street furniture.
During a site survey as part of project planning, Test yourself
some challenges were identified, including:
 a lack of site access, restricting movement of How can data be used to improve a company’s
materials to the work location from delivery points market competitiveness?
 a lack of onsite storage.
Management discussions took place and research
was undertaken into available options. Based on 2 Sources of information
data made available by local employment agencies
and advice from local plant hire companies, the So far in this chapter we have considered how data
decision was made to: is the raw material that can be processed to provide
 temporarily increase the workforce information. The resulting information can then be
 hire materials conveyers to move materials from presented in various ways and used by construction
the restricted delivery bays.
personnel in a range of activities.
Would you agree that these are effective strategies?
In this section, we will consider different sources of
If you agree, state why. information and how they can be interpreted for use in
If you disagree, state your alternative proposals. the workplace.

2.1 Interpreting data sources

Digital data networks that transfer information
Specific data sources may provide information for
efficiently between users have become integral to our
workers with designated responsibilities.
increasingly technology-based communities and now
have an important role in the successful completion of For example, electricians working on the installation
construction projects. of electrical services would not require information
about the brick types used in the building to complete
their work successfully. However, they would require
information about which size and type of cables to use
to satisfy voltage ratings, or about switching units or
electrical junctions that must be situated in specific
locations.
We can identify specific sources of information and
which personnel groups or individuals could use
them.

Product data
Product data provides information or instructions
about how to use or install a product correctly. For
▲ Figure 8.7 Efficient digital data networks have an
important role in everyday life as well as construction example, a manufacturer has to supply information
about how to handle and store a product safely in
accordance with health and safety regulations, such
as the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health
(COSHH) Regulations 2002. There is more on these
regulations in Chapter 1.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

materials they are working with are in accordance with

specifications for the work task.

Test yourself
What key information can be provided by a
manufacturer’s specification?

Client specification
In the Royal Institute of British Architects’ (RIBA) plan
of work 2020, the client specification has been defined
in part as ‘a statement or document that defines the
project outcomes and sets out what the client is trying
to achieve’.
The client’s needs will obviously depend on the type
and use of the required structure, for example:
 A client requiring construction of a dwelling may
specify the floor areas needed to satisfy the living
▲ Figure 8.8 COSHH symbols that could appear on a
requirements of the intended number of occupants.
product label
 A client who has commissioned the construction of
The correct and safe installation or use of a product an office block may specify the levels of light within
could be made clear by using illustrations, diagrams, the building to allow comfortable work in office
performance charts, or clear written instructions. spaces.
 The specification for a retail development
may centre on the project being attractive and
Health and safety convenient for customers to use.
Many materials and substances used on site have Information in the client specification must be
the potential to cause harm or injury. Always check interpreted carefully in order to produce a design
for product data labels and examine them carefully. brief that meets the objectives as fully as possible.
Professional personnel such as architects, quantity
Product data is closely tied to manufacturers’ surveyors and engineers will give careful attention to
specifications. These provide very specific information the client specification when performing their work.
on performance data, such as the temperature range
Building Information Modelling (BIM)
within which installation work must take place or the
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, BIM is a
type of surrounding environment in which the product
structured system that allows authorised users to
will operate successfully.
access a range of important information at all stages
Manufacturers’ specifications may include key data and of construction and beyond. It uses digitally processed
information on how a product should be assembled, information to analyse design elements of a building,
dismantled, calibrated, adjusted, maintained, repaired, including 3D modelling.
examined or inspected.
Using BIM, complex design ideas can be transformed
Product data can be used by building designers into a medium that is easier for all personnel to work
working in an office environment or by onsite with. It allows collaboration between all the designers,
personnel installing a range of systems. Trade engineers and contractors working on a project,
workers might use product data to confirm that the providing comprehensive information about each

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 Chapter 8 Information and data principles

role’s workflow. This enhances the process of design The CDE can contain different types of digital
and construction and allows exploration of alternative information, including schedules, contracts, registers,
design possibilities before work on site begins. reports and 3D models, forming the foundation of
shared information on which collaboration can take
BIM allows digital data describing internal building
place. Large amounts of digital data and information
engineering services to be presented and analysed
can flow in a controlled way through the CDE during
visually, so that the way they interact with each other
the development of a project, making it possible to
can be seen. Clashes in systems can then be identified
reduce mistakes and avoid duplication.
at an early stage in the design process; this is known as
‘clash detection’.
Test yourself
An example could be drainage system pipework within
a building interfering with the route of heating ducts. What function does the CDE perform in a BIM
In the past, this could require extensive redrawing system?
of plans and cause expensive delays if the ‘clash’ was
discovered after work had commenced.
Work program planning
To ensure work can be completed on schedule
and within budget, careful prior planning of
the construction process is required. Planning a
programme of work is often undertaken using charts
that provide data and information about the sequence
of activities.
There are two main documentary methods of
planning the sequence of work in construction –
Gantt charts and critical path analysis (CPA) (see
Chapter 3, section 4.2).

Improve your English

Search online for the origins of the Gantt chart and
write a short report.

▲ Figure 8.9 BIM allows possible clashes in the Research

systems of a building to be detected before work
begins Look online for examples of critical path analysis.
Once you understand how they work, create your
own example for a simple activity, such as making
Research a cup of tea. Ask one of your peers to do the same
and compare your results.
Find out the history of BIM. When was it developed
and what did the first BIM system contain?
Commissioning and certification
Commissioning is the process of confirming that all
The Common Data Environment (CDE) is a single
building systems are installed, tested, operated and
central source of information used within the BIM
maintained according to predetermined operational
system. Relevant documents and data are brought
requirements. Data and information linked to
together in a shared digital environment that can be
engineering techniques and procedures are used to
accessed by all authorised personnel collaborating on
check the correct installation and function of systems
the project.
such as heating, ventilation and air conditioning.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Systems must be confirmed as fit for purpose before

complete handover of the building to the client.
However, as part of the contract arrangements, there
are circumstances where performance testing of
systems may continue after the client has accepted
handover. For example, some systems are dependent
on different weather conditions, and commissioning
inspections and adjustments may take place over the
first year of occupation.
Commissioning data and information form a checking
and testing format to bring systems into operation and
verify that they are in good working order. The testing
format confirms specific details and responsibilities, ▲ Figure 8.10 Testing an electrical system
such as:
 the party or parties responsible for each aspect of Records of test data from inspections are a valuable
commissioning source of information for new owners, if the building
 whether the commissioning process and outcomes changes ownership. This is especially true in the case
must be witnessed (this is a legal requirement in of a large complex structure that may be owned by
some cases) commercial investors. A building is an expensive asset
 the standards that should be adhered to that must be properly maintained to retain its value.
 the specific documentation that is required, which
In the case of a smaller domestic property, a
can include a record of operations, maintenance and
condition report can be prepared for a new owner or
future works.
homebuyer. This takes the form of a visual inspection
A certificate is issued to confirm that installation and to generate data and information about factors such
operational standards have been met, which must as the condition of the building’s structure, heating
comply with technical benchmarks and criteria set and lighting systems, exterior roof surfaces, attic roof
by appropriate organisations. The standards could spaces, floor spaces and underfloor spaces.
be set by Building Regulations, the British Board of
Efficient commissioning and reputable certification of a
Agrément, the manufacturer or another recognised
building’s systems, coupled with planned and effective
certification body.
maintenance, will contribute to greater efficiency
throughout the life cycle of a building. Operational
Research efficiency can translate into reduced energy needs,
which is an increasingly important factor in the
Visit the British Board of Agrément (BBA) website at continuing drive to reduce carbon emissions. Accurate
www.bbacerts.co.uk
and appropriate data and information are essential to
Search the site and identify the five key areas that the success of energy-saving strategies.
the organisation works in. Find a case study and
note how certification benefited the company
working under BBA guidance. Key terms
Commercial: relating to buying and selling
Even after a building’s systems have been Domestic: relating to a dwelling or home
commissioned and certified, ongoing inspection and
testing are required throughout the life cycle of the
building. A schedule for this will include test data that
needs to be recorded to ensure optimal operational
efficiency is maintained.

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 Chapter 8 Information and data principles

Building services engineering elements of a structure

Improve your English produce a wealth of data that has been harvested in
differing types of building under varying conditions.
Using the definitions of ‘commercial’ and ‘domestic’
supplied, write a summary of the ways that data can This has led to the compilation of charts and tables that
be used for each category of building in terms of can be referred to when designing similar structures.
commissioning and certification. Data from past experience can be used to calculate
acceptable operational tolerances in new designs in
order to avoid ‘over-engineering’, which could be
wasteful and add to costs.
Research
Investigate how much carbon is produced annually
by the construction industry. According to the
scientific data you find, what targets need to be met
to reduce industry carbon emissions to net zero
by 2050? What changes in the materials used and
established work practices are being made to tackle
the issue?

2.2 Using data to calculate outcomes

or cost
The term ‘calculation’ can be defined in different ways,
according to the context. It can be used to describe the ▲ Figure 8.11 Analysing data from past projects
process of: supports efficient design in new projects
 using information to make a judgement or plan
something carefully and intentionally, for example Calculating costs
to calculate outcomes
Many databases are used to help cost projects of
 determining something by mathematical or logical
all types and sizes. They draw on historical costing
methods, for example to calculate costs.
data and are often designed to track current prices of
Data can be used to provide results that meet both of materials and components, almost in real time. Using
these definitions. up-to-date data for costing a project is vital to avoid
cost overruns and accurately assess financial risks in a
Calculating outcomes competitive construction environment.
When calculating outcomes, data can be used to analyse
Data from across the sector is collated, analysed,
past or current activities to model what could happen in
modelled and interpreted by the Building Cost
the future. A familiar example of this is forecasting the
Information Service (BCIS) of the Royal Institution
weather. Attempting this requires the analysis of past
of Chartered Surveyors (RICS). This valuable source
data related to a huge number of variables which, as we
of data is used by many contractors for projects of
see daily, makes a reliable prediction difficult.
different sizes. There are also many other companies
Something more straightforward might be calculating and institutions that specialise in providing data for
the outcome of using timber of specific dimensions to costing a project, such as PropertyData and Bestdata.
produce a load-bearing element of a building, such as a
A major project with complex design elements needs
suspended floor. Consistent data has been recorded over
accurate data to produce costings that will result in
many years which can be applied to produce reliable
profitability for the contractor and a fair price for the
structural calculations, ensuring that the proposed
client. Of course, profitability is key to the success and
design is safe and capable of bearing the required loads.
financial health of any size of construction company,
and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) also
Test yourself rely on accurate data for success. A small contractor
or even a sole trader benefits from keeping accurate
What are the two definitions of the term ‘calculation’?
project records to provide data for costing future work.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

speed up communication of useful data that might be

needed urgently.

Industry tip
Everyone involved in using and storing physical data
must be conscientious in keeping documents and
drawings secure and in good condition. Even if they
do not contain sensitive details, they are valuable
sources of information that should be taken care of.

Virtual storage
▲ Figure 8.12 A small contractor or sole trader can Virtual storage is the storage of data in a digital format,
benefit from keeping accurate data from past projects for example on a computer hard drive, on a portable
flash drive or in a location that is remote from the user.

3 Data management and Remote storage is often referred to as ‘cloud storage’

or ‘in the cloud’. Data is transmitted digitally through
confidentiality a network and then stored on a server. These storage
facilities are often owned by specialist companies who
Data and information sources used in the construction
use multiple data centres around the world.
industry are of great value, both operationally and
financially. This means they must be stored securely Data files are stored remotely in a number of different
and protected. ways:
 Public cloud: data is stored in the service provider’s data
Improve your English centres across multiple regions or continents. Users pay
the provider based on the amount of data stored.
Write a short account explaining why data and  Private cloud: data is stored in an in-house storage
information sources are valuable operationally and facility, forming a dedicated environment that is
financially. protected from outside access by a firewall.
 Hybrid cloud: this is a mix of public and private
cloud storage, offering businesses flexibility and
3.1 Data storage more ways that data can be managed and made
available to authorised users.
Physical storage
Data storage companies must provide safe and secure
In the past, data tended to be stored as paper
storage and have facilities in place to back up data to
documents and physical drawings. While hard-copy
prevent loss.
documentation is still used extensively, digital data
storage is increasingly used.
Key term
There can also be a crossover between physical
and digital data storage, if paper documents are Firewall: a protective software program or hardware
scanned and converted to a digital medium for easier device that monitors, filters and may block data
transmission to others in different locations. This can entering and leaving a network

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 Chapter 8 Information and data principles

Measures to maintain the security of digital data

include:
 using anti-virus software and keeping it up to date
 using a system of strong passwords so that access to
data is restricted
 using encryption to convert data from a readable
format into an encoded format
 installing firmware and software updates as soon
as they become available (these often contain
security patches and new security features)
 logging off (or turning off) computers and locking
them if possible.
▲ Figure 8.13 A server room in a data storage centre The term ‘hacking’ has become increasingly familiar,
referring to theft or manipulation of critical data,
usually with malicious intent. Hackers are focused
Test yourself on bypassing the security measures designed to keep
What is meant by storing data ‘in the cloud’? them out of data processing and storage systems.
Security measures must therefore be rigorously
designed, carefully adhered to, and updated when
3.2 Confidentiality necessary, in order to meet the growing challenge
of these attacks. Increasingly sophisticated systems
Some data must be kept confidential. For example,
are being devised to maintain the security of
data for a construction project commissioned by
digital data.
the government or a bank may contain sensitive
details which could threaten security if accessed by
unauthorised parties. Key terms
Confidential data stored in a physical format must be Encryption: the process of converting data or
locked away and protected in secure facilities. It may be information into a code to prevent unauthorised
necessary to consider protection from fire damage, in access
addition to prevention of unauthorised access. Firmware: software that has been permanently
installed in a device to make it work as the
manufacturer intended

Improve your maths

Find out about the mathematical processes used to
encrypt data.

The news often refers to ‘cyberattacks’ when describing

the work of individuals or organisations who steal
data or install damaging software known as malware.
Malware can behave like a virus, in that it can easily
▲ Figure 8.14 Confidential physical data should be be passed from computer to computer, or system to
stored securely system, so that the ‘infection’ spreads.
A Trojan horse or Trojan is a type of malware that is
often disguised as legitimate software, misleading the
user as to its true intent. It tricks systems operators into
allowing unauthorised access.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Key term Industry tip

Malware: software that is specifically designed to GDPR is not simply guidance – it is law. As such,
disrupt, damage or allow unauthorised access to a there are legal penalties if it is not adhered to. If your
computer system role in construction involves dealing with anyone’s
personal information, never treat it casually.

Research
Improve your English
Search online for the names of some common
Trojans. Search online for the seven principles of GDPR and
write a summary.

Test yourself
4 Drawings, circuit diagrams
Why is malware sometimes referred to as a Trojan?
and schematics
Whether based in a design office or on a construction
Loss of data can be very damaging to the operational
site, workers rely on accurate information to perform
efficiency of construction companies that are managing
their work tasks efficiently. Graphical documents, in
complex project commitments. Recovery of lost or
the form of drawings, circuit diagrams or schematics,
stolen data has developed into an important activity
are an important means of communicating data and
that uses specialist techniques to beat the abilities of
information, and they can be presented in paper or
hackers and data thieves.
digital format.
Legal requirements
Data protection in the UK is governed by the UK Key term
General Data Protection Regulation (UK GDPR),
Schematics: a diagram representing the elements of
which came into effect on 1 January 2021. It should be
a system using graphic symbols
considered alongside the Data Protection Act 2018. All
companies that sell goods or services need to comply
with these legal texts. 4.1 Drawings
The aim of this legislation is to ensure that personal Drawings are documents required at every stage of
data is gathered legally, and that those who collect and building work. They are an efficient way of providing
hold data protect it from misuse and exploitation. A a great deal of clear data and information, without the
construction company that stores personal data about need for lots of potentially confusing text.
its workers should always ensure confidentiality.
When producing drawings, a technician or
draughtsperson will draw the details and features
to scale. This means that large components can be
represented with accurate proportions on a document
that is much smaller, which is more manageable than if
they were drawn full size.

Improve your English

Search online for definitions of ‘scale drawing’, then
write a definition in your own words.

▲ Figure 8.15 GDPR protects the confidentiality of

personal information

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 Chapter 8 Information and data principles

Drawings for construction and installation purposes components and installation details on a drawing were
are produced using conventions. This means that the labelled in writing, it would soon become very crowded
format and layout of drawings follow agreed standards, with text, which could be confusing.
allowing the data and information they contain to be
Where symbols are used on a drawing, they must
consistently understood.
conform to an agreed standard, so that everyone using
Standardised symbols are used on drawings as a the drawing can interpret the information consistently
means of giving information in a simpler way. If all the and accurately.

Sink Sinktop Wash basin Bath Shower tray

WB

WC Window Door Radiator Lamp

Switch Socket North symbol Sawn timber (unwrot) Concrete

Insulation Brickwork Blockwork Stonework Earth (subsoil)

Cement screed Damp-proof course Hardcore Hinging position of windows Stairs up and down
(DPC)/membrane
Stairs up
1234567
Top Bottom Stairs
Side down
1234567

Timber – softwood. Timber – hardwood.

Machined all round Machined all round
(wrot)

▲ Figure 8.16 Basic drawing symbols

Symbols and abbreviations for construction and 4.2 Circuit diagrams and schematics
technical drawings have been defined by the British
Standards Institute. Until 2019, BS 1192 was used to Circuit diagrams are technical drawings that provide
set out methods for managing the production and visual representations of electrical circuits or systems.
quality of construction information. This has now been They are used to explain a design to electricians and
replaced by BS EN 19650 and further amends will be technicians, who will use them during installation,
made due to the UK leaving the EU. There are many maintenance or repair work. The complexity of drawings
other British Standards that apply to specific types of will vary, depending on the intended purpose of the
construction and technical drawing. electrical system and who will carry out the work.
Electrical circuits are shown on a circuit diagram using
Test yourself lines to indicate electrical connection routes within the
system, with related components shown as symbols.
What is an advantage of presenting technical data in As mentioned previously, diagrams using symbols
the form of drawings? are often referred to as schematics. Pictorial diagrams
differ in that they represent elements of an electrical

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

system using graphic drawings or realistic pictures to is connected. They show the major components, such
provide relevant information. as switches and transformers, using standardised
symbols. The representation does not depict the
Wiring diagrams show a simplified representation of
physical size or position of the components.
an electrical circuit, usually giving more information
 Three-line diagrams are more complex, with
about the relative placement of devices and
separate lines drawn to represent live, neutral and
components and their terminal positions.
earth (or ground) electrical current. They provide
a detailed visual guide for cabling arrangements,
Key term
switches, fittings and protective device connections.
Terminal: a connection point to an external circuit Diagrams and drawings for a building provide layout
and installation details for use by operatives on site in
Different types of electrical diagram are used for the form of plans, which include a great deal of data
different purposes: and information. Table 8.2 shows some of the details
 One-line (or single-line) diagrams provide a that can be provided on building and site plans for
simplified representation of a system, showing the electrical installation and maintenance.
flow of electrical power and how the electrical circuit

▼ Table 8.2 Details included in electrical plans

Details provided What it shows

Wiring How the wiring and parts of the electrical system such as power outlets are interconnected
How switching is arranged and located to isolate individual circuits within the system
Fixtures Where fixtures such as light fittings or electric heating units are located in the electrical
system, along with details of the electrical loadings they create
Incoming power lines Details of the size, voltage, capacity and rating of power-delivery items such as cables,
junction boxes and transformers
Fuses and circuit breakers Where they are located within the electrical system and what is protected
Equipment The location within the electrical system of items such as air-conditioning units, solar panels
and generators, as well as their voltage and size

Remember, drawings and diagrams produced for 5 Programming and set up

use on site typically include data in the form of
standardised symbols, and in some cases annotations, of digital systems using IT
to clearly explain design and installation details of the resources
building’s electrical systems.
The term ‘programming’ applies to:
Industry tip  manually entering commands into a control unit to
set up operation routines
If you work with electrical drawings and diagrams,  writing lines of code to create a software program
you will quickly become familiar with the basic that is part of the internal operational command
symbols and abbreviations. However, the range of structure of a control unit.
symbols is extensive – make a conscious effort over
time to expand your knowledge of them. Information technology (IT) used in the creation of
software programs is found in many aspects of daily
life. For example, smart phones and smart televisions
Health and safety are familiar items that make use of IT software
programming to process and present information.
Since electricity has the potential to cause injury
or even death when not managed correctly, the The development of software programming skills
ability to accurately interpret data from drawings and requires an understanding of an appropriate
diagrams is vital in order to keep the installers and programming language. There are many programming
users of electrical systems safe. languages that are designed for specific purposes, such
as C++ and Python.
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 Chapter 8 Information and data principles

The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) programming at the controller location (sometimes
has devised a standardised approach to programming referred to as manual operation mode). The controller
digital controllers referred to as IEC 61131, which aims may be separate from or attached to the device being
to improve the efficiency and speed of implementing controlled.
automation solutions in a range of applications.
Chapter 10 covers digital systems used in construction
Programmable controllers can be found all around us, in more detail.
controlling and automating many important functions.
Research
Industry tip
Digital systems use binary code. Research what this
Keep in mind that standards formulated by means and how it works in a digital system.
recognised organisations are updated or amended
periodically. It is important to check regularly that
you are working to the latest relevant standards, to
make sure your technical understanding and work Test yourself
practices are current.
What type of systems in a building are digital
controllers used for?

5.1 Digital systems

Digital controllers are used to control systems such as 5.2 IT resources
heating, ventilation and air conditioning. These can
Computer-based systems make it possible to control
use appropriately positioned sensors in a large building
devices remotely through digital communication
to transmit data to the control unit. Changes can be
networks. These systems may be designed to allow a
made automatically or manually to adjust temperature,
single operator to control a number of devices from a
humidity or the amount of ventilation, in order to
central location (sometimes referred to as supervisory
maintain comfort levels for the occupants.
control). This allows the gathering of performance
An example of a familiar digital controller is a data, which can be used to create maintenance
domestic heating system control panel, which allows schedules and provide information for troubleshooting
programming of ‘time of day’ on–off timings and can faults with equipment.
regulate temperature according to data from a room
thermostat set at the level desired by the occupants.

▲ Figure 8.18 A single operator can control many

processes through digital IT systems
▲ Figure 8.17 Manually entering commands into a
heating system controller ‘Smart’ controls are designed to allow remote
operation by persons who may not even be in the
Using digital technology (as opposed to mechanical building. Smartphones can be used to input control
controllers and timers) means that specific software data, allowing convenient operation and adjustment of
can be integrated into the controller design for digital systems from any location with mobile telecoms
individual devices. This allows direct control and network access.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

For more information on smart controls, see Chapter 5. new building’s digital control systems. The potential
efficiency and economy of important systems in the
Improve your English proposed development can be tested through digital
simulations using suitable IT resources such as Simflow.
Visit an app store and search for ‘smart controls’.
This type of ‘intelligent’ digital data management
Choose an app and write a description of what it
can do.
takes the use of computer-aided design (CAD) beyond
simply producing 3D models of a structure. This is a
highly sophisticated use of data to support the design
Data harvested from digital control systems in existing and construction of environmentally friendly buildings
occupied buildings can be integrated into BIM systems that are economical to build and operate, providing
during the design stage of a new building, to model the high levels of user comfort and convenience.

Assessment practice

Short answer 7 Explain how generalisation can make producing

information from data analysis easier and more
1 In what different forms can data be produced?
manageable.
2 Write a definition of data interoperability.
8 Explain how BIM is structured to manage large
3 Who can make use of data generated at the start
volumes of data to allow collaboration between
of the building design process?
project personnel.
4 What do the letters EAM stand for?
9 Explain the purpose and list the benefits of using
5 Why might commissioning and certification of data for post-occupancy evaluation (POE).
systems in a new building continue over the first
10 Explain how data can be used to calculate
year of occupancy?
outcomes and costs. In your explanation, suggest
Long answer what sources of data can be used.
6 Describe a work task where metadata would
contribute to efficiency when designing a building.

Project practice
A detached house has an integral garage which  Add to the diagram a suggested suitable position
the owner wishes to convert into living space. The for the new gas heater and indicate the route of the
proposal is to remove the existing wall between the gas supply pipe from the gas meter.
lounge and the garage to create a larger lounge area.
A new gas heater will be installed in the existing
garage area to heat the enlarged lounge.
Attached to the wall that must be removed are the gas
and electricity meters for the dwelling.
 Write a report that outlines the sequence of tasks Existing wall to be removed
needed to maintain services to the dwelling during
the alteration works. Existing gas and
 Copy the drawing in Figure 8.19 and create a electricity meters
diagram showing suggested new positions for the
gas and electricity meters.
 Using the correct symbols (research them online), New wall constructed
show suggested positions on your diagram for four in existing garage door
power sockets, two light fittings and a light switch. opening with window installed
 Using an electrical supplier website as a data ▲ Figure 8.19 Working drawing
source, produce a costing for the electrical fittings
used in the project.

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 Chapter 9 Relationship
management in construction

Introduction
This chapter looks at the benefits to the construction industry
of positive interpersonal relationships, good customer service
and team working. It identifies legal and moral responsibilities
with regards to equality and diversity, and examines how a
strong representation of society in the workplace can improve
business productivity and performance.
You will learn about the benefits of different communication
methods and styles, as well as how to negotiate and resolve
disputes. To close the chapter, we will explore employment
rights and responsibilities, and the importance of ethical
behaviour to the reputation and growth of an organisation.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will understand: 6 team dynamics
1 stakeholders 7 equality, diversity and representation
2 roles, expectations and interrelationships 8 negotiation techniques
3 the importance of collaborative working to project 9 conflict-management techniques
delivery and reporting 10 methods and styles of communication
4 customer service principles 11 employment rights and responsibilities
5 the importance of team work to team and project 12 ethics and ethical behaviour
performance 13 sources of information.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

1 Stakeholders Key term

Any group or individual that has an invested interest in Environmental activists: people who campaign for
the long-term success of an organisation is referred to as the protection of the natural environment
a stakeholder. Stakeholders can affect and be affected by
the achievement of an organisation’s business objectives.
Therefore, it is important that they can work together.
Internal stakeholders support or have concern for an
organisation and benefit from their direct relationship
with it, for example employers and employees. If an
organisation did not have any internal stakeholders, it
would simply cease to exist.
There is a risk that some internal stakeholders will
have conflicting interests. For example, employees
want to earn a good wage, whereas their employer may
want to reduce outgoings on staff remuneration. To
avoid this problem, successful construction businesses
keep the number of stakeholders to a minimum and ▲ Figure 9.1 A site manager is an internal stakeholder
ensure they have a good balance between all of their
interests in order to prevent conflict.
External stakeholders do not have a direct relationship
with an organisation and are not employed by it, yet
they can still have an indirect effect on it. For example,
a building control officer enforcing building regulations
will determine the standards that a contractor has to
adhere to.
External stakeholders that do not benefit from a
direct interest in an organisation are also known as
secondary stakeholders.
Table 9.1 gives examples of internal and external
stakeholders. ▲ Figure 9.2 The Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
is an external stakeholder
▼ Table 9.1 Types of stakeholders

Internal stakeholders External (secondary) stakeholders Test yourself

• Clients • Suppliers
• Architects • Government Give a definition of ‘stakeholder’ in the construction
• Investors • Trade associations industry.
• Managing directors • Emergency services
• Site managers and • Building control officers (BCOs)
supervisors • Regulatory authorities Stakeholders will always be present in construction
• Structural and civil • Communities and local residents projects, and their influence plays a part in
engineers • Health and Safety Executive determining success or failure. For this reason,
• Buyers (HSE)
whenever possible, internal and external stakeholders
• Contracts • Local councils
managers • Lobby groups and activists, for should be selected to suit specific construction projects
• Estimators example environmental activists because of their skills, knowledge and experience
• Trades forepersons • Trade unions working on similar jobs.
• Quantity surveyors • Professional bodies
• Project managers • End users in a construction
• Subcontractors project

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 Chapter 9 Relationship management in construction

employees and others that may be affected by work

Research activities.
Find out what shareholders are. Describe the main Figure 9.3 identifies various stages of construction work
differences between shareholders and stakeholders. when members of a project team need to collaborate in
order to achieve a successful project outcome.

Test yourself Pre-design stage: preparing design drawings, obtaining

planning permission
How could an external stakeholder, such as a
community, indirectly affect an organisation?
Design stage: tender process, appointing the principal contractor/
subcontractors, health and safety file, risk assessments, organising
plant and equipment

2 Roles, expectations and

interrelationships Construction: off-site manufacturing, e.g. wall panels and roof
trusses; onsite construction
The roles, expectations and interrelationships of
stakeholders throughout all stages of a construction Tracking/monitoring/controlling performance: progress
project, from design to construction to handover and meetings, health and safety meetings/tours, site inductions, toolbox
use, are covered in detail throughout this book: talks
 hierarchy of project management (see Chapter 3)
 promoting good relationships across the project (see
this chapter) Handover: snagging, handover to the client

 cost-control measures (see Chapter 3)

 time-management methods (see Chapter 3)
 handover processes (see Chapter 4) In use
 public relations, including the behaviour of
employees outside of work hours (see this chapter)
▲ Figure 9.3 Stages of construction work
 follow-up and review (see Chapter 3).

In Chapter 4, we looked at Building Information

Test yourself Modelling (BIM) and how this can be used to
collaborate at various stages of a construction project,
Explain the benefit of using a hierarchy to structure
an organisation in the construction industry. by identifying design problems and communicating
efficiently with the project team. The construction
management team can also use workflow software
packages to plan and organise work. Information can
3 The importance of then be shared easily with others and worked on as a
collaborative working to project living document to bring a project in on schedule.
delivery and reporting Later in this chapter, we will look at the benefits
for project delivery of members of the project team
A collaborative approach to project delivery and
collaborating using other communication methods,
reporting is essential to ensure work is completed on
including face-to-face meetings.
schedule, within budget and to the client’s specification.
Reporting any foreseeable problems before they occur, and Key terms
working with the project team to resolve them, is essential
for meeting project aims and objectives. Collaborative Collaborative: involving people or groups of people
working also ensures projects are completed to the working together with a single common interest or
minimum industry standards and building regulations. aim
Living document: a document that can be changed,
Project teams and other stakeholders that communicate
amended or updated when necessary for the
effectively at every stage of construction work are benefit of the user
more likely to provide a safe working environment for

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

▲ Figure 9.4 A project management team discussing ▲ Figure 9.5 A contractor meeting with a client
project progress
When a contractor works with a client for the first time, it
Test yourself is essential to establish a good level of trust. This can start
during the planning stage of construction by maintaining
Why is a collaborative approach important for good lines of communication with the client, such as
project delivery and reporting? responding promptly to any messages and involving
the client in decision making. Listening to the views of
clients at every stage of a project and treating them with
4 Customer service principles empathy is also important in building their confidence.

Clients are responsible for initiating and financing Total trust between parties can take time to establish,
construction projects. It is therefore important for but just a moment to ruin. However, if a contractor can
contractors to maintain good working relationships demonstrate their ability to manage the client’s project
with their clients, in order to keep them happy efficiently by meeting agreed timescales and working
throughout a project and increase the chances of repeat with honesty and integrity, then their professional
business. bond will grow.

Contractors need to create a good first impression. This Dealing with clients and employees is just as important
can be achieved through a portfolio of successfully as managing a project itself, especially if they have a
completed contracts and positive testimonials complaint. The way a contractor responds to negative
from previous clients. Demonstrating good product feedback is important; they need to demonstrate that they
knowledge is also extremely important, as the client are continuously looking for ways to improve, in order to
is unlikely to be an expert and will be looking for keep clients satisfied and maintain a good reputation.
guidance to steer them through the project and achieve
their vision.

Key term
Testimonials: statements of recommendation
produced by satisfied customers or clients that
confirm the quality of a product or service

Improve your English

Write a testimonial on a supplier’s website for a
product you have recently purchased. ▲ Figure 9.6 A developer handing over the keys to a
new house

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 Chapter 9 Relationship management in construction

peers for help when needed and providing feedback to

Improve your English the team when the opportunities arise. This will create
an environment that improves trust between team
Write a sentence to explain the term ‘empathy’.
members and ultimately leads to improvements in
efficiency and productivity.

Test yourself Conversely, conflict, tension, low engagement and lack

of trust in a team will have a negative impact on project
Describe the customer service principles that should performance.
be applied at various stages of a construction
project.
Test yourself
Explain the advantages of team work for team and
project performance.
5 The importance of team
work to team and project
performance 6 Team dynamics
When employees collaborate towards common goals Team dynamics refers to psychological processes
without friction or conflict, they create a healthy work and behaviours occurring in a team that influence its
environment that improves staff morale. Employees direction and performance.
who feel part of a team and are offered the chance to People’s personalities and behaviour are often
be creative and learn new skills develop positive ‘can- uncontrollable and unpredictable, and they can
do’ attitudes that contribute to the long-term success of have either a positive or negative influence on team
an organisation. dynamics. With the right strategies in place to address
Teams perform best when individual members are any issues early on, a good team leader can manage
motivated by satisfaction with their roles and everyone the relationships between team members, in order to
has accountability for the part they play. keep lines of communication open and ensure active
participation and co-operation.
When all members of a team work collectively, listen
to and support each other, they are more likely to
resolve challenges and achieve objectives. Signs of
positive team dynamics are when members work
together without conflict and trust the expertise,
knowledge and abilities of individuals within the
team.

▲ Figure 9.7 Employees working together

▲ Figure 9.8 Construction professionals
Team members will work well together if they demonstrating good team dynamics
can communicate openly, without fear of reprisal.
Individuals should be comfortable both asking their

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Businesses rely on positive team dynamics to generate

new ideas and improve performance. It is therefore
important to identify poor team dynamics as soon as
possible. Signs of negative team dynamics include:
 disruptive work behaviour
 failing to achieve positive results
 not being accountable
 poor decision making.

Poor team dynamics can cause individuals to feel

vulnerable, making them less reliable and less able to
adapt to the changing situations that may arise during
building projects.

7 Equality, diversity and

representation
Employers that embrace equality, diversity and
inclusion develop an organisational culture that helps
people to achieve their full potential based on their
talent, not on factors such as their age, background,
race, religion, gender, disability or sexual orientation.
Employing a talented, diverse representation of society
allows different views and ways of thinking to be
shared within the organisation, to reflect the local
culture and community.
▲ Figure 9.10 People with disabilities should be
Organisations that promote the values of equality,
supported to work in the construction industry
diversity and inclusion are often more sociable,
productive and efficient, which improves profitability
for their shareholders.

Key term
Equality: a state where all members of a society
or group have the same status, rights and
opportunities

▲ Figure 9.11 The construction industry must aim for

a truly inclusive and diverse working environment

To demonstrate its commitment to equality, diversity

and inclusivity, an organisation usually has a written
equality and diversity policy, which should be read and
signed by all employees as part of their induction.
The policy should include:
 values
▲ Figure 9.9 A female construction worker  legal duties

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 Chapter 9 Relationship management in construction

 processes which employees should follow to

challenge discrimination or if they have a Improve your maths
grievance, for example whistleblowing.
A construction site has 267 workers, with age
The policy also helps to identify any staff training ranges as follows:
needs and how to support them.  18–25 years – 25 workers
 26–35 years – 116 workers
Key terms  36–45 years – 53 workers
 46 years and over – 73 workers.
Whistleblowing: the act of reporting information What percentage of the workers are aged between
about wrongdoing 18 and 25 years?
Grievance: a feeling of having been treated unfairly

Employees who work for organisations that have a 7.2 Employment Rights Act 1996
robust equality and diversity policy and recognise This act legally protects the personal rights of
equal opportunities will feel more valued. employees and workers. It covers areas such as:
 contracts of employment
Improve your English  protection of wages
 zero-hours workers
Read the equality and diversity policies for your
employer and your training provider. Summarise the  Sunday working
main differences in a short paragraph.  flexible working
 rest breaks
 study and training
Discrimination is the unfair treatment of someone  unfair dismissal
because of their characteristics. An employer  maternity and parental leave
could openly discriminate against certain groups  redundancy payments.
or individuals while recruiting new employees
or promoting existing employees within their
organisation. For example, they should not advertise
for specific age groups or genders, unless they are
specifically needed to fulfil the job role.
Besides the moral reasons for equality and diversity,
businesses also have legal duties as outlined below.

7.1 Equality Act 2010

This is the main piece of equality and diversity
legislation that protects people from discrimination at ▲ Figure 9.12 Rest break on a construction site
work and in wider society. It outlines the different ways
that it is unlawful to treat someone, and it strengthens Key term
protection in some situations.
Workers: people who do not have a permanent
Under the act, the following are protected contract of employment with an employer but are
characteristics: contracted for work or services
 age
 disability
 gender reassignment 7.3 Employment Act 2008
 marriage and civil partnership
 pregnancy and maternity This act covers:
 race  the procedure for the resolution of employment
 religion or belief disputes between employers and staff
 sex  compensation for financial loss in cases of unlawful
 sexual orientation. underpayment or non-payment of staff

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

 the enforcement of minimum wages

 the enforcement of offences under the Employment Test yourself
Agencies Act 1973
 the right of trade unions to expel or exclude Explain the benefits of equality and diversity in the
members on the grounds of membership of a workplace.
political party.

7.4 Human Rights Act 1998 8 Negotiation techniques

The Human Rights Act 1998 incorporates the European At various stages of construction projects, different
Convention on Human Rights into UK law. It sets out parties need to negotiate money, assets or resources
fundamental rights and freedoms that everyone in the in the best interests of the organisation or as an
UK is entitled to, including: individual.
 the right to life
 freedom from torture or inhuman or degrading
Negotiation skills are important in the construction
treatment industry, for example when buyers acquire land.
 freedom from slavery
Negotiations between buyers and landowners must
 the right to liberty and security
be managed carefully due to the large sums of money
 the right to a fair trial in a court of law
involved. A poorly negotiated deal to purchase land
 the right to respect for private and family life, home
will impact on profit margins when projects are
and correspondence completed and sold.
 freedom of thought, conscience and religion Once land has been acquired, planning permission
 freedom of expression may be needed before building work can start. This
 freedom of peaceful assembly and association involves the project planning team working closely
 the right to marry freely with the local planning department, to develop and
 the right to an effective remedy in a national court negotiate initial concepts into a mutually agreeable
 freedom from discrimination proposal. If the initial planning application is refused,
 the right to education there is usually an opportunity to appeal the decision
 the right to vote. at a hearing, where negotiation skills will be tested
Under this act, people who are not treated fairly, once again.
equally and with dignity and respect can take legal
action to defend their rights.

Case study
Ashley is employed as an electrical engineer by a
small construction company with a workforce of 12
full-time employees. She is the only female member
of staff. Since completing her apprenticeship when
she was 19 years old, she has worked for her current
employer for six months.
Ashley has started to notice that she is being treated
differently to the other employees, for example
being given less-challenging jobs and being paid ▲ Figure 9.13 Local authority planning committee
slightly less than another electrical engineer who
started at the same time as her. In situations where a client already owns a building
 What employment rights does Ashley have?
plot, they will usually select a principal contractor
 Working in a small group, discuss Ashley’s
situation and explain the steps she should take through the tender process and award the contract
to achieve a satisfactory outcome. after carefully negotiating the terms. For more
 Do you think this is a case of workplace information about principal contractors and the tender
discrimination? Why? process, see Chapter 4.

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Different negotiation techniques are needed during one side has to compromise in order for the other to
the construction phase of building work, for example experience a positive outcome.
when changes occur to the original contract agreement
If the win–lose approach is used to negotiate the
(change orders) or time extensions may be needed
distribution of resources, bitter disputes could cause
to avoid penalty clauses or to resolve disputes with
conflict between the parties and may damage their
subcontractors.
future relationship, especially if negotiations break
down and one party walks away.
8.1 Distributive negotiation
Distributive negotiation is used to haggle over a 8.3 Lose–lose approach
common single interest at stake, known as a fixed sum.
Sometimes during business negotiations, all concerned
A fixed sum is best described as a pie that parties are parties end up worse off and not achieving their
battling over for a bigger slice, with exchange offers desired result, for example unavoidable financial cuts
back and forth. If one party gains more of the pie within an organisation due to low annual profits.
through the distributive negotiation, then the other
In these situations, all participants should try to minimise
party loses a percentage.
their losses as much as possible, and to make sure they
When preparing a bargaining strategy for a are fair. Even though participants are no better off using
negotiation, both parties should have a preconceived the lose–lose approach, their relationship remains intact
goal. This is the point at which they would walk away because the loss has been evenly distributed.
without a deal, known as the reservation point.
8.4 Compromise approach
Due to the nature of this method of negotiation, it
is not possible for both parties to have a whole pie Negotiations between professionals to find an
each. However, a mutual agreement can be reached acceptable middle ground can be time consuming.
where one party has a smaller slice of the pie, When negotiators are unable to reach a mutual
providing they have accepted a deal no less than the agreement and have nothing more to negotiate with,
reservation point. they often make concessions in order to meet the needs
of the other party or to get something else they want.
Key terms The compromise approach is used to settle disputes
quickly by one party settling for less than it may have
Haggle: to negotiate for the best terms of an
hoped for, in order to reduce strained negotiations
agreement or financial arrangement
and maintain or fix a relationship. The risk is that one
Reservation point: the highest price a buyer is party gives up much more than it should, resulting in
willing to pay for an item and the lowest price a financial loss.
seller will accept for the item

Key term
Improve your maths Concessions: something granted in response to a
demand
A developer negotiates to buy a plot of land for
£470,000. The plot measures 23 m × 29 m. The
developer then decides to sell a part of the plot that 8.5 Integrative negotiation
measures 29 m × 9 m, and adds a further 15 per cent
to the rate at which he bought it. (integrative bargaining)
How much will the developer sell the plot for? This type of negotiation takes place between parties
with common interests, in order to collaborate in
finding a mutually beneficial solution. It is used when
8.2 Win–lose approach multiple issues have to be agreed.

This is probably the most common negotiation method Negotiators often make trade-offs across the issues
used to settle disputes between two parties. However, being discussed and add further issues into the
an agreement is more difficult to reach, because negotiations to create additional value for all parties, so
that a successful outcome can be achieved.

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A dispute can quickly heighten emotions, unless a

8.6 Win–win approach conflict-management technique is used. One way to
In this approach, negotiators with shared interests resolve a problem is for parties to have an informal
work together to find resolutions they are both satisfied discussion in a neutral environment, where both
with, rather than seeking to fulfil self-interests. This sides have an opportunity to air their views
avoids disagreements and helps to maintain strong without fear of backlash. If an amicable agreement
relationships between parties, while achieving a fair cannot be reached however, the dispute will have
outcome for both sides. to be resolved using mediation, conciliation or
arbitration.
9 Conflict-management
9.1 Mediation
techniques
This process involves appointing a mediator – an
Working in a fast-paced industry such as construction impartial third party who uses negotiation and
can be very rewarding. However, there can sometimes communication techniques to encourage participation
be conflict between the management team, from both sides to find common ground and resolve
subcontractors, suppliers and client. their dispute.
Disputes can occur for several reasons, such as: One side cannot force another to use mediation;
 ambiguous contract terms however, agreeing to follow this route can avoid the
 breaches of contract conditions financial expense of going to court.
 late supply of building materials, resources or
equipment 9.2 Conciliation
 breaches of site rules, for example failing to wear
mandatory PPE This is similar to mediation. An unbiased conciliator
 programme delays.
is appointed to meet with the parties separately and
together, to weigh up both sides of an argument. They
People working at all levels in the construction industry will then make a proposal based on the relative merits
will experience the pressure of having to meet tight of each side, to find an amicable solution to the matter
deadlines while working long hours. This can have an and bring it to a close as quickly as possible.
impact on their physical, physiological and mental health,
and is also a contributing factor when conflicts occur. 9.3 Arbitration
Initial grievances may be verbal exchanges, although During this process, an appointed arbitrator (or
these could escalate to formal written correspondence, tribunal hearing) resolves disputes between parties.
for example emails and letters. Wherever possible, When both sides of an argument have been heard, the
conflict should be avoided, because litigation can be arbitrator makes a legally binding decision, known as
a time-consuming and costly process; it may also the award. If either party disagrees with the decision,
damage professional working relationships between they can take the case to court.
the development team and the client.
If a dispute occurs, each side will compete for their Test yourself
best interests using one of a number of conflict-
management techniques, in order to force the other Why is it important to be able to use different
side to concede or reach an amicable agreement. negotiation techniques when working in the
construction industry?
There are no benefits to conflict, so it should be
avoided to prevent friction between staff, a negative
working environment and delays to a project. Building
Improve your English
Information Modelling (BIM) (see Chapter 4) can be
used as a preventative measure by identifying issues For the last two months, a supplier has been late in
that could provoke conflict between parties before they supplying building materials to your construction
become a problem. When changes or alterations occur projects. Write a formal letter to the supplier to try to
to a project design or specification, BIM can be used to resolve the matter.
update all concerned parties.

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10 Methods and styles of Health and safety

communication
Under the Construction (Design and Management)
Communication is the process of exchanging (CDM) Regulations 2015, employers have a legal
information from one place, person or group to another. duty to ensure information is easy to understand to
protect the health, safety and welfare of people from
The success of any project depends on accurate work activities. (See Chapter 1 for more information
and effective lines of communication throughout on these regulations.)
the hierarchy of the construction team. Inaccurate,
ambiguous, incomplete or confusing information can
lead to delays, missed deadlines, initiated penalty In this section, we will look at some of the most
clauses and additional project costs. commonly used methods of communication, their
advantages, barriers to their effective use and problems
10.1 Methods of communication that can occur.

Verbal communication
Information Face-to-face communication and indirect
Sender Receiver
or message
communication, such as talking on the phone or
▲ Figure 9.14 Three-part communication process
using walkie-talkies, are the simplest, quickest and
probably most frequently used methods of transferring
Information can be exchanged verbally, non-verbally or information from one person to another. Working
in the form of visualisations (graphics). While there are in the construction industry, you will interact with
advantages and disadvantages to each of these methods, your colleagues each day to build good working
information should always be clear, comprehensible and relationships, trust and confidence.
in a format that is easy to understand.
When team members engage positively and have respect
for one another, they are generally happier, which in
turn creates a better working environment. Top-down
positive communication is a sign of a strong management
team, which can result in employees having increased
confidence in their employers, being more productive and
having less desire to leave their jobs.
Negative forms of communication, for example in terms
of pitch and tone of voice, cause conflict in the workplace,
damage staff morale and increase stress levels. They often
create passive-aggressive behaviour in individuals and
a toxic culture, impacting on the business’ performance
and causing an increase in staff turnover.

▲ Figure 9.15 Graphical communication – a safety sign

Complex information received by two or more people

can sometimes be interpreted slightly differently by
each recipient; just because information has been sent
and received does not mean it has been understood as
the sender intended. To confirm the recipient has fully
understood the information, feedback needs to be given
to the sender. However, this is not always possible using
some forms of written or graphical communication.
The number of methods used to communicate in the
construction industry has grown substantially in recent
years, with the development of new digital platforms
and technology. ▲ Figure 9.16 Construction workers communicating
verbally
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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Key terms Test yourself

Top-down: proceeding from the most senior to the Explain the term ‘arbitration’ and describe a situation
least senior in the workplace when this may be used.
Passive-aggressive behaviour: indirectly or subtly
expressing negative feelings Table 9.2 outlines strengths and weaknesses of using
verbal communication.
▼ Table 9.2 Strengths and weaknesses of using verbal communication

Strengths Weaknesses
• It is quick and simple. • There is no written record.
• There is no reliance on technology, for example an • Information can be forgotten by the recipient.
internet connection. • Information can be misunderstood if the sender has a
• Two-way conversation is possible. strong accent or regional dialect.
• It is personal. • Language barriers may exist between people who speak
• It is direct. different languages.
• It allows the recipient to confirm that they have • Information can be misheard with background noises.
understood the information (give feedback). • The recipient may have a hearing impairment.
• Non-verbal impressions can also be used with verbal • The message could be ambiguous.
communication, for example raised voice, gestures or
body language.
• The sender can use both open and closed questioning
(open questioning allows someone to give a free-form
answer; closed questioning requires a response from a
limited set of answers such as ‘yes’ or ‘no’).

Key term Non-verbal communication

People can communicate with each other without
Ambiguous: unclear and difficult to understand the need to speak, using written information, body
language, gestures and even the way they dress.
Wherever possible, formal communication in a work
Industry tip
environment is written down, because it provides a
Listening is as important as speaking, as this is one permanent record and is easier to distribute to others
way that we learn. While undertaking your industry without misinterpretation.
placement as part of your T Level course, your
Written information in some forms is a legal requirement,
employer will assess both of these skills.
for example building contracts and policies. When
information is recorded, it can be referred to or even used
as evidence if a dispute or grievance occurs between
Health and safety employers, employees or clients.
The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) reported
in 2021 that one in four people living in the UK has
had mental health problems. Work-related stress
can aggravate pre-existing mental health issues,
such as anxiety and depression. A report by the
Office for National Statistics (ONS) stated that more
than 1,400 construction workers took their own
lives between 2011 and 2015, over three times the
national average.
Talking with co-workers informally has many
benefits, including providing support and improving
wellbeing and general mental health.

▲ Figure 9.17 Non-verbal communication – a contract

of employment
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 Chapter 9 Relationship management in construction

▼ Table 9.3 Strengths and weaknesses of written

communication Industry tip
Strengths Weaknesses The way you dress, act and speak during an
interview is vital in creating a positive first
• It can be referred • There may be no
back to. opportunity to feed back impression with a potential employer. Even
• There is a permanent quickly. though you may be applying for a job working in a
record of the • It is not possible to particularly dirty environment, you should still dress
communication. clarify immediately appropriately for an interview. Remember, you only
• The same information whether information get one chance to make a first impression!
can be distributed easily has been received and
without diluting it. understood.
• The sender does • It is impersonal.
not have to meet the • It is indirect.
recipient to pass on the • A recipient may have
information. dyslexia or other reading
• It can be used to difficulties.
communicate if the • There may be language
recipient has a hearing barriers.
impairment. • It takes time to write.
• It is slow to distribute.
• A recipient may have
impaired vision.
• The message could be
ambiguous.

Besides written communication, non-verbal ▲ Figure 9.18 A job interview

communication can involve body language and
behaviours such as eye contact and facial expressions. Visualisations (graphics)
However, these methods can be easily misinterpreted
Information displayed in a graphical form, such as
and there is no permanent record.
posters, safety signs and notices, is often used in
the construction industry to reinforce information
Industry tip already communicated by some other method. For
example, during a site induction you may have
Good communication skills are essential in most
been told to wear a range of personal protective
job roles in the construction industry, and they
are a desirable quality for employers. The first
equipment (PPE); mandatory safety signage
communication you have with an employer could displayed around the site may also illustrate this
be a job application, so it is vital that it is well written requirement.
without any spelling or grammatical errors, in order
Technical information is often communicated using
to create a good impression. Before submitting your
CV and job application to an employer, always get detailed visualisations, either in hard-copy format or
someone to proofread them. using digital technology.

Industry tip
Key term
Posters and information boards should be updated
regularly to keep them current, and to ensure they
Proofread: to check a piece of written
are not disregarded by the intended recipients.
communication for errors in spelling, grammar,
punctuation and accuracy before it is shared or
published

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

▼ Table 9.4 Strengths and weaknesses of using visualisations

Strengths Weaknesses
• The message can be repeated to a wide audience. • The recipient may have a visual impairment.
• There is no language barrier. • There is no confirmation that they have been
• The message is clear and consistent. acknowledged.
• It is quick to interpret a simple message. • They are easily dismissed.
• There is a written record. • The recipient may have to receive training to understand
• They are eye-catching. the symbols, pictures or pictograms.
• They are jargon-free. • They can be lost, removed or defaced if on display.
• Symbols and pictograms are often standardised in the • The recipient cannot ask questions.
UK construction industry. • There is no immediate feedback.
• Only simple messages can be conveyed.

Table 9.5 outlines various methods of communication

and how they might be used in a typical construction
project.
▼ Table 9.5 Methods of communication

Type of communication Use in a typical construction project

Face to face • Job interviews
• Site inductions
• Toolbox talks
• Informal discussions with work colleagues
• Site meetings
• Appraisals
Email • Communications with clients and other stakeholders
• Quotations and estimates
• Exchanging of building contracts
Letter • Formal exchanges of information between contractors, duty holders and clients, for example
building contracts
• Business letters
• Formal exchanges of information with the local authority, HSE and professionals involved in a
construction project
• Notes
• Memorandums (memos)
Telephone (land line) • Internal communication between staff within a business:
• Better signal strength compared with mobile phones in remote locations
• Less likely to run out of battery charge
• Gives the impression of a professional business when communicating with clients
Mobile phone • Communication between members of the site management team on a construction site
(providing they have a good network signal)
• Accessing the internet for emails, livestream video calls and text messaging
• Recording videos or taking photographs to communicate information quickly from the
construction site to the office or other stakeholders
• Contacting the emergency services
Walkie-talkies • Shortwave radio contact between members of the construction team on building sites:
• durable and moisture resistant
• quick and direct
• ideal for use in remote locations where phone signals may be weak
Drawn information • Communicating information from an office to construction sites, for example as site plans,
elevations, section drawings or detail drawings
• Scheduling and planning
• Sharing technical information with clients, the planning department and subcontractors
• Forming part of a tender package
• Supporting oral communication on construction sites in the form of sketches

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 Chapter 9 Relationship management in construction

Type of communication Use in a typical construction project

Tablets, notebooks and • Video-conferencing site meetings
laptops • Site inductions
• Letter writing
• Snagging lists
• Surveying
• Requisitions (Orders)
• Auditing
• Scheduling
• Digital project management:
• augmented reality (AR)
• virtual reality (VR)
• Building Information Modelling (BIM)
• controlling drones to broadcast livestreams in real time
Signs and notices • Safety signage displayed around the workplace, for example fire escape
• Labelling on packaging
• Site notice boards
• Improvement and prohibition notices served by the HSE
Videos • Site inductions
• Toolbox talks
• Marketing
• Site inspections
• Monitoring progress and health and safety standards

Key term 10.2 Communication styles

Communication styles can be either formal or informal:
Appraisals: scheduled routine meetings between
an employee and their employer to review their  Formal communication is used by organisations
work performance against their job description to pass information through prescribed official
channels, following an organisational structure.
 Informal communication is much quicker, because
there are no rules restricting which direction or
lines of communication have to be used; therefore,
it is ‘free flowing’.
The number of non-English-speaking workers, and
those who speak English as a second language, is
on the increase in the UK construction industry.
All employers have a duty of care to communicate
effectively with everyone under their control, especially
when it concerns their health and safety. To overcome
these problems, employers may use a translator or a
bilingual supervisor or co-worker to interpret key
information. Where this is not possible, they may
▲ Figure 9.19 Walkie-talkies are ideal for use in remote have to translate written information to use for site
locations where phone signals may be weak inductions, toolbox talks and other training materials.
In situations where language is a barrier, simple
pictorial illustrations are also a useful tool to support
employers communicating with their employers.

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Improve your English 11.1 Employment rights

Wages
Make a short toolbox talk video on a topic of your
choice, to develop your speaking and presenting Minimum wage
skills. Almost every person with a legal right to work in the
UK has employment rights, such as being entitled to
the national minimum wage and living wage. The
Key term minimum wage a person should receive depends on
their age and whether they are an apprentice:
Bilingual: fluent in two languages  Workers of at least school-leaving age are entitled to
the national minimum wage. In England, you can
leave school on the last Friday in June, if you will be
Case study 16 by the end of the summer holidays. You will have
the following options until you are 18:
Lucas has been a self-employed roofer for the past – Spend 20 hours or more a week working or
ten years. Last summer, he was subcontracted to volunteering, while in part-time training or
tile the roofs on 15 new houses on a development.
education.
Unfortunately, he had an accident while working on
one of the roofs, and sustained a back injury that has – Stay in full-time education.
prevented him from continuing to trade as a roofer. – Start a traineeship or apprenticeship.
 Workers over the age of 23 are entitled to the
During the investigation into the accident, Lucas
national living wage.
said that he attended a site induction, but he had
difficulties reading and understanding the RAMS
(risk assessments and method statements).
 Whose fault is it that Lucas could not understand
the RAMS?
 Work in a small group to consider an alternative
site induction for Lucas.

11 Employment rights and

responsibilities
Every employee in the UK has legal rights and
responsibilities under the Employment Rights Act
1996. Employment law controls employees’ rights at ▲ Figure 9.20 An apprentice tradesperson
work and relationships between employees, employers,
trade unions and the government. The rates of the National Minimum Wage and National
As soon as someone accepts a job offer from an Living Wage are reviewed on 1 April every year. To
employer, they technically have a contract of check the current rates, visit www.gov.uk and search
employment, so before starting work it is important for national minimum wage or national living wage.
that they understand what they are entitled to and Apprentices who have completed the first year of their
what to expect from their employer. A contract of apprenticeship and are aged 19 or older are entitled to
employment does not have to be in writing, although the minimum wage for their age.
most employers prefer to record the following terms of
If an employee is absent from work for at least four
the agreement to avoid confusion or disputes:
days in a row and has earned at least £120 per week,
 employment rights
their employer must pay statutory sick pay (SSP)
 employee’s duties
for up to 28 weeks. Employers can pay more than the
 responsibilities – employer to employee
minimum SSP; this is usually agreed in the contract of
 responsibilities – employee to employer
employment before starting work.
 employment conditions.

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 Chapter 9 Relationship management in construction

The law states that employers must give their Since 2012, all employers must automatically enrol
employees payslips as proof of their earnings, tax their employees into a workplace pension scheme and
paid and any other deductions, for example pension make contributions towards it, provided they are aged
contributions. 22 or above and earn over the low-income threshold
set by the government.
Key terms All eligible employees make their pension
contributions through deductions taken directly from
Statutory sick pay: payment made by employers to
employees when they are too ill to work their income. If an employee prefers not to have a
workplace pension, they can opt out of the scheme.
Payslips: written documents provided by an However, this is best done within the first month of
employer that contain personal information about
employment to prevent payments going into a pension
the employee and specific details about the amount
of money that they have earned for a given period fund that can only be accessed when they retire.
(for example a week or month), as well as their
total earnings, tax deductions, National Insurance Key term
contributions and pension payments made for that
financial year State pension: a regular sum of money paid by the
state to people of or above official retirement age

Time off
Almost all employees have the right to paid leave for
public duties and responsibilities, such as jury service,
under the Working Time (Amendment) Regulations
2007. People who work a five-day week are also
entitled to at least 28 days’ paid leave each year,
which is equivalent to 5.6 weeks of holiday. Part-time
employees have the same entitlement as full-time staff,
although this is dependent on the number of days that
they work, for example four days per week amounts to
4 × 5.6 weeks = 22.4 days per year.
▲ Figure 9.21 A payslip
Employees who are parents of children under the age
of 18 may also be eligible for unpaid leave to look after
Research their child’s welfare, providing they have been with a
company for more than one year.
Find out who is not entitled to the national minimum
wage or national living wage. Employees over the age of 18 are entitled to three
different types of unpaid rest breaks:
 rest breaks at work – one uninterrupted 20-minute
Pension break if they work more than six hours a day
Everyone who has made National Insurance  daily rest – at least 11 hours between shifts
contributions through their earnings is entitled to a  weekly rest – 24 hours’ uninterrupted break each
government state pension, which can be claimed on week, or 48 hours each fortnight.
reaching state pension age (although this is currently
under review). The amount a person receives Employees are entitled to 52 weeks’ statutory maternity
depends on their National Insurance record. A state leave, made up of 26 weeks’ ordinary maternity leave
pension alone is unlikely to provide enough money and 26 weeks’ additional maternity leave. Statutory
to live on when someone retires, therefore they maternity pay (SMP) is paid for up to 39 weeks and
will also have either a workplace pension (set up by includes:
 90 per cent of the employee’s average weekly
their employer) or a private pension (set up by the
individual). earnings (before tax) for the first six weeks

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

 either a fixed sum set by the government or 90

per cent of average weekly earnings (whichever is Research
lower) for the next 33 weeks.
Find out which type of employees would not be
When an employee’s partner is having a baby, adopting permitted time off work for jury service.
a child or having a baby through surrogacy, they might
be eligible for one or two weeks’ leave or paternity
pay. The weekly rate for paternity pay is 90 per cent Health and safety
of average weekly earnings. Employees may not be
entitled to both paternity leave and pay, but they may Rest breaks from the workplace are extremely
important to protect people from physical and
be eligible for shared parental leave and pay.
psychological harm.
There are different eligibility criteria for birth,
surrogate and adoptive parents to get shared parental
leave and pay; further information can be found at Equal rights
www.gov.uk/shared-parental-leave-and-pay. Under the Equality Act 2010, people at work and in
wider society are legally protected from direct or
indirect discrimination, victimisation and harassment.
See section 7.1 of this chapter for details of protected
characteristics.

Health, safety and welfare

The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974
(HASAWA) protects the health, safety and welfare of:
 people at work
 those who could be affected by work activities.

An employer’s legal duties under this legislation are

explained in Chapter 1.

▲ Figure 9.22 Parental leave Access to representation in times of

grievance
Improve your maths Occasionally, an employee will raise a problem,
complaint or concern with their employer that cannot
A 19-year-old carpenter earns the national minimum be resolved amicably without intervention.
wage:
 One week, he worked 47 hours in total. A grievance is usually raised with an employer
 His employer pays him ‘time and a half’ for every following internal procedures laid out in the contract of
hour after 39 standard-time hours. employment. This often involves notifying an employer
 37 per cent of his total pay is deducted for tax, in writing at first, and then following this up with a
National Insurance and pension. meeting between the employer, a representative from
 The threshold for PAYE (pay as you earn) is £242 the organisation’s human resources department
per week, or £1,048 per month. (if appropriate), the employee and a companion of
How much has the carpenter earned after the employee’s choosing. Employees can represent
deductions? themselves, although they may exercise their legal
right to take a representative from their trade union or
a colleague for support.
Research
Key term
Find out the employee leave and pay entitlements
for paternity and adoption. Human resources department: department
of an organisation that deals with recruiting,
administrating and training staff

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 Chapter 9 Relationship management in construction

Redundancy example working conditions, health and safety, standards,

procedures and reasonable behaviour expectations. It
Employers and employees must adhere to the terms
also provides employees with details about the rules
of the employment contract until it ends, when the
that everyone responsible for using personal data has to
employee is given notice or dismissed.
follow, in order to protect the confidentiality of people at
If an employee who has worked for the same employer work and to comply with the UK General Data Protection
for two or more years is made redundant, they are Regulation (UK GDPR) and the Data Protection Act 2018
normally entitled to statutory redundancy pay. The (see section 3.2 of Chapter 8).
amount of pay received depends on the employee’s
Company handbooks often contain a social media
age at the time of leaving and their length of service
policy and code of conduct. These documents explain
(although this is capped at 20 years).
rules which employees should follow outside of their
11.2 Employment responsibilities working hours, to ensure their behaviour does not
impact negatively on the employer or damage their
Employers have responsibilities to their employees to brand or reputation. Improper or illegal behaviour by
make sure they are treated fairly, by maintaining good an employee can sometimes prevent them performing
practices and complying with employment law. their job role as outlined in their job description, and
Employers’ responsibilities towards their employees may lead to disciplinary action or dismissal by their
include: employer. Furthermore, they could be prosecuted by
 protecting their health, safety and welfare, external enforcement bodies, for example the police,
for example by providing personal protective if they have committed a criminal offence.
equipment, toilets and rest facilities
 providing a contract of employment
 informing and consulting when necessary
 being an inclusive employer and not discriminating
while recruiting, employing or promoting staff
 paying the minimum wage, sick pay, maternity pay,
holiday pay and other entitlements
 allowing staff to return to the same job after a leave
of absence, for example after maternity leave or a
sabbatical
 following the Working Time Regulations 1998
 abiding by the terms and conditions of the contract
of employment
 considering requests from staff for flexible working
 auto-enrolling employees into a workplace pension.

Key terms
▲ Figure 9.23 A company policy document
Sabbatical: an extended period of unpaid leave from
work, taken in agreement with an employer, often
used for holidays, travelling or pursuing interests
Test yourself
Flexible working: a working arrangement that allows
an employee to choose when and where they work, Describe the most likely outcome for an employee
in order to improve their work–life balance, reduce following a minor breach and a serious breach of
their stress levels and provide better job satisfaction their contract of employment.

Employees also have responsibilities to their employer,

including working to the terms and conditions agreed Test yourself
in their employment contract and company handbook.
List the employment rights of an employee.
A company handbook, also known as a company policy,
provides employees with job-related information, for

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

12 Ethics and ethical behaviour

In principle, people should treat others the way they
would like to be treated themselves. This is essential
to the long-term success of a business and the route to
making a better environment in our workplaces and
the world around us.
When you think about ethics, you should consider
how the actions you take could affect others. For
example, a business may choose not to provide
PPE for employees as a way to increase its profits;
however, this is considered unethical because of the
risk to people’s health. ▲ Figure 9.24 As well as being a legal responsibility,
providing PPE is ethical behaviour
Larger businesses often develop a system of policies
and practices to ensure they operate in a fair,
moral and legal way; this is known as a code of Key terms
ethics. Businesses with a consistent set of values
Ethics: moral values that govern a person’s
and robust moral code develop a strong ethical
behaviour towards others
culture, which means they are less likely to face the
consequences of unethical behaviour. Unethical Unethical: morally wrong or unacceptable
behaviour in business is damaging and can have Defamation: the act of damaging someone’s
a negative impact on an organisation’s future good reputation through a false written or verbal
prospects. statement, also known as libel (written) or slander
(spoken)

Table 9.6 provides examples of ethical and unethical behaviour in business.

▼ Table 9.6 Ethical and unethical behaviour in business

Ethical behaviour Unethical behaviour

• Adherence to health and safety legislation and • Ignoring health and safety legislation and guidance
guidance • Discrimination
• Equality and diversity • Failure to honour commitments
• Fulfilling the terms of building and employment • Corruption
contracts • Harassment, for example sexual harassment
• Honesty, integrity, commitment and loyalty • Disregard for corporate social responsibility
• Corporate social responsibility • Wilful damage to the environment, for example inappropriate
• Environmental protection disposal of waste or destruction of protected trees
• Accurate business statements • False business claims
• Protection of personal or sensitive data • Disclosure of sensitive personal information
• Fair employment rights and responsibilities • Mistreatment/exploitation of employees, for example paying
• Adherence to laws below the minimum living wage or offering poor working
• Respect conditions
• Accountability for actions • Sabotage
• Submission of accurate and true annual accounts to • Disrespect
HMRC • Defamation of a competitor
• Tax avoidance and manipulating accounts
• Theft
• Bribery
• Money laundering
• Deception

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 Chapter 9 Relationship management in construction

Businesses that demonstrate ethical traits and website is essential as a platform to advertise and
encourage and reward good attitudes are often more promote a business to the public, customers and other
productive and successful, as they develop trust stakeholders.
between the management, the employees and the
public. When a business with power is seen to be Key term
acting responsibly and unselfishly, it can also improve
its reputation. Networking: an activity where businesses and
people with a common interest meet to share
information and develop contacts
Test yourself
Describe a situation where ethical behaviour is
Businesses can use social media to engage quickly
applied in the workplace.
with a wide demographic. It allows them to share
ideas, knowledge and good practice with other
businesses, through posts, blogs, podcasts, articles
13 Sources of information and videos.
Organisations need to create opportunities to meet Businesses that use social media often provide
new customers and develop relationships with contacts customers with the opportunity to write reviews, as
and partners for new business ventures. a way of giving unfiltered honest feedback, although
Networking is a low-cost process used by many it may not always be positive or constructive. Some
organisations to make initial introductions with businesses also use social media to their advantage by
likeminded people, share information and form redirecting traffic from posts to their main website, as a
long-lasting business relationships. Construction marketing strategy to increase sales.
businesses can network on construction sites, attend Social media must be controlled carefully by an
trade events or exhibitions, join networking groups organisation. It can quickly and easily damage both
or use social media. Distributing business cards is reputation and brand if errors are made or negative
another way to expand a networking community, feedback is received and publicised. Due to the fast
although this method is often slower and restricted pace of social media, businesses have to continually
to a small demographic compared with the use of monitor and update their content to ensure it remains
digital media. current and has not been abused with unwanted
The internet is used by most construction businesses or inappropriate posts. There is also a risk that
in the UK to market their product or service, raise their confidential information could be accessed by hackers
profile and develop people’s interest for future sales or leaked online, unless a good cyber security system is
opportunities. A professionally made and managed used to protect it.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Assessment practice

Short answer towards, providing the employees are aged

22 or above and earn over the low-income
1 What term describes a group or individual that
threshold?
has an invested interest in the long-term success
of an organisation? Long answer
2 Why is it important to maintain a good working 6 Describe the negotiation techniques used in the
relationship with customers? construction industry.
3 What is the main piece of legislation that 7 Describe a situation involving unethical
prevents discrimination in the workplace? behaviour in a business.
4 Where would an employee find information 8 Explain the term ‘networking’.
on working conditions, health and safety,
9 Describe a situation when arbitration may be
standards, procedures and reasonable behaviour
appropriate to use in the workplace.
expectations?
10 Explain the advantages of non-verbal
5 What must all employers automatically enrol
communication.
their employees into and make contributions

Project practice
Liam has just started a new job as a solar panel not wearing his hard hat as instructed and was asked
installer. In the first week, he has been asked by his to leave the site. During an investigation into the
employer to install six photovoltaic (PV) panels with matter by his employer, Liam claimed he was being
two other employees. discriminated against.
 Describe the conflict-management technique used
Liam and his work colleagues attended a site induction
by the site manager when he challenged Liam on
on the new development under construction, where
the second occasion.
they were informed about the site rules and mandatory
 Work in a small group to research Liam’s
PPE that has to be worn at all times on the site.
employment rights and responsibilities, and write a
While installing the first PV panel, Liam was challenged brief report to explain his behaviour on the day and
by the site manager for not wearing his hard hat. whether this was acceptable.
Liam said that it was uncomfortable, and too hot to be  In your opinion, was Liam discriminated against by
wearing on a roof in the middle of the summer. Later the site manager?
that day, Liam was caught again by the site manager

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 Chapter 10 Digital technology in
construction

Introduction
The expanding and evolving use of digital technology in the
construction industry has led to improvements in management
and production methods, for example:
 better efficiency in project planning
 a more streamlined design approach
 enhanced collaboration between the building team
and stakeholders
 greater innovation in construction methods and design.
While Chapter 8 introduced the term ‘digital’ and outlined
a limited number of applications for digital technology, this
chapter considers the use of digital technology in construction
in greater detail, identifying digital systems and processes that
are employed to achieve specific results.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will understand:
1 the internet of things (IoT)
2 digital engineering techniques
3 opportunities for the use of technology.

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Smart technology can help building designers to

1 Internet of things (IoT) identify optimal construction materials and methods
for future projects, leading to the construction of
The term ‘internet of things’ (IoT) refers to the
buildings that rely less on highly skilled workers, use
system of applying unique digital identifiers to
fewer resources and produce less carbon.
physical objects, such as buildings, which can be
connected to a digital network. Communication data The interconnected nature of the IoT allows data
can flow between the connected objects, allowing analysis which can provide performance information
interactivity and collaboration to achieve specific on individual components and materials in a range of
goals. structures. As a result, manufacturers can improve and
refine manufactured resources.
Objects connected through a digital network can be
referred to as ‘smart’ objects, when the processing
of information and data happens without human
intervention. Communication can take place directly
from machine to machine (M2M). This means that
systems management and decision making can be
automated in operational areas of a smart building,
such as:
 monitoring and optimising systems performance
 detecting systems inefficiencies
 alerting remote operators to potential problems
 diagnosing possible causes of problems.

▲ Figure 10.2 The interconnected nature of the IoT

allows for many applications

Smart technology is evolving quickly, and the term

‘artificial intelligence’ (AI) is becoming more familiar.
AI describes digital systems that go beyond simply
following programmed instructions. They use methods
of analysis that identify patterns and correlations, in
order to draw appropriate conclusions more quickly
than humans are able to.
▲ Figure 10.1 In the IoT, communication can take
place from machine to machine Industry tip
The potential for using the IoT in construction AI is used in many devices we take for granted. For
applications is vast. Designing buildings and example, face and fingerprint recognition software
infrastructure elements to incorporate interconnected is often used in mobile phones. This application of
and unified sensors and monitoring equipment allows AI is also often used to prevent unauthorised access
data analysis, which can translate into: to construction sites, using a biometric turnstile.
 reduction in energy use
 improvements in manufacturing efficiency
 improvements in safety Key term
 streamlining of materials delivery and supply-chain
activity. Biometric: involving the detection and analysis of
individuals’ unique physical characteristics as a
means of verifying identity

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 Chapter 10 Digital technology in construction

1.1 Uses of digital technology

The development and implementation of digital
technology, in both the construction industry and
society generally, has led to new methods of working,
with technological tools being refined constantly.
Let us look at some uses of digital technology in the
operation of completed buildings and during the
construction phase.

Digital technology used in completed

buildings
Completed buildings that are designed to integrate with
the IoT can produce large quantities of useful data.
Sensor technology and data management systems
embedded in a structure can record and archive data,
as well as produce live data streams, for analysis
and evaluation. This allows a clear understanding
of the performance of an occupied building and the
environment it provides for its occupants.

▲ Figure 10.3 Controlled access to a construction site

using a fingerprint reader

Data analysis using AI holds the promise of real-

time autonomous decision making when operating
buildings systems. It also offers the ability to
compare different features, options, costings and
performance factors during the design of a new
building.
Smart learning that uses digital technology and the
networking capability of the IoT is likely to become ▲ Figure 10.4 Sensor technology embedded in a
an integral feature of future design processes and structure can provide valuable data
operating systems in the construction industry.
Occupier comfort
In buildings such as offices, smart control systems
Key term
can be used to monitor and adjust levels of relative
Autonomous: functioning independently without humidity, air temperature, ventilation, dust and even
external control air pressure within individual rooms, in order to ensure
a comfortable and productive working environment.

Test yourself
How can AI be used to control who enters a
construction site?

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Power management
Research
Digital technology can support energy efficiency
Search online for companies that offer control through the management of electrical power. Demand
systems for buildings. Write down the range of for electrical power in an occupied building will
features in a building that can be controlled by fluctuate depending on the number of occupants active
digital technology. at certain times. Intelligent systems can gather and
compare information over time to detect changes in
Analysis of data over time can be used to refine the energy use and potentially predict periodic peaks and
operational parameters of control systems, in turn troughs in demand.
creating and maintaining consistently comfortable Through the IoT, energy suppliers could request
working and living conditions. that consumers command their internal systems to
Experts in AI and smart technology suggest that reduce energy consumption when increased general
control systems in the future may be able to sense in demand puts stress on supply capacity. This model
real time whether a building’s occupants are tired, too of real-time management of demand is likely to play
hot or too cold, and automatically make adjustments to an increasingly important part in improving efficient
heating and ventilation to enhance wellbeing. energy usage.
Sustainable electricity generation for individual
Key term properties, for example in the form of solar panels and
wind turbines, is increasing. However, these energy
Parameters: limits which define the scope of a sources may not provide sufficient amounts of energy
system, process or activity
for larger buildings, which may still need to rely on
external energy supplies.
Renewable energy sources such as solar and wind
power provide variable energy outputs dependent on
weather conditions, so it is necessary to balance the
use of onsite and off-site energy sources in a building
according to the demand from occupants.

▲ Figure 10.5 Analysis of data can be used to set

operational parameters of control systems

Improve your English

Increasing numbers of smart products are being
marketed for home use. Find out what is available ▲ Figure 10.6 Digital technology allows sophisticated
and write an account of how a smart home could control of electrical power
be set up for the comfort and convenience of the
occupants. Systems using AI and the IoT have the potential to
make these decisions in real time, using a constant
feed of up-to-date information. In order to optimise
Test yourself energy use and minimise the production of carbon,
sophisticated control systems could make decisions
How can the analysis of appropriate data help to to use onsite energy generation, store energy in
make a building comfortable to work in?
battery facilities, export energy to the National Grid,

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 Chapter 10 Digital technology in construction

use only external energy sources, or combine some

of these options. Research
Research the range of CAD software available
Research online. How many different programs can you find?
Write down the cost of two CAD software packages.
By 2030, all new cars in the UK will be fully electric
(or at least heavily electrified) instead of powered by
petrol and diesel.
Health and safety
Find out how many electric car charging points there
are in the UK. Could AI be used to manage this part Using digital technology can mean spending a long
of the infrastructure? time focused on a screen and sitting in one position.
Be aware of the possible damage to your health –
poor posture can cause back and neck problems,
Maintenance and excessive screen time can affect your eyesight.
Benefits of digital technology include the vast
quantities of data that can be processed and the
Digital systems can speed up the design process
speed of data transfer. AI systems can compare a
considerably, leading to greater productivity. Building
huge range of scenarios based on live data streams,
design ideas created using specialist software can be
from which warning signs of equipment failure can
presented as a three-dimensional (3D) model, allowing
be identified. This allows predictive maintenance to
examination and refinement of the design concept.
be a reality.
A building is an asset which must be managed and
maintained efficiently in order to preserve its value.
The development of AI systems that can detect
potential faults and anomalies in equipment means
that maintenance interventions can be made before
that equipment fails.
Equipment failures cause disruption that can
be costly and even dangerous to the building’s
occupants, so digital technology is a valuable tool
in asset management and maintenance of the built
environment.

▲ Figure 10.7 Digital tools can produce 3D models of

Test yourself
a structure
How can digital technology be used to maintain a
building effectively? Digital tools are able to generate accurate materials and
components lists from 3D models or 2D drawings. These
can be linked digitally to materials costs databases, in
Digital technology used during the order to produce an up-to-date costing for a project.
construction of buildings Speeding up the process of designing and costing a
While some types of digital technology have been used project, coupled with the ability to update or amend
in construction for many years, especially during the project details quickly, streamlines development and
design process, new technologies are constantly being improves productivity.
developed to improve site safety and efficiency and On site
make construction more sustainable.
Once project design details have been finalised and
Design costings completed, digital technology has a significant
Computer-aided design (CAD) has become a standard role to play on the construction site. Smart equipment,
design tool when developing the concept for a such as surveying tools that use satellite positioning
construction project (see later in this chapter for further data for setting out buildings, can link with remotely
details). stored project data through the IoT. This type of

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

equipment is becoming increasingly sophisticated and

can speed up site preparation considerably. Improve your English
A similar smart approach can be used to avoid damage to Search online for ‘AI excavators’. Write a report
existing buried pipes and cables when excavating a new about how construction machines are being
site. Mechanical excavators can be equipped with satellite developed to operate without drivers. (Hint: Japan is
positioning equipment in order to locate pipes and cables, leading the way.)
and digital depth controls can assist operators in limiting
the depth of excavations to safe levels.
Materials and resources
Delivery of materials and components to site must be
Industry tip
reliable and consistent, in order to avoid project delays
Experienced site supervisors will judge the safest and increased costs. However, storage of materials on
way to work around existing services on site. site is often limited due to congestion and a lack of
Sometimes the safest way to expose pipes and suitable storage space.
cables is to dig by hand.
A strategy developed in the car manufacturing
industry known as ‘just in time’ (JIT) can be used in
construction activities to improve efficiency, reduce
waste and eliminate the need for extensive onsite
storage facilities.

Improve your English

Find out the history of the JIT strategy. Write a short
report about how the idea came about and where it
was first applied.

A JIT strategy requires delivery of the right materials,

in the right order, in the right amount, at the right
time. For example, concrete is usually mixed off site
▲ Figure 10.8 It is vital to avoid damage to buried
to the required specification. It must therefore be
cables and pipes on site
delivered at the right time and in the right quantity to
Smart technology can also support the efficient allow it to be poured at the required location before
operation of machines on site. For example, removing setting occurs.
too much material when shaping the ground will There are many software packages designed to
require some material to be replaced later, which is facilitate JIT systems.
uneconomical. Smart equipment in earth-moving and
excavation machines can ensure pinpoint accuracy in
levelling the ground and creating gradients and slopes
when contouring the terrain.
Digital tracking systems can also be installed in
machinery. Geofencing uses digital technology such
as RFID or GPS to pinpoint the location of construction
equipment and create a virtual boundary, ensuring that
it remains within a specified area.

Key term
Geofencing: using technology to pinpoint the
location of equipment and create a virtual boundary ▲ Figure 10.9 JIT systems can be used in congested
locations where access is difficult

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 Chapter 10 Digital technology in construction

By using a simulation model, ‘what if’ analysis becomes

Industry tip possible, so that the design and selected construction
processes can be checked for feasibility. For example, it
The timing and sequencing of deliveries is critical
for a JIT system. Goods must therefore be handled can be confirmed that the intended building plot will
carefully to avoid damage. Damaged goods may accommodate the design, allowing access to deliver
not be replaced quickly, leading to disruption of and store materials without causing undue disruption
production schedules. to surrounding properties and their occupants.
The sequencing of project stages can be simulated,
Digital technology can be used to track and monitor so that construction processes follow a smooth path
materials and components during manufacture, without disruptive clashes. Any necessary changes
transport and delivery. This is useful during complex can be made before work commences on site, avoiding
projects, where a large catalogue of materials and errors and expensive delays.
components can be controlled using processing
systems.

Test yourself
What is a JIT system?

2 Digital engineering techniques

Digital engineering uses a digital skillset to create
and edit data as part of a design process. Engineering
principles are applied in a virtual environment,
allowing designers to explore a range of design ▲ Figure 10.10 Simulation software can assist in
possibilities and develop innovative solutions to design planning and design
problems.
Simulation can also be used for structural analysis.
Performance data harvested from past projects can
Improve your English be used to model the behaviour of materials and
Find out what is meant by the term ‘engineering
components in the planned project, to ensure the
principles’ and write a definition in your own words. proposed design is capable of carrying the stresses and
loadings that will be imposed on it.

In this section, we will discuss three main techniques Test yourself

applied in the field of digital engineering:
 simulation Suggest some questions about a new building
 animation project that simulation can help to answer.
 modelling.

When retrofit or restoration work is planned, simulation

2.1 Simulation
can be used to ensure the existing structure can
Simulation uses digital methods to mimic the accommodate new materials or components without
behaviour of real systems and processes. It helps overloading or stressing load-bearing elements.
to answer important questions about a proposed
construction project, such as:
 Will the building design be energy efficient?
 Which construction methods are best suited to the
design concept?
 What is a realistic timescale for the construction of
the building?

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

 visually assess the effects of lighting and the

proportions of room sizes
 gauge the number of occupants who can use the
internal spaces
 evaluate the access to and movement of occupants
in shared spaces and corridors to ensure safety and
comfort.

▲ Figure 10.11 Digital simulation can be used to

confirm structural stability during restoration work

Research
Search online for ‘before and after’ images of
construction restoration projects. Copy and paste
▲ Figure 10.12 Digital technology can be used to
the images into a Word document and write a
summary of each project. create a walk-through of a proposed building to
assess lighting effects and room proportions

2.2 Animation Improve your English

Visualising a completed building and imagining how Search online for an example of a construction
it will function can be difficult when simply viewing a animation. Watch the whole animation then write
2D drawing or diagram. While a 3D digital model can a detailed description of what it showed you. (If
deliver an impressive view of a project, the viewer’s necessary, you can watch the animation a number of
experience can be greatly enhanced if that model is times.)
animated to help them focus on key elements.
Digital animation is a powerful tool that can be used Test yourself
for refining conceptual details of a project. It can
provide an engaging and lifelike view of a building, What does the term ‘walk-through’ mean in the
often by creating a walk-through to show room areas context of animation?
and features. This has many benefits, such as the
ability to:

Case study In pairs or small groups, discuss how creating an

animation of the organisational requirements for the
Following the Grenfell Tower fire in 2017, a contract has project would be beneficial.
been awarded to replace dangerous external cladding Think about:
on a group of multi-storey residential buildings. The  traffic flow
buildings will be occupied throughout the project,  personnel movements
and traffic in the streets around the apartment blocks  equipment movements
must be disrupted as little as possible. Storage for  materials handling
the replacement cladding panels is limited, so a JIT  sequence of work
delivery system will be used, with delivery vehicles  protection of occupants.
routed to specific offloading points around the area.

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 Chapter 10 Digital technology in construction

2.3 Modelling
So far, this section has considered how simulation and
animation use digital modelling to assist in designing
buildings and planning construction work. However,
digital modelling can also be used throughout the life
cycle of buildings.
For example, sophisticated digital modelling is used to
survey existing buildings, in order to collect data that
can be used for:
 assessing maintenance and repair requirements
 planning restoration projects
 carrying out alterations and extensions ▲ Figure 10.14 Laser scanners can be mounted on
 making decisions on demolition methods at the end drones for surveying
of a building’s useful life.
A major advantage of using digital technology in this
A laser scanner can be used to create 3D imagery of a
way is that 2D or 3D digital models and representations
building’s complex geometry or survey surface areas
of structures can be easily amended and instantly
that are not easily accessible. From its setup position,
shared by being transmitted to other users anywhere
it can digitally record the precise distance of densely
in the world.
grouped points at rapid speed. This process is often
referred to as a ‘point cloud survey’.
Test yourself
Industry tip State one use for point cloud surveying.
Point cloud surveying may also be referred to
as ‘light detection and ranging’ or LIDAR – a The scanned data can be utilised in immersive
combination of the words light and radar. technologies, such as virtual reality (VR). A VR user is
visually completely shut off from the outside world by
wearing a head-mounted display (HMD). Whatever
input the user sees through the HMD becomes their
‘reality’, allowing them to experience a digitally
generated scene as if they were part of it.

Key term
Immersive: creating a 3D image which appears to
surround the viewer

The HMD senses user movement, so that when the

user looks up, down or from side to side, the scene they
see tracks their range of movement over 360 degrees,
▲ Figure 10.13 A laser scanner
to give the sense of looking around a space within the
The point cloud data generated by laser scanning can virtual building.
be integrated into Building Information Modelling
(BIM) software or CAD systems to digitally create Health and safety
detailed 3D models of a structure or features of the
There are obvious safety considerations if a user
built environment for a range of uses. Laser scanners cannot see their real-life surroundings while moving
can be mounted on drones to capture the exact through a virtual environment. If you use a VR
contours of landscapes, road layouts, railway routes system, plan the way you use it with this in mind.
and even entire towns.

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Research Industry tip

VR systems have become quite common. Research Other types of immersive technology are often
and make a list of construction and non-construction mistakenly grouped under the title ‘virtual reality’.
uses for VR systems. Augmented reality (AR) and mixed reality (MR) are
different systems that can be applied in various
construction-related contexts. For more on AR, see
Multiple users can enter this virtual world to Chapter 4.
collaborate on design decisions, making the process
more creative and efficient. Often, a client will have As well as producing dynamic visual representations of
definite ideas about how they want their project to buildings and other structures, the data in digital models
be completed but they may not be able to express can also be used to create static illustrations or artistic
their ideas clearly to designers. Using immersive impressions of a project for use in conventional non-
technology, the designer can accompany the client digital documentation, such as a client brochure or report.
using the virtual representation of the building to
confirm that the proposed design fully matches the 3 Opportunities for the use of
client’s expectations.
technology
Digital technology is widely used in many industries to
achieve specific user-defined results. Manufacturing,
research, transport, medicine and a host of other sectors
routinely make use of digital technology in order to
operate and grow. Systems and processes using digital
data are often taken for granted in our daily life, for
example in items such as mobile phones and computers.
Table 10.1 details some of the benefits of using digital
technology in construction, especially in relation to
planning and organising a project and monitoring the
▲ Figure 10.15 An architect using an MR system construction phase.

▼ Table 10.1 Benefits of technology in construction

Benefit Application
Accuracy Digital technology allows large volumes of data to be processed with high degrees of accuracy.
Data concerning measurements, costings, projections and evaluations can be cross-referenced and
linked in complex ways to produce rich and valuable assessment data.
This can inform reliable decision making and forecasting during the planning of a project and the
monitoring of progress during the construction phase.
Accessibility Digital data can be stored and retrieved quickly and easily.
Data can be accessed by anyone who is authorised to use relevant networking systems, regardless of
their location. This encourages collaboration and allows data to be instantly updated or modified.
Efficiency Digital networks can be permanently open to authorised users, allowing efficient working in both local
teams and global partnerships across different time zones.
Whether working in teams or in isolation, working simultaneously or sequentially, effective work
patterns can be created and refined to respond to current needs in maintaining efficiency.
Risk reduction Digital simulation of construction operations can be used to identify areas of operational risk.
Analysis of accident and injury data allows the identification of emerging trends, possibly due to
inappropriate behaviour or incorrect work practices. These can be mitigated by the rapid introduction
of safer work methods – risk assessments and method statements can be matched more closely with
actual working patterns and conditions.

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 Chapter 10 Digital technology in construction

Test yourself
What are the benefits of using technology in
construction?

There will no doubt be intriguing opportunities

in the future to take advantage of the power of
digital equipment, computer modelling and smart
technologies.

3.1 Robotics
Industries such as car manufacturing use robotics
▲ Figure 10.17 Factory-produced modules being
with digital control systems to assemble components
installed on site
repetitively.
There are some repetitive activities in construction,
Research
where industrial robots are already being used or are
being developed, for example in off-site construction. Research off-site construction companies and find
This involves the manufacture of parts or sections out the types of projects modular construction has
of a building away from the site location. The been used for.
manufactured items are then transported to site, where
they are assembled to complete the building. Off-site
construction is often referred to as ‘prefabrication’ and Other types of robots that could be used in the
may involve modular construction methods. For more construction industry include:
information on off-site construction, see Chapter 7.  inspection robots that can reach areas that are
difficult or dangerous to access
 maintenance robots that can clean and repair
buildings safely
 3D-printing robots that ‘print’ components or whole
buildings
 demolition robots that safely dismantle unstable or
fragile structures.

▲ Figure 10.16 Robotics can be used for repetitive

construction operations

When manufacturing sections of a building, the use of

robots has many benefits, including:
 consistent quality standards
 a regulated work rate that allows for reliable
scheduling of materials deliveries to the factory
 accuracy and efficiency (so less waste) ▲ Figure 10.18 3D-printing robots can ‘print’
components or entire buildings
 enhanced safety standards, as there is reduced
human involvement.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Test yourself
How can robotics be used in modular construction?

3.2 CAD/CAM
CAD/CAM refers to software that is a combination
of two processes – computer-aided design (CAD) and
computer-aided manufacturing (CAM).
As mentioned above, CAD is a digital tool used to create
2D and 3D representations and drawings during the
design process, which allows simulation, testing and
▲ Figure 10.19 A CNC cutting machine being set up to
refining of ideas to arrive at a satisfactory finished design.
perform repetitive tasks
CAM uses digital geometric data to control
manufacturing machinery, such as computer numerical Digital processes such as CAD, CAM and BIM can be
control (CNC) machines which have motorised tool integrated, in order to save time and achieve complex
positioning and manoeuvring capabilities controlled by outcomes without the possibility of human error in
pre-programmed computers. interpreting drawings and written instructions.
For example, a 2D or 3D CAD drawing of a building
Key term consists simply of lines to represent its shape and the
component parts within it. If the CAD data is linked to
Geometric: consisting of defined angles, patterns BIM, the combinations of simple lines can be allocated
and shapes grouped geometric patterns, features and dimensions.
This can allow automatic generation of a range of
The combination of CAD and CAM results in a faster accurate views of a component, along with details of
production process that provides dimensional control the materials it is made from, so that a CAM machine
and ensures product consistency. By using automated can manufacture it.
systems that can work around the clock, the need for
skilled production workers is reduced. However, these
systems still require input from trained personnel who
set up and program the machines and monitor and
intervene when problems arise.

Assessment practice

Short answer Long answer

1 What does M2M stand for? 6 Describe how AI systems go beyond simply
2 How can the IoT improve energy efficiency in a following programmed instructions.
building? 7 Explain how AI systems could be used to improve
3 State two benefits (besides energy efficiency) that worker productivity in an office building.
can result from integrating buildings into the IoT. 8 Describe the range of benefits achievable by
4 What alternative name is sometimes given to using CAD when designing buildings.
point cloud surveying? 9 Explain how an item of equipment or machinery
5 How can robotics be used in a construction used on site can be described as ‘smart’.
setting? 10 Describe the difference between simulation and
animation when used for analysis of buildings.

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Project practice
An old office block in a city centre is to be extended to  Write a report to compare the advantages and
allow for company expansion. It is a familiar landmark disadvantages of conducting the survey visually
in the area because of its attractive period architectural on foot or using a drone to create a point cloud
features. A railway line and a river run close to the survey.
building.  Make a list of potential problems that must be
considered regarding the proposed underground
The existing parking area next to the building will
car park. (Hint: think about the railway and river
become the location of the office extension. Parking
nearby.)
for existing and new office staff will in future be
 Consider technological methods that could be used
provided by a new underground car park below the
to record details of the architectural features of the
extension.
existing landmark building, with a view to matching
You have been commissioned to conduct a survey of them in the new extension.
the building plot and the existing structure to establish
the feasibility of the proposed extension project.

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 Chapter 11 Construction
commercial/business principles

Introduction
This chapter looks at different business structures in the
construction industry and identifies legal obligations towards
registration and taxation. We will compare the benefits and
financial risks for proprietors when trading as a particular
business type and learn how they can protect themselves
personally from any liability.
We will then examine the roles of values, aims and objectives
in achieving business goals and establish how the success of a
business can be measured.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will understand: 5 principles of entrepreneurship and innovation
1 business structures 6 measuring success
2 business objectives 7 project management
3 business values 8 quality management.
4 principles and examples of corporate social
responsibility

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 Chapter 11 Construction commercial/business principles

1 Business structures
1.1 Business types
There are many different types of business that
operate in the UK construction industry, ranging from
individuals trading on their own to national public
limited companies employing thousands of people
across the country.
Some business structures are not designed for
everyone because of the size of the organisation and its
legal status. However, as a business grows it may need
to change to a more appropriate business model. ▲ Figure 11.1 A sole trader

The advantages and disadvantages of each business Operating as a sole trader is one of the simplest
type have to be considered carefully, because business structures to run, because there are fewer
there could be serious legal implications if trading tax responsibilities (such as filing accounts with
unlawfully. Companies House) and therefore less administration.
In this section, we will look at the following types of However, a sole trader is still responsible for the day-
business: to-day management of their company and:
 sole traders, for example a self-employed  accurately recording expenses, sales and profits
tradesperson  running payroll
 partnerships, for example an architects’ practice  filing annual self-assessment tax returns with HMRC
 limited companies (private, Ltd, or public, PLC), for  paying National Insurance contributions
example construction companies  paying value added tax (VAT) if annual turnover
 small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), for exceeds, or is likely to exceed, £85,000.
example construction companies
 not-for-profit organisations, for example Her Research
Majesty’s Revenue and Customs (HMRC) or the
Health and Safety Executive (HSE) Find out about value added tax (VAT) and explain
the advantages and disadvantages for a sole trader.
 community interest companies (CICs), for example
local community development trusts
 franchises, for example building maintenance
businesses. Improve your maths

Sole traders An electrician who is employed as a sole trader has

an annual turnover of £92,000 (inclusive of VAT) and
As soon as someone registers with HMRC as self- is paid a salary of £42,000.
employed, they are effectively a sole trader. As a
Calculate how much tax they will have to pay to
proprietor, they own and have full control of their
HMRC (excluding any tax savings) if the rates of
entire business or enterprise, although they can employ
tax are:
other people to work for them.  VAT 20%
A sole-trader business can operate under the name of  tax and National Insurance 27%.
its owner. However, if the proprietor would prefer to Note: VAT is paid on whole turnover, but tax and
use a different business name, they must register it at National Insurance are paid on salary.
companies house to prevent another company trading
with the same name.
To help manage the financial aspects of running a
business, many sole traders appoint an accountant.
Key term
However, the sole trader is still legally responsible for
Proprietor: an individual who owns a business the information submitted to HMRC and Companies
House each year.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

A sole trader is personally liable for any losses or debts

(for example to the bank, HMRC or suppliers) that the
company may incur if things go wrong. Creditors can
legally recover any money owed by the debtor from
their business or their personal assets such as their
house. If the debt is considerable and the individual is
unable to pay, they could be made personally bankrupt.
This could result in further difficulties, for example
being unable to obtain any type of credit such as a
mortgage, credit card or finance on a vehicle because
they are deemed to be a high risk.

Key terms ▲ Figure 11.2 A nominated person filing a tax return

Creditors: individuals or organisations that are owed There are three different types of business partnership:
money because they have provided goods, services
 ordinary partnership
or a monetary loan; HMRC would also be described
 limited partnership
as a creditor where a tax duty is owed
 limited liability partnership (LLP).
Debtor: an individual or organisation that owes
money There are no special responsibilities for an ordinary
partnership other than those described above.
Limited partnerships have to be registered with
Partnerships Companies House. They must have at least one general
Partnerships are businesses owned by two or more partner and one limited partner:
individuals. Partners share the costs, duties and risks  General partners are responsible for managing
of managing a business together, although they may and controlling the business and are liable for any
delegate certain responsibilities to their employees. debts that the business cannot repay, in the same
Each partner’s share of the profits is based on the way as a sole trader. They can apply for the limited
partnership agreement between all stakeholders partnership to act as an authorised contractual
and can be determined by looking at the amount of scheme (ACS), which means that the partners
money they invested in the business and/or the level co-own the assets but only pay tax on their
of involvement they have in the day-to-day running of share of the profits and are exempt from paying
the business. It is possible to have ‘sleeping partners’ corporation tax.
who have no involvement in managing the business  Limited partners are not responsible for the
but who contribute financially. management of the business and are only liable for
any debts up to the amount they have contributed.
Each partner is personally responsible for paying tax
and National Insurance contributions, based on their A partner cannot be both general and limited at the
share of the profits, and must therefore register for self- same time.
assessment tax returns with HMRC.
Key terms
A nominated person must be chosen to manage the
partnership’s business accounts and file its annual tax Limited partner: a part-owner of a business whose
returns with HMRC. financial liabilities cannot exceed their investment
Corporation tax: a duty paid annually to HMRC
Key term based on a company’s profits

Partnership agreement: a legally binding contract

that sets out terms and conditions for each partner
in the business

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 Chapter 11 Construction commercial/business principles

Improve your English

Explain the term ‘sleeping partner’.

Research
How long does a business legally have to keep tax
records? What are the consequences of not keeping
tax records in order?

A limited liability partnership (LLP) can be created

(incorporated) with two or more partners. While it
▲ Figure 11.3 Self-assessment tax return
can have any number of ordinary (non-designated)
members, it must have at least two designated members.
Designated members have responsibilities to manage Test yourself
the business, for example:
What factors could cause a business partnership
 registering the business for self-assessment with
to fail? Explain how these could be avoided before
HMRC (individual LLP members must also register starting an enterprise.
separately)
 registering the business for VAT, if annual turnover
is expected to be over £85,000
 keeping accounting records
Key term
 completing self-assessment and VAT returns Incorporated: legally registered as a limited
 preparing and signing annual accounts and filing company
them with Companies House
 sending an annual confirmation statement to
Companies House. Limited companies
Businesses often change their legal status to limited
A formal LLP agreement should be written to outline:
when they become more established, because it gives
 how members can join or leave the LLP
clients more confidence that the business is a credible
 the roles and responsibilities of members
organisation. Other benefits of limited companies
 how decisions are made
include:
 how profits are shared among members.
 protection of owners’ personal assets from any
Having a legally binding agreement in place when business debts
the business is first set up avoids potential disputes or  owners given complete control of their business
complications between partners at a later stage of trading.  no requirement to pay National Insurance
LLPs are sometimes preferred to other types of  lower rates of tax
business because they clearly define their partners  more tax relief than sole traders.
as individuals when it comes to earnings, unlike A disadvantage of being a limited company is that
corporations. They also protect the personal assets of information about the directors, shareholders,
partners as a separate legal entity from the liabilities of registered office and yearly financial statements is
the business. on public record. These details are visible not only to
As with any partnership, if there are only two members the general public, but also to the business’ potential
and one leaves, the LLP may have to be dissolved. competitors.
Private limited companies (Ltd)
Test yourself A private limited company (Ltd) is a business that
is legally registered with Companies House. It is
Why are LLPs sometimes preferred to other types of referred to as incorporated, meaning that it has
business? been made into a corporation that is a separate legal

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

entity, with its own rights and obligations. The main

benefit of a limited company is that the owners and Key terms
shareholders have limited liability, so their personal
Duty: a type of tax charged on the value of goods
assets are protected against any business debts up and services
to the value of the money that they have invested.
Financial year: a 12-month period over which a
As with any business, a limited company and its business’ accounts are calculated, as opposed to a
owners (known as directors) must be registered with calendar year (January to December); also known as
HMRC and complete annual tax returns, regardless of a fiscal year
whether any duty is owed. Annual business accounts
must be filed with HMRC, Companies House and
shareholders at the end of each financial year. Research
Directors of the business are paid in the same
Research the purpose of National Insurance
way as its employees, through the pay as you earn
contributions made through personal income.
(PAYE) system, and they do not have the flexibility
to withdraw money from the company without
restrictions or tax consequences. This means that tax Public limited companies (PLC)
and National Insurance are calculated and deducted A public limited company (PLC) is similar to a private
from salaries, rather than the directors and employees limited company. The main difference is that money
having to complete annual self-assessment returns can be raised for the business through investors
with HMRC. (for example the public) buying shares on the stock
At the end of each financial year, the board of exchange.
directors considers whether to distribute any profits This type of business benefits from many tax and
among the shareholders or reinvest the money in the National Insurance advantages up to a certain value of
business. Payments made to shareholders are known its profits, including:
as dividends; these can vary in size, depending on the  paying less corporation tax
amount of investment shares that have been purchased.  better dividend payments for shareholders
The limited company is responsible for paying PAYE  pensions
duty to HMRC either monthly or quarterly, and any  reinvesting money back into the business.
corporation tax annually. There are strict deadlines For a company to change its legal status to PLC, it
for filing tax returns and making any payments due, must have at least two shareholders and a minimum
with potential penalties or fines if they are not met. of £50,000 worth of shares to be issued. As with a
Therefore, most businesses employ an accountant to private limited company, a PLC must be registered
complete their accounts, or a larger company may have with HMRC and Companies House and file tax
an in-house accounts team. returns.

Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)

In the UK, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)
are defined as follows:
 small – employs on average no more than 50 people
and has an annual turnover of £10.2 million or less
 medium-sized – employs on average no more than
250 people and has an annual turnover of £36
million or less.
In 2020, 99.9 per cent of all businesses in the UK
were SMEs, which represents the employment of the
majority of the working population. These businesses
play an important role in the country’s economy
because of the jobs and tax revenue that they generate.
▲ Figure 11.4 A limited company
To encourage further growth and innovation, and

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 Chapter 11 Construction commercial/business principles

to help keep these enterprises in business, the Community interest companies (CICs)
government regularly offers various incentives, such as
The aim of community interest companies (CICs) is
better access to loans and favourable tax treatment.
to provide a benefit for the community or trade with
Not-for-profit organisations a social purpose. Unlike not-for-profit organisations,
they are expected to make a profit, which is
As the name suggests, these are charitable businesses
predominantly reinvested in the company or used
that do not make a financial profit. They often seek
for the community they are set up to serve. However,
to provide a public service or social benefits for
returns to company owners and investors are allowed,
individuals or communities in need.
as long as they are balanced and reasonable, and a
These types of business are usually run by a board of dividend cap must be put in place. A CIC is primarily
directors that use similar management techniques to about benefiting the community and not making a
for-profit organisations. However, any money earned private profit.
is used to cover operational costs and reinvested back
into the organisation to pursue its objectives or goals. Franchises
Successful and profitable businesses may look to grow
The type of management structure adopted often
further by creating a franchise.
depends on whether the organisation is limited, a legal
charity or an unincorporated association with voting A franchise allows a business to expand quickly
members. with lower capital outlay by selling the rights to
the business name, logo or trademark and business
Research model to self-employed entrepreneurs, referred to
as franchisees. By operating under the banner of an
Find out what unincorporated associations are and established business with a proven track record, a
how they operate: franchisee can seek to replicate the success of the
 What is their usual purpose?
bigger brand.
 Do they have to register with Companies House?
 How much does it cost to set them up? It is sometimes more beneficial to buy a long-
 What happens if they make a profit? term franchise than start a business from scratch
with a new name, because of the business system
(processes, suppliers and other resources), existing
A not-for-profit organisation can be started by anyone
customer loyalty and support provided by the
without any money, although they are often funded
franchisor. New businesses often take years to
through charitable donations, grants or self-funding.
establish themselves with a strong customer base
In many cases, they also have tax-exemption status.
before making a profit, whereas they are more likely
However, they are still obligated to deduct tax from
to be profitable from the outset if they have invested
their employees’ wages and complete annual company
in a franchise.
tax returns with HMRC.
Business support provided for a franchisee often
A successful not-for-profit organisation will demonstrate
includes:
ethical standards and practices, such as trustworthiness,
 marketing (promoting the business)
openness and accountability. This instils public and
 recruitment of personnel (human resources)
government confidence in the organisation, resulting in
 provision of training and equipment
greater financial investments in the future.
 provision of resources, for example machinery or
vans
Research  assistance from head office
 collaborative networking with other franchisees
Research not-for-profit construction organisations
 dealing with suppliers
in the UK and explain the motives for running their
businesses.  financial planning
 accounting.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

by their owners and the support network provided.

Once established, the franchisee has the option to buy
further investments or sell their business to a buyer
authorised by the franchisor.
A disadvantage of this type of business is that the
franchisee does not have any independence compared
with running their own business. They have to adhere
to the franchise business plan, operational plan for
day-to-day running, systems, policies and procedures.
Regardless of how well a franchise is managed, there
is always a risk that the organisation can be tarnished
by other franchisees, which could impact on future
▲ Figure 11.5 Business support training success.

Key terms Test yourself

Capital: the amount of funds or liquid assets owned Which term describes an individual who starts up
by a business their own business, taking on financial risks in the
hope of making a profit?
Liquid assets: things that a business owns that can
be sold quickly and easily for cash without any loss
in value
Entrepreneurs: individuals who start up their own 2 Business objectives
businesses, taking on financial risks in the hope of
Objectives can be defined as the incremental steps a
making a profit
business needs to take in order to achieve its overall
Franchisor: the original owner of a franchise aims, which are often closely aligned to its business
plan.
Once an agreement has been reached and the Businesses working in different sectors vary in size
contract has been signed, the franchisee must pay and scale, therefore their aims and objectives must be
any initial fee for the rights to the business. In individually tailored. For example, an entrepreneur
addition, the franchisor will be paid a regular share who has recently started a new business may initially
of the profits by the franchisee, known as royalties. have an aim to financially survive the first couple of
Royalties can be calculated from a percentage of the years of trading, whereas an established organisation
business turnover, a mark-up on goods supplied or may have an ambition to increase its annual turnover
a flat fee. or profit.
For a franchise business to work properly, it has to
maintain its standards and brand control. The business Key term
model must therefore be transferable, regardless of
geographical location. The business activity should Business plan: a written document that defines a
also be something that another business can do or be business’ goals and the strategies and timeframes to
achieve them
trained to do successfully.
Evidence suggests that franchises often perform well
because of the personal financial investment made

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 Chapter 11 Construction commercial/business principles

Improve your English Key term

You have decided to start your own business as Market share: the percentage of total sales or
a sole trader in your chosen profession and you output that a business has in a specified market;
are looking for investment to get you started, for sometimes referred to as market leadership
example to buy a van and tools.
Design headed paper with your business details
and write a letter to a bank, requesting a loan and
2.2 Social objectives
outlining your business plan. Private organisations have social objectives to provide
quality products and services that are useful to customers.
Objectives should be challenging, to give a business Most private organisations serve society by employing
purpose and direction. Once they have been achieved, competent people (skilled and unskilled) at different
they should be updated to improve the business and levels. Organisations with strategic social objectives to
move it one step closer to achieving its main goal. treat their employees fairly and inclusively will create
meaningful jobs, which enables their businesses to grow
The main categories of business objective used to
and in turn generate further employment opportunities.
measure performance of an organisation in the
These types of job often provide opportunities for
construction industry are:
continuous professional development (CPD) and
 financial
promotion, as well as offering other staff benefits. Besides
 social
the fair wages that employees should receive from their
 organisational culture
employers, they may also benefit from a workplace
 innovation
pension or welfare schemes such as private healthcare.
 quality
 sustainability Not-for-profit organisations, such as charities and
 compliance. social enterprises, work for the benefit of society by
providing a public service (such as housing, healthcare
2.1 Financial objectives and education) or helping people, in order to create
positive social change.
Entrepreneurs often prefer the independence
associated with having control of their own
organisation, rather than being employed by someone
else. The freedom to run a business and make
important decisions with the potential of determining
successful outcomes can be personally satisfying,
especially when the owner is challenged beyond their
comfort zone.
The financial objective for private organisations is
usually to develop their business with innovative
ideas, products or services in order to maximise
profits. As the business grows, other opportunities
can be created to adjust or set new goals in order
to achieve a bigger market share in a particular ▲ Figure 11.6 Private organisations seek to provide
geographical location. quality products and services that are useful to
customers
As mentioned above, the aims and objectives of
businesses can be very different. For example, the
financial objective of not-for-profit organisations is not 2.3 Organisational culture objectives
to create wealth but to make enough money to: Organisational culture can be described as a collection
 cover their costs of core beliefs, ethical values, expectations and
 establish reserves behaviours that define the corporate personality
 fund activities that benefit the community of an organisation. It is embodied in the way an
 reinvest in the business. organisation conducts business, treats its customers,

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

manages workflow and interacts with its employees. A business’ innovation objective may be to launch a
It is essential that all members of an organisation new product or service, outperform its competitors
understand its shared cultural objectives and promote or become a market leader. However, in order to
them while performing their roles and responsibilities. accomplish these long-term goals, they may first have
to achieve the following typical objectives of:
Creating a strong organisational culture is vital for the
 optimising existing processes or procedures
success of a company. Not only does it define a company’s
 increasing business productivity and efficiency
internal and external identity, but it also helps to build
 improving the quality of service or existing products
a strong, unified team of employees who enjoy greater
 being more competitive
wellbeing. In turn, this will reduce staff turnover and
 meeting customers’ needs
assist with recruiting high-calibre employees.
 improving the skills and knowledge of the workforce
An organisation that recognises and rewards the success  developing performance
of its employees is likely to transform them into advocates  refining sustainability within the organisation.
for the business, so that they continue to promote and
Innovative construction methods and technology, such
contribute to its consistent cultural behaviours.
as self-driving vehicles, virtual reality (VR), computer-
controlled manufacturing robots, 3D printers and
Key term drones, are explained in Chapter 7.

Workflow: a sequence of activities needed to

complete a work task

Test yourself
Why is it important to have a clearly defined
organisational culture?

2.4 Innovation objectives

Innovation objectives involve greater levels of uncertainty
and risk than general business objectives. They should be
▲ Figure 11.7 Virtual reality is a good example of
challenging but obtainable, by agreeing steps to achieve
innovation in construction design and development
them with all the business’ shareholders.
The primary innovation goals for business 2.5 Quality objectives
improvement can be defined by:
 setting aims and developing a strategy for how The minimum requirements for behaviour, work and
these goals can be achieved materials in the UK construction industry are specified
 understanding the primary challenges that may in health and safety legislation, British standards and
prevent targets being met building regulations. However, businesses often aim to
 understanding data, costs and risk exceed these standards, in order to ensure the welfare of
 being able to implement innovative new ideas in the their employees and offer an improved service to their
organisation clients.
 increasing employee retention Construction businesses can subscribe to a number
 engaging with employees and promoting of voluntary assessment and certification schemes, to
innovation and new ideas ensure best-practice standards that often far exceed
 identifying and rewarding talent. those required by legislation.

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 Chapter 11 Construction commercial/business principles

The Building Research Establishment’s Home Quality Access to general ISO information can be obtained free
Mark (HQM) is an independently assessed certification online. However, the full guidelines must be purchased
scheme for new homes that focuses on the expectations from the organisation.
and needs of occupants and protection of the
The ISO is not a governing body and does not have
environment. It assesses the quality and sustainability
authority to enforce any regulations and laws. It is also
of the home itself, its surroundings and the construction
not involved in the certification of its standards; this is
or renovation in the following key areas, set out in the
carried out by external certification bodies. Therefore,
‘Home Quality Mark ONE’ technical manual:
businesses can only become certified to specific
 ‘Our surroundings’, for example recreational space,
standards, for example ‘ISO 9001:2015 certified’ and
local amenities and sustainable transport options
not ‘ISO certified’. To become certified, a business will
 ‘My home’, for example sound insulation,
need to adhere to the requirements in the standards
ventilation, water efficiency, energy and cost
and may therefore use these as quality objectives.
 ‘Delivery’, for example construction energy
and water use, commissioning and testing, and
aftercare. Improve your English
Where the HQM scheme recognises that the standards Write a short sentence to explain the meaning of the
of a new home are significantly higher than the word ‘consensus’.
minimum requirements, it awards a star rating from
1 to 5. A 1-star rating means that a home meets key
baselines beyond minimum standards; a 5-star rating Test yourself
means that a home is outstanding and far exceeds
minimum standards. Explain the purpose of the ISO.
Attaining the HQM instils confidence in buyers,
tenants, investors, developers and insurers that higher 2.6 Sustainability and compliance
levels of build quality have been met and there are
significant benefits to living in the home, for example
objectives
a lower risk of defects usually identified in new-build Construction organisations often embed sustainability
properties. into their business objectives for moral reasons, for
example to protect the environment by maintaining
The International Organization for Standardization
ecological balance, conserving natural resources and
(ISO) is an international standard-setting body with
preventing pollution. The way we design and construct
headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. Its membership
buildings plays an important part in achieving these
comprises 165 national standards bodies from around
aims, from energy-efficient construction to eco-
the world. They work together to develop and publish
friendly use of building materials.
market-relevant commercial, industrial and technical
standards. Building regulations and other external regulatory
control measures determine mandatory obligations,
The main goal of the ISO is to facilitate trade. It offers
for example Part L of the Building Regulations 2010
solutions to global challenges and supports innovation
outlines requirements for conservation of fuel and
by providing guidelines to streamline processes and
power. However, businesses may create their own
improve quality and safety across a range of businesses
internal control measures beyond these standards and
and products.
build them into their business objectives.
There are over 23,000 ISO standards that have
Besides the moral reasons mentioned above, businesses
been voluntarily developed by industry experts by
may set further goals to improve their sustainability
consensus, covering all aspects of manufacturing and
in order to reduce waste, increase profits and attract
technology. ISO identifies its certified standards with a
the interest of future clients with similar interests in
unique reference number, for example:
protecting the environment.
 ISO 45001 – Occupational health and safety
management systems
 ISO 9001 – Quality management systems
 ISO 14001 – Environment management systems.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

The fundamental business values for construction

organisations are:
 financial stability
 customer service
 care for life
 ethics and transparency
 codes of conduct
 collaborative working.

3.1 Financial stability

Financial stability means a business having sufficient
funds to pay overheads, repay any loans and still make
▲ Figure 11.8 Protecting the natural environment from a profit to prepare for risk management in times of
development activities potential economic downturn.
A business with steady revenue that does not rely
Key term too much on debt should be making a healthy profit
through sales while its expenses remain the same. This
Ecological balance: where living organisms,
should enable growth of the business.
such as plants, animals and humans, co-exist in a
sustainable environment
Key term
Economic downturn: when the economy has
3 Business values stopped growing and is on the decline, resulting in
reduced financial turnover
Earlier in this chapter, we acknowledged that
organisational culture stems from a company’s beliefs
and values, sometimes referred to as its philosophy. 3.2 Customer service
Transparent business values play an essential role in When a customer first approaches a construction
any organisation. They can: business with a concept for a project, they often have
 create a sense of purpose and commitment expectations of what the business can provide and the
 improve cohesion of the workforce level of service it should offer. To build and maintain
 drive an organisation forward, helping it to reach good customer service, the business must:
the goals set by the management team  pay close attention to the customer at all times
 help motivate employees by building trust and security  be helpful – make the customer feel at ease
 help develop relationships with partners, exchanging information and ideas
stakeholders and customers  be polite and courteous when communicating
 influence sales, customer service and marketing verbally or in written form
strategies  listen actively to the customer by responding to all
 demonstrate the business’ culture outside of the of their needs
organisation, which may attract new talent.  solve problems – offer practical solutions with
It is important that potential new employees share the design, product and scheduling ideas
same values as the organisation; this will determine  provide support to meet the customer’s needs and
whether they enjoy their job, engage with the company expectations
and work productively.  be timely – provide the product or service in a
mutually acceptable timeframe
 be proactive – anticipate problems before they occur
Key terms  demonstrate skills and knowledge – have a strong
Philosophy: values and beliefs that act as guiding
and up-to-date understanding of the industry and
principles for behaviour be able to produce work to the highest standards
 know the business product or service offered –
Cohesion: a state of working together in unity
understand the business’ limitations

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 Chapter 11 Construction commercial/business principles

 ensure the customer’s needs are met – measure 3.4 Ethics and transparency
the success of customer service by making sure the
customer’s initial expectations have been met or Business ethics can be described as business practices
exceeded and policies when faced with arguably controversial
 offer value for money – be able to provide a subjects, for example corporate social responsibility.
satisfactory product or service for a reasonable price Some business ethics are embedded in legislation, for
 personalise support for each customer. example employers have a duty to treat employees fairly
and with respect and not to discriminate. However,
Providing good customer service is vital to the success
ethics often goes beyond legal responsibilities to include
of all construction businesses, to ensure a good
a moral code for the business and its employees.
reputation. Customers who experience good customer
service are more likely to provide repeat business and Businesses with positive values and behaviours gain
recommend a company to other potential customers. public trust and approval, which will enable them to grow.
There are negative implications for businesses that do
3.3 Care for life not have business ethics, such as damage to reputation,
difficulties retaining employees and loss of work.
The health, safety and welfare of all employees and
others affected by work activities, for example the general Business transparency is about open and honest
public, should be one of the core values of all businesses. communication across all levels within an organisation and
the sharing of information both internally and externally.
Besides the legal obligations that businesses have to
adhere to, they should also consider the mental and For a business to be completely transparent, it must
physical wellbeing of their staff and the impact that provide access to all the information needed, not just
their job roles may have on them. Businesses that value what it is willing to share. Some businesses may not
their employees will make sure they have a good work- want information such as salaries, revenue, future
life balance and actively promote health and wellbeing ambitions and hiring policies to be available to the
through a number of different benefits, such as a tax- public, although this level of transparency can provide
deductible cycle-to-work scheme or mentoring. potential investors and customers with an insight into
the organisation and the level of service they can expect.
When employees feel financially, physically and
emotionally safe within an organisation, they are more
likely to communicate openly and honestly with their
employers, without fear of losing their job. In turn,
when employees feel they are being listened to, they
are more motivated and productive.

▲ Figure 11.10 Employees who can communicate

openly and honestly with their employers are more
motivated and productive

▲ Figure 11.9 Cycle-to-work scheme

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

3.5 Codes of conduct Test yourself

A code of conduct is essentially a set of rules written
List the benefits of networking with another
by an employer for their employees, in order to protect
organisation.
their business and its reputation. It should explain an
organisation’s values and principles and link them with
standards of professional behaviour.
Research
A code of conduct typically includes standards of
behaviour regarding equality and diversity, protection Research your industry placement’s key business
of sensitive data, and disclosure of any criminal values and explain how it is working to achieve
these.
convictions that an employee may have prior to
employment or during their service.
All employees must read and understand their Case study
employer’s code of conduct before starting work; they
must also appreciate the consequences of not following You and your business partner have successfully
the rules. Any breaches of the code of conduct could been trading for a couple of years in the
result in disciplinary action being taken, or in some construction industry and have decided to grow the
cases termination of employment. enterprise further by employing some staff.
Complete the following tasks in preparation for your
3.6 Collaborative working new employees:
 Outline your business values.
Internal collaborative working enables a diverse  Write a brief code of conduct.
range of employees with specific skills or traits to
work together to problem solve and achieve business
objectives.
4 Principles and examples of
Collaborative working with another organisation is
referred to as networking. Organisations of different
corporate social responsibility
sizes can collaborate in a non-hierarchical way either Construction and maintenance of the built environment
in person or remotely using a variety of different can have a negative impact on the natural environment
technologies, for example video conferencing and and local communities, through pollution and disruption.
BIM. Employees in the construction industry can also
Besides being more competitive, there are several other experience short- and long-term physical and mental
advantages of working with another organisation, health issues due to a number of factors, for example
including: working to time constraints in a competitive market.
 sharing responsibilities Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is the commitment
 sharing knowledge and expertise of an organisation to carry out its business activities in a
 sharing materials, resources and facilities socially and environmentally responsible way.
 developing skills and innovation
 improving motivation
 increasing productivity and sales
 accelerating business growth
 being able to tender for larger contracts
 achieving aims that may have been out of reach if
working independently.
Provided that employees understand and share the same
business values, and their employer honours them when
making important decisions, a strong business can be
created with a positive company image.
▲ Figure 11.11 Disruption to a community due to
construction activities

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 Chapter 11 Construction commercial/business principles

CSR is not a legal requirement. However, developing It is important for construction businesses to establish
a CSR strategy that will have a positive impact on the links with local schools, community groups and
community and wider society, and integrating it into charities, with a view to being as transparent as possible
an organisation’s values, makes good business sense, about their aims to both minimise negative impacts on
because it often contributes to risk management and the community and actively make positive impacts.
legal compliance. It also affects how stakeholders such
Table 11.1 provides examples of how CSR is applied in
as clients and investors view an organisation, and may
the construction industry.
impact on their decision to work with or support it.

▼ Table 11.1 CSR in the construction industry

Principles of CSR Application in the construction industry

Construction design • Ensuring buildings are well designed to suit occupants’ lifestyles
• Being guided by the local community to meet its needs (for example providing
functional community spaces, landscaping, cycle paths, community lighting for safety)
• Ensuring inclusivity (for example providing affordable homes)
• Improving quality of life and wellbeing
Social, economic and • Supporting housing initiatives
environmental considerations • Supporting training and development programmes, for example work experience,
in construction design and apprenticeships and internships
planning • Boosting the economy by increasing local employment and paying above the
minimum living wage
• Encouraging flexible working
• Improving working conditions for employees
• Ensuring equality and diversity in the workforce by creating opportunities for minority
and underrepresented groups
• Supporting local community groups and charitable activities with time and resources
• Reducing the environmental impact of construction work
Sustainable construction • Using ethically and sustainably sourced building materials through the entire supply
chain, for example Forest Stewardship Council certified timber
• Using recycled materials
• Minimising waste
• Using local trades, suppliers and materials
• Constructing greener buildings using low-impact materials
• Working more efficiently to reduce carbon footprint
• Reducing the use of fossil fuels
• Reducing air, water and ground pollution
• Making provision to improve the biodiversity of the local area
• Providing energy-efficiency initiatives

Besides the moral obligations businesses have to

protect the environment and people from construction
activities, there are also legal duties that may align
with their CSR commitments. Failure to follow legal
duties can result in prosecution and damaged public
relations.
Further information on CSR can be found in
Chapter 3.

Test yourself
List five different ways that a construction business
▲ Figure 11.12 Supporting training and development can implement CSR principles of sustainability in
programmes such as apprenticeships is an their objectives.
important part of CSR

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Entrepreneurs who are willing to take a risk, and

5 Principles of entrepreneurship have the vision to solve problems with an innovative
and innovation product or service, are likely to have a successful
enterprise. Besides developing the initial business
As mentioned above, an entrepreneur is an individual concept, they are also the driving force behind an
who starts up their own business, taking on financial organisation, and must therefore have other qualities
risk in the hope of making a profit. To be successful, in order to grow their business. They must be
a business owner must know their market well, confident in their product or service and motivated
including its strengths and weaknesses, in order by the business model, not just by the idea of
to provide a service or product for which there is a generating a lot of money.
demand or that has a unique selling point (USP).
Developing innovative technologies, products and
5.1 Creating a viable product or processes is extremely important to the future of the
construction sector, in order to:
service
 create employment
Market research is a valuable tool used by many  improve productivity
businesses to analyse industry and demographic data,  provide value for money
in order to gather information about consumer needs  improve the way we live
and preferences.  improve product service
 increase growth and profit
Typical data that a business may want to analyse in a
 make advancements in the industry.
particular location or region could include:
 age
 gender Key term
 marital status
Business model: a plan usually created by a
 education
business owner which describes the strategy or
 employment
framework that an organisation will use to operate
 income. and includes the identification of products/services,
The data gathered will help to create two different revenue sources and customer base
groups of people: those with no interest in the business
and a possible customer base.
5.2 Capital
Once a viable business opportunity has been identified,
the business’ mission should be established – what does To get a new business venture off the ground often
the business hope to achieve? A business’ goals could be requires an investment known as working capital. This
purely economic or financial, although some businesses is a sum of money remaining after all the business’
are created for social or environmental reasons. debts have been covered. It does not amount to the
value of the company in terms of assets or customer’s
Research unpaid bills.
The money needed to start a business could come
Research the demographic data in your local area to
answer the following questions: from the owner/s, investors, shareholders or a business
 What is the average age? loan. Business loans from banks are often secured
 How many people are living in social rented against the owner’s personal assets or those of the
accommodation? business, depending on the type of organisation. (See
 How many people have access to a car or van? section 1 of this chapter for details on different types of
organisations.)

Key term
Demographic data: statistical data about a
population in a particular location or region

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 Chapter 11 Construction commercial/business principles

Research
Research different methods of marketing and explain
the impact each one may have on a construction
business.

5.4 Priorities
Entrepreneurs with a concept for a new business must
have a list of priorities to get their venture off the ground,
▲ Figure 11.13 Securing a business loan from an become financially stable as soon as possible, and grow
investor in the future. Even with a strong initial investment, a
business will need to earn money quickly to repay any
loans it may have for resources and equipment and to
cover the cost of overheads and wages.
Solution
provider Below are some of the general priorities an
entrepreneur should have when they start a business:
Priorities Vision  Develop a concept or product.
 Research the market.
 Produce a business plan, including business aims
and objectives.
Principles of  Seek investment.
entrepreneurship
Viable  Produce business documentation, for example a
Capital
research
product contract of employment, code of conduct and health
or service
and safety policy.
 Acquire premises, such as an office, workshop or
factory.
 Acquire resources, such as machinery, equipment
Growth Marketing
and staff.
 Register the business.
 Arrange suitable insurance for the business.
▲ Figure 11.14 Principles of entrepreneurship  Market/advertise the business, for example by
networking.
5.3 Growth and marketing  Ensure the business income is more than its
outgoings.
For a business to thrive, potential customers need to be  Regularly measure performance against
made aware of the product or service being sold, the benchmarks (covered later in this chapter).
people selling it, the price and the place where they can  Set improvement strategies to meet targets.
buy it. Therefore, some of the money invested in a business  Keep accurate business accounts.
should be allocated to promoting the product or service  Submit annual tax returns and pay any duty due.
through marketing. Active advertising will communicate
with a bigger audience more quickly than waiting for the It is important to acknowledge that just as many
business to grow through word of mouth alone. entrepreneurs fail as succeed. However, there are many
more who never progress beyond their initial idea
Before a customer decides to invest their money in a because of the fear of failure. Entrepreneurs with a
product or service, they may want evidence that it is passion about something important to them, who have
as good as it sounds. As a business begins to grow, it patience, confidence and tenacity, are most likely to
can build customer confidence by sharing evidence of achieve their goals.
its success through showcasing satisfied customers or
completed projects

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

6 Measuring success 6.3 Key performance indicators (KPIs)

Benchmarking is a recognised system that involves
6.1 Benchmarking identifying problem areas in a business that need
Successful organisations regularly evaluate their improvement, for example:
performance and make improvements, either to tackle  project completion times
areas of weakness or to demonstrate excellence.  planned budgets against actual costs
 profit margins.
Many new businesses fail within the first few years
of trading because they cannot manage their cash Areas that can be measured in terms of a value
flow effectively. The concepts for the business may be are known as key performance indicators (KPIs).
sound, and there may be no shortage of work, but if the Measuring business performance against KPIs helps to
business is poorly managed then the money goes out establish if objectives have been met or whether new
quicker than it comes in. strategic targets need to be planned. If a business is not
honest with the findings of KPIs, fails to learn from its
The term ‘benchmarking’ means measuring an mistakes and starts the cycle again, then the process of
organisation’s internal and external performance benchmarking is pointless.
against pre-determined industry standards,
competitors or completed projects. It is a powerful
management tool that can increase both productivity Establish
and profits with minimum input (time and money) and key performance
indicators (KPIs)
maximum output (benefits). Any business targets set
by an organisation must be realistic and achievable, if
the business is to accomplish its aims.

Repeat Collect data

Key term
Benchmarking: measuring an organisation’s internal
and external performance against pre-determined
industry standards, competitors or completed
projects

Implement
effective Analyse data
6.2 SMART objectives new actions against targets
to improve
SMART is a common acronym used in the built
environment and construction industry for target
▲ Figure 11.15 The process of benchmarking
setting. Smart objectives must be:
 Specific – clear, unambiguous and understood by
Every business selects its own KPIs based on what
those who are expected to achieve them
is important to it. For example, they could be used to
 Measurable – in terms of time, productivity or cost
measure the performance of a construction project
 Achievable – in terms of the size of the
based on data from a similar completed project. By
organisation, resources available and budget
looking at the results, a business can establish what
 Relevant – appropriate to what is being done
worked well, as well as what worked less well, and find
 Time-bound – in terms of a start and finish date
areas for improvement (for example when scheduling
(objectives with no deadline for completion are
and sequencing work).
usually dismissed and never achieved).

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 Chapter 11 Construction commercial/business principles

data based on thousands of projects across the UK.

Health and safety Glenigan and Constructing Excellence publish annual
sets of KPIs with the Department for Business, Energy
Using a business’ accident and near-miss statistics
over a given period is an accurate way to determine and Industrial Strategy, to support businesses and
benchmarks and strategies to improve health, safety drive improvement.
and welfare in a workplace. These benchmarks
can be used to measure future performance of a
business.
Improve your maths
There are various financial KPIs that can be used
to measure the success of a business. Explain the
Gathering information for benchmarking within an
difference between:
organisation is much easier than trying to measure the  gross profit margin
success of a business against its competitors, because of  net profit
difficulties in accessing all of the data needed. Internal  turnover
benchmarking is often more valuable than external  working capital.
benchmarking, because it is focused and can be
tailored to meet specific business objectives.
External benchmarking is used by businesses and Test yourself
other organisations such as the government to focus
What acronym is commonly used when target
on the industry as a whole. Construction industry KPIs
setting? Explain the meaning of each letter.
can be gathered from the results of national surveys of
clients and construction professionals and performance

Research  Overall performance – ? per cent

 Payment – ? per cent.
Look at the latest annual KPI survey published
Client satisfaction survey:
by Glenigan and Constructing Excellence (www.
 Service – ? per cent
constructingexcellence.org.uk/kpi-reports).
 Value for money – ? per cent
What were the results of the contractor and client  Product – ? per cent.
satisfaction surveys?
Are these results better or worse than the previous
Contractor satisfaction survey: year? Explain why you think the results of the surveys
 Provision of information – ? per cent may be different to last year.

7 Project management Research

Throughout this book we have looked at the principles Research PRINCE2 (PRojects IN Controlled
of project management, including the importance of: Environments) and explain how this can be used in
 effective planning project management.
 setting clear goals and objectives
 defining roles and areas of responsibility
 setting realistic milestones 8 Quality management
 constraints on cost and time.
There are a number of quality management systems
To ensure all the business objectives are measurable and techniques used in business to maintain the
and achievable, the SMART technique (see section 6.2) standard or quality of the work in a consistent manner,
can be applied. to track progress and to measure success. These include
the following:

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

 self-assessment – a process of evaluating an is often the best and most beneficial because the
organisation against a model for continuous results are impartial
improvement  quality control – an internal process often
 internal audit – completed by the organisation used by organisations to maintain or improve
itself to measure the effectiveness of its quality standards. This system may involve the sampling,
systems. The aim of the audit is to identify any testing or reviewing of products, processes or
areas of weakness and develop a strategy for further documentation
improvement  quality improvement – a systematic approach
 external audit – a quality management system to measuring the success of a business against
evaluation completed by an external auditor to benchmarks and set new goals for continuous
ensure that systems, processes and documentation improvement
are appropriate for the business. This technique  ISO 9001:2015 (see section 2.5 and Chapter 7).

Assessment practice

Short answer Long answer

1 Which type of business sells its products and 6 Describe one of the business types.
brand name to other businesses hoping to 7 Explain the main disadvantage of being a sole
replicate its success? trader.
2 What is another name for the fiscal year? 8 Outline the main objectives of the International
3 Which term describes collaborative working Organization for Standardization (ISO).
outside of an organisation? 9 Explain the purpose of an organisation’s
4 Which term describes the measurement of an corporate social responsibilities (CSR).
organisation’s internal and external performance 10 Explain what is meant by key performance
against pre-determined industry standards, indicators (KPIs) and why they are used.
competitors or completed projects?
5 Which term describes the incremental steps a
business needs to take in order to achieve its
overall aims, which are often closely aligned to
its business plan?

Project practice
You have been working as a self-employed The projected turnover for the partnership for the next
tradesperson for three years and have successfully financial year is expected to exceed £90,000.
networked with other sole traders on a few  Explain the risks of going into partnership, taking
construction projects. One of these sole traders has out the loan and increasing your turnover.
suggested going into partnership. However, you have  Explain how you could reduce these risks and still
some concerns about growing the business. expand your business.
 Present your concerns and suggestions in a digital
Both partners are expected to invest £12,000 each,
format to one of your peers, and discuss any
in order to purchase some innovative construction
suggestions for improvement they may have.
equipment to maximise efficiency and profits. You
do not have the money to invest in the business,
therefore you will have to take out a personal loan
from your bank.

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 12 Building services engineering
(BSE) systems

Introduction
This chapter looks at the layout, operation and components
of a range of building services engineering (BSE) systems and
explores the advantages and disadvantages of each type of
system.
It then identifies the mechanical and electrical principles of
components, before explaining the different types of electrical
supply and distribution.
To conclude, it considers the cables, accessories and
equipment used in electrical installations, as well as the
pipework, ductwork and components used in plumbing,
heating, gas and ventilation systems.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will understand: 4 electrotechnical principles of components
1 building services engineering systems 5 electrotechnical supply
2 the potential effects on building performance 6 earthing arrangements
during installation, commissioning and 7 cables, accessories and equipment used in older
decommissioning of BSE systems electrical installations
3 mechanical principles of components 8 pipework and ductwork, components and systems.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

1 Building services engineering Cool refrigerant

Compressor
Hot refrigerant

systems

to refrigerant

Heat transfer
Heat transfer

Evaporator

Condensor

to air
Cool air Ambient Ambient Air to
1.1 Air-conditioning systems to inside air
Fans
air outside

Air-conditioning (AC) systems are used in both

Expansion valve
domestic and commercial properties to improve the Cold refrigerant Warm refrigerant
Condensation
comfort of occupants. They work by using the vapour- drains to outside

compression refrigeration cycle. ▲ Figure 12.1 An air-conditioning system

Refrigerants are fluorinated chemicals that are used
in both liquid and gas states. They can, therefore,
be classified as both liquid (when compressed) and
Test yourself
gas (vapour). All refrigerants boil at extremely low How does the vapour-compression refrigeration
temperatures, well below 0°C. When a refrigerant cycle work?
gas is compressed, it changes state to a liquid.
During this process, a lot of heat and pressure are
created. When the pressure is released quickly, it Types of air-conditioning system
generates cold. Ducted systems
During the vapour-compression refrigeration cycle, Ducted air-conditioning systems pump cooled air from
the refrigerant vapour enters a compressor, which a central cooling unit through a series of ducts which
compresses it, generating heat. The compressed terminate in vents.
vapour then enters a condenser, where the useful Components of a ducted system include:
heat is removed and the vapour condenses to a  a circulation fan, which moves air to and from
liquid refrigerant. From here, the liquid refrigerant rooms
passes through an expansion valve, where rapid  an air-conditioning unit, which uses cooling and
expansion takes place. The warm liquid is converted dehumidification processes in summer or heating
to a super-cold vapour/liquid mix, which creates the and humidification processes in winter
refrigeration effect. The vapour/liquid mix passes  supply ducts, which direct conditioned air from the
through an evaporator, where final expansion to circulating fan to the space to be air-conditioned
a vapour takes place. This vapour then enters the  an air diffuser, which distributes the conditioned air
compressor for the cycle to begin again. evenly in the room
The ability of refrigerants to change their state quickly  return air grilles, which allow air to enter the return
with such wide temperature changes allows them to be duct
used in refrigeration plants, air-conditioning systems  filters, which remove dust and bacteria from the air.
and heat pumps. Split systems
Split-system air conditioners consist of inner and outer
Key term units connected by pipes, allowing refrigerant to flow
to and from each unit. They can be fitted with a heat
Refrigerant: a working fluid used in the refrigeration pump, ensuring they can be used all year round by
cycle of air conditioning systems and heat pumps providing both cool and warm air.
Single-split systems consist of an outdoor unit for every
indoor unit. Multi-split systems allow numerous indoor
Health and safety units to be connected to a single, larger outdoor unit.
Fluorinated gases (F-gases) used in heat pumps and Variable refrigerant flow systems
refrigeration systems can cause freeze burns. You Variable refrigerant flow (VRF) systems are air-cooled
must be suitably qualified to work on these systems
and refrigerant-based, using outdoor condenser units and
indoor fan coil units in the same way as more traditional

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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

air-conditioning systems. However, instead of one large

unit pumping air to the whole space, a VRF system Health and safety
incorporates several smaller air handlers which can be
To avoid electrocution, always follow the safe
controlled individually and piped back to one system. isolation procedure when working on electrical
systems.
1.2 Electrotechnical systems
Electrotechnical systems carry, distribute and convert
electrical power in a property for use in: Test yourself
 socket outlets for appliances with a 3 A or 13 A
three-pin plug What is the purpose of an electrotechnical system?
 fixed appliances, such as cookers, showers and
immersion heaters
 lighting systems Research
 protection services, such as intruder alarms,
surveillance systems, fire alarms and access controls Research the key requirements of the IET Wiring
Regulations and produce a table. You could use the
 refrigeration and ventilation systems
following headings in your table:
 telecommunication systems, such as telephones,
 Part 1 Scope
internet, home entertainment and connections for  Part 4 Protection for safety
other BSE systems  Part 5 Selection and erection of equipment
 heating systems, such as gas boilers, electrical wall  Part 6 Inspection and testing
heaters and fan convectors.  Part 7 Special installations

6 A lighting 1.5 mm2 6242Y

kWh
25 mm2 tails
16 mm2 earthing
6243Y

conductor
32 A cooker 6 mm2 6242Y
2
10 mm main
protective
bonding

20 A radial 32 A ring final

2.5 mm2 6242Y 2.5 mm2 6242Y 20 A radial
2.5 mm2 6242Y
Branch
Spur

▲ Figure 12.2 Typical wiring diagram

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Lighting
Key term
Lighting circuits are generally rated at 6 A but can, in
some installations, be rated at 10 A or 16 A. The ratings Composite cable: multi-core cable, in which the
are based on calculation of the number of lights and cores are surrounded by a sheath that provides
the type of lights included in the circuit. Consideration mechanical protection
must be given to the type of lighting point used for Consumer unit: a component in an electrical system
which contains the main switch, isolation for circuits
higher-rated circuits.
and circuit protection devices
Lighting circuits are intended to supply lighting points, Miniature circuit breaker (MCB): a small trip switch
but in some cases they may also supply small power operated by an overload, used to protect individual
electrical equipment, such as bathroom fans and shaver electrical circuits
supply units.
Lighting circuits can be wired in different ways: Test yourself
 three-plate – commonly used in domestic
properties for circuits wired in composite cable, Explain how lighting circuits may be wired.
such as thermosetting insulated and sheathed
flat-profile cable
 conduit method – used for circuits wired in single-
Power
core cables within a suitable containment system. Power circuits generally supply socket outlets but may
also supply individual appliances. They may be wired
in two ways:
 ring final
 radial.
Conduit
Ring final circuits provide socket outlets for appliances
SWL N
and are protected at the consumer unit with a 30 A or
L E N

32 A miniature circuit breaker (MCB). They should

Supply not exceed an area of 100 m² in domestic installations.
The phase, neutral and circuit protective conductors
Circuit protective conductors
have been omitted for clarity
(CPCs) are connected to their dedicated terminals
at the consumer unit and then form a ring circuit
by looping in and out of the respective terminals at
the back of the sockets, eventually returning to the
C C
point from where they began. There is no limit to the
number of sockets that can be installed on a ring final
L2 L1 L1 L2 circuit if proper design considerations are adhered
Two-way Strappers Intermediate Two-way to. Kitchens and utility rooms may require their own
switch switch switch dedicated circuits.
▲ Figure 12.3 Three-plate lighting circuit

L E N L E N L E N L E N
L E N L E N
L E N

Supply

L E N
Fused spur
L E N L E N L E N

L E N
Spur

▲ Figure 12.4 Ring final circuit showing spurs

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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

Radial circuits may be used to supply multiple socket

outlets. They do not return to the consumer unit Key terms
(unlike ring final circuits) and are protected at the
CCTV: closed-circuit television, also known as video
consumer unit with a 20 A MCB. surveillance, is the use of video cameras to transmit a
signal to a specific place, on a limited set of monitors
L E N L E N L E N L E N
VoIP: voice over internet protocol, technology used
L E N

Supply to deliver voice and multimedia via an internet

connection
Branch
L E N
Crosstalk: interference between telecommunication
signals

▲ Figure 12.5 Radial circuit showing branch

Heating and appliances

Radial circuits can supply individual appliances or
dedicated fixed-appliance circuits, such as boilers,
immersion heaters, cookers and showers. They can
have any rating, depending on the cable size, but
typical ratings for heating appliances include:
 16 A for single appliances such as dishwashers
 16 A for dedicated boiler circuits
 16 A for immersion heaters
 32 A for cooker installations.

Electric showers are rated between 7 and 10.5 kW. This

means that a 10.5 kW shower requires a 45 A electrical ▲ Figure 12.6 Data point
circuit to supply it.

Data and control Case study

Data cabling is cabling within a building installed to
support multiple hardware systems, such as: Phoebe and her family have just purchased a
 telephones new property and are considering installing
 internet and television multiple hardware systems for communication and
entertainment.
 CCTV
1 What are their options for telephones?
 music servers
2 How are music servers connected to the system?
 printers 3 What smart devices can be incorporated?
 VoIP systems.

The system contains all the wiring to transmit data

around the building from routers and data cabinets
to individual data points. Care must be taken when
installing data and control cabling within a building to
prevent crosstalk.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

 installation pipework, which supplies gas to all

appliances in a property.

Industry tip
In order to install and work on gas appliances, you
must be registered with Gas Safe.

Gas installation pipework must be adequately sized

to meet the requirements of the appliances it serves.
A typical small domestic installation has 22 mm
pipework from the meter supplying appliances.
▲ Figure 12.7 Data cable panel
Research
1.3 Gas systems
Research suitable pipework and jointing methods
Gas systems supply gas to a property as a source of fuel
for gas installations. List the different types and
for heating and cooking. identify which jointing methods are not suitable.
There are two different types of gas:
 Natural gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon
gas mixture, consisting primarily of methane.
It is formed when layers of decomposing plant
Boiler
and animal matter are exposed to intense heat
and pressure under the surface of the Earth over
millions of years.
 Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a by-product of
Governor
crude oil. It was developed with the compactness Fire
and portability of a liquid but can be readily
used as a gas. It is mainly associated with leisure Meter
applications but also used in homes where no Roadway
natural gas supply is available.

Health and safety Cooker

Main Service pipe

Gas is extremely flammable and can cause
explosions. Care should be taken when working ▲ Figure 12.8 Gas supply to a property
on gas systems and correct procedures must be
followed. Gas boilers
Gas boilers are the most popular of all central-heating
In the UK, gas is extracted from the Irish and North appliances. Over the years, there have been many
seas from offshore drilling rigs. It is then compressed different types, from large, multi-sectional, cast-
and transported across the UK in a system of pipes iron domestic boilers to small, low-water-content
known as the transmission and distribution network. condensing types.
The gas passes through several pressure-reduction Boilers that can be used with wet central-heating
tiers in preparation for entry to properties. systems fall into distinct categories:
Components of a gas system include:  Traditional boilers do not contain any form of
 an emergency control valve, which isolates the gas expansion vessel or operational controls, such as
supply a pump or filling loop. This is the simplest type of
 a meter governor, which reduces/regulates the boiler, a basic heat source and heat exchanger. It
incoming gas pressure requires other controls and components to form
 a meter, which measures the amount of gas used for part of a functional system.
billing purposes
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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

 A traditional boiler does not give instantaneous expansion vessel and pressure-relief valve) of a
hot water. It must be installed in conjunction with sealed system.
a hot water storage system and heating system.  Condensing boilers work by extracting heat from
It contains an expansion vessel, filling loop and flue gases produced when natural gas is combusted
pressure-relief valve, and does not require a feed (CO2, nitrogen and water vapour). These flue gases
and expansion cistern. pass over two heat exchangers: the primary heat
 System boilers have all the necessary safety and exchanger extracts about 80 per cent of the heat
operational controls fitted directly to them. There is from the gases and the secondary heat exchanger
no need for a separate expansion vessel, pressure- extracts a further 12–14 per cent of the heat. In the
relief valve or filling loop, and this makes the secondary heat exchanger, the water vapour in the
installation much simpler. flue gases condenses to form water droplets, which
 Combination boilers provide central heating and are collected in a condensate trap before falling to
instantaneous hot-water supply from a single drain via a condensate pipe. Condensing boilers
appliance. Modern combination boilers are very produce a distinctive ‘plume’ of water vapour
efficient and contain all the safety controls (i.e. during operation. All of the boiler types listed here
can be the condensing type.

▼ Table 12.1 Types of gas boiler

Energy Cast-iron Low Open Sealed Open Room Room Wall Free-
efficient heat water vented (pressurised) flue sealed sealed mounted standing
exchanger content system system (natural (fan
draught) assisted)
Traditional ✗ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
boilers
Condensing ✓ ✗ ✓ ✗ ✓ ✗ ✗ ✓ ✓ ✓
boilers
System ✓ ✗ ✓ ✗ ✓ ✗ ✗ ✓ ✓ ✗
boilers
Combination ✓ ✗ ✓ ✗ ✓ ✗ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
boilers

Improve your English An open flue system is the simplest. Because heat
rises, it relies on the heat of the flue gases to create
Write a letter to a potential customer who is looking an updraught. There are two different types, natural
to upgrade their boiler, informing them of the types draught and forced draught.
available.
An open flue is made up of four components:
 primary flue: creates the initial pull to clear the
products of combustion
Research  draught diverter: draws air in to dilute the products
Research the operating principles of condensing of combustion
boilers and produce a flowchart.  secondary flue: carries the flue gases to the terminal
 terminal: allows the flue gases to evacuate to the
atmosphere.
All central-heating appliances require a flue to remove
the products of combustion (POC) safely to the outside. Natural-draught systems take the POC from within
The basic concept is to produce an updraught, whether the room where the appliance is sited and expel them
by natural means or using a fan, to eject fumes away through the flue terminal using the draught created by
from the building. There are two types of flue system: the different densities of the flue gases and the colder
 open  room-sealed. air outside. There is no fan in this type of system.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Room-sealed flue systems draw air for combustion Gas fires

directly from the outside through the same flue
Gas fires are space-heating appliances used to heat
assembly used to discharge the POC. They are safer
the rooms in which they are installed. There is a wide
than open-flue systems, since there is no direct route for
range of fires available, with different flue options:
the POC to spill back into the room. There are two basic
 Flueless (type A): this type of appliance is not
types: natural draught and forced draught (fan-assisted).
intended for connection to a flue or any device for
evacuating the POC outside the room in which the
Products of combustion Terminal
escape through the terminal appliance is installed. The air for combustion is
taken from the room, and the POC are released into
the room.
 Open-flue (type B): this type of appliance is
intended to be connected to a flue that evacuates
Secondary flue
the POC outside the room containing the appliance.
The air for combustion is taken from the room via a
series of vents.
 Room-sealed (type C): the air supply, combustion
Deflector plate chamber, heat exchanger and evacuation of POC for
this type of appliance are sealed with respect to the
Draught diverter
room in which the appliance is installed.
Air drawn in through the
draught diverter Primary flue Types of gas fire include:
 radiant convector: a type of fire which relies on
Flow ceramics near the burner to radiate heat into the
Return room.
Combustion chamber  inset live fuel effect (ILFE): a type of fire which is
sealed to the builder’s opening within the chimney
Combustion air of a building. Heat is radiated from the fuel bed
Gas burner
and produced by convection through the heat
▲ Figure 12.9 Open flue exchanger.

Fresh Fresh
air inlet
air inlet Fan
Flue
gases
outlet
Fresh
air inlet

Flue
gases
outlet
Gas burner

Gas burner

Room sealed
boiler casing
Room sealed
boiler casing

▲ Figure 12.10 Room-sealed flue systems: natural (left) and fan-assisted (right)

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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

 decorative fuel effect (DFE): a type of fire which 1.4 Heating systems
incorporates radiants which are made to look like
coal, wood or stone placed inside or underneath an Central-heating systems distribute warmth throughout
open chimney. the whole or part of a building from a single heat
 flueless catalytic: a type of fire which is not source (the boiler), for the thermal comfort of the
connected to a chimney or flue system. Products occupants. Boilers can be fuelled by coal, gas, oil or
of combustion are discharged directly into the electricity; they transfer their heat energy to another
room. medium, usually water or air, which carries the heat
to the areas where it is needed. Water-based systems
Inner cavity wall Outer cavity wall
are known as wet systems, while air- or electric-based
Products of systems are referred to as dry systems.
combustion exit
Warm to atmosphere There is no standard heating system; all systems are
convected air tailored to suit the individual installation requirements,
such as property type, property construction and fuel
Radiant heat
from glass panel availability.

Heat exchanger Key term

Inlet air from
Cool room air atmosphere Thermal comfort: a person’s satisfaction with the
thermal environment (whether they feel too hot, too
▲ Figure 12.11 Room-sealed space heater
cold or just right)

Gas cooking appliances

Gas cooking appliances include the following:
Health and safety
 Freestanding cookers rest directly on the floor and Water in central-heating systems can be hot. Take
comprise a hotplate with one or more burners, one care when draining down central-heating systems to
or more ovens with or without thermostats, and prevent scalding.
possibly a grill and/or griddle.
 Grills cook food by means of radiant heat. They
Central
can be an integral part of a freestanding cooker or heating
individual appliances.
 Hobs (hotplates) comprise one or more covered/ Dry Wet
systems systems
uncovered burners designed to support cooking
vessels. Electric heating
Warm air One pipe Two pipe
 Ovens are closed compartments for roasting and (underfloor)
baking food.
Directly Indirectly Vented Sealed
heated heated
Research
Fully Gravity
Research the gas connection requirements for pumped primaries
cooking appliances and produce a simple diagram
for each type of appliance, showing the: Microbore Small bore
 height of the cooker point
 connection method.
Convector Radiant
emittors emittors

▲ Figure 12.12 Different types of central-heating

system

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

As mentioned above, combination boilers provide both

Test yourself central heating and instantaneous hot-water supply
from a single appliance. They contain all the safety
Explain the following types of central-heating
system: controls of a sealed system.
 Full
 Background Key term
 Selective
 Wet Semi-gravity system: a central-heating system that
 Dry has pumped heating circulation but gravity hot-
water circulation

Domestic heating systems

Domestic wet central-heating systems contain several Test yourself
components:
 heat source (boiler/heater) Explain the difference between open-vented and
sealed central-heating systems.
 heat emitters (radiators/underfloor heating circuits)
 thermostats for temperature control
 time control to set on/off periods.
Research
Test yourself Research the layout requirements for the following
central-heating systems and note their advantages
List the key components of a wet central-heating and disadvantages:
system.  C-plan
 S-plan
 S-plan+.
There are three categories of central-heating system:
 Full central heating provides heating in all rooms to
a comfortable temperature. Industry tip
 Background heating heats the property to a lower
temperature than full central heating. Properties which exceed 150 m2 should be split
 Selective heating heats only parts of the property as into multiple heating zones with individual time and
required. temperature controls.

Heating systems fall into two different categories,

based on the way the system is filled with water and
Industrial/commercial heating systems
the pressure at which it operates:
 Low-pressure, open-vented central-heating
Industrial/commercial wet central-heating systems
systems are supplied by a feed and expansion operate following the same principles as domestic
cistern located in the roof space, or in a tank room systems. However, as the heat requirements are much
in a commercial property. They can be modern, greater, a larger single boiler or multiple boilers may
fully-pumped systems or existing semi-gravity be required. The boilers heat water, which is pumped
systems. around the building, giving off heat via radiators,
 Sealed, pressurised central-heating systems are
underfloor heating, unit heaters or trench heating.
fed directly from the mains cold-water supply and As with a domestic system, time and temperature
incorporate an expansion vessel to take up the expansion controls are required, with the addition of separate
of water as it is heated. A filling loop is required to heating zones to control temperature throughout the
charge the central-heating system with water. building.

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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

This system uses a single three-port motorised mid-position valve to control

the flow of water to the central heating circuit and the hot water circuit.
Feed and It is controlled by a cylinder thermostat and a room thermostat.
expansion cistern Individual thermostatic radiator valves independently control the
temperature of each room.

Automatic Cylinder Room

22 mm vent pipe air valve thermostat thermostat

15 mm cold feed

Mid-position
valve

Programmer

System
bypass
Wiring
centre

22 mm flow and return pipes

▲ Figure 12.13 Low-pressure central-heating system

Thermostat

Pressure gauge

Wiring centre Programmer

Temporary filling loop
with double check valve
arrangement

Pressure relief valve

and discharge pipework Expansion vessel

▲ Figure 12.14 Sealed central-heating system

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Room thermostat

Time clock

Combination boiler
Expansion vessel

Pressure relief valve

and discharge pipe

Filling
loop
Heating
flow
Heating
Hot return
water
supply

Mains cold water

▲ Figure 12.15 Combination boiler system

Boiler management control

Zone
controller

Zone
controller
Outdoor
sensor
Shunt
pumps

Primary circuit Secondary circuit

Hot water cylinder

Boiler shunt pumps Low loss
header

Expansion
vessel
Boiler Boiler Boiler
Pressurising unit

▲ Figure 12.16 Multiple boilers may be needed in industrial or commercial heating systems

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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

Industrial/commercial electric boilers are compact, 1.5 Plumbing systems

electrically powered heating devices designed for
commercial and industrial buildings. They are Cold-water systems
connected to a three-phase, 400 V electricity supply. Cold-water systems provide fresh, wholesome water to
They heat water, which is pumped around the properties. This water can be used directly from the water
building, giving off its heat via heat emitters. main for cooking and drinking purposes or can be stored
Warm-air heaters are also commonly used in for use within other systems, for example to flush toilets
industrial and commercial buildings. They are or to supply hot-water and central-heating systems.
designed to be installed to heat the whole space. There are two different types of water supply to a
Alternatively, radiant tube heaters may be used to heat property:
a specific zone of the building and are usually supplied  Private water supplies are covered by the Private
by natural gas. Water Supplies (England) Regulations 2016. The
water is sourced close to the property from streams,
rivers, natural springs or boreholes. It is supplied to
the property via a pump and treated to ensure it is
safe for drinking and hygiene purposes.
 Public/municipal water supplies come from the
water undertaker’s main. They are covered by the
Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999.

Key term
Wholesome water: water that is fit to use for
drinking, cooking, food preparation or washing
without danger to human health
▲ Figure 12.17 Warm-air heater

Storage cistern

Pressure vessel/accumulator

Impervious strata Pressure switch/

flow controller
Sandstone aquifer

Pressure Gravity
gauge feed
Gate/isolator Non-return
valve valve Pressurised
distribution
usually to
kitchen sink

Submersible pump

▲ Figure 12.18 Private water supply

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

The collection, treatment and supply of wholesome  The service pipe is owned and maintained by the
water to consumers is the responsibility of the water owner of the building. It must be installed at a
undertakers. The water is supplied to homes via a grid- minimum depth of 750 mm and a maximum depth
system network of pipes which runs underneath the roads. of 1350 mm.
The connection between the mains water supply and
a dwelling is made via a ferrule, which removes the
Key term
need to isolate the supply. Ferrule: a type of fitting for joining two pipes
The water supply from the water main into the building together; it allows a new connection to a
comprises two separate pipes: communication pipe to be made without having to
isolate the water supply
 The communication pipe is owned and maintained
by the water undertaker and leads to the boundary
stop tap.

Communication Service pipe owned

pipe owned and and maintained by the
maintained by the building owner
water undertaker

750 mm minimum
1350 mm maximum

Building water supply

Boundary stop tap 75 mm service duct
Boundary stop tap and water meter sealed at both ends
chamber with No other service or
Water cable in duct
main hinged cover

▲ Figure 12.19 Public water supply to a building

Research Direct cold-water systems

In a direct cold-water system, all cold-water taps are
Research the requirements of the Water Supply fed directly from the mains supply. This means that
(Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 by visiting www. all taps are provided with wholesome water. Storage
legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1999/1148/contents/made is only required for supplying cold water to the hot-
Prepare notes on the following:
water system via a cistern where an instantaneous
 What date were the regulations introduced?
hot-water heater or combi boiler is not fitted. This
 Who enforces the regulations?
 What does the term ‘material change of use’ mean? system is designed to be used in areas with high
 What are the penalties for convening regulations? water pressure.
 What are the aims of the Water Regulations?

▼ Table 12.2 Advantages and disadvantages of direct cold-water systems

Advantages Disadvantages
• Cheaper to install • Pressure may drop at times of peak demand
• Drinking water at all terminal fittings • Property has no water if the mains are under repair
• Less pipework • Any leak in the premises will cause a great deal of
• Less structural support required in roof space for the damage due to high pressure
cold-feed cistern • Can be noisy
• More suitable for instantaneous showers, hose taps and • Greater risk of contamination to mains
mixer fittings • Greater wear on taps and valves
• Used in conjunction with a high-pressure (unvented) • More problems with water hammer
hot-water supply • Greater risk of condensation build-up on the pipework
• Smaller pipe sizes may be used in most cases
• Good pressure at all cold-water outlets

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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

100–150 litre storage cistern fitted with

BS 1212 part 2 float-operated valve

Spherical ball-type
service valve

No water pipes or cisterns in the roof space

No risk of burst pipes due to freezing

22mm or 28mm cold WC cistern fitted with

feed to secondary hot either a BS 1212 part 2 WC cistern fitted with either a BS 1212 part 2,
water cylinder part 3 or part 4 float- part 3 or part 4 float-operated valve
22mm or 28mm full-way operated valve
gate valve or lever-type Spherical ball-type
spherical ball valve Spherical ball-type service valve
service valve

15 mm mains cold water to all appliances 15 mm mains cold water to all appliances
Appliance off the
cold water mains
Drain-off valves

Drain-off
valves

▲ Figure 12.20 Direct cold-water system (left) and direct cold-water system with combi boiler or instantaneous
hot-water heater (right)

Indirect cold-water systems

Key term
In an indirect cold-water system, only wholesome
Water hammer: a knocking sound in water pipes water outlets such as kitchen sinks are fed directly from
caused by fast-flowing water being stopped abruptly the mains cold-water supply. The other outlets are fed
when terminal fittings are closed off indirectly via a cold-water storage cistern in the roof space.
This system is designed to be used in areas with low water
pressure, where the mains-supply pipework is not capable
Improve your maths of supplying the full requirement of the system.
In larger buildings, such as office blocks, factories and
Produce a simple line diagram of a direct cold-water hotels, it is preferable for all water except drinking
system including components. Use a manufacturer’s
water to be supplied indirectly via a protected storage
catalogue to produce a materials list and price up
the components. cistern. This ensures there is a backup supply of water
to flush toilets and provides hot water services in the
event of disruption to the mains supply.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Boosted cold-water systems

Industry tip
Typical mains water pressure is between 3 and 7 bar.
Cold-water storage cisterns should be installed as Multi-storey buildings are too tall to be supplied using
high as possible within a property to increase the this pressure and, after taking into consideration
system pressure. frictional loss when pipe sizing, it may be necessary to
boost their cold-water supply.
There are several types of boosted cold-water (BCW)
Improve your maths system:
 Direct boosted: water is boosted directly from the
10 metres of head is approximately 1 bar. Calculate
the approximate pressures for the following: undertaker’s main to a cold-water storage cistern at
 a cistern installed 7 m above a terminal fitting the upper level.
 a cistern installed 12 m above a terminal fitting.  Direct boosted with drinking-water header: water
is boosted directly from the undertaker’s main to
a cold-water storage cistern and drinking-water
header.
230–250 litre storage cistern fitted with  Indirect boosted to a storage cistern: water is
BS 1212 part 2 float-operated valve
boosted from a break cistern with water supplied
Spherical ball-type from the undertaker’s main to a cold-water storage
service valve
cistern at the upper level.
 Indirect boosted with a pressure vessel: water is
boosted from a break cistern with water supplied
from the undertaker’s main to individual cold-water
storage cisterns on various floors.

22 mm or 28 mm cold
feed to secondary
WC cistern fitted with
either a BS 1212 part 2,
Key term
hot water cylinder part 3 or part 4 float-
operated valve
22 mm or 28 mm full way Backflow: the movement of liquid in the opposite
gate valve or lever-type
spherical ball valve Spherical
ball-type
direction to its regular flow; this can lead to
service valve contamination of potable water supplies and create
a serious health risk

Industry tip
22 mm cold distribution pipework to the bath
reducing to 15 mm to feed the wash hand
basin and WC cistern Most shower mixers require an equal head of
pressure for both hot- and cold-water supplies to
Drain-off valves
ensure correct operation.

▲ Figure 12.21 Indirect cold-water system

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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

▼ Table 12.3 Advantages and disadvantages of indirect cold-water systems

Advantages Disadvantages
• Reduced risk of water hammer and noise • Supply pipe must be protected against backflow
• Constant low-pressure supply reduces risk and rate of from cistern
leakage • Risk of frost damage in the roof space
• Suitable for supply to mixer fittings for vented hot-water • Structural support needed for the cistern
supply • Space taken up in the roof space
• Reserve supply of water available in case of mains failure • Increased cost of installation
• Less risk of backflow – fewer fittings supplied directly • Reduced pressure at terminal fittings
• Showers may be supplied at equal head of pressure
• Reduces demand on main at peak periods
• Can be sized to give greater flow rate

Automatic air inlet valve

Water can be heated in a property by:
Upstand  burning fossil fuels (coal, oil or gas)
 using electricity
Pump stop  using a solar thermal system.
Pump start

CWSC Research
Visit www.planningportal.co.uk/info/200135/
Pipeline level switch approved_documents and look for the following
Drinking water header
information:
 Which approved document provides guidance
Secondary protection
on hot-water supply to a property?
 What are the requirements for the provision of
hot-water systems?
 When designing a hot-water system, what
temperature must it not exceed?

There are two categories of hot-water system:

 centralised, where hot water is supplied from a
Incoming supply central source within the building and supplies
SV NRV
Drinking water supplies sinks in flats several outlets throughout the building
NRV taken from the boosted supply pipe
 localised, where the hot water is heated and
supplied at the point of use.
Stop valve Duplicate pump These systems can be divided into two further categories:
▲ Figure 12.22 Direct boosting to a drinking-water  storage, where hot water is stored at temperature in
header and duplicate cisterns a vessel/cylinder
 instantaneous, where water is heated on demand.
Research
Test yourself
Research the typical layout of boosted cold-water
systems used in multi-storey buildings. What is meant by the terms ‘centralised’ and
‘localised’ in relation to hot-water systems?
Hot-water systems
Hot-water systems are used for both personal hygiene
and for cleaning purposes. They should provide an
adequate flow of water at the correct temperature
required by the users of the building.

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Hot water
supply

Localised or
Centralised system single point system

Instantaneous Storage Instantaneous Storage

Thermal Combination Open Gas storage Unvented Open vented

store vented 'Fortic' vented/cistern water system mains Gas fired hot water
systems fed system fed system heater

Combi boiler or Unvented

instantaneous Direct Indirect Direct Indirect Indirect Electric hot water
water heater heater

Combined Small hot Small hot

primary water only water only Direct
storage units boiler boiler
Immersion Immersion
heater heater

▲ Figure 12.23 Types of hot-water system

of overheating. Water is stored at 60–65°C and should

Industry tip
be distributed at no less than 55°C.
The type of hot-water system required for a property There are two types of open-vented hot-water system:
will depend on the:  direct, which contains no form of heat exchanger
 type and size of the property
 indirect, which contains a heat exchanger to heat up
 number of occupants
 number of hot-water outlets the secondary water.
 distance from the source
 type of fuel used to heat the water. Key terms
Immersion heater: an electrical element that sits in
Centralised hot-water systems a body of water; when switched on, the electrical
Open-vented hot-water storage systems are heated by current causes it to heat up, which in turn heats up
either a boiler or an electric immersion heater. Water the surrounding water
is stored in a hot-water cylinder, which is fed from Heat exchanger: a device or vessel that allows heat
a cold-water storage cistern. Hot-water outlets are to be transferred from one water system to another,
supplied via a system of copper or plastic pipework, without the two water systems being allowed to
sized at a minimum of 15 mm. The system contains an come into contact with each other
open vent pipe, which acts as a safety relief in the event

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22 mm vent pipe discharging into 22 mm vent pipe discharging into

the CWSC and sealed with a the CWSC and sealed with a
grommet grommet

22 mm or 28 mm cold feed to
secondary hot water system
22 mm or 28 mm full-way
gate valve or lever type 22 mm or 28 mm full-way gate valve
spherical ball valve or lever-type spherical ball valve

22 mm draw-off to the bath then reduced 22 mm draw-off to the bath then reduced
to 15 mm to all other appliances to 15 mm to all other appliances

Heat source. Top immersion heater for daytime top-up.

Bottom immersion heater heats up all the water in the
cylinder via a daytime controller for the use of cheap
22 mm primary rate overnight electricity
circulating pipes
connect the heat
source to the cylinder
Heat source. Gas circulator or
back boiler behind a solid
fuel fire

▲ Figure 12.24 Direct hot-water system (left) and direct hot-water system with immersion heaters (right)

▼ Table 12.4 Advantages and disadvantages of direct hot-water systems

Advantages Disadvantages
• Quick heat-up of water • Risk of rusty water being drawn off at the taps if the wrong type of boiler is used
• Cheap to install • High risk of scale build-up in hard-water areas if water temperature exceeds 65°C
• High risk of scalding because of the lack of thermostatic control

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22 mm vent from primary hot water system connected to the boiler,

the coil in the hot water cylinder and central heating system
22 mm vent from secondary hot water system. Height
of the vent = 150 mm + 40 mm per metre of system height (m)
Feed and expansion cistern
fitted with BS1212 part 2
150 litre storage cistern fitted with BS1212 part 2 float-operated valve float-operated valve
Spherical ball-type
service valve
Spherical ball-type
service valve

15 mm cold feed to
22 mm or 28 mm cold feed to the primary system
secondary hot water system
22 mm or 28 mm full-way
gate valve or lever-type
spherical ball valve
22 mm draw-off to the bath then
reduced to 15 mm to all other services 450 mm

22 mm primary flow and

return pipes from the boiler
to the coil in the cylinder

Heat source. Gas, oil

or solid fuel

▲ Figure 12.25 Indirect open-vented (double-feed) hot-water system

▼ Table 12.5 Advantages and disadvantages of open vented hot water systems

Advantages Disadvantages
• Storage is available to meet demand at peak times • Space needed for both hot-water and cold-water
• Low noise levels storage vessels
• Always open to the atmosphere • Risk of freezing
• Water temperature can never exceed 100°C • Increased risk of contamination
• Reserve of water available if mains supply is interrupted • Low pressure and, often, poor flow rate
• Low maintenance • Outlet fittings can be limited because of the low
• Low installation costs pressure

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Combination storage systems are vented hot-water

systems with the cold-water storage cistern, cylinder and Research
associated pipework combined in one unit. They come
Using the internet, research the advantages and
in a variety of storage capacities and, as with vented hot- disadvantages of combination storage systems.
water cylinders, are available in both direct and indirect
models. They are ideal for properties that require stored
Unvented hot-water storage systems are heated by
hot water but have no loft space. Care needs to be
either a boiler or an electric immersion heater. Water
taken when siting these units due to the low static head
is stored in a hot-water cylinder, which is fed directly
resulting in poor flow rates out of the taps.
from the cold-water mains. Hot-water outlets are
supplied via a system of copper or plastic pipework,
Factory-fitted internal vent sized at a minimum of 15 mm. The system contains an
open vent pipe, which acts as a safety relief in the event
of overheating. Water is stored at 60–65°C and should
be distributed at no less than 55°C.
This system contains several components to ensure
both correct operation and safety for the user:
Hot water draw-off
 line strainer: filters the water supply to protect
system components
 pressure-reducing valve: reduces the mains water
Primary flow connection
1" male thread pressure
 single-check valve: prevents backflow
Factory-fitted cold  expansion-relief valve: discharges water to a safe
feed connection
place in the event of an increase in system pressure
 temperature-relief valve: discharges water to a
Primary return connection
1" male thread safe place in the event of an increase in system
temperature
 expansion vessel: takes up the expansion of water
▲ Figure 12.26 Combination storage system within the system during operation.

Isolation valve

In-line strainer
Hot water draw-off Expansion vessel
Temperature Pressure reducing valve
relief valve

Balanced cold connection

Check valve

Expansion (pressure)
Immersion heaters relief valve

D1 discharge pipework
Tundish
D2 discharge pipework

Cold feed

▲ Figure 12.27 Unvented hot-water storage system

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▼ Table 12.6 Advantages and disadvantages of unvented hot-water storage systems

Advantages Disadvantages
• Higher pressure and flow rates at all outlets, giving a • No back-up of water should the water supply be isolated
larger choice of outlet fittings • If cold-water supply suffers from low pressure or flow
• Pressures balanced at both hot and cold taps rate, the system will not operate satisfactorily
• Low risk of contamination • Discharge pipes are needed that are able to accept very
• Hot-water storage vessel can be sited almost anywhere hot water; there are restrictions on their length
in the property, making the system suitable for both • High level of maintenance required
houses and flats • Higher risk of noise in system pipework
• Reduced risk from frost damage • High initial cost of the unvented hot-water storage vessel
• Less space required because cold-water storage is not
needed
• Quicker installation, as less pipework is required
• Smaller-diameter pipework used in some circumstances

valve to control the gas supply, which is connected to a

Improve your maths
thermostat to control the temperature of the stored hot
Using Figure 12.27 and a manufacturer’s catalogue, water.
produce a materials list, price breakdown and total
Combination boilers are dual-function appliances.
cost for all components shown.
When a hot tap is opened, a diverter valve diverts the
boiler water around a second heat exchanger, which
Thermal store heaters work by heating up cold water heats water from the water undertaker’s cold-water
that is passed through the vessel; the cold water can main to supply instantaneous hot water at the hot tap.
either be fed directly from the mains or from a cold- In this mode, the entire heat output is used to heat the
water storage cistern. A thermostatic mixing valve water. Temperature control is electronic: the burner
must be installed on the outlet, to ensure the water is adjusted automatically to suit the output required.
does not exceed 60°C. Typical flow rates are around 9 litres per minute
(35°C temperature rise). Some combination boilers
Gas storage water heaters contain a hot-water cylinder
incorporate a small amount of storage, and this can
that is heated via an integral gas burner. The unit has
double the flow rate to around 18 litres per minute.
a flue which takes the POC safely outside. It contains a
Optional F & E cistern Isolation valve
built into the unit
Adjustable
thermostatic
mixing valve

Boiler

Heat exchanger

Expansion
chamber

To hot taps
Pump on
primary return To cold taps

Central heating Heat exchanger

pump
Heating flow

Heating return

Mains cold water inlet

▲ Figure 12.28 Thermal store heater

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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

Terminal

Isolation valve

In-line strainer
Flue pipe
Pressure
Balanced cold reducing valve Draught diverter
connection
Expansion
vessel
Single
check valve

Temperature
relief valve

Expansion
(pressure)
relief valve Tundish
Discharge
pipe

Wiring centre and cylinder thermostat

Gas burner
Gas pipe

▲ Figure 12.29 Gas storage water heater

Combustion air in
Flue gas outlet
Combustion air in
Pressure
switch

Combustion air in

Automatic
air valve Primary heat exchanger
Spark igniter
Gas burner

Expansion Fully modulating

vessel multifunctional control
Pump
Water-to-water
heat exchanger

Diverter valve

System Pressure relief valve

by-pass

Central heating
flow and return

Cold Hot Gas

water water
inlet outlet

▲ Figure 12.30 Combination boiler

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Secondary circulation Secondary circulation prevents the wastage of water

due to excessive lengths of hot-water draw-off from the
Industry tip storage vessel to the outlet. It is a method of returning
the hot-water draw-off back to the storage cylinder in a
When a hot tap is opened, a certain amount of cold continuous loop, to eliminate cold-water ‘dead legs’ by
water is usually drawn off and allowed to run to drain reducing the distance the hot water must travel before
before hot water arrives at the tap. This length of it arrives at the taps. In all installations, secondary
pipework is known as a dead leg. circulation incorporates a bronze- or stainless-steel-
bodied circulating pump to circulate the water to and
from the storage cylinder.

Open vent pipe

Cold feed pipe

22 mm or 28 mm full-way gate or
lever-type spherical ball valve

Secondary return
1/ of the way down
4
the cylinder

Bronze
pump

Secondary return connection at the furthest appliance

▲ Figure 12.31 Secondary circulation

Overflow
Test yourself
Describe the purpose of secondary circulation.

Heater

Research
Basin Basin Basin Basin
Using the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations
1999 and BS EN 806, research the requirements for
and methods of providing secondary circulation.
Cold
water
Localised hot-water systems supply
Cistern-type water heaters are designed to be ▲ Figure 12.32 Cistern-type water heater
connected directly to the rising main and allow
hot water to be supplied to several outlets. The Instantaneous water heaters can be fuelled by either
unit contains the cold-water storage cistern and gas or electricity and are generally described as inlet
an integral heater chamber, which is heated by an controlled (the water supply is controlled at the inlet
electric immersion heater controlled by a thermostat. to the heater). The water is heated as it flows through
the heater and will continue to be heated as long as the
water is flowing. When the control valve is closed,
the water flow stops and the heat source shuts down.
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This type of heater is generally used to supply small the kW output, the better the overall flow rate at a
quantities of hot water, such as for washbasins and showering temperature. All electric showers feature
showers. Typical minimum water pressure is 1 bar. a low-pressure heater-element cut-off, so that the
temperature of the water does not cause harm if the
There are many different types of electric shower,
supply pressure/flow rate is low.
with varying outputs from 8.5 to 11 kW. The higher

Heat exchanger

Combustion chamber

Pilot flame

Burner
Thermocoupling
Push rod
Venturi tube

Diaphragm
Pressure differential valve

Hot water outlet Gas inlet Cold water inlet

▲ Figure 12.33 Instantaneous water heater

Storage-type localised water heaters are often referred

to as displacement heaters, as the hot water is displaced
from the heater by cold water entering the unit. Typical
storage capacities are between 7 and 10 litres.
As the name suggests, over-sink heaters are fitted
over a sink. The water is heated by an electric heater
element and delivered from a spout on the heater.
Under-sink heaters are fitted under the sink and
work in the same way as over-sink heaters. The main
difference is that they usually require a special tap
or mixer tap that permits the outlet to be open to the
atmosphere at all times, to allow for expansion. The
inlet of water to the heater is still controlled from the
tap. Typical capacities are up to 15 litres.

▲ Figure 12.34 Instantaneous hot-water fitting

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Insulation
Open vent to allow
for expansion

Heater element

Thermostat

Swivel spout Cold water feed

with spreader feed
Water inlet
control valve

▲ Figure 12.35 Over-sink heater

Sanitation systems
Spout of the tap
Sanitation systems take waste solids and liquids away
acts as an open from a building, to ensure hygienic conditions are
vent allowing
expansion of maintained within. This includes waste from toilets,
water to take place baths, basins, sinks, bidets and showers.

Health and safety

Mains cold Hot water supply
water supply from the heater Working on sanitation systems involves working
to the tap to the tap
with human waste. To prevent disease, the correct
PPE must be worn and personal hygiene procedures
followed.
Cold water
supply from
the tap to the
water heater Sanitation-system pipework comprises two sections:
 The soil pipe, also known as the soil stack, is the
Under-sink lower, wet part of the system that takes effluent
water heater away from a building.
 The vent pipe, also known as the vent stack, is the
upper part of the system that introduces air to help
▲ Figure 12.36 Under-sink heater
prevent loss of trap seal.
Test yourself Together, these pipes are known as a stack system.

List three types of hot-water system. Key terms

Soil pipe: the lower, wet part of sanitation-system
Research pipework that takes effluent away from a building
Vent pipe: the upper part of sanitation-system
Specify a hot-water system for a building you are pipework that introduces air to help prevent loss of
familiar with and state the components required to trap seal
install it. Trap seal: a plug of water left in the trap which
prevents bad smells entering a building

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Primary ventilated stack system is used where appliances are grouped closely around
The primary ventilated stack is the most common the stack.
system found in domestic properties. It is used Ventilated branch discharge system
where appliances are grouped closely around the The ventilated branch discharge system is commonly
stack. used in commercial and industrial premises, where
Secondary ventilated stack system appliances are installed in ranges and sited a distance
The secondary ventilated stack system is installed to away from the stack. It ensures compliance with
prevent positive and negative pressure fluctuations. It building regulations in relation to maximum permitted
branch pipework lengths.

A B

D
Staggered bath branch
to prevent cross-flow

A B E C

450 mm to the
invert of the drain
Large-radius bend
A: WC branch
B: Washbasin and bidet
C: Washing machine/dishwasher
D: Bath
E: Kitchen/utility sink
▲ Figure 12.37 Primary ventilated stack system

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Secondary ventilating stack

Rodding eye

Branch discharge pipe

Main discharge stack

▲ Figure 12.38 Secondary ventilated stack system

Main ventilating stack

Branch ventilating pipe

Rodding eye

Branch discharge pipe

Branch ventilating pipe

Main discharge stack

To sewer

▲ Figure 12.39 Ventilated branch discharge system

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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

Stub stack system The type of trap used will depend on the appliance it is
A stub stack system can be used where sanitary connected to, and examples include:
appliances are connected directly to an internal  P traps and S traps: these are types of swivel trap which
drain. This reduces the need for ventilation pipework are used on new work and appliance replacements
and removes the requirement for the soil system to  running traps: these are used for a range of
penetrate the building structure. appliances. Rather than individual traps on each
appliance, a single running trap can be used at the
Access cover or air
110 mm stub stack admittance valve end of a pipework run
 bottle traps: used on washbasins because of their
neat appearance; shower traps are a combined
waste and trap allowing the trap to be cleaned of
potential blockages, such as hair, from the top of
H1 = 2 m max. (Scotland only) the waste on the shower tray
H2 = 1.5 m max.
H3 = 1.3 m max. (England &  washing machine traps: used for appliances such
Wales only) as washing machines and dishwashers, they
are generally of P-trap configuration, with an
extended neck to accommodate a washing machine/
H2 H3 H1
dishwasher outlet hose
 in-line traps: designed with washbasins in mind, an
d in-line trap is essentially an S trap where the inlet
d (single appliance) = 6 m max. and outlet are in line
d (group of appliances) = 12 m max.  anti-vac traps: use a small air admittance valve
▲ Figure 12.40 Stub stack system located after the water seal
 self-sealing traps: waterless valves that use a thin
When installing a stub stack: neoprene rubber membrane to create an airtight
 the stack should be terminated with an air seal, preventing foul air from entering the dwelling
admittance valve while maintaining equal pressure within the soil
 the maximum distance between the invert of the and vent system.
drain and the base of a WC should be 1.3 m
Trap size is dependent on the size of an appliance’s
 the maximum distance between the invert of the
waste/soil pipe.
drain and the highest branch connection should be
2 m. ▼ Table 12.7 Minimum sizes of waste pipe

Appliance Minimum size of

Research waste pipe

Visit www.planningportal.co.uk/info/200135/ Wash basin 32 mm

approved_documents and research the Bidet
requirements for above-ground drainage systems Washing machine 40 mm
and stub stack systems. Dishwasher
 Which approved document provides guidance Bath
on drainage and waste disposal? Kitchen sink
 What are the termination requirements for the Shower tray
vent pipe? Multiple appliance branch 50 mm
 What are the maximum permitted dimensions for pipework
branch discharge pipework? Food waste disposal units
Produce a set of line diagrams to illustrate your
findings.
Research
Traps
Using the internet, research manufacturers of soil and
Every appliance discharging into a soil and waste
vent pipes. Note the types of fittings and installation
system must be fitted with a trap to prevent foul air requirements for above-ground drainage systems.
within the system entering the property.

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Rainwater systems
Rainwater systems collect and carry away rain from
roofs using either integrated channels or eaves-
mounted gutters connected to rainwater pipes.
The water is discharged into surface-water drains,
combined sewers, soakaways or watercourses such as
streams and rivers.
Gutter
Health and safety
Working on rainwater systems involves working at
height. The Work at Height Regulations must be Off-set bend
followed at all times to prevent falls.

Building features determine the type of gutter bracket

Rainwater pipe
used to secure a gutter. For example:
 when fascia boards are fitted, fascia brackets are
used
 when no fascia boards are fitted and the rafters are
exposed, rafter brackets are used
 when no fascia boards are fitted and no rafters are
exposed, rise and fall brackets which are directly
fixed into the masonry are used.
The purpose of a rainwater system is to:
 protect the foundations of the building
 reduce ground erosion
 prevent damp and water penetration of the
building.
It can also be used as part of a rainwater-harvesting
system.

Key term
Soakaways: large underground holes, filled with
coarse stones or purpose-made plastic crates,
which allow water to filter through and soak into the ▲ Figure 12.41 Rainwater system
ground

Improve your maths

Test yourself
Visit www.planningportal.co.uk/info/200135/
What are the key components of a rainwater approved_documents. With reference to Approved
system? Document H, calculate the size of gutter required
for a roof with an area of 25 m2 and a pitch of
45 degrees.

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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

There are four main gutter profiles available, as shown

Research in Table 12.8.
Visit www.planningportal.co.uk/info/200135/
approved_documents Industry tip
Research the requirements for rainwater systems
by reading Approved Document H. Look for the Gutter sizes are calculated using the effective roof
following information: area, which takes into account the plan of the roof
 What are the requirements of H3? and its pitch. Reference to manufacturer’s instructions
 What is detailed in Section 1 Gutters and is essential when calculating gutter sizes.
rainwater pipes?
 What are the requirements for materials used for
gutters and rainwater pipes?

▼ Table 12.8 Gutter profiles

Gutter profile Description

Half-round gutter Standard gutter profile used with round rainwater pipes

Square-section gutter Standard gutter profile used with square-section rainwater pipes

High-capacity gutter Used on larger or steeply angled roofs; also known as deep-flow or storm-flow gutter

Ornamental gutter (OG) A modern redesign of a Victorian gutter that provides a period look

Test yourself
What are the four main gutter profiles?

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▼ Table 12.9 Gutter and rainwater fittings

Fitting Purpose
Running outlet Connects the gutter and rainwater pipework

Gutter angle Allows a change of direction in the gutter

Gutter union Joins two sections of gutter

Stop end Used at the end of gutter runs

Specialist union Connects different materials and gutter profiles together

Shoe Discharges rainwater over a gully

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Gravity rainwater systems typically use PVC-U, This type of alarm system is suitable for most domestic
extruded-aluminium or cast-iron gutters: dwellings, depending on several factors:
 PVC-U gutters use a snap-fit system that allows them  location of the property: is the property remote or
to click together. They are sealed with integral rubber. located in a public area?
 Extruded-aluminium gutters are jointed in the  property use: for example a bank would require a
middle and secured with screws or rivets. higher level of protection
 Cast-iron gutters are jointed in the middle and  contents of the property: for example a building
bolted together with gutter bolts. with expensive ICT equipment would require a
higher level of security.
Test yourself Remotely monitored intruder alarm systems
List three materials used for gutters and rainwater When this type of alarm is triggered, it can provide
pipework. notification of the intrusion to:
 a remote monitoring centre
 a building owner
Research  the police.

Using the internet, research gutter and rainwater It usually also incorporates an audible alarm.
pipework manufacturers. Note the types of fittings Intruder alarm system components
available and produce a poster explaining each type.
Intruder alarm systems consist of three main
components:
1.6 Protection systems  control unit
 detection device
Protection systems are designed to safeguard a  audible warning device.
property, its occupants and its contents against
intruders and fire. They can also provide surveillance Control unit
of the building and its surrounding area and provide The control unit operates on mains-derived 230 V AC
access control. electricity, with the alarm circuits and wiring using
12 V. The system should be fitted with a standby,
Intruder alarm systems rechargeable battery to provide power in the event of
There are many different types of modern intruder disruption to the mains power supply.
alarm, with a range of components and functions The control panel can be programmed to perform a
available. The type chosen will depend on the building range of tasks, from switching the system on and off
being protected and the level of security required. to altering the system configuration and timers. Some
Before installing an intruder alarm, a survey should be systems also allow selective parts to be activated.
carried out to ensure it is appropriate for the level of The keypad is usually located in a convenient position
risk and meets the requirements of the client. A system to allow the user to operate the alarm system, rather
design proposal should then be produced that lists the than being fitted to the control panel.
equipment to be installed and its location.
For remotely monitored systems, connection to
Industry tip an ethernet or Wi-Fi communicator is required.
The system is connected using PVC-insulated
BS EN 50131 specifies requirements for intrusion and PVC-sheathed multi-core alarm cable, with the
and hold-up alarm systems. communications connected using Cat 5/6 data cable.

Types of intruder alarm system Key term

Audible intruder alarm systems
This is the most basic type of intruder alarm. When the Cat 5/6 data cable: twisted pair cable used for
ethernet connection
alarm is triggered, a loud sound alerts people that an
intruder has entered or is trying to enter the property.

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Detection device Key:

Door contact
Detection devices detect the presence of an intruder Ceiling mount
and signal the information to the control unit: motion sensor
Alarm keypad
 Door contacts comprise a magnetic reed switch
Siren box
fitted in a door frame with a magnet sited alongside
Panic button
it in the door. When the door is opened, the Alarm control
magnetic field is removed from the area of the reed panel

switch, which generates an alarm signal.

 Passive infrared (PIR) sensors can be mounted in a
room to detect movement in their field of view. Cash room

 Break-glass detectors comprise a microphone

and an amplifier that are tuned to the frequency Safe

generated by breaking glass. Safe

 Inertia sensors detect vibrations associated with

forced entry into premises. ▲ Figure 12.43 Layout of an intruder alarm system

 Personal attack buttons are connected to an alarm

system and always active. In the event of an Test yourself
emergency, they can be operated to cause a full
alarm condition. Name the three main components of an intruder
alarm system.

Research
Using the internet, research the different intruder
alarm systems available, including their connectivity.
Produce an information sheet with your findings.

Surveillance systems
CCTV is a powerful deterrent to crime, working with
other security systems to protect people and property.
It operates on mains-derived 230 V AC electricity, with
accessories using 12 V.
▲ Figure 12.42 PIR movement detector
A typical CCTV surveillance system comprises:
 site cameras, which can be internal, external, static
Audible warning device
and/or fully functional (pan–tilt–zoom, PTZ)
Audible warning devices emit sound when the alarm
 illumination, provided as either standard white or
is activated, alerting people within earshot to the
infrared (IR) light
presence of an intruder. Typical sounds include bells,
 detectors in the form of beams or PIR sensors
sirens and voice warnings. The audible alarm may also
 a public address (PA) system, which can be used for
be accompanied by flashing lights.
audio challenge
 a system controller (either digital video recorder,
DVR, or network video recorder, NVR)
 a CCTV transmitter unit.

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The system is connected using PVC-insulated and Fire alarm systems must be fit for purpose. BS 5839
PVC-sheathed multi-core cable and coaxial cable, with defines different categories:
communications connected using Cat 5/6 data cable.  Category M systems rely on manual operation by
the people using the building. The usual method of
Power Monitor
(cameras) Cat 5 or 6 cable raising the alarm is to break the glass on a manual
Other devices Coax
Analogue
camera Power call point.
DVR  Category L systems provide automatic fire detection
Analogue
(AFD) and are designed primarily to protect life.
camera
This category is subdivided, according to the areas
Router/firewall Modem Remote PC of the building that require the installation of AFD.
Analogue
camera  Category P systems provide AFD and are designed
▲ Figure 12.44 CCTV system diagram primarily to protect property. This category is
subdivided, with P1 requiring AFD in all areas of
the building and P2 requiring AFD only in specific
Research parts of the building.
Using the internet, research the levels of CCTV
system available:
 entry level
Receiving
 mid-range station
 high end.
Produce a poster detailing the components and Premise
Telephone line 1 phone
functions for the different levels. Two
wires
Telephone line 2
Two wires Modem
Local PC
Fire alarm systems
Fire alarm systems provide early detection and
warning of a fire. They usually consist of a control RS-485 RS-485
panel linked to fire detectors and manual call points FA-300 6DDR conventional FA-300 LCDR remote SRM-312R smart
fire alarm control panel LCD annunciator relay module
(often referred to as detection zones) and alarm
circuits. The systems operate on mains-derived ▲ Figure 12.45 Fire alarm systems
230 V AC electricity and also contain a backup battery.
Detectors use 24 V DC. The fire alarm control panel (FACP) contains the:
 electronics that supervise and monitor the integrity of
Prior to a fire alarm system being designed and
the wiring and components of the fire alarm system
installed, a risk assessment should be undertaken to
 switches to allow the sounders to be activated or
define its main objectives.
silenced and the detectors to be reset following an
alarm.
Test yourself
There are usually several fire-detection zones,
What is the primary purpose of a fire alarm system? comprising a mixture of automatic fire detectors
and manual call points. The size of a zone is limited
to 2000 m 2 and should not cover more than one
Industry tip storey.

BS 5839 covers fire detection and fire alarm Fire detectors can be smoke or heat activated and are
systems for buildings. what is known as initiating devices, sending a signal to
the fire alarm control panel to activate the alarm circuit.

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A manual call point consists of a simple switch with from unauthorised access. As such, they ensure that a
a resistor in series with it. When the call point is building owner is able to meet their statutory duty of care.
activated, the resistor is switched across the line and a
A successful system will be able to maintain the
current of 50–80 mA is drawn, sending a signal to the
security of the building while managing the access
fire alarm control panel to activate the alarm circuit.
requirements of different users. It may also be possible
to record the movements of those users.
Access control systems operate on mains-derived
230 V AC electricity, with accessories using 12 V. They
are connected using PVC-insulated and PVC-sheathed
multi-core cable, with communications connected
using Cat 5/6 data cable.
Types of access control system include:
 stand alone, with a single entry point converted to
an access control solution from a mechanical one
 online, where the decision to grant access is made
by an electronic access control (EAC) system
 fully integrated/wireless, through incorporation into
a building’s existing security system.
Typical access control installations on a single door
▲ Figure 12.46 Manual call point require a reader or keypad, door monitor, lock manager
and press-to-exit switch.
The system is connected using fire-performance (FP)
Door sensor
cables, with communications connected using fire- Access control software
REX Reader-controller
resistant UTP Cat 5/6 data cable.

Test yourself
Electric door
What are the different categories of fire alarm lock Network with PoE
system under BS 5839?

Research
Using the internet, research intelligent fire alarm
systems and prepare notes explaining the system
components and basic operation. Present your
findings to the class. ▲ Figure 12.47 Access control system

Access control systems rely on a person being

Access control systems recognised and validated using a credential, such as:
 something the person has, for example a key card,
Access control systems ensure that only authorised
tag, token or smartphone app
persons are able to enter a location, whether that is
 something the person knows, for example a
an individual room or a whole site. They can be used
password or PIN
anywhere within a building and its grounds, for
 a person’s biometric data, for example their fingerprint.
example:
 external gates and barriers
 main entrances Key term
 doors, turnstiles and lifts inside the building.
Credential: something used to recognise and
The primary purpose of these systems is to protect a validate a person
building’s occupants and/or contents from threats arising

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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

trickle vents or openable windows. It relies on wind

Test yourself effects and pressure and the principles of convection.
Give three examples of credentials that can be used
for access control systems.

Research
Using the internet, identify different types of access
control system that could be installed in an office.

1.7 Refrigeration systems

Refrigeration systems reduce the temperature of a
space or substance by removing unwanted heat. They
are used as part of: ▲ Figure 12.48 Domestic ventilation components
 HVAC systems, to ensure the comfort of building users
The stack effect relies on the principles of convection.
 cooling systems for industrial processes
Cool air from outside enters a building at a low level
 cooling systems for keeping products fresh in the
where it is warmed by the occupancy, lighting, machinery
food and drink manufacturing sector (for example
and building activities. This warmed air rises within the
in cold rooms).
building then discharges through vents at a high level.
They comprise a combination of components and
equipment connected in sequential order to produce Positive pressure zone
the refrigeration effect.

1.8 Ventilation systems

Ventilation systems are used to change the air within Leeward side
Windward
an enclosed space in order to: side
 provide fresh air
 manage the oxygen content in the air ▲ Figure 12.49 Stack effect
 control levels of carbon dioxide
Passive stack ventilation is an energy-efficient and
 prevent damp and control moisture
environmentally friendly method of ventilation with
 remove excess heat
zero running costs. The system consists of vertical
 remove airborne contaminants.
ducts sized at 100 to 150 mm in diameter, with
Ventilation can be achieved by either natural or grilles installed at ceiling level which are connected
mechanical means. The requirements for air change to terminals above the ridge height of the roof. Air
rates in a building are covered in the Building movement within the building is achieved by a mixture
Regulations and vary depending on the: of the warm air and air flowing over the roof. Fresh air
 type of building is drawn into the building through the trickle vents in
 building’s occupancy levels the windows and doors.
 activity the building has been designed for.

Natural (non-mechanical) ventilation

systems
Natural ventilation provides air changes within a
building using components such as air bricks, louvres,

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Passive stack
ventilation

Bedroom Bathroom

Lounge Kitchen

▲ Figure 12.51 Mechanical-extract ventilation (MEV)

system

Mechanical ventilation with heat recovery

▲ Figure 12.50 Passive stack ventilation
(MVHR) systems
Mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (MVHR)
Research systems share the same working principles as MEV
systems, with the addition of a fresh air supply fan and
Visit www.planningportal.co.uk/info/200135/
a heat exchanger. They extract warm, stale air from
approved_documents and research the
requirements for ventilation systems. inside a building and pass it through a heat exchanger,
 Which approved document provides guidance where the heat is transferred to incoming fresh air
on ventilation? supplied by the fan. The warmed fresh air passes into
 What types of ventilation system are included in the building while the cooled stale air is extracted
the approved document? into the atmosphere. By recovering the heat in the
 What are the ventilation requirements for a exhaust air, these systems improve a building’s energy
bathroom? efficiency.
Contaminated air Fresh air drawn
to atmosphere from outside
Mechanical ventilation systems
There are three categories of mechanical ventilation
Heat recovery
system: unit
 natural inlet and mechanical extract
 mechanical inlet and natural extract
 mechanical inlet and mechanical extract. Moisture-laden
Fresh warm air
air extracted
Mechanical extract ventilation (MEV) delivered into
property
from wet zones

Mechanical-extract ventilation (MEV) systems are

suitable for both domestic and commercial properties
where passive stack ventilation is considered
inadequate. While comprising a similar arrangement
of vertical ducts and ceiling-level grilles connected
to roof terminals, they also have a low-powered fan
located in the roof structure that runs continuously. ▲ Figure 12.52 Mechanical ventilation with heat
These systems can incorporate humidity sensors to recovery (MVHR) system
automatically increase air flow and may be boosted by
manual control when necessary.

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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

 correct disposal of hazardous waste, such as

Research asbestos, refrigerants, electrical and electronic
equipment (EEE) and lead.
Produce layout diagrams for the following ventilation
systems and provide examples of buildings where
they may be installed: Test yourself
 natural inlet and mechanical extract
 mechanical inlet and natural extract List three factors that must be considered when
 mechanical inlet and mechanical extract. decommissioning BSE systems.

2 The potential effects on Key term

building performance during
Temporary decommissioning: the process of
installation, commissioning and taking a system out of action for a short time for
decommissioning of BSE systems maintenance or upgrades

2.1 Effects on the environment 2.2 Effects on trades

In order to minimise negative effects on the Other trades may be affected by the activities involved
environment, it is important to: in work on BSE systems. For example, the isolation of a
 specify and install energy-efficient products and cold-water system during installation work could affect
systems other BSE trades who require a connection to the water
 measure accurately to avoid waste supply and onsite construction operatives such as
 use materials correctly bricklayers and plasterers who require water for mixing
 follow environmental policies. their materials.
A range of published documents support compliance,
including: Test yourself
 the Domestic Building Services Compliance
Explain how different trades can be affected
Guide
during the installation, commissioning and
 Approved Document L: Conservation of fuel and
decommissioning of BSE systems.
power.
BSE systems must be commissioned according to
2.3 Loss of service
the manufacturer’s instructions to ensure they work
efficiently. This includes setting up system controls for While undertaking work on BSE systems and
optimum performance and instructing building users components, a loss of service may occur:
on how the system is operated.  Isolating the water supply in a domestic property
will result in no drinking-water outlets and a loss of
It is particularly important to consider the environment
sanitary conveniences.
when decommissioning systems, whether temporarily
 Isolating the electrical supply in a commercial
or permanently. This includes ensuring the:
building can result in the loss of a range of BSE
 correct recycling of materials and waste
systems, such as electrical outlets, heating and
 correct disposal of system fluids
ventilation systems and protection systems where
battery backup is not installed.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Where possible, alternative supplies should be

provided to minimise disruption to end users. End Impeller
Outlet
users should be informed about which part of the Backplate
system will be out of service, how long for and the
Inlet
location of/arrangements for alternative supplies.
Hub
Blades
Research Side sheet
Scroll
Flange

Research the effects of installation, commissioning ▲ Figure 12.53 Centrifugal fan

and decommissioning of BSE systems on building
performance. Produce a table for the following Axial fans
systems:
 plumbing In axial fans, air passes through the fan in line with the
 heating axis of rotation. Types include:
 gas  tube axial, consisting of a propeller or disk-type
 electrotechnical wheel within a cylinder
 control  vane axial, consisting of a disk-type wheel within a
 air conditioning cylinder, with a set of air-guide vanes located either
 ventilation.
before or after the wheel
 mixed-flow inline fan, a development of the axial
fan that combines the characteristics of both axial
3 Mechanical principles of and centrifugal fans.
components Inletcone
(or inlet bell)
3.1 Fans Guide vane
Fans are used in a range of BSE systems and
components, for example:
Motor
 in gas central-heating boilers to discharge products
of combustion to the outside while at the same time
drawing in fresh air
 in ducted ventilation systems either to draw air into Airflow
the system or to discharge stale air. out

The function of the fan will depend on its position. Airflow

in
The two types of fan commonly used in BSE systems are
Housing
referred to as centrifugal and axial. They are defined by casing
the direction of air flow through them. These two types
▲ Figure 12.54 Axial fan
can then be split into subtypes relating to flow volume/
pressure characteristics, size, noise and vibration.
Research
Centrifugal fans
In centrifugal fans, the air enters the impeller along its Using the internet, research centrifugal and axial
axis and is then discharged radially from the impeller fans and produce a handout detailing their operating
principles and uses.
by the centrifugal motion.
There are several different shapes of blade that can
make up the impeller, including:
 backward curved
 forward curved
 radial.

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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

Research Research
Research the different types of fan installed in Research the different types of pump installed in the
BSE systems and identify the implications for each following BSE systems:
system of component failure.  hot-water supply
 shower
 cold-water supply
Pumps  central heating.
Pumps are used in BSE systems to circulate fluids: Identify the implications for each system of
 Hot-water circulating pumps are installed on component failure.
the hot-water return (pumping into the cylinder)
and aid efficient circulation to and from the
cylinder. They are controlled by a simple clock Boilers
and manufactured from bronze to ensure they do Boilers generate the heat required to warm the systems
not corrode. If a pump fails, hot water will not be they are connected to. They are generally heated by
pumped around the system, which will reduce one of the following:
efficiency and increase hot-water draw-off times.  solid fuel
 Shower pumps increase shower flow rate:  gas
 A single-impeller pump is designed to boost the  oil
mixed supply from a shower mixer valve to the  electricity.
shower outlet.
Connection methods vary, depending on the type
 A twin-impeller pump is designed to boost the hot-
of system they serve. In addition to the heat source,
and cold-water supplies to a shower mixer valve.
there is usually a series of time and temperature
Failure of a shower pump will result in insufficient
controls.
flow at the shower valve/outlet.
 Central-heating circulators (or pumps) are simple
electric motors with a fluted waterwheel-like
impeller that circulates water around the system by
centrifugal force. The circulator must be positioned
with care to avoid faults that could lead to problems
with corrosion by aeration.
 Cold-water booster pumps are used to pump
(boost) cold-water supplies and draw-off water to
upper floors of a building. Failure of this component
will result in no water on the upper floors.

Key term
Draw-off water: water discharge from a terminal
fitting such as a tap

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

▼ Table 12.10 Types of boiler

Fuel Boiler type Working principles

type
Solid High-output back boiler This type of boiler is installed directly into a chimney or open flue and connected to a
fuel installed behind a real central-heating/hot-water system.
open coal fire
Independent boiler This type of boiler is open flued and designed to provide both hot water and central
(freestanding) heating in a range of domestic premises. There are two main types of independent boiler:
• Gravity feed boilers – these incorporate a large hopper, positioned above the firebox
used to feed the fuel automatically to the fire bed as required
• Batch feed boilers – these are ‘hand-fired’ appliances requiring manual stocking of
the fuel
Flue

Heating flow
Fuel hopper

Water jacket Combustion fan

Air
Heating return

Ash door
Ash

Gas Traditional This type of boiler is designed for fully pumped S- and Y-plan heating systems only
wall-mounted boiler and uses a variety of flue types. It does not contain any form of expansion vessel or
operational control, such as a pump or filling loop. It uses a high-temperature limiting
thermostat (energy cut-out) to guard against overheating.
Combustion air in
Flue gas outlet
Combustion air in
Return Fan
Flow

High-limit thermostat
Low water heat exchanger

Combustion chamber
Pilot light

Gas burner
Thermocouple
Interrupter

Multi-function control

Gas pipe
Boiler thermostat

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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

Fuel Boiler type Working principles

type
Combination boiler This type of boiler provides central heating and instantaneous hot-water supply from a single
appliance. They are very efficient and contain all the safety controls (i.e. expansion vessel,
pressure-relief valve) of a sealed system. Most ‘combis’ also have an integral filling loop.
Combustion air in
Flue gas outlet
Combustion air in
Pressure
switch

Combustion air in

Automatic
air valve Primary heat exchanger
Spark igniter
Gas burner

Expansion Fully modulating

vessel multifunctional control
Pump
Water-to-water
heat exchanger

Diverter valve

System Pressure relief valve

by-pass

Central heating
flow and return

Cold Hot Gas

water water
inlet outlet

Oil Pressure-jet boiler This type of boiler uses an oil burner that mixes air and fuel:
• An electric motor drives a fuel pump and an air fan.
• The fuel pump forces the fuel through a fine nozzle, breaking down the oil into a mist.
• This mist is mixed with air from the fan and ignited by a spark electrode.

Fire valve
Stop valve Flue

Control box
Oil pump Heating
Oil tank Stop valve flow

Water
jacket

Heating
return

Filter Blast tube Boiler lining

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

▼ Table 12.10 Types of boiler

Fuel Boiler type Working principles

type
Vaporising boiler The burner in a vaporising boiler works on gravity oil feed; there is no pump. The oil
flows to the burner, where a small heater warms it until vapour is given off. This vapour is
then ignited by a small electrode.

Flue

Heating
flow

Oil tank Stop valve

Water
jacket
Fire valve
Stop Heating
return
valve

Filter Oil flow Vapourising burner

control

Key term Chillers

Chillers generate cold liquid by removing heat via a
Burner: an integral part of a boiler where compression or an absorption refrigeration cycle. This
combustion takes place liquid can then be distributed through a heat exchanger
to chill equipment or through other HVAC processes.
Components are connected via a system of pipework.
Test yourself
 Vapour-compression chillers are the most common
Describe the operating principles of a pressure-jet type. They use a mechanical compressor to force
oil boiler. refrigerant around the cooling system.
 Screw chillers use a rotary-screw compressor.
 Vapour-absorption chillers use a heat source to
Research move refrigerant around the cooling system.
 Ammonia chillers use water as an absorbent and
Research the different types of boiler available for ammonia as a refrigerant.
domestic, commercial and industrial applications.
 Air-cooled chillers remove heat with fans that force
For each type, produce a table that details the flue air across exposed condenser tubes.
types, fuel types and kW rating.  Water-cooled chillers remove heat with pumps
that send water through a sealed condenser and
disperse it through a cooling tower.

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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

HVAC chillers

Vapour compression chillers Vapour absorption chillers

Direct fired Indirect fired

Reciprocating Centrifugal Screw Scroll Lithium bromide

Ammonia water
water

Single effect Double effect

Single stage Multiple stage

Water-cooled condensers Air-cooled condensers Evaporative condensers

▲ Figure 12.55 Types of chiller

Thermoelectric refrigeration is the process of pumping

Key term
heat energy out of an insulated chamber in order to
Rotary-screw compressor: compressor that uses reduce the temperature of the chamber to below that
two closely meshing helical screws, known as rotors, of the surrounding air. It uses a principle called the
to compress a gas Peltier effect to pump heat electronically.

Key term
Test yourself
Peltier effect: when the passage of a direct electric
Describe how an air-cooled chiller works. current through the junction of two dissimilar
conducting materials causes the junction to absorb
or reject heat
Heat rejection to outdoor air

Research
Research the different types of chiller available
Pump Cooling tower and their basic operating principles. Produce a
Condenser
water loop

presentation and deliver it to your class.

Heat pumps
Chiller A heat pump warms or cools a building by moving heat
water loop

from a low-temperature reservoir to another reservoir

Chilled

Air-handler or
fan coil unit at a higher temperature. Its working principles are the
same as for a refrigerator, which creates heat while
Pump making the refrigerator cold.
The process is known as the vapour-compression
refrigeration cycle and involves compressing a gas
Conditioned supply of air to indoor spaces
(called the refrigerant) with a compressor until it
▲ Figure 12.56 Operation of chillers becomes a liquid. This generates useful heat that

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

can be used to warm a building. When the pressure

is released through an expansion valve, very cold Research
temperatures are generated, which can be used for
Using the internet and manufacturer information,
cooling a building. This process is reversible. create a presentation detailing common controls
Heating system used in BSE systems. Include the:
 name of the system and its purpose
 names of the controls and what they are used for.
Condenser
4 Electrotechnical principles
Expansion valve
of components
A wiring system comprises a cable or collection of
Compressor cables used to deliver power or services. The cables
may be supported by cable trays, baskets, clips or cleats
(sometimes referred to as a support system). A cable
Evaporator
management/containment system further supports,
protects and separates cables, usually by enclosing
Outside air them in conduit, ducting or trunking. There are many
▲ Figure 12.57 Components of a heat pump different types of wiring system.

There are several different types of heat pump: 4.1 Cable types
 Air-to-air heat pumps are used mostly in
Cables have three main parts:
commercial buildings as reverse-cycle heat pumps
 The conductor carries the electrical current and
that can provide both heating and cooling.
is commonly made from copper, either in a single
 Air-to-water heat pumps are used to heat
piece or multiple strands. It may also be made from
swimming pools and to provide hot water and
other materials, such as aluminium.
space heating for dwellings.
 The insulation is a layer of non-conductive
 Water-to-air heat pumps can use wells or boreholes
material that covers the conductor. It provides basic
but can also be installed with many units connected
protection against electric shock, as well as being a
together on a common closed water loop to transfer
means to identify the use of the conductor.
energy from hot to cold points of a building.
 The sheath is a secondary layer of non-conductive
 Ground-to-air heat pumps use constant ground
material surrounding the insulation. It holds the
temperatures to provide the heat source, with warm
insulated conductors together in one cable and also
air delivered to the building.
provides minor mechanical protection to the inner
 Ground-to-water heat pumps are the same as
conductor.
ground-to-air heat pumps but used with underfloor
heating systems, radiators or wall heaters.
Failure of a heat pump within a system will result in no
heating or cooling within a property.

Key term
Reverse-cycle heat pumps: heat pumps that can be
▲ Figure 12.58 Cables
used for both heating and cooling
Thermoplastic cables are commonly referred to as PVC
(polyvinyl chloride) cables and come in various shapes,
Test yourself
sizes and forms, including:
Describe the operating principles of a heat pump.  single-core
 twin-core and CPC (circuit protective conductor)
flat profile
 three-core and CPC flat profile
346  multi-core flexible.

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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

The type of cable used will depend on its application: Data cables are used in data networking and
 non-fixed appliances are connected using flexible telecommunications networks to transmit electronic
cable information from a source to a destination. Cable types
 twin-core and CPC flat-profile cable are used for include Cat 5 and Cat 6, which are twisted-pair cables
lighting and socket circuits. used for ethernet and network applications (Cat 6 is an
evolution of Cat 5 that supports higher bandwidths).
In domestic installations, the most common cables are:
 twin-core and CPC flat profile
 three-core and CPC flat profile.

Mineral-insulated copper-clad cable (MICC) is

manufactured using copper and magnesium oxide
as the insulation with an outer polymer sheath. It is
used in high temperatures and harsh environmental
conditions, resists oxidation and has low flammability.

▲ Figure 12.61 Data cable

Fibre-optic cables are also used in data networking and

telecommunications networks to transmit electronic
information. They contain one or more transparent
optical fibres that are used to carry light. The optical
fibres are typically glass or plastic pipes contained in a
protective tube.

▲ Figure 12.59 Mineral-insulated copper-clad cable

Steel-wire-armoured (SWA) cable is hard-wearing

and made up of black PVC sheath, cross-linked
polyethylene (XLPE) insulation, copper conductors
and steel-wire armouring. It is used for underground
systems, cable networks and power networks, as well
as indoor and outdoor applications such as power to
sheds and garages. It is available in a wide range of ▲ Figure 12.62 Fibre-optic cable

core options.
Fire-resistant cables are used in fire detection and
alarm systems, voice alarm systems, emergency
lighting systems and other essential service circuits.
Insudite insulation ensures fire/heat resistance and
greater cable durability.

Key term
Insudite insulation: a type of fire- and heat-proof
insulation

▲ Figure 12.60 Steel-wire-armoured cable

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Test your knowledge 4.2 Electrical accessories

There is a wide range of accessories that may be
Explain the uses of steel-wire-armoured (SWA) cable
required when installing electrical systems. These can
and fire-resistant cable.
be split into two categories:
 first-fix accessories, such as electrical back boxes
and jointing boxes
 second-fix accessories, such as sockets, switches
and pull cords.

▲ Figure 12.63 Fire-resistant cable

▼ Table 12.11 First-fix electrical accessories

Type Used for

Drylining box Installations in drylined (plasterboard) walls

Countersunk metal box Recessed installations in brick/block/plaster

Surface-mounted box Surface-mounted installations

Junction box Connecting a number of cables together

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Test your knowledge

List three first-fix electrical accessories.

▼ Table 12.12 Second-fix electrical accessories

Type Used for

Fan isolator Isolating kitchen and bathroom fans

Two-way lighting switch Operating lights

Pull cord Isolating the power supply to showers and operating lights in bathrooms

Pull cord with neon indicator Isolating the power supply to showers

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Type Used for

Unswitched fused spur Connecting fixed appliances, such as WC macerators

Switched fused spur with neon indicator Connecting fixed appliances, such as boilers

Unswitched socket (one gang) Socket circuits with up to 13 A plugs

Switched socket (double gang) Socket circuits with up to 13 A plugs

Key term Test your knowledge

Macerators: plumbing components used to convert List three second-fix electrical accessories.
waste from a toilet, shower or washbasin into a fine
slurry that can be pumped into the sewage line; they
are used where access to gravity drainage is not
available

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Typical conduit external diameters are 16, 20, 25 and

Research 32 mm, and it is supplied in 3 m and 3.75 m lengths.
Research the different types of electrical accessory
and produce a material directory. Key term
Conduit: a tube used for protecting electric wiring
4.3 Containment
▼ Table 12.13 Advantages and disadvantages of
Conduit using conduit
Where an installation is likely to be subjected to
Advantages Disadvantages
external influences which may damage the wiring, a
common method of protection is conduit. Conduit is • There is increased • Installation costs are
mechanical protection of high, due to the time and
available in both steel and PVC and comes in many
the wiring. materials required.
different forms, including: • Rewiring can be carried • PVC conduit is directly
 solid-steel extruded out relatively easily, affected by UV and can
 solid-steel rolled providing all cables are become discoloured and
 flexible steel replaced at the same brittle in direct sunlight.
 rigid PVC time. • Both PVC and steel
• Using steel conduit can conduit can be affected
 flexible PVC.
minimise the risk of fire by acids, alkalis and
spreading. corrosive fumes, with
• Conduit can be used steel conduit being
as the circuit protective susceptible to rust which
conductor (CPC). can form on the inside.

Steel and PVC conduits use some common accessories

in their installation, but they also have their own
specific accessories.

▲ Figure 12.64 Conduit

▼ Table 12.14 Conduit accessories

Accessory Description
Junction box Used at the end of a conduit run

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Accessory Description
Through box Used as a through link

Angle box Used for going round corners or changing direction

Four-way box Sometimes called a cross box; has four spouts at 90° to one another

H-box Has four spouts forming a letter H, with two on each side

Strap saddle Used when the conduit is to be secured in place directly on the surface, with no gap at
the back; also referred to as a stamp saddle

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Trunking As with all other forms of support system, standard

accessories are available, including:
Trunking is an enclosure for a wiring system with
 couplers  nut bolts
one removeable or hinged side. It enables cables to
 tees  washers
be installed easily and provides them with a level of
 crosses  full-threaded rods
mechanical protection.
 brackets  anchor fasteners/bullet
Trunking comes in two forms:  coupler plates fasteners.
 PVC
 steel. Cable basket
Also referred to as basket tray, cable basket is
commonly used for the structured cabling of
information technology systems. The main purpose is
to provide support rather than protection, as the cables
are just laid in the basket. However, this means that
wiring can be installed easily.

▲ Figure 12.65 Trunking

Segregated trunking
Irrespective of whether trunking is PVC or steel, it
can be split into different sections or compartments.
This can assist with segregation of specific circuits, ▲ Figure 12.66 Cable basket
for example keeping data cables separate from low-
voltage power circuits, and keeping band-1 and
Test your knowledge
band-2 circuits apart. This will reduce any interference
between systems and ensure each system can be easily Describe three types of containment system.
identified.

Cable tray 5 Electrotechnical supply

Sometimes the size or type of cable and the route or
required bend radius mean it is not practical to use Several different electricity supply systems may be
trunking or conduit. Instead, armoured cables are used used in premises, catering for specific requirements.
in conjunction with cable tray. These may be direct current (DC) or alternating
Cable tray comes in several forms, including: current (AC) operating at different voltages, and in
 heavy-gauge perforated the case of AC the supply may be single- or three-
 light-gauge perforated phase. For more on the use of DC and AC and different
 heavy-gauge solid voltages, see Chapter 2.
 light-gauge solid. DC is not used for public electricity supplies (with the
The choice of cable tray depends on the application, but exception of the links between England, the Netherlands,
heavy gauge is used for larger cables or where there is a Ireland and France) but has some work applications,
greater mass of smaller cables to be supported. Heavy- such as battery-operated works plant (for example
gauge cable tray tends to have walls with bent-over forklift trucks). Certain parts of the UK railway system,
edges, whereas the walls on light-gauge cable tray are in particular the London Underground and services in
straight with no returned edge. southern England, also use DC for traction supplies.

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AC is the distribution system of choice for electricity 5.2 Three-phase and neutral supply
suppliers all over the world, mostly due to its versatility.
An AC supply is compatible with a wider range of circuit
systems
arrangements and supply voltages, and transformers While single-phase AC supplies are adequate for
enable the supply voltage to be changed up or down. domestic premises, the much higher loads typical of
industrial and commercial premises need to use very
Research large conductors to carry the high currents involved.
The high currents also give rise to a large voltage drop.
Research online the voltage supplies required However, it is possible to use a multi-phase arrangement,
for a range of BSE systems and the benefits of which effectively combines several single-phase supplies.
having different voltage supplies for domestic and
If three coils spaced 120° apart are rotated in a uniform
commercial electrical systems.
magnetic field, this creates an elementary system which
will provide a symmetrical three-phase supply.
5.1 Single-phase supply systems The usual arrangement is a three-phase system employing
The simplest AC supply arrangement is a two-wire four conductors – three separate L conductors and a
system, known as single phase. It is used in both common N conductor. Most substation transformers in
domestic and work premises for applications such as the distribution system that delivers power to houses are
lighting and socket outlets. wound in a delta-to-star configuration. A neutral point is
created on the star side of the transformer.
The two conductors are referred to as the line conductor
(L) and the neutral conductor (N). The N conductor is The three L conductors (L1, L2 and L3) were previously
connected to earth at every distribution substation on distinguished by standard colour markings: red, yellow
the public supply system and therefore its voltage, with and blue. However, European harmonisation resulted
reference to earth, should be no more than a few volts at in these conductor colours being changed to brown,
any point. The voltage between the L and N conductors black and grey.
corresponds to the nominal supply voltage (230 V).
Source of supply Installation Key terms
Voltage drop: the decrease of electrical potential along
the path of a current flowing in an electrical circuit
Delta: where the windings of a transformer are
arranged in a triangular formation, with the start
of one winding connected to the end of another,
meaning the voltage across each winding is the
PE Installation same as the line voltage
equipment

Source of supply Installation

Source earth
L1
▲ Figure 12.65 Single-phase supply system
Installation
230 V equipment
Industry tip
N
In rare circumstances, an installation may be
supplied with a two-phase and neutral supply, for
example to supply a large heating load which cannot
be accommodated by a single-phase supply. Distribution L2
transformer
400 V

L3

▲ Figure 12.66 Three-phase supply system

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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

Balanced three-phase supply system be joined to a CPC to ensure it is connected to the

earth path should a fault occur. This will ensure the
In the UK, electricity is provided from a delta-star low-resistance earth path creates a high fault current,
transformer, with an earthed star point on the causing quick disconnection.
secondary side of the transformer. This is normally
distributed as a three-phase four-wire system. Earth cables play a major part in achieving ADS in the
event of a fault to earth. If a fault exists between line
Balanced three-phase systems, as described above, and earth, there is a major risk of electric shock, as
will balance out, therefore giving no neutral current. someone may come into contact with metallic parts.
Single-phase loads require a neutral connection, which
will carry any out-of-balance current. This should be
Test yourself
kept to a minimum, to reduce cable and switchgear
sizes and ensure maximum transformer use. Any  Explain the purpose of an earthing system.
difference in load will be ‘mopped up’ by current  State the colour of earth conductors found in
flowing in the neutral conductor. electrical systems.
It must be mentioned at this point that the effects
of neutral current become much more complex with
different loads. Values of neutral current can be 6.2 TN-C-S (PME) systems
determined simply by using a scale drawing based
The TN-C-S system is now common throughout the
on an equilateral triangle. If all phases are balanced,
UK, as it allows the district network operator (DNO)
therefore equal, all three sides of the triangle will meet.
to provide a low-voltage supply with a reliable earthing
If they are not balanced, there will be a gap, which
arrangement to many installations across the country.
represents the neutral current.
It is also known as protective multiple earthing (PME).
For more on supply systems, see Chapter 2. It relies on the neutral being earthed close to the source
of supply and at points throughout the distribution
Research system. There is also a neutral-to-earth connection at
the intake of the installation.
Using the internet, research balanced three-phase
supply systems and produce a handout to explain As the DNO uses the combined neutral and earth
how they work. return path (known as a protective earthed neutral
or PEN), the maximum external earth fault loop
impedance declared by the DNO is 0.35 Ω. There may
6 Earthing arrangements be a number of consumers using the supply cable. A
rise in current flow will create a voltage rise in the
6.1 Earthing PEN, which needs multiple connections to the general
mass of earth along the supply route.
To reduce the risk of electric shock, circuits
are protected using a system called automatic
disconnection of supply (ADS).
Key term
The green and yellow earth cables in an electrical District network operator (DNO): a company
circuit are called circuit protective conductors (CPCs). licensed to distribute electricity
Every exposed metallic part in an electrical circuit must

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Circuit protective
kWh meter conductors
Metal LABEL – Safety
water electrical connection.
03117 3
pipe Do not remove
kWh

Electricity
company Metal
isolator gas
pipe

L N N L
Main switch

16 mm2
Main
earthing LABEL – Safety electrical
100 A terminal connection. Do not remove
10 mm2

Gas meter
10 mm2

Water Gas
service service
pipe pipe

▲ Figure 12.67 TN-C-S system

There are risks. If the PEN conductor becomes an open supplied by TN-C-S arrangements. Even in domestic or
circuit in the supply, current flowing through the commercial installations some restrictions may apply,
installation will not have a path back to the substation such as certain outbuilding supplies including garages,
through the supplier’s cable. Instead, current could sheds and workshops. In these cases, TT systems are
try to follow an alternative path through the earthing preferred (see below).
system of the installation, which may include service
pipework or the general mass of earth. Unfortunately, Key term
it could be people who make that link between the
earthed metallic equipment and the earth. As a result, Open circuit: an electrical circuit that is not complete
certain installations such as petrol filling stations and so current does not flow
some construction sites and caravan parks, cannot be

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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

kWh meter LABEL – Safety

electrical connection.
03117 3 Do not remove
kWh

Electricity Metal
company gas
isolator pipe

L N N L

Main switch

16 mm2
Main
earthing LABEL – Safety electrical
100 A terminal connection. Do not remove
10 mm2

Gas meter
10 mm2

16 mm2

Water Gas
service service
pipe pipe

▲ Figure 12.68 TN-S system

6.3 TN-S systems TT systems are usually installed either where a TN-C-S
arrangement is not permitted (for example in a petrol
A TN-S earthing configuration has only one neutral-to- filling station or in rural installations where the supply
earth connection, which is as near as practicable to the is provided via overhead poles) or where there is no
source (supply transformer). In low-voltage supplies, the opportunity to provide other types of system. As the earth
consumer’s earth conductor is connected to the metallic return path uses the general mass of earth, external earth
sheath of the DNO’s supply cable. This sheath provides fault loop impedance values (Ze) may be very high where
a separate route back to the substation transformer. different soil types exist, meaning further shock-protection
Because the return path is usually a material such measures such as residual current devices (RCDs) may
as steel, the DNO will normally declare a maximum be required to provide ADS.
external earth fault loop impedance (Ze) of 0.8 Ω.
Key term
6.4 TT systems
Residual current device (RCD): also called
This type of system is configured in much the same ground-fault circuit interrupter (GFCI), this is an
way as a TN-S system in terms of the earthing of electrical safety device that quickly breaks an
the supply source. However, a TT system does not electrical circuit with live current leakage to earth,
provide the consumer with an earth connection. in order to protect equipment and to reduce serious
Instead, the earth for the consumer’s installation has harm from ongoing electric shock
to be supplied by the consumer, usually by driving
earth rods into the ground or burying metallic plates
Test yourself
or strips to provide a path of low-enough impedance
through the ground to give protection. Name three types of earthing system.

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Research
Research the hazards associated with each type
of earthing system and how they impact different
building services.

LABEL – Safety
electrical connection.
kWh meter Do not remove
Metal
water
031173
pipe
kWh

Electricity
Electrical company Metal
supply isolator gas
(usually pipe
overhead)
L N N L
RCD

Main
earthing 16 mm2
100 A terminal
10 mm2

Gas meter
10 mm2

LABEL – Safety electrical

connection. Do not remove

Earth rod Water Gas

service service
pipe pipe

▲ Figure 12.69 TT system

7 Cabling, accessories and Test yourself

equipment used in older Why are installations that use lead-sheathed cable
electrical installations considered unsafe?

7.1 Cables, accessories and Vulcanised India rubber (VIR)

equipment insulated cable
Before PVC cables and up until the 1960s, electrical
Lead-sheathed cable cables used vulcanised India rubber (VIR) for
In some of the earliest electrical installations in around insulation and protection. Rubber is perishable so, over
1880, multi-core cables were available with wax- time, the sheathing on the cable becomes brittle and
impregnated cotton and silk insulation and lead sheaths. starts to crack and break away, exposing the copper
As this type of cable is over a hundred years old and the in the cable. This can create the risk of electric shock,
insulation around the inner cores will have deteriorated, fire or immediate loss of power due to a short circuit
any installation still using it should be considered unsafe rupturing the protective fuses.
and isolated immediately. A failure of the inner insulation
could cause the outer lead coating to become live.

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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

One of the main problems associated with rewireable

Test yourself fuses is the overall lack of protection, including
insufficient breaking-capacity ratings caused by
What is the problem with vulcanised India rubber
(VIR) insulated cable? overcurrent or a fault in the installation.
Another major problem is unreliability, due to:
 using the wrong gauge of wire when changing the
Cable colours
fuse
UK cable colours were harmonised with countries in  the wire being labelled with an incorrect current
mainland Europe in 2006, as shown in Table 12.15. rating
 the number of times and length of time that a fuse
▼ Table 12.15 Types, colours and functions of cables
wire has been subjected to overload.
Type Colour of cable Function
Live Brown Carries electricity to the
appliance
Neutral Blue Transfers electricity
away from the appliance
Earth Green and yellow Connects the electrical
appliance or installation
with the ground (vital for
safety)

During a new installation, electricians should attach

the correct-coloured insulation, sheathes, or sleeving
to the wires, to enable easy identification. Where there
is any mixing of old and new colours, cables should be
clearly marked with the relevant colour codes.

Test yourself
▲ Figure 12.72 Rewireable fuse
What are the colours of live, neutral and earth
cables?
Non-fire-rated consumer units/distribution
Table 12.16 shows typical cable sizes available, with boards
corresponding current and maximum power ratings. Consumer units are a type of distribution board typically
installed in domestic premises to provide control,
▼ Table 12.16 Cable sizes
distribution and protection for the various circuits within
Cable size Current (A) Maximum power (W) the electrical power system. They can include:
1.0 mm2 10 2400  circuit breakers (CB)
 residual current breakers with overload (RCBO)
1.25 mm2 13 3 1 20
 fuses.
1.5 mm2 15 3600
They also have a main switch to isolate the entire
2.5 mm2 20 4800
installation.
4.0 mm2 25 6000
In early installations, it was acceptable to install a
consumer unit with a wooden back box, and many are
BS 3036: rewireable fuses still in existence. However, the IET Wiring Regulations
A fuse is a basic protection device that is destroyed and require that consumer units in domestic premises are
breaks the circuit should the current exceed the fuse now manufactured from non-combustible material to
rating. In older equipment, it may be just a length of contain any fire within the enclosure and to minimise
fuse wire fixed between two terminals. These are now the spread of fire. Non-fire-rated consumer units and
becoming uncommon, as electrical installations are distribution boards add an additional source of fuel for
rewired or updated. a fire.
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Research Test yourself

Answer the questions below using the information on Why must consumer units be manufactured from
https://electrical.theiet.org/courses-resources-career/ non-combustible material?
free-resources/consumer-guidance/consumer-units
 Which British Standard states the requirements
for consumer units? 8 Pipework and ductwork,
 What are the requirements for protection from fire?
 What are the requirements for protection from components and systems
electric shock?
 What are the common problems associated with 8.1 Pipework
consumer units?
Pipework allows fluids and gases to travel through
a building and is used in a range of BSE systems,
Industry tip including plumbing, heating, gas and air-conditioning
systems. It is jointed using a range of fittings.
Since January 2016, the IET Wiring Regulations have Copper pipework is manufactured for water and gas
required that consumer units in domestic premises
installations to BS EN 1057 and is available in several
are manufactured from non-combustible material.
grades, as shown in Table 12.17.

▼ Table 12.17 Grades of copper tube

Grade Description
R220 • Softer copper tube, fully annealed and supplied in coils
• Thicker walled than other grades of copper tube
• Used for underground water services (sizes 15, 22, 28 mm) and microbore central-heating systems
(sizes 6, 8 and 10 mm)
R250 • The most widely used grade of copper tube for plumbing and heating applications
• Supplied in straight lengths of 3 or 6 m, in sizes 15, 22, 28, 35, 42 and 54 mm
• Known as half-hard tempered
R290 • Hard tempered, thin walled and totally unsuitable for bending
• Not normally used in the UK

Low-carbon steel pipe is available in three grades,

Key term
with each identified by a different colour. The grades
all have identical external diameters but varying wall Low-carbon steel: a ferrous metal used for pipework
thicknesses; heavy grade has the thickest pipe wall and applications; also known as mild steel
light grade has the thinnest.

▼ Table 12.18 Grades of low-carbon steel pipe

Grade Colour Description

Light Brown • Not normally used for plumbing/heating pipework
• May be used for dry sprinkler installations for fire prevention
Medium Blue • Used for wet central-heating systems and oil and gas pipework
• Available in 6 m lengths with plain or threaded ends
• Referred to in imperial sizes ½”, ¾”, 1”, 1¼”, 1½”, 2” available in sizes up to 6” and 8” for
use in commercial and industrial applications.
Heavy Red • Used for wet central-heating systems and oil and gas pipework where long system life
is expected
• Available in 6 m lengths with plain or threaded ends
• Referred to in imperial sizes ½”, ¾”, 1”, 1¼”, 1½”, 2”

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Polybutylene is manufactured into pipe for pressurised Plastic pipework is used for above-ground drainage
plumbing systems. It can be used in hot- and cold-­water systems and comes in a range of materials depending
installations and wet central-heating systems, and is on the application and jointing method. Materials
available in sizes 10, 15, 22 and 28 mm in both straight include polyvinyl chloride, acrylonitrile butadiene
lengths of 3 m and coils of 25, 50 and 100 m. styrene (ABS) and polypropylene. Waste pipes are
Advantages include: available in sizes 32, 40 and 50 mm. Soil pipes are
 good flow-rate characteristics available in sizes 110 and 150 mm.
 low noise transmission Medium-density polyethylene (MDPE) is a hard-
 flexible and easy to install wearing plastic for water pipes, gas pipes and fittings.
 high resistance to frost damage It is available in a variety of colours (yellow for gas,
 50-year guarantee blue for water), in sizes of 20 to 63 mm, and supplied in
 non-corrosive. coils of 25 to 150 m.
Corrugated stainless-steel tubing (CSST) is flexible tubing
used to supply natural gas in domestic, commercial and Industry tip
industrial buildings. It is available in sizes 15, 20, 25, 32,
The most common pipe size used for cold-water
40 and 50 mm in coils of 45, 75 and 90 m. services in domestic properties is 25 mm.

Research
Research the advantages and disadvantages of
Test yourself
using corrugated stainless-steel tubing (CSST).
List three pipework materials and their use within
Produce a table to detail your findings.
BSE systems.

Pipework accessories
▼ Table 12.19 Pipework accessories

Type Purpose
Isolation valves To turn off (isolate) complete systems, parts of a system or appliances
Drain valves To drain down systems
Stop taps To isolate high-pressure cold-water systems
Tap wheel head

Rising spindle

Packing gland
Packing
Head workings
Jumper and washer

Direction
of flow

Gate valves Used on low-pressure installations, such as the cold feed to vented
Wheel head hot-water storage cylinders and the cold-distribution pipework for
indirect cold-water systems, to isolate systems and components

Packing gland
Packing

Non-rising spindle
Rising gate
Olive
Compression fitting

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Type Purpose
Spherical plug valves To isolate appliances and terminal fittings such as taps and float-
operated valves
Quarter-turn
handle
Spindle seal

Compression fitting

Fitting body
Ball

Drain-off valves Small valves strategically placed at low points in pipework installations to
Jumper and washer allow draining down of the system

Packing gland

Rising spindle

Float-operated valves To control the flow of water into cold-water storage and feed cisterns,
feed and expansion cisterns, and WC cisterns; designed to close when
the water reaches a pre-set level

Radiator valves To control the temperature and flow through a radiator

• Thermostatic radiator valves (TRVs) • To control the temperature of a room by regulating the flow of water
through a radiator
• Wheel-head valves • To allow manual control of a radiator by being turned on or off
• Lockshield valves • To regulate the flow of water through a radiator; designed to be
adjusted during system balancing
Automatic air valves To allow collected air to escape from a system but seal themselves when
water arrives at the valve; fitted where air is expected to collect in a
system, usually at high points
Anti-gravity valves To prevent unwanted gravity circulation within heating and hot-water
systems
Pressure-relief valves To protect against over-pressurisation of water in a range of systems
Emergency control valves (ECVs) To allow the gas user to shut off the supply of gas in the event of an
escape; found on the service pipe connecting a gas meter to the gas
mains

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 12 Building services engineering (BSE) systems

The type of ducting required will be specified by BSE

Test yourself designers.
List four types of valve found in plumbing systems. Metal ducting
Metal ducting is made from different kinds of sheet
metal, such as galvanised steel and aluminium, and
Improve your maths is available in a range of sizes from 63 to 630 mm. It is
jointed using a range of fittings, including:
Refer to Figure 12.21 showing an indirect cold-water  dampers
system. Using a supplier’s catalogue, produce a  T pieces
materials list and calculate the cost of components  connectors
required.
 cap ends
 90-degree bends
 45-degree bends.
8.2 Ductwork
Fabric ducting
Ductwork allows heated or cooled air to travel through
Fabric ducting, also known as textile air diffusers or air
a building and is used in heating, ventilation and air-
socks, is an alternative to cumbersome conventional
conditioning systems.
metal ductwork. Each duct is designed specifically to
deliver the air pattern and velocity required for the
room.
Cardboard ducting
Cardboard ducting has a coating made from a water-
based solution with a water-dispersal polymer, fire-
retardant minerals and a final hydrophobic finish.

Research
Visit www.ductstore.co.uk
Research different types of ductwork and jointing
methods. Produce a presentation for your class.

▲ Figure 12.73 Ductwork

Test yourself
Types of ducting
 Explain the different ductwork materials
Flexible ducting available.
Flexible ducting is available in a range of materials  List three ductwork accessories and describe
and diameters from 80 to 500 mm, depending on their purpose.
its application, and is also suitable for a range of
temperatures.
Types of flexible ducting include:
 aluminium foil
 insulated
 acoustic
 PVC domestic
 PVC-coated fabric.

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Ductwork accessories
▼ Table 12.20 Ductwork accessories

Type Purpose
Zone dampers To control the flow of air in an HVAC heating or cooling system to improve efficiency
and comfort; also known as volume control dampers (VCDs)
Variable air volume (VAV) To supply constant-temperature air while the volume of air varies
systems
Constant air volume (CAV) To supply air at a consistent and constant volume while the air temperature varies
systems
Fire dampers To prevent the spread of flames through ductwork systems during fire conditions
Attenuators To reduce noise transmitted inside ventilation ductwork in an HVAC system
Heating and cooling coils To cool or heat air in many HVAC applications
Air-extract grilles To extract air to the outside in a mechanical ventilation system
Air-supply valves To supply return air to habitable rooms, directing the air sideways to prevent occupant
discomfort; available in a range of sizes (80, 100, 125, 150, 160, 200 and 250 mm)

Assessment practice

Short answer Long answer

1 Suggest three uses of electricity within a 6 Explain the purpose and basic operating
building. principles of a heat pump.
2 Name three types of cold-water system. 7 Explain the purpose of fire alarm systems and
3 List three components of a ducted air- the different categories available.
conditioning system and describe their purpose. 8 Explain the purpose and basic operating
4 List three pipework accessories and describe their principles of rainwater systems.
purpose. 9 Describe how secondary circulation is used in a
5 Explain the vapour-compression refrigeration hot-water system.
cycle. 10 Explain the purpose of central-heating systems.

Project practice
Wilson plc is an established building contractor, with  Explain the purpose of each system, including
branches throughout the UK. Each branch works on advantages and disadvantages where applicable.
different types of development, including new-build  Explain the components and their purpose for each
residential and commercial retail. It is preparing a system.
tender submission for the building of a commercial
This information should be included in a PowerPoint
premises for multi-purpose use. You are part of the
presentation, which will be shown as part of the tender
team working to respond to the tender.
process.
 Provide an overview of a range of BSE systems that
can be included in the build.

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 13 Maintenance principles

Introduction
Maintenance is the routine and recurring process of ensuring
systems and equipment are performing optimally. By
minimising unexpected breakdowns, downtime and any
associated costs are avoided.
In the building services sector, maintenance principles can be
classified as:
 preventative
 corrective
 risk-based
 condition-based.
In the building services sector, there are two types of
maintenance: planned preventative and reactive. The way they
are carried out will vary, according to industry, organisation or
system needs.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will understand: 4 documentation required for maintenance and
1 types of maintenance verification of maintenance activities
2 maintenance plans 5 actions required when faults cannot be rectified.
3 typical timeframes between maintenance tasks

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

operating efficiently with regards to comfort heating

1 Types of maintenance and comfort cooling for its occupants at all times.
There are two types of maintenance: Planned preventative maintenance checklist
 planned preventative maintenance (PPM) Date:
 reactive maintenance. Prepared by:
Approved by:
The systems and facilities found in large buildings Person Due date
Equipment Date Action Action
require different maintenance schedules, for example: No
description checked required completed
responsible
for checking
Signature for
next check
 plumbing and heating systems
 fire detection and alarm systems
 wiring and lighting systems
 ventilation and air-conditioning systems
 drainage systems
 communication and data systems.

1.1 Planned preventative maintenance

▲ Figure 13.1 Planned preventative maintenance
Planned preventative maintenance (PPM) refers to
checklist
maintenance activity that is planned, documented and
scheduled. It aims to reduce downtime by having all
necessary resources on hand, such as labour and parts, Industry tip
and a strategy to use those resources.
Regular maintenance of systems and equipment will
PPM is usually performed on larger systems and ensure energy efficiency and optimum performance.
commercial/industrial installations. Certain items are
serviced or replaced according to a predetermined
schedule, regardless of condition, so that faults can Test yourself
be identified and prevented before they become a
problem. This could involve out-of-hours or weekend Consider the following types of building:
work, depending on the installation.  nursing home
 large supermarket
When planning preventative maintenance, the  primary school
following factors need to be taken into consideration:  domestic dwelling.
 business type
Which of these might require PPM? Explain your
 cost answers.
 other business commitments and operational needs,
for example downtime of a production line.
Larger organisations may choose to schedule PPM Improve your maths
to avoid the risk of downtime with its associated
costs. For example, a large warehouse storing frozen Look at the following information for a PPM activity:
food would implement PPM for its refrigeration  Twenty float-operated valves (FOVs) need to be
units, to ensure stock is constantly kept at the correct replaced every six months.
 The valves cost £12.50 each.
temperature and avoid loss of stock through system
 Total labour time to fit the valves is three hours,
breakdown. at a cost of £20 per hour.
In contrast, a small wholesaler is more likely to adopt What is the total cost to the business for a calendar
a reactive maintenance programme due to the costs year?
associated with PPM, including the replacement of
parts that are still functioning efficiently.
A similar example of PPM within the Building Services
Engineering sector might be an office or education
environment with an air-conditioning and heating
system. PPM would ensure that the building is

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 13 Maintenance principles

▲ Figure 13.2 Float-operated valves (FOVs)

▲ Figure 13.4 Miniature circuit breaker

Manufacturers often provide maintenance

recommendations. For example, it may be necessary to
service equipment annually to ensure it works efficiently
and performs optimally. Sometimes, maintenance is a
requirement of the manufacturer’s warranty/guarantee,
to ensure continued support for equipment.

Key term
Warranty: a guarantee from a manufacturer or seller
that a product will be repaired or replaced within
a certain period of time if it does not function as
▲ Figure 13.3 Air-handling unit originally described or intended

▼ Table 13.1 Examples and benefits of PPM for different BSE systems

Type of system Examples of PPM Benefits of PPM

Plumbing Re-washering taps/valves Saves water
Replacing FOVs
Fire detection Replacing smoke/heat detectors Ensures compliance with standards and
regulations (BS 5839)
Air conditioning Recharging system Allows the system to run efficiently,
ensuring optimal conditions for end users
Heating Servicing and replacing thermostatic Reduces energy costs
radiator valves and lockshield valves
Drainage Checking and replacing all traps Eliminates smells and odours from main
sewers
Ventilation Checking and replacing filters on Ensures Legionella-free systems
air-handling units (AHUs)
Wiring and electrical installation Servicing and replacing miniature circuit Ensures the system is operating optimally,
breakers (MCBs) and fuses keeping users safe

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Industry tip Research

Inspections carried out at regular intervals, coupled Find manufacturer operation and maintenance
with prompt action to pre-empt or remedy problems, (O&M) manuals for the following assets and note the
are the basis of good maintenance. maintenance requirements:
 boiler  emergency lighting
 fire alarm  data server.
Health and safety
The Benchmark Scheme covers heating and hot- Improve your English
water systems, placing responsibilities on heating
engineers to ensure products are ‘installed, Good verbal communication involves listening
commissioned and serviced in accordance with carefully and speaking clearly. What three questions
the manufacturer’s instructions by competent might you ask a caller who is reporting a problem
persons in a way that they will be safe, perform with with a faulty air-conditioning system?
optimum efficiency and meet the requirements of
the appropriate Building Regulations’. Adherence
to this scheme meets Gas Safe regulations, and Industry tip
will allow a Landlord Gas Safety Certificate to be
granted in a rented property. A good O&M manual contains information on how
to operate all the systems in a building, a parts
list, detailed maintenance requirements, testing/
Test yourself commissioning certificates and record drawings.

What are the advantages of using PPM?

Research
1.2 Reactive maintenance Research the advantages and disadvantages
Reactive maintenance is also known as unplanned of running a PPM schedule versus a reactive
maintenance programme.
or emergency maintenance. Unlike PPM, reactive
maintenance is carried out only when a system (or part
of a system) fails. Examples might include: 2 Maintenance plans
 a WC system overflowing with water because a
FOV has failed A maintenance plan includes information on:
 an intruder alarm constantly activating because of a  specific maintenance tasks that need to be carried out
defective sensor.  the correct way to carry out those tasks
A building services engineer might receive a phone  the premises where the tasks will be carried out
call out of hours to manage reactive maintenance  priority levels for the tasks
jobs – this is referred to as a call-out. It is important  deadlines, scheduled dates or frequency for the tasks
to understand which types of problem need to be  duration of the contract
prioritised and to take action accordingly.  budget allowances and restrictions
 equipment or parts required to complete the tasks
Unlike PPM, reactive maintenance may require  manufacturer manuals or instructions.
additional problem-solving skills in order to maintain
systems in the short term, for example due to a lack of An effective plan covers every aspect of an
part availability. organisation’s assets and systems, to ensure the
building functions efficiently. It may also prioritise
Industry tip systems or areas and provide an order (or sequence) in
which maintenance tasks should be carried out.
In some systems, there may be recurring breakdowns
Risk management might also be applied when
or maintenance issues with common components.
Experienced engineers often carry an assortment of producing a maintenance plan for certain types of
stock parts to maximise efficiency and limit system system, for example fire detection and alarm systems,
downtime. data systems and electrical systems.

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 13 Maintenance principles

The frequency of maintenance depends on the system

Key term and its components, for example some maintenance
plans might be annual while others are monthly.
Risk management: the process of identifying,
assessing and controlling threats to an organisation; When maintenance plans are devised, it is important to
this might involve making a strategic plan or putting factor in what equipment or parts may be required and
a system in place to minimise impact and disruption allow plenty of time for them to be ordered if necessary.
For example, a plumbing and heating engineer may carry
FOVs or isolation valves in stock so that they are readily
Test yourself
available. However, a refrigeration and air-conditioning
What is meant by the term ‘risk management’ within engineer may not carry a specific condenser for an air-
BSE systems? conditioning unit in their van and so will need to ensure
the correct part is ordered in a timely manner.
Maintenance tasks will vary depending on the type of In order to meet the manufacturer’s standards, it is
system. Some systems may require a visual inspection important for an engineer to refer to installation and
to check for any visible faults, while others may require servicing manuals when carrying out maintenance
components to be tested physically. work. Failure to do so may affect the warranty and
ultimately the efficiency of the system.
A building services engineer may be responsible for
maintaining various systems across multiple sites and
locations. This may involve travelling both locally Health and safety
and nationally, sometimes at short notice for reactive
All businesses must adhere to government health
maintenance, and this should be factored into a and safety guidelines: www.hse.gov.uk. When
maintenance plan. providing maintenance plans, care must be taken
to ensure operators are complying with all current
Most maintenance plans have deadlines for when vital
regulations. For example, a company employing
system components require maintenance. These should
more than five employees would need to have a
be scheduled to allow for ordering of parts or changing written health and safety policy. This statement
of components if required. They are often planned might include risk assessments for all planned
ahead of the manufacturer’s requirements, to allow for maintenance tasks, all PPE that will be provided and
other unplanned maintenance taking priority. the number of first aiders required on site.

Prioritising tasks on a maintenance plan is important,

as some components/systems require a higher level of
maintenance than others. This may be in response to a Industry tip
health and safety/regulatory requirement or simply to
Installation and servicing manuals can usually be
maintain business efficiency.
downloaded from a manufacturer’s website or
emailed on request.

▼ Table 13.2 Typical planned maintenance tasks across BSE systems

BSE system Typical planned maintenance tasks

Heating • Visually inspect pipework for damage.
• Check thermostatic radiator valves (TRVs) and lockshield valves are controlling and balancing
temperatures across the system.
• Check the heating circulator is circulating water around all radiators, boiler and cylinder.
• Check inhibitor levels to prevent limescale and corrosion.
• Bleed the system to remove trapped air.
• Check drain-off valves (DOVs) are working correctly in order to fully drain system if required.
Boiler • Check for correct combustion as per manufacturer’s instructions.
• Check gas rates as per manufacturer’s instructions.
• Check flue gases as per manufacturer’s instructions.
• Issue Landlord Gas Safety Certificate for rented property (Gas Safe engineer required).
• Complete Benchmark checklist to maintain manufacturer’s warranty.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

BSE system Typical planned maintenance tasks

Water • Visually inspect for leaks.
• Check all float-operated valves (FOVs)/isolation valves are at the correct levels and working.
• Re-washer taps and valves to prevent leaks and water wastage.
• Check correct flow rates and pressures.
• Check for Legionella (this is also a regulatory requirement for landlords).
Firefighting • Visually inspect fire extinguishers for damage (at least annually).
• Check hose reels for damage.
• Check fire blankets are in the correct location, visible and undamaged.
• Wet riser (sprinkler system): check that glycol (anti-freeze) is at correct ratio to prevent pipe
leakage due to extreme low temperatures.
• Dry riser: visually inspect pipework for damage.
• Check fire curtains are working and unobstructed.
• Check the operation of self-closing fire doors.
Fire detection and • Check the operation of heat, smoke and carbon monoxide detectors.
alarm • Check fire alarm buttons trigger the alarm.
• Check the control panel for any error messages and ensure all detection equipment is
functioning.
• Check the control panel is linked to the local fire service.
• Check audio alarms/bells/sirens function correctly and are audible.
Intruder alarm • Check motion detectors are working.
• Check closed-circuit television (CCTV) and security cameras (internal and external).
• Check that pressure pads are working.
• Check the alarm control panel for any error messages and ensure all detection equipment is
functioning.
• Check audio alarms/bells/sirens sound when the alarm is triggered.
• Check links to the keyholder/security company/police.
Wiring and electrical • Visually inspect wiring and components for damage.
installation • Test the consumer unit residual current device (RCD) is functioning correctly.
• Test the miniature circuit breaker (MCB) to ensure it is functioning correctly.
• Carry out portable appliance testing (PAT).
• Carry out a polarity test to ensure all single-pole devices (fuses/switches/circuit breakers) are
connected to the correct pole: live to live, neutral to neutral.
• Carry out an insulation resistance test.
• Carry out an earth loop impedance test.
Air conditioning • Visually inspect the system for damage.
• Ensure F-gas compliance.
• (For older systems) maintain R22 refrigerant, or replace with compliant new F-Gas to meet
current regulations. As an ozone-depleting substance, R22 is being phased out and it is now
illegal to replenish it in a system when carrying out repairs and maintenance.
• Check the CO2 equivalent charge rate to determine how often the system is serviced.
• Carry out a TM44 energy-efficiency assessment for systems with a rated output of 12 kW.
• Inspect the condenser and evaporator for damage.
Ventilation • Visually inspect the system for damage.
• Clean vents and ductwork.
• Replace damaged vents.
• Check air-handling units (AHUs) for the correct static pressure used in the coils; clean and
replace filters as required.
Drainage • Visually inspect pipes for damage.
• Check all traps for correct seal levels.
• Carry out an air test of the stack system (as per Part H of the Building Regulations).
• Carry out a performance test of the system (as per Part H of the Building Regulations).

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 13 Maintenance principles

BSE system Typical planned maintenance tasks

Lighting • Visually inspect all fittings for any damage and correct operation.
• Check correct MCBs/fuses are being used.
• Check the starters in fluorescent tubes.
• Ensure emergency lighting is functioning correctly in case of mains failure.
• Replace older bulbs with energy-saving bulbs/filaments.
• Check for correct lumens (as per correct location).
• Check lighting diffusers.
• Clean lighting lenses and covers.
Communications • Visually inspect.
and data • Check sockets and data ports for any damage and correct operation.
• Check server rooms and any control panels within for any faults indicated; service and rectify
as per manufacturer’s instructions.
• Check ventilation and air conditioning of server rooms is working correctly.
• Check bandwidth is within tolerance as per requirements and manufacturer’s specifications.
• Check data is being stored in compliance with GDPR.

▲ Figure 13.5 Thermostatic radiator valve (TRV)

▲ Figure 13.7 Server rooms need to be ventilated
and air conditioned to keep them at the correct
temperature

Key terms
Portable appliance testing (PAT): a process by
which electrical appliances are routinely checked
for safety. The format term is ‘in-service testing for
electrical equipment’

Research
What does GDPR stand for and why is it important to
▲ Figure 13.6 Sprinkler system be compliant?

Test yourself
What appliances or components would be
maintained within an electrical wiring system?

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Electronic documentation, on tablets and mobile devices,

3 Typical timeframes between can be uploaded and stored centrally for later retrieval.
maintenance tasks
Types of documentation required for maintenance and
The frequency of maintenance tasks will vary verification of maintenance activities include:
according to the system. Some systems require priority  manufacturer’s instructions
maintenance to meet regulatory requirements. For  maintenance checklists
example:  servicing logbooks
 in a rented property, the boiler requires regular  maintenance schedules
servicing to meet Benchmark and warranty  job sheets
requirements, and an annual service to meet the  condition reports.
requirements of the Landlord Gas Safety Certificate.
This must be carried out by a Gas Safe engineer. 4.1 Manufacturer’s instructions
Electrical systems should be inspected every five
Manufacturer’s instructions come in three formats:
years by a qualified and competent electrician.
 Manufacturer’s literature acts like a catalogue for a
 Maintenance requirements for drinking water
manufacturer’s components or systems. It provides
systems will need to be carried out to check for
details such as specifications, performance data,
Legionella and will vary depending on the system
running costs and dimensions.
and on the outcome of the risk assessment. For
 Installation instructions describe the installation
open systems such as cooling towers, evaporative
process for an appliance or system and give specific
condensers and spa pools, routine testing should be
details of site and input service requirements (for
carried out every three months.
plumbing this might be flow rates or pressure
 With good maintenance, air-handling units can have
required; for electrical systems it might be the
a lifespan of up to 25 years. To keep them functioning
amps and voltage required). They also detail
efficiently throughout their life, it is recommended
commissioning procedures.
that filters are replaced and coil chambers cleaned
 Servicing/maintenance instructions detail the
every three months. Without any maintenance, the
procedures and tasks involved in performance
estimated lifespan of an AHU can drop to as low as
testing and replacing of components (for example
1–5 years.
changing air filters during maintenance of an
 There should be a minimum of one smoke alarm per
air-conditioning system). They also specify correct
floor, with a heat detector in any kitchen. A registered
performance data, which will indicate to the
engineer is required to fit enough areas where a fire
building services engineer whether components or
could start. Fire detection and alarm systems require
systems are working to the correct standards. This
regular, ideally weekly, testing. The alarm system’s
document is important as part of both PPM and
wiring should also be tested every five years.
reactive maintenance.
With any systems, manufacturers’ instructions should
always be followed for each component or appliance 4.2 Maintenance checklists
to ensure a fault-free maximum lifespan. Sometimes
A maintenance checklist identifies tasks to be carried
components will fail despite regular maintenance due to
out on specific components of an appliance or an
manufacturer’s defects.
entire system. It might form part of the manufacturer’s
servicing/maintenance instructions.
4 Documentation required for
Maintenance checklists can be sub-divided to cover
maintenance and verification individual sections of larger systems, for example:
of maintenance activities  a checklist for a fire detection system might cover
sprinklers, fire extinguishers, fire blankets, hose
When carrying out PPM and reactive maintenance, reels, heat/smoke detectors and alarms/buzzers
BSE engineers use a variety of documentation both to  a checklist for a heating system might cover
perform the tasks and to record the work completed. pipework, radiators, TRVs, lockshield valves, DOVs,
Paper-based documentation, such as manuals and the expansion vessel, pressure gauge and filling
logbooks, should remain on site and be easily accessible. loop.

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 13 Maintenance principles

4.3 Servicing logbooks 4.5 Job sheets

Servicing logbooks record the maintenance, servicing A building services engineer uses a job sheet to inform
or commissioning of a component, appliance or system. them of the client’s name, site location, date and time,
They inform a servicing engineer about which prior priority of the task and work to be carried out.
tasks, repairs or replacements have been carried out.
A job sheet could require a:
A gas boiler service would be documented in  visual inspection to check for wear and tear or
the Benchmark Scheme logbook, to ensure the external damage
manufacturer’s warranty remains intact. This contains  more detailed check of components not functioning
details such as model number, serial number, efficiently
installation date, service dates and performance data  full-system check of individual components,
such as rating, gas pressure and flue temperatures. comparing performance data in the service
instructions against how the system is working.
Heating and hot water system complies with the appropriate Building Regulations? Yes

Time, temperature control and boiler interlock provided for central heating and hot water
Boiler Plus requirements (tick the appropriate box(s))

Weather compensation
Yes

Smart thermostat with automisation and optimisation

4.6 Condition reports
Boiler Plus option chosen for combination boiler in ENGLAND
Load compensation Flue Gas Heat Recovery

Time and temperature control to hot water

Zone valves pre-existing

Cylinder thermostat and programmer/timer

Fitted
Combination boiler

Not required
A condition report could form part of the job sheet and
Thermostatic radiator valves
Automatic bypass to system
pre-existing
pre-existing
Fitted
Fitted
Not required
Not required highlights any defects with a component, appliance
pre-existing Fitted Not required
Water quality
instructions Yes
or system. This information could come from visual
What system cleaner was used?
What inhibitor was used?
Brand:
Brand:
Product:
Product:
inspections or performance tests.
pre-existing Fitted Not required
CENTRAL HEATING MODE measure and record (as appropriate)

Gas rate (for combination boilers complete DHW mode gas rate) m3/hr or ft3/hr A condition report also covers maintenance carried out
Central heating output left at factory settings? Yes No
If no, what is the maximum central heating output selected?
Dynamic gas inlet pressure
kW
mbar
previously and what parts or components have been
Central heating return temperature
°C
°C
changed.
System correctly balanced/rebalanced? Yes

The information on a condition report feeds into a

COMBINATION BOILERS ONLY
Is the installation in a hard water area (above 200ppm)? Yes No
Water scale reducer/softener pre-existing Fitted Not required
Brand:
Yes
Product:
No
maintenance plan or schedule and, if used as part of
If yes- DHW expansion vessel
Pressure reducing valve
pre-existing
pre-existing
Fitted
Fitted
Not required
Not required PPM, parts can be changed before they fail.
DOMESTIC HOT WATER MODE Measure and record
Gas rate m3/hr or ft3/hr
Dynamic gas inlet pressure at maximum rate mbar
Cold water inlet temperature
Hot water has been checked at all outlets Yes Temperature
°C
°C
Test yourself
CONDENSATE DISPOSAL
The condensate drain has been installed in accordance with the manufacturers’ instructions and/or BS5546/BS6798 Yes
Point of termination
Method of disposal
Internal
Gravity
External (only where internal termination impractical)
Pumped What are the advantages of using correct
documentation for maintenance activities?
ALL INSTALLATIONS
At max rate: CO ppm CO2 % CO/CO2 Ratio
Record the following
At min rate (where possible) CO ppm CO2 % CO/CO2 Ratio
instructions, and readings are correct? Yes
The operation of the boiler and system controls have been demonstrated to and understood by the customer Yes
The manufacturers’ literature, including Benchmark Checklist and Service Record, has been explained and left with the customer Yes
Commissioning Engineer’s signature
Customer’s signature

5 Actions required when faults

cannot be rectified
© Heating and Hotwater Industry Council (HHIC)

▲ Figure 13.8 Benchmark Scheme logbook

On occasion, a building services engineer may not be
4.4 Maintenance schedules able to rectify, replace or recommission a component,
appliance or system due to a range of factors, for
There are two types of maintenance schedule: example:
 manufacturers’ maintenance schedules, for example  The spare part is not carried in the van.
a drainage system might need a schedule for annual  The spare part is special order only.
inspection and maintenance  The spare part is no longer available.
 individualised maintenance schedules which  There is a lack of knowledge of the system due to it
are bespoke to a specific system and risk-rated being outdated or new technology.
depending on the type of system, for example a  Incorrect information has been provided by the
hot-water system in a gym might require monthly customer/client.
maintenance to check for Legionella and ensure  There is a lack of time due to a higher priority
temperatures are correct at the point of use. breakdown.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

When parts are not readily available, an engineer will  A leaking flow pipe on a central-heating system will
need to place an order with a merchant or specialist require a drain down of the whole system in order
supplier. If the part is in stock, it may be available to carry out a repair. While the drain down is taking
immediately. However, if it is not in stock, it might be a place, the heating system will be out of action.
special order or back order item, and the engineer has  An electrical system needs to be isolated while an
no control over how long this might take to deliver. electrician changes components in a consumer unit.
This will have an impact on electrical items being
Key terms used within the building.
Downtime of certain systems can have a costly impact.
Special order: an order for items or components
that are custom made or configured to a client’s For example, downtime of an electrical supply in a
specifications food manufacturing plant will stop production. This
could have a knock-on effect, making it difficult for the
Back order: an order for items or components that
business to fulfil orders and meet deadlines.
are not available due to a lack of supply; they might
still be in production or the manufacturer may need Downtime of systems should always be a last resort but
to make more of them might be unavoidable if there is a lack of spare parts or
it is unsafe to run the system while faulty.
Test yourself Some businesses may have insurance to cover loss of
income due to downtime, but this is an additional cost
When ordering parts for maintenance tasks, what is to the business. Having PPM for BSE systems can help
the difference between a special order and a back with avoiding downtime, because the maintenance
order?
has been planned in advance. Some businesses have
a higher risk and require increased PPM to ensure
When an engineer cannot rectify a fault immediately, systems have minimal or no downtime.
this can have negative implications for the customer,
client or business, for example: Case study
 additional costs
 downtime of systems You have been called out to a small nursing home to
 loss of income repair a faulty gas boiler. On inspection, you realise
 increased hazards you do not have the part required. Upon further
 loss of services. investigation, you realise the part is special order
and the system will have to be shut down until the
The costs of PPM are usually known in advance, repair is carried out.
because the maintenance is scheduled and expected. Compose an email to the nursing home manager
However, the costs for reactive maintenance can vary stating why the system cannot be reinstated
greatly depending on the: immediately. You need to give an indication as to
 time of day (out-of-hours call-outs are more when the part might be available and when the
expensive) system will be back up and running.
 time of year (call-outs on bank holidays are more How else could you help/advise the nursing home
expensive) while the heating is off?
 type of system that requires maintenance (some
require specialist engineers).
When certain systems break down, an engineer might
It is difficult to put a price on reactive maintenance, as need to make the system safe before carrying out any
the engineer might not be able to diagnose the reason repairs. For example, if a gas appliance is leaking, a
for failure or determine the parts required until they Gas Safe engineer might have to isolate the gas supply
are on site. at the meter point to make the system safe, due to the
Some breakdowns have an impact on the downtime of increased risk of explosion. Similarly, an electrician
systems: would need to isolate the system at the consumer unit
where there is a faulty RCD.

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 13 Maintenance principles

Failure to identify hazards or risks when leaving a customer or business fully updated so they understand
system operating under faulty conditions can have the costs and timeframes involved in bringing the
serious implications, including risk to life in some cases. system back into operation and to manage their
expectations.
If an engineer is forced to take a system out of action for
long periods of time, it is good practice to have a back-
up or secondary service available. This might include Test yourself
portable storage heaters to cover boiler failure, mobile What sources of information might a building
air-conditioning units to cover a centralised RAC system, services engineer refer to when diagnosing a fault
and portable generators to provide an electrical supply. on a system?
An engineer could also use the following to help bring
systems back into service as soon as practicable, thus
helping to reduce inconvenience to a customer or Research
business:
Listed below are some professional bodies
 manufacturer’s technical support operating within the BSE sector.
 online research  Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Industry
 virtual assistants. Board (ACRIB)
 Joint Industry Board for Plumbing Mechanical
Even an experienced building services engineer may
Engineering Services (JIB-PMES)
require help or support in diagnosing a breakdown in a  Association of Plumbing and Heating
system. The first point of contact should always be the Contractors (APHC)
manufacturer’s technical support helpline. This allows  Electrical Contractors’ Association (ECA)
the engineer to describe the fault and get expert advice  Joint Industry Board for the Electrical
from the manufacturer, who will know how to rectify Contracting Industry (JIB)
problems that are not in the servicing manual.  Building Engineering Services Association
(BESA) (formerly the Heating and Ventilating
Some engineers use online search engines to Contractors’ Association)
research problems and find alternative solutions.  Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating
These solutions might come from manufacturer or Engineering (CIPHE)
industry body forums, where similar problems are  Security Systems and Alarms Inspection Board
(SSAIB)
logged and resolutions suggested by other engineers.
 British Approvals for Fire Equipment (BAFE)
When researching online and visiting manufacturers’  Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
websites, engineers may be able to access virtual (IEEE)
assistants or live chat, where they are able to speak  Gas Safe Register.
with experts online in real time.
Choose three and find out:
While carrying out maintenance and fixing  what purpose they serve
breakdowns, particularly where work cannot be  why they are important
completed immediately, it is essential to keep the  how they support their sector.

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Assessment practice

Short answer 7 Write a detailed maintenance plan for an intruder

alarm and CCTV system in an office.
1 What is the difference between planned
preventative maintenance and reactive 8 Describe typical timeframes for a building
maintenance? services engineer carrying out work on fire
detection and alarm systems.
2 Which system would have a maintenance plan
that includes inspection of a condenser and 9 You are required to design a job sheet for
evaporator? engineers to use when carrying out work on site.
What information should be included?
3 For how long is a Landlord Gas Safety Certificate
valid? 10 Evaluate the potential implications for a telesales
business that has been told its electrical systems
4 Which documentation might a building services
are being taken offline for 48 hours while
engineer complete to advise on future repairs or
essential maintenance is carried out.
replacements?
5 What does the term ‘downtime’ mean with
regards to a BSE system?

Long answer
6 Describe what maintenance tasks might be on
the PPM schedule for the following systems:
 air-handling units
 drainage
 domestic wiring.

Project practice
You have been asked to produce a planned  Outline what is required to meet industry and
preventative maintenance (PPM) schedule for manufacturing standards.
firefighting equipment and fire detection and alarm  State which health and safety regulations you
systems for a small office block. must consider when carrying out maintenance on
firefighting equipment and fire detection and alarm
 Decide what format the schedule would take and
systems.
explain why.
 Describe all the components that make up the two
systems.

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 14 Tools, equipment and
materials

Introduction
A wide range of tools, equipment and materials are used on
construction sites. Depending on the application, they can be
relatively simple or technologically advanced and complex. In
all cases, the same principles must be applied to ensure their
suitability and the safety of the operatives using them.
This chapter discusses methods for checking that tools,
equipment and materials are fit for purpose for construction
activities, as well as identifying proper care and maintenance
procedures, to support reliability, productivity and safety
on site.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will understand: 2 maintenance of tools, equipment and materials.
1 methods used to ensure tools, equipment and
materials are fit for purpose

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inspected visually and tested electrically to identify

1 Methods used to ensure tools, possible faults. Typically, a checklist is followed to
equipment and materials are fit ensure all potential safety issues are addressed.
for purpose Portable tools and items of equipment that are frequently
moved from place to place are at greater risk of damage
To ensure tools and equipment are fit for purpose,
to exposed parts, such as attached power leads,
every operative using them must inspect them before
projecting plug attachment points and surface switches.
use, clean them after use and follow appropriate
maintenance routines. Even a new tool or piece of equipment should be
visually checked before use, to ensure there is no
Materials must be selected in accordance with the work
damage that could make it unsafe.
specification, inspected for good condition and used
in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions and
established best practice. Health and safety
It is important to be observant in order to identify Portable tools and equipment are often supplied
potential problems with tools, equipment and with specifically designed cases to transport and
materials. This will: store them. These cases provide valuable protection
 improve site safety
and help to keep the items safe to use.
 extend the life and usefulness of valuable resources
 help ensure the completed project fully matches the Testing frequency varies depending on factors
design brief. including location and type of equipment. For example,
portable equipment such as extension leads in offices,
1.1 Tools and equipment shops or hotels should be tested every two years; all
In order to support reliability, productivity and safety 110 V construction tools and equipment on site should
on site, the operational efficiency of all tools and be tested every three months.
equipment must be maintained. The principles for Items are usually labelled with the date of the last test.
ensuring items are fit for purpose apply equally to This simple practice provides a record for supervisors to
simple items such as screwdrivers and complex items monitor ongoing safety and a reassurance to operatives
such as self-levelling laser levels. that the item is safe to use. Separate written records of
tests and inspections should also be kept.

Industry tip
Portable appliance testing does not only apply to
tools and equipment. For example, the kettle in a
site canteen or the printer in a site manager’s office
should also be tested.

▲ Figure 14.1 Regular safety inspections of

equipment are essential

Let us look at some examples of methods for ensuring

items are fit for purpose.

Portable appliance testing (PAT)

Portable appliance testing (PAT) is an ongoing
procedure that ensures electrical appliances are safe
to use. Tools and equipment powered by electricity are ▲ Figure 14.2 A portable appliance test (PAT) instrument

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 14 Tools, equipment and materials

Test yourself Key terms

Which features of a portable appliance are more Calibration: comparison of a measurement device
easily damaged compared to a fixed appliance? against a traceable reference
High-tensile: very strong under tension
Calibration of instruments Torque: a force that causes rotation or twisting
Tools and equipment used for measurement or testing
can be relatively simple, such as a tape measure or
thermometer. However, in construction engineering Research
applications they are often sophisticated and complex
Research different types of torque wrench. Produce
in design.
a simple sketch to show the design features of at
Where measurements must be accurately checked and least two types.
maintained, the instrument of measurement must be
calibrated periodically to maintain its reliability and
effectiveness. In this context, calibration refers to Test yourself
the process of comparing, and if necessary adjusting,
Why must high-tensile bolts be tightened to the
readings on an instrument to match an established and correct torque when used in a high-pressure gas-
accepted external reference. distribution system?
Measuring and testing are an important part of the
installation, commissioning and maintenance of Table 14.1 lists some other instruments that require
many critical systems within the built environment. calibration.
For example, a high-pressure gas-distribution system
▼ Table 14.1 Instruments that require calibration
has pipework junctions, valves and other components
that are typically connected using high-tensile steel Instrument Application
bolts. These must be tightened to precise levels of
Laser distance These are used for accurate
torque. If the specified torque is not met and the bolts meters measurement between stations.
are tightened to a lower or higher torque value, there They easily provide straight-line
could be either leaks of gas or catastrophic failure of distance measurements over
components, which in either case can be dangerous. undulating terrain.
Coating thickness These measure the thickness
The tool used to measure torque is known as a torque
testers of protective paint coatings and
wrench, and the readings it displays must be calibrated membrane applications, to ensure
to ensure its reliable and accurate function. consistency in coverage.
Holiday detectors These are used to detect flaws
and porous areas in protective
coatings applied to metal surfaces.
The flaws may not be visible to the
naked eye but must be addressed
to avoid rust or corrosion.
Electrical testers A range of specific testers are
used for electrical applications,
such as PAT testers, socket testers,
insulation testers and cable
testers.
Gas detectors These are used to detect leaks
in gas-delivery systems. Specific
types can analyse flue gases to
confirm burner efficiency in boilers
▲ Figure 14.3 Gas-distribution pipework with high-
for heating and hot-water systems.
tensile steel bolts at junctions

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

potential injuries, but it can also reduce the risk of

Research failure or incorrect function of tools and equipment
during a work task, which could lead to errors and
Research holiday detectors and write a short report
on how they work. production delays.
For example, inspection of an optical or laser level
Instrument calibration is usually carried out by could find signs of impact damage to the casing.
specialist companies or the instrument manufacturer. The accuracy of this type of instrument could be
This ensures measurement standards are validated and affected by an impact, and if an operative carried on
documented as part of a system of quality verification. using the potentially defective item without further
The calibration procedure will differ depending on action, it could lead to incorrect levels and datum
the type of instrument, the environment in which it positions being established. This could have serious
is used, and allowable tolerances in measuring and consequences. Constructing a building to incorrect
testing values. reference levels may lead to costly alterations or even
the need to completely rebuild the structure in order to
fulfil the project specification.

▲ Figure 14.4 Instruments used to test the hardness

of concrete must be calibrated to maintain their
accuracy ▲ Figure 14.5 An optical level should be inspected
before use
Instruments are often identified by a unique serial
number. This allows records to be generated, providing
details about the most recent calibration date, the Key term
calibration interval, the next calibration date and
Datum: a fixed point or height from which reference
any other relevant information specific to individual
levels can be taken
instruments and tools.

Visual inspections
Industry tip
Health and safety
If you need to use an instrument that appears
The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) website states: to have suffered an impact and you are not sure
‘Inspection is necessary for any equipment where whether it is still usable, bring it to the attention of
significant risks to health and safety may arise from your supervisor or line manager to get advice.
incorrect installation, reinstallation, deterioration or
any other circumstances. The need for inspection On a more basic level, simple hand tools should be
and inspection frequencies should be determined inspected prior to use to confirm their suitability. For
through risk assessment.’
example, a screwdriver should not be used for piercing
holes in materials. This could damage the tip or blade,
Visually inspecting tools and equipment before use causing it to slip when exerting pressure on a screw
is an important habit to develop. A brief but careful head. A brief visual inspection to confirm that the
examination of an item can quickly establish whether it screwdriver is fit for purpose could reduce the risk of
needs repair or replacement. Not only will this prevent injury to the operative.

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 14 Tools, equipment and materials

Improve your English

Select two different points from each of the bullet-
point inspection lists above. For each point, write an
explanation of the benefits to an operative using the
inspected tool or equipment.

Remember that whatever tools or equipment are

required for a work task, the correct PPE must always
be used. Always visually inspect PPE before use to
make sure it is fit for purpose; after use, clean PPE if
necessary and store it carefully.
▲ Figure 14.6 A brief visual inspection of this
screwdriver shows it is not fit for purpose

Before using hand tools, conduct a visual inspection to

check for the following:
 The surface of the tool is free from grease or oil.
 Handles are not loose or cracked.
 Blades or cutting parts are sharp and not cracked or
chipped.
 Chisels and punches do not have mushroomed
heads.
 The general condition is good.

Industry tip
Some steel chisels are referred to as cold chisels ▲ Figure 14.7 Check PPE is fit for purpose before use
and can be used for cutting openings in masonry for
pipes or cables to go through. The top of the chisel
can form a mushroom shape through being struck Industry tip
repeatedly. This should be ground off from time to
time to avoid hand injury to the user. Do not forget to check the labels on safety
helmets that give a date when the item is due
for replacement. The plastic used in helmets can
Test yourself deteriorate over time through exposure to sunlight.

Why should even a simple tool like a hammer be

inspected before use? Daily checks
Many checks on equipment must be carried out on a
Before using portable power tools, conduct a visual daily basis, to ensure the safe and smooth running of a
inspection to check for the following: construction site.
 The outside of the tool is free from oil, grease and Daily checks are especially important for site vehicles
accumulated dirt. and moving machinery, in order to maintain safe
 The power supply is in good condition (cable, air- operational standards and protect all workers on site.
line, battery). Checking vehicle fuel levels, lubricant levels and tyre
 Insulated casing of the tool is not cracked or pressures on a daily basis contributes to reliability
damaged. and efficiency, as well as extending operational life by
 Shields or guards are in place and not damaged. reducing wear and tear.
 There are no leaks of fuel, such as petrol or diesel.
 Blades or bits are not damaged or worn.

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▲ Figure 14.8 Site machinery being checked ▲ Figure 14.9 Do not undertake routine inspections
casually
Lifting and access equipment must be checked before
use to confirm it is fit for purpose and in a safe Thorough inspections contribute to increased
condition. Never assume that because an item seemed workplace safety, lower maintenance costs and less
safe to use yesterday, it will still be safe to use today. downtime.

Health and safety Test yourself

Because access equipment like scaffolding has no Name three benefits of carrying out thorough
moving parts, it is easy to think that no changes inspections.
in condition occur from day to day. However,
continuous heavy rain and movement caused by
high winds can cause fixing clips to loosen. Check Cleaning
access equipment for safe condition carefully, Work on construction sites often generates high levels
especially after bad weather. of dust and airborne debris. Carefully inspecting tools
and equipment for cleanliness is a vital part of avoiding
deterioration in function and maintaining safety
To ensure a consistent approach to daily checks,
during use.
inspection checklists may be produced. Ticking off
each item verifies that the corresponding part of Items should be cleaned after use and before storing
the tool or equipment will contribute to its overall them, to reduce the likelihood of rust and corrosion.
correct and safe operation. Checklists should be This also allows subsequent users to identify any
comprehensive but simple to follow and arranged in a damage more easily before beginning a work task.
logical order.

Research
Search online for an inspection sheet template
for air-operated (pneumatic) tools. Write down the
inspection points that relate to:
 safety
 operational efficiency.

The operative completing the checklist has

accountability to the user of the tool or equipment,
by confirming that the item is safe to use and should
operate as expected. As such, daily checks, although
▲ Figure 14.10 Clean tools are easier to inspect for
a matter of routine, should never be undertaken
damage
casually.

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 14 Tools, equipment and materials

to the item, stating the nature of the problem, and it

Industry tip should be kept in a secure location to avoid inadvertent
use. The item should be repaired or replaced as soon as
Skilled operatives typically carry a range of essential
tools to the work location in a tool bag or case. It is possible.
good practice to clean the interior of the bag or case
from time to time, to prevent a build-up of dirt that Industry tip
could affect the tools being transported.
It is important to only use drill bits and cutting blades
that are in good condition, in order to ensure the
Cleaning also reduces the rate of wear in moving user’s safety and comfort, as well as to improve work
parts. Dust and dirt that are allowed to accumulate can efficiency and maintain quality of work. If safety
checks show that bits or blades are excessively
become abrasive when mixed with lubricants such as
worn or damaged, they should be replaced without
oil and grease, and this can cause a significant increase delay.
in the rate of wear of bearings, bushes and other
moving parts in powered tools and equipment.

Key term
Bushes: (in machinery) plain bearings or sleeves that
reduce friction

Operational checks
Even after a tool or piece of equipment has been
inspected and confirmed as fit for purpose and safe,
the operator must look out for possible faults or defects
that can occur during use. For example: ▲ Figure 14.11 Worn or rusty drill bits should be
replaced without delay
 an electrical power tool could become hot when
in use, indicating it is not operating within design All power tools must be treated with respect. When
performance parameters replacing drill bits or cutting blades, the power source
 a tool with many rotating parts may show signs of a must be isolated:
developing fault by creating increased noise during  For mains-powered tools, unplug the tool from the
operation. source of electricity.
Operatives should be familiar with manufacturers’  For petrol- or diesel-powered tools, never attempt
instructions, so that tools and equipment are used adjustments or replacement of parts when the
correctly and developing problems are quickly engine is running.
recognised and dealt with.  For battery-powered tools, remove the battery. (Do
not assume that battery-powered tools create less
In order to understand safe operational procedures and
force when operating than mains-powered tools –
necessary operational checks on tools and equipment,
they can cause serious injuries.)
it is important to check risk assessments, method
statements (RAMS) and manufacturers’ instructions
Health and safety
before starting a work task. For example, cutting or
grinding equipment may require periodic emptying of Only trained and competent personnel should
a dust-collection vessel. change the abrasive wheels on a disc cutter, angle
grinder or bench grinder.
When tools and equipment fail safety
checks
If defects are discovered in a tool or piece of equipment Test yourself
during inspection or use, the item should be removed
from use immediately and the relevant supervisor Why is it important to check that drill bits and cutting
should be informed. A tag or label should be attached blades are not worn or damaged?

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Keeping records  a description

 an identification number
Written records on the condition of tools and
 the date of acquisition
equipment can be useful in allowing operatives to
 ownership records
determine if they are in a suitable condition to permit
 its current value
ongoing use. These are often known as condition
 its condition and defects
reports, and they can be particularly important when
 maintenance requirements and inspection intervals
monitoring the safety of hired tools and equipment.
 information about spares.
When hired items are delivered to site, they usually
A comprehensive asset register is a useful source
have details attached confirming the inspection and
of information when a contractor is assessing the
testing that has been undertaken to verify their safe
capability of a company to take on new work. It allows
condition. On return to the hire company, the condition
decisions to be made on whether new equipment
of the item will be assessed by visual inspection and,
should be purchased or hired in order to fulfil a
if necessary, specified testing for faults and defects. A
contract. The register must therefore be accurate and
condition report can then be used to record:
kept up to date.
 the results of the inspection and testing to confirm
safety and serviceability
 any damage and ongoing wear and tear Industry tip
 adjustment or replacement of parts.
The terms ‘condition report’ and ‘asset register’
Recording inspection and testing results is especially are more commonly used with reference to the
important in the case of electrical equipment, since condition of a building and the assets or equipment
faults that could lead to injury or death may not necessary for its operation.
be visible to the user and only become apparent
when appropriate testing is undertaken by qualified
competent personnel. Research
Complex equipment, such as mobile elevated work Visit www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1998/2306/­
platforms or site lifts, may periodically require more contents/made and research Regulation 6 of the
thorough inspections to maintain safe condition and Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations
(PUWER) 1998.
serviceability. Programmed reporting provides a history
of routine and in-depth inspections that can indicate Write down the circumstances that demand
when a tool or piece of equipment is due for replacement. inspection of equipment to ensure health and safety
conditions are maintained.

Safety with electricity

Since the use of electricity is an everyday part of our
lives, it can be easy to take it for granted as an energy
source. However, you should always remember that
electricity can be dangerous when not treated with
respect, with the potential to cause severe injury
or even death. Make sure you are properly trained
before using electrical equipment in the workplace.
Dismantling or adjusting an electrically powered
item should only be undertaken by someone who is
authorised and qualified.
▲ Figure 14.12 More thorough inspections must be
carried out periodically for complex equipment The use of electrical equipment on site is regulated
by the Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 (for more
A large contractor may own many tools and items of on these, see Chapter 1). These regulations require
equipment. As valuable company assets, these must precautions to be taken against the risk of death or
be catalogued. An asset register usually includes the personal injury from electricity in work activities.
following information for each asset:

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 14 Tools, equipment and materials

On site, a lower voltage of 110 V is recommended, since

Improve your English lower voltages are safer. A piece of equipment called
a transformer is used to reduce a 230 V supply to the
Research the Electricity at Work Regulations 1989
and write an account in your own words of the safer voltage of 110 V.
main employer responsibilities regarding the use of Each voltage level is colour-coded, to make identification
electrical equipment in the workplace. easier:
 110 V – yellow
When working with or near equipment powered by  230 V – blue.
electricity, be aware of the types of danger that can arise:
 burns and electric shock, which depending on the Industry tip
voltage can kill you
For fixed heavy machinery in a workshop setting,
 faults in equipment or wiring, which can cause a
a higher voltage of 410 V can be used. This is often
fire referred to as ‘three-phase’ supply and is colour-
 electrical sparks from faulty equipment, which can coded red.
cause flammable gas to explode.

Battery-powered tools
Industry tip
Battery-powered tools are safer than mains-powered
Building sites in the UK can be wet places to work. tools, since they operate at lower voltages. They are
Avoid allowing electrical cables to trail in water. available in a wide variety of voltages, from 3.6 V for a
Wherever possible, arrange for them to be slung small powered screwdriver all the way up to 48 V for
overhead. This will also reduce trip hazards. large masonry drills.

Test yourself
What dangers can arise because of faulty electrical
equipment?

Voltages
A range of voltages are used, depending on the
equipment and circumstances.
In our homes, the usual voltage supplied for domestic
appliances is 230 V, commonly referred to as 240 V.
The difference in these two voltage figures is because ▲ Figure 14.13 Battery-powered drill
voltages are referred to as ‘nominal’, which means they
can vary slightly. Although powered by a battery, these are still
powerful pieces of equipment that can cause injury if
230 V is often used in workshop environments to
not used with care. For example, a battery-powered
power hand tools and fixed machines. Protection for
drill produces a lot of torque, which can injure an
users is provided by a residual current device (RCD).
operative’s wrist and forearm.
This will disconnect the supply quickly if a fault or
unsafe condition occurs.
1.2 Materials
Fit for purpose
Research
Materials and components must meet defined quality
Find out how a residual current device (RCD) works. standards during manufacture. A range of tests are
Explain your findings to someone in your learner carried out to ensure items leave the manufacturer in a
group. condition that is fit for purpose.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

The materials and components for particular work

tasks are usually detailed in a work specification,
which is a contract document. This means that there
are legal requirements to ensure the right materials
and components are used for a job. Ignoring the
specification could have consequences related to the
safe condition or operation of the completed work, its
durability or its appearance.
Therefore, materials and components must be checked
before use to confirm they match the specification.
They should then be inspected for possible faults
▲ Figure 14.14 Manufacturers conduct tests to or defects to confirm that they are fit for purpose.
maintain quality standards Remember, damage due to poor transport, storage or
handling can make items unsuitable for use.
These tests might establish compressive strength,
In addition, care must be taken to avoid damage to
water absorption, hardness, size, shape, colour and
materials and components during installation, which
much more. In more technically complex components,
could render them unfit for purpose. The removal and
testing could include electrical resistance, flow rates,
replacement of damaged items leads to increased costs
pressure containment and other performance- and
and lost time, which can have a significant detrimental
safety-related factors.
impact on the overall work programme.
Key term
Compressive strength: the ability of a material or
structure to withstand loads that tend to reduce size

Between the manufacturing process and the point

of use on site, many activities take place, including
transport and storage. If not undertaken with
care, these activities can cause damage or create
conditions that lead to the development of flaws and
defects in materials and components. Operatives on
site must be aware of these possibilities and conduct
appropriate inspections of materials and components ▲ Figure 14.15 Careful installation avoids damage to
before use. materials and components

Industry tip Table 14.2 gives examples of damage to or defects in

materials and components, to demonstrate the benefit
Materials and components should be checked of checking items are fit for purpose (the list is not
for good condition when they are delivered to exhaustive).
site. Damaged or unsuitable items should not be
accepted and can be logged and returned to the
supplier.

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 14 Tools, equipment and materials

▼ Table 14.2 Examples of damage to or defects in materials and components

Area Materials/components Potential damage or defects that could render items unfit
for purpose
Construction Sheet materials (for example plywood, • Chipped edges, scored surfaces, cracks or splits
plasterboard and insulation) • Distortion
• Damage by moisture or chemicals
Timber • Warped, twisted, bent, crushed or cracked
• Damage by moisture or chemicals
Steel • Twisted, bent, distorted or cracked
• Rust or corrosion
Masonry • Chips and cracks
• Bent, misshapen, dimensionally inaccurate, discoloured or
moisture saturated
BSE Electrical cables • Split or punctured insulation
• Excessively bent or stretched
Electrical components (for example • Cracked casings and damaged insulation/switches/fixings
switches, sockets, meters, distribution • Rating mismatch or indicator failure
boards and circuit breakers)
Plumbing components (pipework, • Crushed, kinked, punctured, corroded, rusted or
junctions, water-storage tanks and dimensionally inaccurate
cylinders) • Size mismatch, rating mismatch (for example flowrates,
thermal output), incorrect valve function
Heating and ventilation components • Damage to boiler components or refrigeration unit
• Leaks or sensor faults
• Incorrect flue gas rating, incorrect filters

Industry tip
It is important to develop the habit of checking
items are fit for purpose by visually inspecting them
for damage and defects. This will improve safety,
productivity and efficiency on site.

Test yourself
State one benefit of checking materials are fit for
purpose.

Hazards associated with materials and

components
All operatives must be aware of site hazards and the
methods used to identify and manage them. This
includes hazards associated with the handling and use
of materials and components. ▲ Figure 14.16 COSHH symbols

The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Hazardous substances take different forms, such as
Regulations 2002 require the identification of: powders, liquids or gases:
 hazardous substances used on site
 Some substances give off harmful vapours/fumes
 processes on site that may produce hazardous
and dust, which can be inhaled (breathed in).
substances.  Other substances are described as irritant or
The risks to site workers and members of the public corrosive and can cause damage to the skin when it
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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

 Certain substances that can be injected, enter cuts

in the skin or be absorbed through the skin are Industry tip
toxic (poisonous).
Gloves form a basic part of PPE. However, specialist
 Hazardous substances that are handled can leave gloves might be needed to protect against some
deposits on the skin that can be transferred to hazards. Safety data sheets for specific materials
the mouth when eating and then swallowed and substances provide information on appropriate
(ingested). PPE.
Read the manufacturer’s or supplier’s safety data sheets
carefully. These provide information on how to safely
Test yourself
use and store hazardous substances so that risks are
minimised. In what ways can dangerous substances enter the
body?
Research
Some common hazards associated with materials and
Lead is a soft, durable metal that can easily be shaped
components are listed in Table 14.3.
(malleable), making it a good material for applications
such as weatherproofing the junction between a
chimney stack and a pitched or sloping roof.

Research the effects of lead on human health

and write a report detailing your findings. What
precautions should be followed to use lead safely?

▼ Table 14.3 Common hazards associated with materials and components

Associated hazard How it can be caused and what to do

Back injuries Incorrect manual handling of heavy and awkward items such as heating units
or large heavy sheets of material.
• Use kinetic lifting technique and seek assistance when necessary (see
Chapter 1 for more on lifting techniques).
• Plan movement of heavy materials and components to avoid obstruction
in the path of travel.
• Where possible, use mechanical lifting equipment to avoid manual handling.
Crushing injuries to hands and feet Trapping fingers between heavy items. Dropping heavy items onto feet.
• Handle heavy materials and components in manageable quantities.
• Always use appropriate PPE (gloves and safety boots).
• Where possible, use mechanical lifting equipment to avoid manual
handling.
Inhalation of dust (damage to the Handling and cutting sheet materials and insulation can create dust and fibres
respiratory system) which can be hazardous when inhaled (breathed in).
• Always wear correct PPE or RPE (respiratory protective equipment).
• Avoid cutting in enclosed spaces.
• Consider dust control measures such as water misting or dust-extraction
systems.
Inhalation of fumes (damage to the Harmful fumes and vapours can be given off by paints, adhesives, chemical
respiratory system) preservative treatments, soldering, brazing, welding and fuels.
• Always use correct PPE or RPE.
• Ensure adequate ventilation and avoid working in enclosed spaces.
Skin irritation Irritant or corrosive materials and components can cause damage to the
skin. Toxic substances can enter the body through cuts and abrasions or be
absorbed through the skin.
• Always use the correct PPE.
• Use barrier creams.
• Consult safety data sheets and COSHH sheets.
• Wash hands thoroughly after working with irritants or corrosives.

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 14 Tools, equipment and materials

For more on measuring and calculating quantities for

different work tasks and trades, see Chapter 6.

Improve your maths

List as many construction trades and skills as you
can think of. Produce a table to show which types of
measurement you think each trade or skill would use
in their work activities.

Specialist requirements
Some materials and components used in construction
▲ Figure 14.17 Safe kinetic lifting technique
are very common, such as cement or timber. However,
Under the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act these common materials can be produced with
(HASAWA) 1974, it is the employer’s responsibility to variations or adaptations for specialist requirements.
ensure the safe use, handling, storage and transport of For example, cement can be produced as:
components, materials and substances. (See Chapter 1  sulphate-resisting cement – a type of modified
for more on HASAWA.) Portland cement that can be used in conditions
However, all operatives must support their employer where concrete or mortar is exposed to sulphate
and others in the workplace by being aware of potential attack
hazards, being observant on site, and handling and  rapid-hardening cement – the one-day strength of
using materials and components correctly. this cement is equal to the three-day strength of
ordinary Portland cement.
Industry tip
Key term
If you notice someone on site working in an unsafe
way, do not be afraid to remind them of everyone’s Sulphate: a salt of sulphuric acid
responsibility to work safely. If an unsafe practice
continues, bring it to the attention of your supervisor.
Timber can be produced and supplied as:
 stress-graded timber – classified for strength and
Quantity stiffness for use as structural support in buildings
 glulam (glued laminated) timber – used to produce
Calculating accurate quantities of materials and
components for a project is important for efficiency and structural columns and beams as a sustainable
productivity. It: alternative to reinforced concrete and steel.
 ensures the right amounts are delivered to site Operatives may need additional training in order to
 avoids shortages, which can cause production delays use specialist materials effectively and efficiently. For
 avoids surpluses, which can cause waste and a example liquid roofing materials allow the installation
negative impact on the environment of roof coverings where complex geometry and roof
 helps keep a project within budget. shapes make conventional methods difficult to apply.
As well as calculating how many items are needed, it When installed by trained operatives, these roof
may be necessary to establish: coverings are quick to install, attractive and durable.
 linear measurements
 area
 volume
 weight
 percentages.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

2.1 Storage
Tools and equipment
Tools and equipment should be stored carefully, to
protect them from adverse weather conditions and
accidental damage. It is vital that those with metal
parts and electrical components are protected from
moisture.
Storage areas should be secure to guard against theft,
as tools and equipment are often high-value items.
Appropriate storage includes lockable steel containers
(such as shipping containers) in a secure outdoor
storage compound, or fixed lockable cabinets inside
temporary site buildings.
It may be appropriate to keep an inventory of tools and
equipment in a central store, with the requirement for
an operative’s signature when removing and returning
▲ Figure 14.18 A finished liquid roof
items to the secure storage facility.

With the demand for environmentally friendly

construction methods, more specialist materials
and components are being developed for various
purposes:
 insulation purposes (for example, Icynene
spray foam, for application in traditional stone
buildings)
 heating and ventilation systems (for example,
refined computational fluid dynamics to model
movement and temperature of air within spaces, for
efficient system design)
 smart electricity generation and management
systems (for more on this, see Chapter 8).
▲ Figure 14.19 Steel containers can be used for
secure storage on site
Research
Research ground source and air source heat pumps Whatever storage facility is used, it should be managed
and how they operate. Suggest the specialist so that tools and equipment are not randomly
requirements for each type of heating system. deposited or casually stacked. The provision of racks,
stands and shadow boards is good practice to keep
order and monitor the stock of valuable items. This also
2 Maintenance of tools, reduces the risk of accidental damage.
equipment and materials
Improve your English
Tools and equipment require appropriate storage and
regular maintenance to make them last longer and Search online for images of site storage. Copy and
ensure they are efficient and safe. Materials need to paste two different examples into a Word document
be stored and handled so that they remain functional and write an account of the tools and equipment
that could be stored in each.
until they are ready to be brought into use.

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 14 Tools, equipment and materials

Industry tip
Shadow boards have outlines of tools marked on
them to show where the tools should be stored.
This makes it easy to see when tools are taken from
stock or missing.

Test yourself
Suggest two examples of secure storage.

Materials
Storage facilities for materials should be:
 secure, to safeguard against theft ▲ Figure 14.20 Plastic pipes of various sizes stored
 protected against the weather neatly in a rack on site
 located to allow easy unloading of deliveries
 organised to allow operatives to find required Case study
materials quickly and efficiently.
An extensive range of materials are to be correctly
Materials should be stored carefully, in order to avoid
stored on the construction site where you are
injuries to operatives and accidental damage, which working. Your supervisor requires you to produce
can add to costs and negatively affect productivity. directions for operatives to correctly store the items
listed below.
The following are examples of appropriate storage
methods: Give instructions on how each type of component or
 Lengths of pipe for plumbing or heating purposes material should be transported and stored on site:
can be stored horizontally in racks according to  hot-water cylinders
 steel lintels
diameter.
 sawn-timber joists
 Electrical items should be stored in a dry, dust-free
 ceramic drainage pipes
environment, preferably with stable temperature  box-profile roofing sheets.
conditions.
When writing your instructions, take account of
 Small, high-value items, such as door furniture
site factors such as uneven ground, trip hazards,
or plumbing fittings, can be kept in lockable weather conditions and bright sun reducing visibility
cabinets. as items are moved.
 Sheet materials should either be stacked flat,
raised off the floor on spaced levelled bearers, or
vertically, leaning at a slight incline towards a solid 2.2 Maintenance
wall or frame.
 Bulk materials, such as sand, and heavy materials, Whether simple or complex, all tools and equipment
such as bricks and blocks, can be stored in will deteriorate more quickly if they are not looked
fenced outdoor compounds with protection from after, cleaned and maintained. Keeping them clean and
the weather provided by tarpaulins or plastic in good working order can improve safety, make work
sheeting. These must be arranged to allow easy tasks easier and make items last longer.
access by delivery vehicles and mechanical As mentioned previously, the accuracy of tools and
handling machinery. equipment used for measuring, checking and testing
can be reduced if they are not calibrated, checked
Industry tip and maintained regularly. Sensitive equipment can
be affected by the harsh conditions experienced on
Some materials such as cement and plaster have a
construction sites, and they should be protected from
limited shelf life. Storage should be arranged so that
the oldest stock is used first to avoid it becoming exposure to dust and moisture where possible. Store
unusable over time. This is known as the ‘rotational them in their protective cases when not in use (after
stock control’ or ‘first in, first out’ system (FIFO). drying them if wet) and protect them from situations
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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

As mentioned frequently in this chapter, regular

inspection should be a habitual practice. A quick visual
inspection to make sure a hammer head is securely
attached to its handle, or the tip of a screwdriver
is not worn or damaged, is an important part of
maintenance. Metal parts of tools should be treated
with a rust inhibitor periodically.
More complex tools with moving parts, such as
powered cutting equipment or drills, may require
lubricating with oil or grease in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions. Some more specialist
items of equipment require the application of specific
▲ Figure 14.21 Keep tools and equipment in protective
cases when not in use lubrication products. Check operation manuals and
equipment labels to ensure the correct lubrication is
Test yourself used, since using the wrong products can shorten the
useful life of expensive items.
Why is it important to clean and maintain tools and
equipment? Equipment that has filters to capture dust or keep
lubricating oil clean may have a specified maintenance
programme, and this should be implemented carefully.
Maintenance for simple tools like hammers and
Clogged filters cannot perform their function and may
screwdrivers is relatively straightforward, consisting of
damage the equipment beyond repair.
keeping them clean and storing them in dry conditions.
Hand cutting tools, such as chisels and saws, should be Industry tip
kept sharp as part of a maintenance routine, so that they
function efficiently. Blunt tools can increase the likelihood It would be impossible to complete work on
of them slipping or moving unpredictably, which could construction sites without appropriate tools and
equipment. Taking good care of them will improve
lead to damage to the work or injury to the operative.
safety, efficiency and the quality of work.

Assessment practice

Short answer 7 Explain why routine daily checks and inspections

should never be undertaken casually.
1 What does ‘PAT’ stand for in relation to electrical
items? 8 Detail why operatives should make sure they are
familiar with operating instructions before using
2 Who is responsible for calibrating instruments?
equipment.
3 What is a holiday detector used for?
9 Explain why a specification containing details of
4 What action should you take if a measuring or
materials to be used for a job is called a contract
testing instrument shows signs of impact damage?
document.
5 State two dangerous occurrences that can be
10 Describe the possible consequences of inaccuracy
caused by faulty electrical equipment.
when calculating quantities of materials and
Long answer components.
6 List the steps that must be taken if a tool or item
of equipment fails an inspection and explain why
they are important.

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 14 Tools, equipment and materials

Project practice
You have been assigned to supervise a team of four  List the hazards associated with handling R32.
operatives to remove a refrigeration unit from an  In language that is easy to understand, write a
air-conditioning system in an office block. The unit is guide to describe what your team should do if
leaking refrigerant fluid, which you have been informed anyone is contaminated by the leaking fluid. Detail
is Difluoromethane (R32). the action that must be taken for each of the
 Research R32 and download a safety data sheet hazards you have identified from the safety data
for it. sheet.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

About the exams and

employer-set project
The T Level in Building Services Engineering for  Construction and the built environment industry
Construction is made up of two components: (Chapter 4)
 A core component (350), which all students will  Sustainability principles (Chapter 5)
complete.  Building technology principles (Chapter 7)
 An occupational specialist component (or  Tools, equipment and materials (Chapter 14)
components), which is a trade-specific pathway that
Paper 2
you will select with your lecturer.
This exam will also include a range of short-answer
This textbook covers the core component only, questions, structured questions and extended-response
although the content you have covered and the skills questions.
you have learned will provide the foundation for your
development in the occupational specialist component. The exam is 2.5 hours long and worth 35 per cent of
the final grade for the core component.
You can find out more about the qualification and
how you will be assessed in the specification, which is The paper will cover:
 Construction science principles (Chapter 2)
available on the City & Guilds website.
 Measurement principles (Chapter 6)
Assessment  Information and data principles (Chapter 8)
 Relationship management in construction
The core component is assessed in two ways: (Chapter 9)
 Papers 1 and 2, which are traditional written exam  Digital technology in construction (Chapter 10)
papers.  Construction commercial/business principles
 An employer-set project, which is an extended real- (Chapter 11)
world project that allows you to demonstrate the  Building services engineering (BSE) systems
skills you have learned across the core component. (Chapter 12)
 Maintenance principles (Chapter 13)
Core component exams
The two exams will test your knowledge and under­ Exam hints and tips
standing of the content covered in the core component.  Always read the instructions carefully. Think
about what the command/keyword is asking for.
The ‘Assessment practice’ learning features, which
These could include: identify, select, state, describe,
appear at the end of each chapter, have been designed
explain, discuss, analyse, evaluate, justify.
to help you apply your skills and knowledge in a
 Concentrate on one question at a time and ask
similar style to what you can expect in the two exams.
yourself the following:
Paper 1 – Do I understand what the question is about?
This exam will include a range of short-answer – How many marks is the question worth? You
questions, structured questions and extended-response should try to work to one minute per mark.
questions. – How many parts are there to the question?
– Can I provide a well-constructed answer?
The exam is 2.5 hours long and worth 35 per cent of – How am I going to answer the question?
the final grade for the core component. – Do I need to include examples?
The paper will cover: – Do I need to relate my answer to a particular
 Health and safety in construction (Chapter 1) context?
 Construction design principles (Chapter 3) – Do I need to use technical terminology?

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 About the exams and employer-set project

 It is important that the person marking your paper in collaboration with employers, will allow you to use
can not only read your handwriting but can also the skills, techniques, concepts and knowledge that
understand what it is you are trying to tell them. you have learned across the core component. You will
If they cannot read it or understand it, they cannot receive the scenario from your lecturer, along with
award you marks! detailed guidance.
 If you make a mistake, cross it out neatly and then
The employer-set project is worth 30 per cent of the
start again. There may be extra pages at the back
final grade for the core component.
of the exam paper, or you can ask for extra paper.
If you use the extra pages or paper, then you must The ‘Project practice’ learning features, which appear
make it clear where your answer can be found. at the end of each chapter, have been designed to help
 When you have finished answering the questions, you apply your skills and knowledge in a similar style
and if you have time, go back over your answers. to what you can expect in the employer-set project.
 Read carefully what you have written and ask In addition to the core component content, the project
yourself: also links to the core skills:
– Have I answered the question?  Core skill A: Applying a logical approach to
– Have I answered all parts of the question? problem solving
– Have I met the demands of the command/  Core skill B: Primary research
keyword, for example, have I explained?  Core skill C: Communication
– Have I used the correct technical terminology?  Core skill D: Working collaboratively with other
team members and stakeholders
Employer-set project
This is an externally-set and externally-marked project. The learning features in this book allow you to develop
The scenario, which will be written by City & Guilds these skills.

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Answers
Assessment practice Chapter 2
Short answer
Chapter 1
1 – kg/m3
Short answer – Radius is half the diameter and is 0.42 m
1 The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) so π × 0.422 = 0.55 m2
2 Mandatory, safe condition, prohibition, warning, 2 Answers may include
fire fighting – Aluminium
3 Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous – Copper
Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR) 2013 – Silver
4 Tablets and medicines Brass or bronze would not be acceptable as these
5 During the site induction are alloys and not pure metals.
3 Force of load is:
Long answer
180 × 9.81 = 1765.8 N
6 Under this legislation, employers must calculate the
amount of vibration that employees may be exposed Force needed is:
to at work. At a specific level (referred to as the f×d=f×d
‘exposure action value’), employers must introduce So:
technical and organisational measures to reduce the 1765.8 × 0.5 = 294.3 N
risk of personal injury to an acceptable level. 3
7 A safe system of work is a formal set of procedures 4 As the load is a weight, gravity is not required.
that must be followed when hazards cannot be The time must be in seconds so 1.5 minutes = 90
eliminated completely. seconds, so:
8 Toolbox talks are short training sessions arranged at 5820 × 28
= 1810.67 W
regular intervals at a place of work to discuss health and 90
safety issues; they give safety reminders and inform 5 Firstly, the current needs to be determined:
personnel about new hazards that may have recently
I = 20 = 0.34 A
arisen. These are usually delivered to small groups of   58
workers, in an area of the workplace where they should So:
not be disturbed. These talks usually cover a single P = 20 × 0.34 = 6.8 W
aspect of health and safety, such as good housekeeping. 6 Stored hydro is where stored water, in a lake or
9 A confined space is a workplace which may be reservoir, is released when needed to turn turbines.
substantially but not always entirely enclosed, This can produce electricity almost immediately.
where there is a foreseeable serious risk of injury Water is then pumped back into the lake or
because of the conditions or from hazardous reservoir when the system is not required.
substances. Excavations, loft spaces, sewers or wells 7 The RCD monitors the current flow in the circuit Line
could be described as confined spaces, because they and Neutral. If the two values are balanced, the RCD
are enclosed with restricted access and egress. will not trip. If a fault occurs and some current leaks
10 Working in a confined space should be avoided to earth, less returns in the Neutral and the values
wherever possible, and work should be completed become unbalanced. If the value of unbalanced
in another way without entering the space. If this current exceeds the residual current rating of the
cannot be done and there is still a significant risk of device, it will trip disconnecting the circuit.
injury, then the work must be properly risk assessed, 8 If somebody, for example at work, is in a position
planned and organised, with appropriate control where they are subjected to glare from a lamp,
measures in place before it starts. Everyone involved where they can see the full harsh light from the
in working in a confined space must be competent lamp, they will likely squint due to the harsh bright
and specifically trained to undertake their tasks. light. Exposure can cause discomfort and possibly

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 Answers

headaches. Glare can be avoided by deflecting the compared with a greenfield site, because of the costs
bright light by diffusers or louvres that soften and involved in preparing the site and the removal of
scatter the light. any contaminated soil. Brownfield sites are often
9 Attenuation is the reduction of sound reverberation. preferred for use by local planning departments as
This can be achieved in several ways including: they have less impact on the natural environment.
– Using soft furnishings/fabrics 7 Vernacular construction is where the design of
– Using baffles such as hanging special panels houses is sympathetic or particular to a region,
made of soft material/fabrics from the ceiling relying on locally sourced materials and traditional
– Using soft materials or fabrics on the walls or skills that have developed over generations. Given
carpeting the floor. the distinct regional characteristics of such buildings,
10 Wall area is: it is problematic to design and specify this form
3 × 3 × 2 = 18 m2 of construction anywhere other than where it is
2 × 3 × 2 = 12 m2 usually found. It would be difficult to achieve the
same standards of workmanship without employing
Less door:
labour and sourcing materials from further away.
2 × 0.9 = 1.8 m2
8 A BIM designer works with and advises clients
So:
on the implementation of Building Information
18 + 12 - 1.8 = 28.2 m2 Modelling (BIM).
So heat loss through wall is: 9 CDM Regulations, budget, site analysis, planning,
28.2 × 0.4 × (28-(-5)) = 372.24 W site of special scientific interest (SSSI), animals or
Chapter 3 infestations, protected site
Short answer 10 Step 1: Pre-planning application
Step 2: Full planning application
1 Conservation of fuel and power: Approved
Document L Step 3: Consultation process
2 Permitted development rights Step 4: Decision-making process/outcome
3 Any three of the following: Step 5: Appeal (if necessary)
– excavation of the foundation
Chapter 4
– laying of foundation concrete
– installation of damp-proof course (DPC) and Short answer
damp-proof membranes (DPM) 1 When annual turnover exceeds £85,000
– laying of drains 2 Any one of the following:
– completion of the roof structure – government
– completion of first-fix installations (before – public limited company (PLC)
plastering or drylining) – commercial
– testing of drains – private.
– completion of the project. 3 Any one of the following:
4 The RIBA Plan of Work – the building owner’s manual and user guide
5 Any one of the following: – guidance documents on defects reporting and
– panelised – timber frame aftercare
– steel-frame construction – operational and maintenance manuals
– structural insulated panels (SIPs) – a building regulations completion certificate
– volumetric (pod/modular). – the health and safety file (including construction
drawings/BIM)
Long answer
– the building log book
6 A greenfield site is an undisturbed piece of land
– testing and commissioning certificates, for
that has never been developed (for example with
example a Building Regulations Compliance
roads, buildings or other structures). However, a
Certificate for gas installations
brownfield site may have an existing structure (above
– the building warranty/insurance certificate and
or below ground), or may have been previously
policy booklet.
developed and the structure or building removed.
4 A snagging list
Developing a brownfield site can be more expensive

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

5 Any one of the following: 10 A tender package may include the following
– political documents:
– economic – letter inviting the contractor to submit a bid for
– social the work
– technological – outline of the proposal
– legal – form of tender and timeline to return the
– environmental. completed bid
– form of contract and conditions (including
Long answer
the process for payments and interim
6 Self-employed subcontractors are responsible
valuations)
for every part of running a business, for example
– programme of work
estimating, invoicing, ordering and accounts. They
– design drawings
do not receive some of the benefits that employed
– specifications
people enjoy, for example holiday pay (including bank
– site-specific information or issues
holidays), sick pay, maternity or paternity leave or pay.
– preliminaries
7 Building Information Modelling (BIM) uses digital – special planning-permission requirements
technology to share construction documentation – bill of quantities (cost framework)
and provide a platform for effective and efficient – tender return document.
collaboration between designers and the construction
team at every stage of a building project. It is Chapter 5
adaptable to suit the size and complexity of each Short answer
project and allows technical information to be shared
1 Any two of the following:
throughout the management and construction teams.
– Building Research Establishment Environmental
8 Clients sometimes withhold a percentage of money Assessment Method (BREEAM)
due to the contractor at each stage of the building – Leadership in Energy and Environmental
work; this is known as a retention. The exact Design (LEED)
percentage of money to be withheld has to be agreed – Timber Research and Development Association
between the client and contractor before work starts (TRADA)
and is usually 3–5 per cent. The retention acts as – WELL Building Standard
financial security for the client, to make sure the – PAS 2035
contractor finishes the building work and resolves – PAS 2038.
any snagging within a reasonable amount of time
2 – building management systems
after completion of the work; this is known as the
– automated controls
defects liability period. If the contractor does not
– smart controls
return to complete the work within the period
– smart meters.
agreed in the contract, the client has reasonable
3 Any three of the following (or any other appropriate
grounds to use the money to instruct other
answer):
contractors to undertake the outstanding work. On
– self-healing concrete
the other hand, if the contractor does complete the
– green roofs
project and resolve all of the defects identified within
– smart glass
the defects liability period, the client must release
– grey-water recycling
the outstanding retention payment without delay.
– reed beds
9 Answer to include:
– soakaways
– protecting clients, customers and the public
– smart cement.
– keeping up to date with the latest regulation
4 The Domestic Building Services Compliance
changes, product developments and
Guide
technological advancements
– developing product knowledge 5 Grade I: buildings of exceptional interest; Grade
– working more efficiently II*: particularly important buildings of more than
– improving knowledge and skills special interest; Grade II: buildings of special
– enhancing the company image interest, warranting every effort to preserve them
– career progression.

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 Answers

Long answer 3 A number system based on the number ten, tenth

6 When planning and delivering a construction parts and powers of ten
project, sustainability is achieved by: 4 Any two of the following:
– using renewable and recyclable resources – setting out the outline of a building
– sourcing materials locally – positioning internal walls, doors and windows
– protecting resources – establishing floor and roof heights.
– reusing and refurbishing materials 5 New Rules of Measurement
– reducing energy consumption and waste
Long answer
– creating a healthy and eco-friendly environment
– protecting the natural environment. 6 Accurate calculation of quantities of materials
and components allows for assessment of the
7 Five retrofit roles:
time needed to use and install those materials,
– Retrofit assessors undertake retrofit assessments
contributing to the creation of a realistic work
for dwellings in accordance with PAS 2035.
programme. Completion targets can then be set
– Retrofit coordinators provide a project
to support efficiency and productivity and satisfy
management role.
the client’s requirements for timely handover of
– Retrofit advisors provide advice to clients and
the building.
homeowners on the retrofit process.
– Retrofit designers prepare a safe and effective 7 Tolerances allow for acceptable variations in the
retrofit design. strength of materials, the performance of a heating
– Retrofit evaluators monitor the impact of or ventilation system, temperature ranges in
installed EEMs to ensure the intended outcomes which materials can be used and many other
have been met. situations. Exceeding allowable tolerances for a
given construction task will mean that the work
8 Social sustainability focuses on wellbeing and
does not meet the specification. The function of the
quality of life. It involves recognising the needs of
structure could be compromised and other elements
everyone impacted by construction projects, from
of the building may not be able to be installed
design to demolition. This includes construction
properly.
workers, local communities, project supply chains
and users of the building. 8 If a building that is not dimensionally accurate
or not built to square is handed over to the
9 Passivhaus, or ‘Passive house’ in English, is
client, significant problems can emerge when the
an energy performance standard intended
installation of items such as floor tiles is attempted,
primarily for new buildings. It ensures buildings are
or fittings and modular components such as kitchen
so well constructed, insulated and ventilated that
units are positioned. Necessary remedial work
they require little energy for heating or cooling.
would be potentially very costly to the contractor
10 Grey water is waste water that has been used
and disruptive to the client.
for washing and is generated from hand basins,
9 If the height of floors is not measured accurately
washing machines, showers and baths. Rather
during installation, a staircase will be placed
than sending it down the drain, it can be reused
at the wrong angle of slope, and it may not sit
for watering plants and flushing toilets, thereby
properly where the top of the stairs meets the
reducing mains water usage.
upper floor.
Rainwater harvesting involves collecting rainwater 10 U-value expresses the rate of transfer of heat
from roofs, filtering it and storing it for reuse, through a structure (or more correctly through
thereby saving energy, lowering carbon emissions one square metre of a structure), taking account
and reducing mains water consumption. of the difference between internal and external
Chapter 6 temperatures. It is expressed in watts per metre
squared kelvin (W/m²K). The lower the U-value,
Short answer
the lower the rate of heat transfer.
1 The volume of topsoil is calculated in cubic
metres (m³). Measured resistance to heat transfer is expressed
2 Answer to include: as an R-value. The higher the R-value, the more
– The work should be completed within an agreed resistance a material provides to heat transfer.
budget and timescale.
– The design brief should be wholly fulfilled.
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Chapter 7 9 Components of a solid floor:

– compacted hardcore – provides a firm level
Short answer
base to bear the weight of the floor materials
1 Approved Document B
above
2 Gas Safe
– sand blinding – protects the polythene damp-
3 Pad foundations proof membrane (DPM)
4 50 mm – DPM – prevents rising damp and weed growth
5 Any one of the following: – concrete slab – provides most of the structural
– masonry screws/bolts integrity
– screws and plugs – insulation – prevents heat loss through the floor
– chemical fixings – screed – provides a flat, level surface (also used
– masonry nails to cover underfloor heating pipes).
– cartridge fixings. 10 Answer should include:
Long answer – increased risk of harm to workers and others
6 Off-site construction involves manufacturing – product failure
modules in factories and then transporting – premature wear
them to site where they are assembled to form – invalidation of warranty or product guarantee
major elements of a building. It offers many – minimum building standards not met therefore
benefits: unable to be signed off by building control
– Automated systems improve accuracy and – breaches of health and safety legislation.
quality control. Chapter 8
– Large numbers of components can be
Short answer
manufactured quickly and efficiently with
reduced waste. 1 Numbers, measurements, words and descriptions
– By carrying out a large proportion of the 2 The ability of data systems to exchange and use
construction work in a controlled factory information
environment, the delays associated with 3 Quantity surveyors preparing costings; contractors
adverse weather conditions on site are avoided. and subcontractors preparing tenders; systems
– Up to 95 per cent of a building can be designers planning building services requirements
constructed in a factory, therefore reducing the 4 Enterprise asset management
number of trades needed on site during the 5 Some systems are dependent on different weather
assembly and final finishing of the project. conditions and must be checked over time.
– There are cost savings from mass production in
Long answer
factories.
6 When a set of data is used to describe or analyse
7 First fix is the phase of work completed after
other data, this is referred to as metadata. It speeds
the structure has been erected and before
up the analysis of information required for technical
plastering commences. Once the various trades
design processes and could inform an architect
have completed their first-fix work and the
regarding multiple intricate design elements of a
plastering/drylining is finished, second-fix work
building.
can commence. Second fixing often involves the
installation of items and equipment that could have 7 Generalisation is essentially a process of ‘pulling
easily been damaged or affected by earlier stages of back’ from the mass of raw data to gain a broader,
construction work. more general view and reduce the extent of analysis
required. It avoids the need to process large
8 Benefits of autonomous vehicles include:
volumes of complex data, which could be time
– reduced costs by improving productivity and
consuming and confusing.
site progress, because they are able to operate 24
hours a day without a driver 8 BIM allows authorised users to access a range of
– fewer carbon emissions than vehicles driven important information at all stages of construction
by humans, due to less erratic movements and and beyond. It uses digitally processed information
more efficient use to analyse design elements of a building, including
– better safety and accuracy. 3D modelling.

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 Answers

Using BIM, complex design ideas can be Chapter 9

transformed into a medium that is easier for all
Short answer
personnel to work with. It allows collaboration
1 Stakeholder
between every designer, engineer and contractor
2 To ensure a good company reputation and increase
working on a project, providing comprehensive
the chances of repeat business
information about different workflows.
3 Equality Act 2010
The Common Data Environment (CDE) is a single
4 Company handbook/policy
central source of information used within a BIM
5 Workplace pension scheme
system. Relevant documents and data are brought
together in a shared digital environment that can be Long answer
accessed by all authorised personnel collaborating 6 Answer to include the following:
on the project. – Distributive negotiation is used to haggle over
9 When a building is handed over from the contractor a common single interest at stake, known as a
to the client for occupation and brought into fixed sum. A fixed sum is best described as
use, data can be harvested to answer important a pie that parties are battling over for a bigger
questions, such as: slice, with exchange offers back and forth.
– How successful was the delivery of the project – The win–lose approach is probably the most
by the contractor? common negotiation method used to settle
– Was the project delivered and handed over on disputes between two parties. An agreement is
time – if not, why not? more difficult to reach, because one side has to
– Does the building meet its design brief fully now compromise in order for the other to experience
it is in use? a positive outcome.
– What changes could be made to improve – The lose–lose approach – following negotiations,
performance? all concerned parties end up worse off and not
This data can be useful to contractors who build achieving their desired result. All participants
repeat structures or specialise in specific project should try to minimise their losses and to make
types. sure they are fair.
10 When calculating outcomes, data can be used to – The compromise approach is used to settle
analyse past or current activities to model what disputes quickly by one party settling for less than
could happen in the future. An example might it may have hoped for, in order to reduce strained
be calculating the outcome of using timber of negotiations and maintain or fix a relationship.
specific dimensions to produce a load-bearing – Integrative negotiation is used by parties with
element of a building, such as a suspended common interests, in order to collaborate in
floor. Consistent data has been recorded over finding a mutually beneficial solution.
many years which can be applied to producing – The win–win approach – negotiators with
reliable structural calculations, ensuring that shared interests work together to find
the proposed design is safe and capable of resolutions they are both satisfied with, rather
bearing the required loads. Other examples of than seeking to fulfil self-interests. This avoids
data might be performance charts for heating disagreements and helps to maintain strong
systems. relationships between parties, while achieving a
fair outcome for both sides.
Cost calculations draw on data that is collated,
7 An example of unethical behaviour in a business:
analysed, modelled and interpreted by the
during the development of a new construction
Building Cost Information Service (BCIS) of the
site, a contractor wilfully damages protected trees
Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS).
(TPO – Tree Preservation Order) with a digger and
All sizes of construction company depend on
contaminates a local stream with harmful construction
accurate data to produce costings that will result
waste. The polluted watercourse damages the natural
in profitability for the contractor and a fair price for
environment of fish and other animals.
the client.

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8 Networking is a low-cost process used by many Building design ideas created using specialist
organisations to make initial introductions with software can be presented as a three-dimensional
likeminded people, share information and form (3D) model, allowing stakeholders to examine and
long-lasting business relationships. refine the design concept.
9 Arbitration may be used as a conflict-management Digital tools are able to generate accurate materials
technique in the workplace, if an employee feels and components lists from 3D models or 2D
they have been unfairly dismissed from their job. drawings. These can be linked digitally to materials
This process would involve the appointment of costs databases, in order to produce an up-to-date
an unbiased conciliator to meet with both parties costing for a project.
separately and together, to weigh up both sides
of an argument. They will then make a proposal Speeding up the process of designing and costing a
based on the relative merits of each side, to find project, coupled with the ability to update or amend
an amicable solution to the matter and bring it to a project details quickly, streamlines development
close as quickly as possible. and improves productivity.
10 Strengths of non-verbal communication: Since CAD drawings are produced digitally, they
– It can be referred back to. can easily be stored, retrieved, shared and copied.
– There is a permanent record of the 9 Equipment and machinery can be fitted with digital
communication. sensor technology to operate as part of the IoT. The
– The same information can be distributed easily range of movement and operational area of excavators
without diluting it. and other machines can be controlled automatically,
– The sender does not have to meet the recipient and programming can be updated to match new
to pass on the information. instructions from remote control locations.
– It can be used to communicate if the recipient 10 Simulation is used to create a two- or three-
has a hearing impairment. dimensional model, which can provide technical
data on structural and systems performance.
Chapter 10
Animation provides an engaging and lifelike view
Short answer of a building, allowing a viewer to travel through a
1 Machine to machine structure to assess the various elements visually.
2 By monitoring energy use and matching it to demand
3 Any two of the following: Chapter 11
– improvements in manufacturing efficiency Short answer
– improvements in safety 1 Franchise
– streamlining of materials delivery and supply- 2 A financial year
chain activity. 3 Networking
4 Light detection and ranging (LIDAR) 4 Benchmarking
5 For performing repetitive tasks, such as 5 Objectives
construction of building modules, and tasks that
might be hazardous to operatives Long answer
6 Business types include:
Long answer
– sole traders – must be registered with HMRC
6 AI uses methods of analysis that identify patterns as a sole trader. As a proprietor, they have full
and correlations, in order to draw appropriate control of their entire business or enterprise,
conclusions more quickly than humans are able to. although they could employ other people to
7 Future AI systems may be able to sense in real time work for them. A sole trader is responsible for
whether a building’s occupants are tired, too hot the day-to-day management of their company,
or too cold, and automatically make adjustments including filing self-assessment tax returns
to heating and ventilation to enhance comfort and with HMRC and paying National Insurance
wellbeing. contributions. Sole traders are personally liable
8 Digital CAD systems can speed up the design for any losses or debts that the company may
process considerably, leading to greater productivity. incur if things go wrong.

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 Answers

– partnerships – are owned by two or more being unable to obtain any type of credit such as
individuals. Partners share the costs, duties and a mortgage, credit card or finance on a vehicle
risks of managing a business together, although because they are deemed to be a high risk.
they may delegate certain responsibilities. Each 8 The main goal of the ISO is to facilitate trade. It
partner is personally responsible for paying tax offers solutions to global challenges and supports
and National Insurance contributions, based innovation by providing guidelines to streamline
on their share of the profits. There are three processes and improve quality and safety across a
different types of business partnership: ordinary range of businesses and products.
partnership, limited partnership and limited 9 The purpose of an organisation’s corporate social
liability partnership (LLP). responsibilities (CSR) is to actively make a positive
– limited companies – private (Ltd) or public contribution to the community and wider society,
(PLC) – must be registered with HMRC and and to minimise any negative impacts caused by their
Companies House and file tax returns. The business. Having a CSR strategy integrated into its
owners and shareholders have limited liability, values also affects how stakeholders (such as clients
so their personal assets are protected against and investors) view an organisation and whether or
any business debts up to the value of the money not they decide to work with or support it.
that they have invested. In a PLC, money can 10 Areas that can be measured in terms of a value
be raised for the business through investors (for are known as key performance indicators (KPIs).
example the public) buying shares on the stock Measuring business performance against KPIs helps
exchange. to establish if objectives have been met or whether
– small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) – in new strategic targets need to be planned. If a
the UK, small and medium-sized enterprises business is not honest with the findings of KPIs, fails
(SMEs) are defined as follows: to learn from its mistakes and starts the cycle again,
– Small – employs on average no more than 50 then the process of benchmarking is pointless.
people and has an annual turnover of £10.2
million or less Chapter 12
– Medium-sized – employs on average no more Short answer
than 250 people and has an annual turnover
1 Any three of the following:
of £36 million or less
– socket outlets for appliances with a 3 A or 13 A
– not-for-profit organisations– are charitable
three-pin plug
businesses that do not make a financial profit.
– fixed appliances, such as cookers, showers and
They often seek to provide a public service or
immersion heaters
social benefits for individuals or communities in
– lighting systems
need.
– protection services, such as intruder alarms,
– community interest companies (CICs) – aim to
surveillance systems, fire alarms and access
provide a benefit for the community or trade
controls
with a social purpose. Returns to the company
– refrigeration and ventilation systems
owners and investors are allowed, as long
– telecommunication systems, such as telephones,
as they are balanced and reasonable, and a
internet, home entertainment and connections
dividend cap must be in place.
for other BSE systems
– franchises – allow a business to expand
– heating systems, such as gas boilers, electrical
quickly with lower capital outlay by selling the
wall heaters and fan convectors.
rights to the business model to self-employed
2 Direct, indirect and boosted
entrepreneurs, referred to as ‘franchisees’.
3 Any three of the following:
7 A sole trader is personally liable for any losses or
– a circulation fan (fan coil unit) – moves air to
debts that the company may incur if things go
and from rooms
wrong. Creditors can legally recover any money
– an air-conditioning unit – uses cooling and
owed by the debtor from their business or their
dehumidification processes in summer or
personal assets such as their house. If the debt is
heating and humidification processes in winter
considerable and the individual is unable to pay,
– supply ducts – direct conditioned air from the
they could be made personally bankrupt. This
circulating fan to the space to be air-conditioned
could result in further difficulties, for example

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– an air diffuser – distributes the conditioned air 5 During the vapour-compression refrigeration
evenly in the room cycle, the refrigerant vapour enters a compressor,
– return air grilles – allow air to enter the return which compresses it, generating heat. The
duct compressed vapour then enters a condenser,
– filters – remove dust and bacteria from the air. where the useful heat is removed and the
4 Any three of the following: vapour condenses to a liquid refrigerant. The
– isolation valves – to turn off (isolate) complete liquid refrigerant passes from the condenser
systems, parts of a system or appliances into an expansion valve, where rapid expansion
– drain valves – to drain down systems takes place, converting the warm liquid into a
– stop taps – to isolate high-pressure cold-water super-cold vapour/liquid mix, which creates the
systems refrigeration effect. The vapour/liquid mix passes
– gate valves – used on low-pressure installations, through an evaporator, where final expansion to
such as the cold feed to vented hot-water storage a vapour takes place. This vapour then enters the
cylinders and the cold-distribution pipework for compressor for the cycle to begin again.
indirect cold-water systems Long answer
– spherical plug valves – to isolate appliances and
6 A heat pump warms or cools a building by moving
terminal fittings such as taps and float-operated
heat from a low-temperature reservoir to another
valves
reservoir at a higher temperature. Its working
– drain-off valves – small valves strategically
principles are the same as for a refrigerator, which
placed at low points in pipework installations to
creates heat while making the refrigerator cold.
allow draining down of the system
– float-operated valves – to control the flow of The process is known as the vapour-compression
water into cold-water storage and feed cisterns, refrigeration cycle and involves compressing a gas
feed and expansion cisterns, and WC cisterns; (called the refrigerant) with a compressor until it
designed to close when the water reaches a pre- becomes a liquid. This generates useful heat that
set level can be used to warm a building. When the pressure
– radiator valves – to control the temperature and is released through an expansion valve, very cold
flow through a radiator temperatures are generated, which can be used for
– thermostatic radiator valves (TRVs) – to control cooling a building.
the temperature of a room by regulating the flow 7 Fire alarm systems provide early detection and
of water through a radiator warning of a fire. They usually consist of a control
– wheel-head valves – to allow manual control of a panel linked to fire detectors and manual call points
radiator by being turned on or off (often referred to as detection zones) and alarm
– lockshield valves – to regulate the flow of water circuits.
through a radiator; designed to be adjusted – Category M systems rely on manual operation
during system balancing by the people using the building. The usual
– automatic air valves – to allow collected air to method of raising the alarm is to break the glass
escape from a system but seal themselves when on a manual call point.
water arrives at the valve; fitted where air is – Category L systems provide automatic fire
expected to collect in a system, usually at high detection (AFD) and are designed primarily
points to protect life. This category is subdivided,
– anti-gravity valves – to prevent unwanted gravity according to the areas of the building that
circulation within heating and hot-water systems require the installation of AFD.
– pressure-relief valves – to protect against over- – Category P systems provide AFD and are
pressurisation of water in a range of systems designed primarily to protect property. This
– emergency control valves (ECVs) – to allow category is subdivided, with P1 requiring AFD
the gas user to shut off the supply of gas in the in all areas of the building and P2 requiring
event of an escape; found on the service pipe AFD only in specific parts of the building.
connecting a gas meter to the gas mains.

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 Answers

8 Rainwater systems collect and carry away rain from Long answer
roofs using either integrated channels or eaves- 6 Unvented hot-water system: inspection of line
mounted gutters connected to rainwater pipes. strainer, pressure-reducing valve, pressure-relief
The water is discharged into surface-water drains, valve, temperature/pressure relief, high limit stat
combined sewers, soakaways or watercourses such and expansion vessel
as streams and rivers.
Drainage system: visually inspect pipes for damage,
The purpose of a rainwater system is to: check all traps for correct seal levels, perform an
– protect the foundations of the building air test of the stack system (as per Part H of the
– reduce ground erosion Building Regulations), carry out a performance
– prevent damp and water penetration of the test of the system (as per Part H of the Building
building. Regulations)
These systems can also be used as part of a Domestic wiring system: visual inspection of wiring
rainwater-harvesting system. and components for damage, testing of consumer
9 Secondary circulation prevents the wastage of water unit residual current device (RCD), testing of the
due to excessive lengths of hot-water draw-off miniature circuit breaker (MCB), carrying out
from the storage vessel to the outlet. It is a method portable appliance testing (PAT), carrying out a
of returning the hot-water draw-off back to the polarity test, insulation resistance test and earth
storage cylinder in a continuous loop, to eliminate loop impedance test
cold-water ‘dead legs’ by reducing the distance the 7 The maintenance plan should include:
hot water must travel before it arrives at the taps. In – Visually inspect all components.
all installations, secondary circulation incorporates – Clean passive infrared (PIR) sensor.
a bronze- or stainless-steel-bodied circulating – Check all cameras.
pump to circulate the water to and from the storage – Clean lenses.
cylinder. – Check correct focus.
10 Central-heating systems distribute warmth – Check alarm bell or siren is triggering and
throughout the whole or part of a building from audible.
a single heat source (the boiler), for the thermal – Check hard drives for recording capability.
comfort of the occupants. Boilers can be fuelled by – Check functionality of key pads/touch pads.
coal, gas, oil or electricity; they transfer their heat – Check emergency lighting.
energy to another medium, usually water or air, – Check outside alarm box.
which carries the heat to the areas where it is needed. – Check for autodial to keyholder/security
company/police.
Chapter 13 8 This will vary according to the manufacturer’s
Short answer instructions.
1 Planned preventative maintenance (PPM) is
Commercial fire alarms need to be inspected and
scheduled to take place at a particular time, for
maintained by a professional every six months, as
example monthly or annually. It is designed to
per BS 5839.
prevent breakdowns and improve efficiency.
9 A job sheet should include the:
Reactive maintenance is unplanned and carried
– client’s name
out when a system (or part of a system) fails.
– site location
2 A refrigeration or air-conditioning system
– date and time
3 One year – priority of the task
4 Servicing logbook – work to be carried out.
5 When a system is out of action while maintenance/
servicing is completed

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

10 The potential implications will vary, according to – A tag or label should be attached to the item,
whether the offline electrical systems are isolated to stating the nature of the problem. This ensures
one building or area, or affect the whole business. any other operatives who might use the tool are
If the maintenance is completed out of hours, for aware of the problem.
example at night or over the weekend, there will be – The item should be kept in a secure location.
less inconvenience. This will prevent inadvertent use.
– The item should be repaired or replaced as soon
Total closure of a building, particularly for a
as possible.
business that relies heavily on communications and
data systems, could lead to a loss of both existing 7 The operative completing the check/inspection has
income and potential new business. accountability to the user of the tool or equipment,
by confirming that the item is safe to use and
Some businesses might have contingency plans that should operate as expected.
allow their staff to work from home, however again 8 Operatives should be familiar with manufacturers’
this might have huge financial implications due to instructions, so that tools and equipment are used
equipment compatibility and GDPR compliance. correctly and developing problems are quickly
It is essential that all data is backed up before recognised and dealt with.
systems are taken offline, as there is the potential 9 This means that there are legal requirements to
to lose data when systems have downtime for ensure the right materials and components are
maintenance. used for a job. Ignoring the specification could
have consequences related to the safe condition or
Chapter 14 operation of the completed work, its durability or its
Short answer appearance.
1 Portable appliance testing 10 Calculating accurate quantities of materials and
2 Specialist companies or the manufacturer components for a project is important for efficiency
3 To detect flaws and porous areas in protective and productivity. It:
coatings applied to metal surfaces – ensures the right amounts are delivered to site
4 Bring it to the attention of your supervisor or line – avoids shortages, which can cause production
manager to get advice delays
5 Any two of the following: – avoids surpluses, which can cause waste and a
– burns and electric shock, which depending on negative impact on the environment
the voltage can kill you – helps keep a project within budget.
– faults in equipment or wiring, which can cause
a fire
– electrical sparks from faulty equipment, which
can cause flammable gas to explode.
Long answer
6 If defects are discovered in tools or equipment
during inspection or use:
– The item should be removed from use
immediately and the relevant supervisor
should be informed. This prevents injury to
operatives.

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 Glossary

Glossary
Accident book: a formal document used to record details designed to take an impact from an object falling from
of accidents that occur in the workplace, whether to an height
employee or visitor
Burner: an integral part of a boiler where combustion
Active monitoring: monitoring people, procedures, takes place
premises and plant in the workplace in order to identify
Bushes: (in machinery) plain bearings or sleeves that
potential hazards before an accident or incident occurs, so
reduce friction
that control measures can be taken to prevent harm
Business model: a plan usually created by a business
Alternator: an electrical generator that converts
owner which describes the strategy or framework that
mechanical energy into electrical energy
an organisation will use to operate and includes the
Ambiguous: unclear and difficult to understand identification of products/services, revenue sources and
customer base
Appraisals: scheduled routine meetings between an
employee and their employer to review their work Business plan: a written document that defines a
performance against their job description business’ goals and the strategies and timeframes to
achieve them
Arson: the criminal act of deliberately setting fire to
property Calibration: comparison of a measurement device
against a traceable reference
Autonomous vehicles: vehicles able to operate without
human intervention Capital: the amount of funds or liquid assets owned by a
business
Backflow: the movement of liquid in the opposite
direction to its regular flow; this can lead to Carbon: a chemical element that can be released into the
contamination of potable water supplies and create a atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned
serious health risk
Cat 5/6 data cable: twisted pair cable used for ethernet
Basements: habitable rooms or spaces constructed below connection
ground level
Catenary wires: strong wires which are tied at each end
Benchmarking: measuring an organisation’s internal and used to support other objects, such as cables which
and external performance against pre-determined may stretch or break under their own weight when hung
industry standards, competitors or completed projects between two buildings
Bilingual: fluent in two languages Cavity walls: external, load-bearing, structural walls
consisting of two individual leaves (skins) of masonry
Bimetallic strip: a temperature-sensitive component
with a gap (cavity) between them
comprising two different metals bound together; when
heated, each metal expands at a different rate, causing the CCTV: closed-circuit television, also known as video
strip to bend and activate a switch surveillance, is the use of video cameras to transmit a
signal to a specific place, on a limited set of monitors
Biometric: involving the detection and analysis of
individuals’ unique physical characteristics as a means of CE marking: a mark on a product that identifies it
verifying identity has been designed and manufactured to meet EU
safety, health or environmental requirements; CE is an
Bonded: the arrangement of staggered joints
abbreviation of a French term ‘conformité européenne’,
Building Information Modelling (BIM): the use of meaning ‘European conformity’
digital technology to share construction documentation
Chases: cuts in a masonry or plaster wall to conceal pipes
and provide a platform for collaboration
or cables; once fitted, they are covered with plaster or
Built to square: where all the corners of a square or similar
rectangular building are accurately set at 90°
Chemically inert: will not react with chemicals
Bump caps: a type of PPE designed to protect the user’s
Chronic: continuing for a long time
head when there is a low risk of bumping it; it is not
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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

Civil engineering: a profession involving the design, running of its activities; the business is a legal entity and
construction and maintenance of infrastructure that the shareholders have no personal liability for its actions
supports human activities, for example roads, bridges, and finances
airports and railways
Credential: something used to recognise and validate a
Climate change: a large-scale, long-term change in the person
Earth’s weather patterns and average temperatures
Credit agreement: a legal contract made between a
Cob: a blend of subsoil (clay or earth), sand and straw person or party borrowing money and a lender; it states
mixed with water to make an organic material historically the terms and conditions of the acceptance of credit,
used to construct walls for homes and agricultural including how the debt will be repaid
buildings in Devon, Cornwall and Wales
Creditors: individuals or organisations that are owed
Collaborative: involving people or groups of people money because they have provided goods, services or
working together with a single common interest or aim a monetary loan; HMRC would also be described as a
creditor where a tax duty is owed
Commercial: relating to buying and selling
Crosstalk: interference between telecommunication
Commissioning: the process of ensuring that a building
signals
system is performing or working as it has been designed
Data interoperability: the ability of data systems to
Common law: legislation made in the civil courts rather
exchange and use information
than statute law that is made in Parliament
Datum: a fixed point or height from which reference
Common rafters: rafters that run from a ridge board to
levels can be taken
the wall plate at 90 degrees on plan
Defamation: the act of damaging someone’s good
Companies House: a government body that registers and
reputation through a false written or verbal statement,
stores information on all the limited companies in the UK
also known as libel (written) or slander (spoken)
and makes it available to the public
Demographic data: statistical data about a population in
Composite cable: multi-core cable, in which the cores
a particular location or region
are surrounded by a sheath that provides mechanical
protection Department for Business, Energy and Industrial
Strategy (BEIS): the department of the UK government
Computer-aided design (CAD): using computer
responsible for the UK’s business, energy and industrial
software to develop designs for buildings and structures
strategy
Concessions: something granted in response to a
Design brief: a working document which specifies what
demand
a client wants; it makes clear all the design requirements
Conductors: materials that have atoms less densely of a project
packed together and allow electron flow
Digital: in electronic form
Conduit: a tube used for protecting electric wiring
Dissipated: energy consumed by converting to heat
Consumer unit: a component in an electrical system energy
which contains the main switch, isolation for circuits and
District network operator (DNO): a company licensed
circuit protection devices
to distribute electricity
Contingency: provision for an unforeseen circumstance;
Draw-off water: water discharge from a terminal fitting
financial contingencies are often considered when
such as a tap
planning for a construction project
Duty holders: people with a legal responsibility under
Conventions: agreed, consistent standards and rules
health and safety law
Corporate social responsibility: the commitment of
Dynamic: characterised by frequent change or motion
an organisation to carry out its business activities in a
socially and environmentally responsible way Eaves: the part of a roof that overhangs the internal skin
of the external walls
Corporation: a business owned by its shareholders, who
often appoint a board of directors to manage the day-to-day

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 Glossary

Ecological balance: where living organisms, such as Grey water: water that has not been purified for the
plants, animals and humans, co-exist in a sustainable purpose of drinking, for example recycled water from a sink
environment
Grievance: a feeling of having been treated unfairly
Economic downturn: when the economy has stopped
Gypsum: a natural mineral, often used in building
growing and is on the decline, resulting in reduced
products such as plaster and plasterboard
financial turnover
Haggle: to negotiate for the best terms of an agreement
Efficiency: the ratio of output power compared to input
or financial arrangement
power expressed as a percentage
Heat: does not, in BSE terms, mean hot, it simply means
Effluent: liquid waste or wastewater
heat energy, which can be hot or cold
Egress: an exit or way out
Human resources department: department of an
Elevation: a view of the front, back or sides of a building organisation that deals with recruiting, administrating
and training staff
Encasing services: creating a framework of materials to
cover pipes, cables and other services in a building; also Immersion heater: an electrical element that sits
referred to as boxing-in in a body of water; when switched on, the electrical
current causes it to heat up, which in turn heats up the
Encryption: the process of converting data or
surrounding water
information into a code to prevent unauthorised access
Immersive: creating a 3D image which appears to
Environmental activists: people who campaign for the
surround the viewer
protection of the natural environment
Incorporated: legally registered as a limited company
Equality: a state where all members of a society or group
have the same status, rights and opportunities Infrastructure: the basic systems and services required
for the proper functioning of society
Ethics: moral values that govern a person’s behaviour
towards others Insudite insulation: a type of fire- and heat-proof insulation
Feasibility: how easy or difficult it is to do something Joules: the unit of measurement for energy. Where energy
is expressed as mechanical energy, it is known as work
Ferrous metal: a metal that contains iron and is magnetic
Kinetic energy: energy derived from motion
Firewall: a protective software program or hardware
device that monitors, filters and may block data entering Kinetic lifting: the act of manual handling
and leaving a network
Liable: legally responsible
First fix: a phase of construction work completed before
Life cycle assessment: assessing the total environmental
plastering
impact of a building, considering all stages of the life of
Fulcrum: the pivot point of a lever the products and processes used during its construction
Gas Safe: a professional organisation that controls the Limited partner: a part-owner of a business whose
health and safety of work completed on gas systems in financial liabilities cannot exceed their investment
the UK
Linear measurement: the distance between two given
Generalisation: (in data processing) creating layers of points along a line
summarised information from mass data
Local Authority Building Control: local authority
Geofencing: using technology to pinpoint the location of department responsible for inspecting building work
equipment and create a virtual boundary against building regulations and signing-off completed
projects
Geometric: consisting of defined angles, patterns and
shapes Lone workers: those who work by themselves without
close or direct supervision of their employer or work
Geotechnical engineering: a field of civil engineering
colleagues; they may work in a remote location or in a
that deals with the behaviour of earth materials such as
workplace with members of the public
soil and rock
Low-carbon steel: a ferrous metal used for pipework
Graining: a method used by decorators to create
applications; also known as mild steel
woodgrain effects on different surfaces

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Low-emissivity (low-E) glass: a type of thermally Passivhaus: (‘Passive house’ in English) an energy
efficient glass that is covered with a microscopic coating performance standard intended primarily for new
on its surface to minimise the amount of infrared and buildings, which ensures that buildings are so well
ultraviolet light that can pass through it to keep a building constructed, insulated and ventilated that they require
warm in the winter and cool in the summer little energy for heating or cooling
Low-rise buildings: buildings with up to four storeys Peltier effect: when the passage of a direct electric
current through the junction of two dissimilar conducting
Luminaires: complete electric lighting units, including
materials causes the junction to absorb or reject heat
the casing, lamp and any internal controlling devices or
electronic equipment (known as control gear or drivers) Philosophy: values and beliefs that act as guiding
principles for behaviour
Macerators: plumbing components used to convert waste
from a toilet, shower or washbasin into a fine slurry that Plant operators: people in control of heavy construction
can be pumped into the sewage line; they are used where machinery and equipment
access to gravity drainage is not available
Porosity: the measure of a substance’s ability to hold
Malware: software that is specifically designed to water or allow water to pass through it
disrupt, damage or gain unauthorised access to a
Portal frame: a large structural frame made from
computer system
load-bearing timber and steel beams and columns
Market share: the percentage of total sales or output that
Potential difference: the difference in voltage from one
a business has in a specified market; sometimes referred
terminal to another
to as market leadership
Pre-cast: formed into a shape in a factory before being
Metric units: decimal units of measurement based on the
delivered for use on site
metre and the kilogram
Prefabs: buildings manufactured using factory-made
Minerals: a solid, naturally occurring, inorganic
components or units that are transported and assembled
substance
on site
Miniature circuit breaker (MCB): a small trip switch
Preliminaries: pre-construction information that
operated by an overload, used to protect individual
outlines items that are necessary for a contractor to
electrical circuits
complete the works but are not actually part of the works,
Mobile bowsers: a wheeled trailer fitted with a tank for for example general plant, welfare facilities and site
carrying oil security
Networking: an activity where businesses and people Pre-stressed concrete: a type of concrete that has been
with a common interest meet to share information and compressed during production to improve its strength;
develop contacts this is normally achieved by ‘tensioning’ (stretching)
high-tensile steel wires in the concrete
Ohm’s law: a law that states the relationship between
current, voltage and resistance in an electrical circuit Prime cost: the actual value of goods and services
without any additional costs added, for example profits
Open circuit: an electrical circuit that is not complete so
margins
current does not flow
Principal designer: a designer appointed by the client to
Overheads: regular repeated costs associated with the
take the lead in planning, managing, monitoring and
day-to-day running of a business, for example rent and
co-ordinating health and safety during the pre-construction
insurances
phase of a project involving more than one designer
Parameters: limits which define the scope of a system,
Procurement: the process of agreeing business terms and
process or activity
acquiring goods, products or services from suppliers
Partnership agreement: a legally binding contract that sets
Proofread: to check a piece of written communication
out terms and conditions for each partner in the business
for errors such as spelling, grammar, punctuation and
Passive infrared (PIR) sensor: an electronic sensor that accuracy before it is shared or published
measures infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in its
Proprietor: an individual who owns a business
field of view

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 Glossary

Public-sector projects: projects funded by the Risk management: the process of identifying, assessing
government and controlling threats to an organisation; this might
involve making a strategic plan or putting a system in
Ratio: the amount or proportion of one thing compared
place to minimise impact and disruption
to another
Rotary-screw compressor: compressor that uses two
Reasonably practicable: a term used in health and safety
closely meshing helical screws, known as rotors, to
law to describe realistic steps that should be taken to
compress a gas
comply with the law in terms of time, effort and money
Sabbatical: an extended period of unpaid leave from
Rebar: reinforced steel bar commonly used in concrete to
work, taken in agreement with an employer, often used
act as a frame to stop it moving and cracking
for holidays, travelling or pursuing interests
Rebate: a profile often used in timber products like doors
Safety data sheets: written documents produced by
and windows
manufactures and suppliers of hazardous substances
Refrigerant: a working fluid used in the refrigeration that contain important information about how products
cycle of air conditioning systems and heat pumps should be transported, used, stored and safely disposed
Render: a pre-mixed layer of sand and cement, similar of after use, any special conditions you should be aware of
to mortar, used to make masonry walls flat and prepare and how to deal with the substance in an emergency
them for top coats of finishing plaster Schematics: a diagram representing the elements of a
Renewable energy: energy that comes from natural system using graphic symbols
sources or processes that are replenished or replaced, such Self-employed: the state of working for oneself rather
as water, sun and wind than an employer; a self-employed person is responsible
Renewable resources: resources that can be replaced for paying their own tax and National Insurance
over time by natural processes, for example wind energy contributions on any earnings
or solar energy Semi-gravity system: a central-heating system that
Repository: a central location where something can be has pumped heating circulation but gravity hot-water
stored circulation

Resistance: the measure of how well a material conducts Sentry: a person who supervises workers from the access/
electricity in ohms (Ω); the lower the value of ohms, the egress points of a confined space
better it conducts Shadow flicker: when the rotating blades of a wind
Respiratory protective equipment (RPE): personal turbine create moving shadows
protective equipment that protects the user’s respiratory Shareholders: investors in a company who have
system purchased at least one share of a company’s stock
Responsible person: (in law) usually the employer Site induction: an occasion when all new visitors and
(assuming control of the workplace), a person with workers on a construction site are informed about
control of the premises or an owner; that person can potential hazards and the control measures used to
then nominate other competent people to perform legal protect people from harm
responsibilities, for example to manage fire safety
Smart technology: computers, smartphones and tablets
Retrofit: the process of adding new components to older with software that connects to the internet in order
structures to control, report, monitor and analyse devices and
Retrofitting: the process of adding new features and appliances remotely
technologies to existing buildings Snagging list: a document used to record faults and
Reverse-cycle heat pumps: heat pumps that can be used defects discovered in building work or materials
for both heating and cooling Snagging: corrective work undertaken by a contractor or
Risk assessment: a formal process of identifying their subcontractors that has been identified by the client
significant workplace hazards, whom they affect and or their representative
control measures that could be used to eliminate or Soakaways: large underground holes, filled with coarse
reduce risk to an acceptable level stones or purpose-made plastic crates, which allow water
to filter through and soak into the ground

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Soil pipe: the lower, wet part of sanitation-system Tolerances: allowable variations between specified
pipework that takes effluent away from a building measurements and actual measurements
Special order: an order for items or components that are Toolbox talks: short training sessions arranged at regular
custom made or configured to a client’s specifications intervals at a place of work to discuss health and safety
issues; they give safety reminders and inform personnel
Specification: a detailed description of the materials and
about new hazards that may have recently arisen
working methods that must be used for a project
Top-down: proceeding from the most senior to the least
Spring tides: exceptionally high tides that occur twice
senior
monthly at the time of the new moon and the full moon,
when the moon’s orbit aligns with the sun to create a Transformers: devices that convert voltages and current,
greater gravitational pull; they are known as spring tides proportionately, to different values
because they act like a spring
Turbine: a machine that uses a moving stream of air,
State pension: a regular sum of money paid by the state water, steam or hot gas to turn a wheel and generate power
to people of or above official retirement age
Visualisations: digital or virtual representations of a
Statutory sick pay: payment made by employers to structure
employees when they are too ill to work
VoIP: voice over internet protocol, technology used to
Storage heater: an electric heater that stores thermal deliver voice and multimedia via an internet connection
energy; it heats up internal ceramic bricks when electricity
Voltage drop: the decrease of electrical potential along
is cheaper at night and then releases heat gradually during
the path of a current flowing in an electrical circuit
the day, acting in the same way as a convection heater
Warranty: a guarantee from a manufacturer or seller
Stress-graded: timber that has been visually or machine-
that a product will be repaired or replaced within a
assessed for its strength and stiffness, and certified
certain period of time if it does not function as originally
according to its structural classification to British
described or intended
Standard rules
Water hammer: a knocking sound in water pipes caused
Subsidence: the sinking of a structure into the ground
by fast-flowing water being stopped abruptly when
Substation: equipment that transforms voltage to a terminal fittings are closed off
suitable level for consumers
Water table: the level below which the ground is
Sulphate: a salt of sulphuric acid saturated with water; this level can rise with rainfall and
fall with periods of dry weather
Surface water: water that collects on the ground or above
surface structures and buildings, normally in the form of Water and sewerage undertakers: suppliers of
rain wholesome water and sewerage services to properties
Temporary decommissioning: the process of taking Watt: SI unit of power
a system out of action temporarily for maintenance or
Weirs: low dams across a river, which increase the force
upgrades
of the water as it flows over the top; sections of a weir can
Tendering: the process of inviting bids from contractors be raised or lowered to regulate the force of the water
to carry out specific projects
Whistleblowing: the act of reporting information about
Terminal: a connection point to an external circuit wrongdoing
Testimonials: statements of recommendation produced Wholesome water: water that is fit to use for drinking,
by satisfied customers or clients that confirm the quality cooking, food preparation or washing without danger to
of a product or service human health
Thermal: related to heat or temperature Wind turbines: a vaned wheel that is rotated by wind to
generate electricity
Thermal comfort: a person’s satisfaction with the
thermal environment (whether they feel too hot, too cold Workers: people who do not have a permanent contract
or just right) of employment with an employer but are contracted for
work or services
Third-party verification: the process of getting an
independent party to confirm that the project meets Workflow: a sequence of activities needed to complete a
standards work task

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 Index

Index
A B building management system (BMS)
177
acceleration 49, 55–7 backflow 316 Building Regulations 2010 71, 89–90,
access control systems 335 basements 202 152–3, 291
access equipment 37–41 batch costing 185 Building Research Establishment (BRE)
accessibility 220 battered walls 202 147
accident book 23–4 beams 72 Building Research Establishment
accidents 2, 16, 23–4, 219 bedrock 82–3 Environmental Assessment Method
acoustics principles 80–2 benchmarking 298–9, 371 (BREEAM) 147, 155
active monitoring 16–17 bending (force) 71–2 Building Research Establishment’s
activity costing 185 bidding process 121–3 Home Quality Mark (HQM) 291
acute toxicity signage 35 bill of quantities 123, 141–2 Building Services Engineers
Addison Act 1919 197 bimetallic strip 54 Association (BESA) 222
affordable housing 91, 116 biofuel 62 bump caps 30
aggregate 53, 155, 225 biomass energy 163 business objectives 288–92
air biomass heating systems 78, 167–8 business plan 288
characteristics of 75–6 biometrics 270–1, 335 business strategies 135
quality 148 block plan 191
see also ventilation blockwork 97, 225 C
air-conditioning systems 75, 302–3, boilers
369 working principles 340–3 cable basket 352
air source heat pumps 167 see also heating systems; hot water cables 345–6, 357
alloys 52 systems calibration 377–8
aluminium 51, 54, 66 bonds 226 calories 58
ammeter 70 boosted cold water systems 316–17 capital 296–7
animation 276 boreholes 95, 105, 313 carbon dioxide 44, 78, 167, 189
apex 207 boundaries 218 carbon emissions 4, 89–90, 117, 165
appraisals 261 bricklayers 129 carbonic acid 84
apprenticeships 262 bricks carbon monoxide 44
Approved Codes of Practice (ACOPs) bonds 226 carpenters 128
6–8 parts of 212 Carriage of Dangerous Goods and Use
Approved Documents 96, 218–20 recycling 161 of Transportable Pressure Equipment
arbitration 256 brickwork 97, 225 Regulations 2009 37
Archimedes’ principle of displacement failures in 92 catenary wires 51, 52
60 see also walls cavity wall insulation 176
architects 101, 118, 124 bridging 212 cavity walls 129, 176, 211–13
area, measuring 49 British Standards (BS) 192, 221, 225, CCTV (closed-circuit television) 305,
argon gas 217–18 243 334
arson 25–6 British Standards Institute (BSI) 221 CDM Regulations see Construction
Art Deco style 197 brownfield sites 87–8, 94, 95 (Design and Management) (CDM)
artificial intelligence (AI) 157, 270–3 BTU (British Thermal Unit) 58 Regulations 2015
asbestos 2–3, 4 buildability 99 CE marking 31–2
Association of Plumbing and Heating building control officers (BCOs) 102, cement 53, 128, 151, 225, 387
Contractors (APHC) 222 107–8, 118 central heating systems see heating
atmospheric pressure 50 Building Cost Information Service systems
augmented reality (AR) 134, 278 (BCIS) 239 centralised hot water systems 318–23
autonomous decision making 271 Building Information Modelling (BIM) centre of gravity 59
autonomous vehicles 200–1 103, 108, 110, 118, 124, 133–5, 190, centrifugal fans 339
axial fans 339 232, 236–7, 249, 277 ceramics 53
building line 106 certification 237–8

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changing rooms 5 conciliation 256 convection 74

Chartered Institute of Building concrete 53, 55, 150, 217, 225, 226 convection heaters 77
Services Engineers (CIBSE) 222 failures in 92 copper 51, 66
Chartered Institute of Plumbing and condensation 75 corporate social responsibility (CSR)
Heating Engineers (CIPHE) 222 condensing boilers 307 94–5, 294–5
chasing 73 condition reports 372 corporations 115
chillers 343–4 conduction 75 corporation tax 284
chimneys 75 conductors 65–6 corrosive signage 35
circuit breakers 70–1, 358 conduit 350–1 corrugated stainless-steel tubing
circuit diagrams 243–4, 304–5 confidentiality 241 (CSST) 360
circuit protective devices 70 confined spaces 44–5 costing techniques 184–5, 193, 239
circuits see electrical circuit principles see also excavations credit agreements 141
civil engineering 113 Confined Spaces Regulations 1997 4, creditors 284
civil engineers 125 45 critical path analysis 109
cladding 225–6 conflict 256 crosstalk 305
Classification, Labelling and Packaging conservation 156 customers 118
(CLP) Regulation 2010 34–5 see also energy conservation customer service 250, 292
Clean Air Act 1993 151 Construction (Design and
cleaning equipment 380–1 Management) (CDM) Regulations D
clerk of works 118, 127 2015 5, 7, 15, 25, 104, 124, 143
client representatives 126–7 construction drawings see drawings daily checks 379–80
climate change 61, 84, 117, 148 Construction Industry Training Board damp-proof course (DPC) 213
Climate Change Act 2008 4, 117, 148, (CITB) 14 damp-proof membrane (DPM) 215
151 construction methods 96–9, 149–51, data
coal 61 196–9 analysis 272
see also fossil fuels modern 96–9, 196 Common Data Environment (CDE)
cob 196, 198 modular 98, 198–9 237
Code for Sustainable Homes 89 onsite 196–8 confidentiality 241
codes of conduct 265, 293–4 traditional 96–9, 196 demographic 296
cold water systems 313–16 construction phase plan 7–8 interoperability 230
isolation 19 construction site interpreting 235
collaborative working 249, 294 inductions 8, 15 legislation 242
columns 72 visitors 15 management 230, 240–2, 246, 271
combination boilers 20, 307, 312, 342 welfare facilities 5 metadata 230
combined heat and power (CHP) Construction Skills Certification sources of 231–4, 246
systems 171–2 Scheme (CSCS) 14, 128 usage 234–9
combustion products 219 consumer unit 22, 304 data cabling 305–6
commissioning systems 126, 237–8 contaminated soil 94 Data Protection Act 2018 242, 265
Common Data Environment (CDE) contingency 139 data warehouse 135
134, 237 continuing professional development debtors 284
common law 6–7 (CPD) 132–3, 289 decimal system 186
common rafters 207 contract managers 127 decommissioning 19, 338
communication 257–61 contractors 101, 114, 119 see also isolation
community interest companies (CICs) contracts 137–8 decorators 131
287 Control of Asbestos Regulations 2012 3 delivery notes 140–1
compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) 174 Control of Noise at Work Regulations demographic data 296
Companies House 114 2005 3 demolition 147, 155, 156, 158
compliance 291 Control of Pollution (Oil Storage) design
compression 71–2 (England) Regulations 2001 153 brief 180, 236
compressive strength 384 Control of Pollution Act 1974 4 Digital Plan of Work (DPoW) 134
computer-aided design (CAD) 102, 103, Control of Substances Hazardous to impact 90–1
118, 124, 134–5, 158, 246, 273, 280 Health (COSHH) Regulations 2002 principles 95–100
computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) 2, 10, 12–13, 153, 235–6, 385 process 104
280 Control of Vibration at Work specification 87
computer numerical control (CNC) Regulations 2005 3 design engineers 126
158 control systems see smart controls desktop survey 104–5

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 Index

detail drawing 191 energy consumption 164 legislation 4

digital controllers 245 generation 60–2, 162 performance measures 154–7
digital engineering 275–8 isolation 21–3 pollution 4, 61, 155
Digital Plan of Work (DPoW) 134 power management 272 environmental impact 87–90, 154–7
digital technologies 177, 244–6, safety documents 220 Environmental Protection Act 1990
271–80 smart meters 178 151, 159
direct cold water systems 19, 314–15 supply 352–7 environmental risk assessment 105
discrimination 253 systems 303–5 equality 252–4, 264
displacement 60 transmission systems 62–3 Equality Act 2020 253
dissimilar metals 54 voltages 53–4, 62–4, 70, 383 equipment
distribution board 22 see also renewable energy sources access 37–41
distribution network operators (DNOs) Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 4 calibration 377–8
63 electric vehicles 174–5, 220 cleaning 380–1
distributive negotiation 255 electrolytic corrosion 53–4 daily checks 379–80
Distributor Takeback Scheme (DTS) electromotive force 50, 65 health and safety 382–3
159 electrons 53–4 inspections 16–18, 40
diversity 252 electrotechnical systems 303–5 legislation 3, 17–18, 40
documentation 136–44 elevation drawing 191 measuring 188
doors 217 emergency control valve (ECV) 21 portable appliance testing (PAT) 17
dormer roofs 209 emergency procedures 25–7 storage 388
downtime 372–3 employment testing and maintenance 376
drainage 73, 83–4 employee duties and responsibilities visual inspections 378–9
drawings 142, 190–3, 242–4 16, 265 waste management 158–9
paper sizes 192 employer duties and responsibilities estimates 139
symbols 243 6–7, 14–15, 16–18, 23–4, 44, 265 ethics 266–7, 293
drinking water 5 employer liability insurance 6–7 excavations 43, 204
drones 201–2 legislation 253, 262–5 explosive gas signage 34
drylining 199 rights 253–4, 262 eye protection 30
ductwork 175–6, 362–3 Employment Act 2008 253–4
duty holders 2, 6–7 Employment Rights Act 1996 253 F
encasing services 199–200
fans 339
E energy 50, 58
Energy Act 2020 4 feasibility study 93
ear protection 30 energy conservation 172–6, 219 Federation of Environmental Trade
earth forces 84 energy efficiency measures (EEMs) Associations (FETA) 222
Ecodesign for Energy-Related Products 148 Federation of Master Builders (FMB)
Regulations 2010 102 energy efficiency ratings 175 223
ecological balance 291–2 Energy Performance (England and fenestration 227
Edwardian houses 196 Wales) Regulations 2012 154 ferrous metal 51, 52, 92
efficiency 58–9 energy performance certificate (EPC) F-gases see fluorinated greenhouse
efflorescence 92 88–9 gases
effluent 150 Energy Performance of Buildings fibreglass batts 211–12
electrical and electronic equipment Directive 154 fire alarms 334–5
(EEE), waste management 158–9 Energy-related Products (ErP) Fire and Rescue Authority 118
electrical building services (design) Directive 175 fire extinguishers 27–9
engineers 103 engineers 118 fire fighting signage 33
electrical circuit principles 65–70 engineer technicians 126 fire safety 25–9, 219, 369
Electrical Installation Certificate (EIC) English bond 226 first aid 32
130 enterprise asset management (EAM) first fix 128, 130, 199, 347
electrical plans 243–4 233 fixings 225–7
electrical resistance 50 entrepreneurship 287, 288, 296–7 flammable signage 35
electric current see current environment flash floods 83
electricians 130 climate change 61 flat roofs 209–10
electricity ecological balance 291–2 Flemish bond 226
distribution systems 63 effects on materials 53–4 flexible working 265
electrical accessories 346–52 environmental hazards signage 35 flooding 83–4

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floor insulation 176 greenfield sites 87, 94 heating methods 77

floor plan 191 greenhouse gases 61, 167 heating systems 309–13
floors green roofs 150 heat loss 76–7, 189–90
solid 215–16 grey water 150, 173–4 heat principles 74
suspended 216–17 grievance policy 252–3, 264 convection 74
flow 49 Ground Source Heat Pump Association Heat Pump Association (HPA) 222
flue systems 308–9 (GSHPA) 222 Heat Pump Federation (HPF) 222
fluids, displacement 60 ground source heat pumps 166 heat pumps 344–5
fluorinated greenhouse gases 160, 302 ground structure 82–3 heat recovery ventilation (HRV)
Fluorinated Greenhouse Gases gutter profiles 331–2 systems 174
Regulations (2018) 160 gypsum 53, 128–9 heat transfer 74–5, 189–90
footings 72 height, working at 3, 37
foot protection 30 H Heritage Protection Bill 156
force 50, 56–7, 59–60, 187 hierarchical structure 115
effects on buildings 71–3 halogen lamps 79, 174 horizontal forces 72
fossil fuels 60–1, 95, 162 handover package 142–3 hot water systems 317
foundations 72, 73–4, 83, 203–7 hand protection 30 hot works 26
see also substructure hard hats 30 HSE Legal (L) Series 8
frames 217 hazardous substances 2–3, 12–13, human resources (HR) 264
franchises 287–8 34–5, 153, 219, 385–6 Human Rights Act 1998 254
frog bricks 212 Hazardous Waste (England and Wales) hydroelectric energy 61, 164, 170
frontage line 106 Regulations 2005 153 hydrology 105
fulcrum 56 Hazardous Waste Regulations 2005
161
fuses 70, 358 I
hazards 10–11, 14–15, 44, 385
Header bond 226 illuminance 50
G
head-mounted display (HMD) 277–8 immersion heater 318
galvanic corrosion 54 health and safety imperial units of measurement 186
Gantt charts 108–9 accidents and near misses 2, 16, inclusion 252
gas 61 23–4 indices 48
gas fitters 130 emergency procedures 25–7 indirect cold water systems 19, 315–16
Gas Safe 78, 131, 222 equipment 382–3 industrial heating systems 311–13
Gas Safety (Installation and Use) file 143 information technology (IT) 244–6
Regulations 1998 21 hazards 10–11, 14–15, 44 infrastructure 90–1, 113, 218, 220
gas supply 78 inspections 5–6, 16–17 innovation 290
isolation 21 legislation 2–4, 23–5, 32–3 inspections 5–6, 16–17
gas systems 306 method statements 11 Institution of Engineering and
boilers 307–8 monitoring 16–17 Technology (IET) 222
cooking appliances 309 risk assessments 2, 4, 8, 10–11, 25 insulated concrete formwork (ICF) 98
fires 309 risk management 9, 368 insulation
General Data Protection Regulation safe system of work 4, 9 buildings 176, 189–90
(GDPR) 2021 242, 265 temperature 74 floors 215
generation 60 welfare facilities 5 pipework and ductwork 175–6
geofencing 274 see also Approved Documents see also cavity walls
Georgian houses 196 Health and Safety (First Aid) insulators 65, 66
geotechnical engineering 125 Regulations 1981 32 insurance 6–7, 144, 372–3
girders 72 Health and Safety (Safety Signs and internal pressure 50
glass 66, 217, 226 Signals) Regulations 1996 33–6 International Electrotechnical
misting 93 Health and Safety at Work etc. Act Commission (IEC) 245
smart 150 (HASAWA) 1974 2, 6, 14, 223, 264 International Organization for
global warming 84, 163 Health and Safety Executive (HSE) 2, Standardization (ISO) 221, 291
gold 66 5–9, 24, 118 International System of Units (SI)
granite 226 health hazard signage 35 48–50, 58
gravity 55, 57 health problems 12 internet of things (IoT) 177, 270–2
centre of 59 heat exchanger 318 intruder alarms 333–4, 369
green buildings 110 heating and ventilation fitters 130 iron 51

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 Index

ironmongery 220 leg protection 30 mandatory signage 33

isolation length 49 manual handling 3, 41–3, 59, 387
cold water systems 19 levers 56–7 Manual Handling Operations
combination boiler 20 liability insurance 6–7 Regulations (MHOR) 1992 3, 41
electricity supply 21–3 life cycle assessment 110, 147 manufacturers 102, 120
gas supply 21 life cycle cost analysis 185–6 manufacturers’ instructions 223, 371
and loss of service 338–9 lifting, manual see manual handling 59 marble 226
unvented hot water systems 20 lifting aids 41–2 marketing 297
vented hot water systems 20–1 Lifting Operations and Lifting market share 289
Equipment Regulations (LOLER) masonry 225
J 1998 17–18, 40 see also blockwork; brickwork
light-emitting diodes (LEDs) 78, 80, 174 mass 49, 55, 58
job roles 101–4, 124–31 lighting materials
job sheets 371 circuits 304 defects or failures in 91, 385
joiners 128 energy-efficient 174 environmental effects 53–5
joists 72 principles 78–80 properties 51–3, 65–6, 383–4
notching and cutting 73 lime 53, 128 quantity 387
joules 58 limestone 84 recycling 157, 160–1
just-in-time deliveries 157, 274 limited companies see private limited source and usage 154–7
companies 114 storage 389
K limited liability partnership (LLP) thermal conductivity 76
284–5 see also waste management
kerbs 218 linear measurement 183–4 maternity leave 263–4
key performance indicators (KPIs) linear temperature expansion mathematics 48–50
234, 298–9 coefficients 55 measurement
kilowatt hour (kWh) 58 lintels 73, 212–13 conventions 190–3
kinetic energy 58, 163, 170 liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) 306 equipment 188
kinetic lifting 41 liquid roof 387–8 principles 180–2
K-values 76 listed buildings 96, 156–7 scales 190–3
living roofs 150 techniques 188–90
L loadings 187, 203, 219 tolerances 193
Local Authority Building Control units of 48–50, 186–7
ladders 37–8
(LABC) 102, 107–8, 118, 144 mechanical building services (design)
lamp choice 79–80
local community 90–1 engineers 103
landfill 83, 160
localised hot water systems 323–5 mechanical design engineers 103
lead 386
location drawing 191 mechanical-extract ventilation (MEV)
Leadership in Energy and
locked fuse 22 337
Environmental Design (LEED) 147,
lockers 5 mechanical loads 55–60
155
loft insulation 176 mechanical ventilation with heat
lead time 99
lofts 209 recovery (MVHR) 337
lean construction 157
log book 143 mechanisation 96
Legionella bacteria 8
lone workers 32 mediation 256
Legionnaires’ disease 8
low-carbon steel pipe 359 medium-density polyethylene (MDPE)
legislation
low-emissivity (low-E) glass 217–18 360
common law 6–7
low-pressure central-heating system mental health 148, 258
data management 242
310–11 metadata 230
employment 253, 262–5
low-rise buildings 96 metals
environmental 4
luminaires 78, 100 dissimilar metals 54
equality 253
luminous intensity 49 electrolytic and galvanic corrosion
failure to comply 5–6
53–4
health and safety 2–4, 23–5, 32–3
non-statutory guidance 6 M failures in 92
properties 51–2
sustainability 151 macerator 22 recycling 161
waste management 4, 158–61 maintenance 365–73, 389–90 meters 178
water supply 313 Management of Health and Safety at method statements 11
welfare facilities 5 Work Regulations 1999 4, 9–10, 45 metric units 186
see also planning permission

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micro combined heat and power (micro organisational culture 289–90 plumbers 129
CHP) systems 171 oriented strand board (OSB) 199 plumbing systems 313–32, 359–61
Microgeneration Certification Scheme overheads 115, 137 pneumonia 8
(MCS) 223 overheating 220 podiums 39
micro-hydro systems 170 oxidising chemicals signage 35 pollution 4, 61, 155
micro-wind turbines 169–70 polybutylene 360
mildew 75 P polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 54–5, 63, 66
minerals 53 porosity 225
miniature circuit breaker (MCB) 22, paid leave 263–4 portable appliance testing (PAT) 17,
304 paint, failures in 92 369, 370, 376
Minor Electrical Installation Works panel heaters 77 post-occupancy evaluation (POE)
Certificate (MEIWC) 130 panelised frame construction 97 232–3
mixed reality (MR) 278 paper sizes 192 potential difference 70
mobile bowser 153 partition walls 214–15, 227 potential energy 58
mobile elevating work platforms partnerships 284–5 power (mechanical) 50, 58, 65, 68–9,
(MEWPs) 40 Party Wall etc. Act 1996 218 70
mobile scaffold towers 38 PAS 2035:2019 148–9 power circuits 304–5
modern building methods 96–9, 196 PAS 2038:2021 149 powers (indices) 48
modular construction 98, 198–9 passive-aggressive behaviour 257–8 PPE see personal protective equipment
mullioned windows 196 passive infrared (PIR) sensor 177 (PPE)
musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) 41 Passivhaus 155 prefabricated construction 149–50
payment schedule 138 preliminaries 123
payslips 263
N pressure-jet boilers 342
pebbledash 196 Pressure Systems Safety Regulations
National Federation of Builders (NFB) penalty clauses 139 (PSSR) 2000 18
223 pensions 263 pre-stressed concrete 217
National Grid 62–3 permits to work 15 prime cost 137
National House Building Council permitted development 88, 106 principle contractor 7–8, 15
(NHBC) 144 Personal Protective Equipment principle designer 7–8
National Insurance 263 (Enforcement) Regulations 2018 31 private limited companies 285–6
National Living Wage 262 personal protective equipment (PPE) Private Water Supplies (England)
National Minimum Wage 262 3, 4, 29 Regulations 2016 313
National Planning Policy Framework 91 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) procurement 135, 234
National Vocational Qualifications at Work Regulations 1992 3, 29 product data 235–6
(NVQs) 128 Personal Protective Equipment products of combustion (POC) 308
near misses 16, 23–4 Regulations 2002 18 profitability 93–5
negotiation 254–6 PESTLE factors 135–6 programme of work 108, 181
networking 267 photovoltaic (PV) cells 62 programming 244–5
net zero 117 pipework 359–61 prohibition signage 33
newton-metres 56, 58, 59–60 insulation 175 project management 249–50
Newton’s second law 55 pitched roof 207–8 project planning 108–9, 237, 249
noise 3, 30, 82, 219 planners 102 protection systems 333–6
see also acoustics principles Planning (Listed Buildings and Provision and Use of Work Equipment
non-skilled operatives 131 Conservation Areas) Act 1990 4, 156 Regulations (PUWER) 1998 3, 18,
non-verbal communication 258–9 Planning and Energy Act 2008 4 40
notching 73 planning permission 106–8, 120, public liability insurance 7
not-for-profit organisations 287 156–7, 218, 254–5 public limited companies (PLCs) 286
nuclear fission 162–3 plant operators 43, 120, 131–2 Publicly Available Specifications (PAS)
plaster 53 221
O plasterboard 214, 227 public sector projects 221
plasterers 128 pulleys 57
ohmmeter 70 plastic pulverised fuel ash 225
Ohm’s law 65–9 failures in 93 pumps 340
oil 61, 153 pipework 360 purchase orders 141
onsite construction 196–8 recycling 161 pylons 63
operatives 101, 119, 128, 131

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 Index

robotics 158, 201, 279 site plan 191

Q
roof lantern 100 Site Supervision Safety Training
qualifications and training 14–15 roofs 207–11, 387–8 Scheme (SSSTS) 14
quality 290–1 roof trusses 208 site survey 183
quality control 126 rot 75 site waste management plan (SWMP)
quotations 140 Royal Institution of Chartered 89
Surveyors (RICS) 239 SI units see International System of
R rubber 52, 66 Units (SI)
R-values 76 small and medium-sized enterprises
radial circuits 304 (SMEs) 286–7
radiant heaters 75
radiation, infrared 75
S smart cement 151
smart controls 177, 245, 271–2
rain 84 sabbatical 265 smart glass 150
rainwater harvesting 172–3 safe condition signage 33 smart meters 178
rainwater systems 330–32 safe system of work 4, 9 SMART objectives 298
ratio 190 safety data sheets 12 smartphones 245
reactive monitoring 16 safety signage 257, 259 smart technology 133
rebar 51, 52 safe working load 72, 189 snagging 138, 142
rebate 227 sanitation 219 soakaways 83, 151
record keeping 382 sanitation systems 325–9 social media 267
recycling 157, 160–1 scaffolders 120 Social Security (Claims and Payments)
redundancy 265 scaffolding 38 Regulations 1979 23
reed beds 150 scale rule 192 sockets 348–9
refrigerants 302 scales 190–3 soil 74, 82–3, 94
refrigeration systems 336, 343–4 schedule of rates 139 solar energy 126, 163
regulatory bodies 222–3 schematics 243–4 solar heat gain 154
Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order see also drawings solar photovoltaic (PV) panels 126,
2005 25 screed 184 163, 168–9
render 176 sealed central-heating system 310–11 solar thermal systems 165–6
renewable energy sources 61, 126, 154, second fix 128, 130, 200, 348–9 Solar Trade Association (STA) 223
163–4, 272 sectional drawing 191 sole traders 114, 283
renewable energy systems 165–72 security, of dwellings 220, 333–6 sound 80
Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and self-driving vehicles 200–1 see also acoustics principles
Dangerous Occurrences Regulations self-employment 114–15 specification 87, 122
(RIDDOR) 2013 2, 24, 41 self-healing concrete 150 specific heat capacity 50
reservation point 255 semi-detached houses 197 speed (velocity) 49
residual circuit breaker with overload sentry 45 spring tides 84
(RCBO) 71, 358 services square, built to 181–2
residual current devices (RCDs) 71 connecting 95 stability of structures 71–4
resistance 62, 65–6, 70 encasing 199–200 stack effect 75, 336
resistivity 65–6 locating 183 staging boards 40
respiratory protective equipment (RPE) sewerage 73, 152 stakeholders 248
29, 31 shareholders 114 state pension 263
responsible person 25 shearing 72 statutory sick pay (SSP) 262–3
rest facilities 5 showers 316 steel 51, 55, 66
restoration work 275–6 signage 33–6, 257, 259 steel-frame construction 98, 224–5
retainer walls 202–3 simulation 275 steps 39
retention 138 site see construction site stone 226
retrofit assessors/installers 103–4 site analysis 105 storage
retrofitting 117, 148–9, 275 site inductions 8, 15, 127 equipment 388
reverberation 80 Site Management Safety Training materials 389
RIBA (Royal Institute of British Scheme (SMSTS) 14 storage heaters 75, 77
Architects) Plan of Work 100, 236 site managers 119, 127 storms 84
risk assessments 2, 4, 8, 10–11, 25 site of special scientific interest (SSSI) straw-bale construction 97
risk management 9, 368 105 Stretcher bond 226

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 Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level: Core

structural insulated panels (SIPs) 98, classification 224, 387 ventilation 75, 99, 153, 219, 336–7
199 failures in 92 verbal communication 257–8
structural members 72–3 recycling 161 verbal estimates 139
structure, of buildings 224–7 stress graded 214 vernacular construction 94
subcontractors 115, 119 sustainability 148 vertical forces 72
subsidence 74, 203 timber frame 97, 224 vibrating concrete poker 205
substations 63 Timber Research and Development vibration, exposure to 3
substructure 72, 202–7 Association (TRADA) 148 vibration white finger 205
sulphate attack 92, 93 time 49 Victorian houses 196
superstructure 87, 207 time off 263–4 virtual reality (VR) 277–8
supervisors 131 toilets, on site 5 visualisations 134, 259–60
suppliers 120 tolerances 193 VoIP (voice over internet protocol) 305
supply chain 118–20 tongue and groove (T&G) 225 voltages 53–4, 62–4, 70, 383
surface water 83–4, 151, 218 toolbox talks 15 voltmeter 23, 70
surveillance systems 334 tools see equipment volume 49
surveyors 118 topography 93–4 volumetric modular construction 98
sustainability 147, 291, 295 toroidal transformer 71
legislation 151 torque 56, 58, 59–60 W
sustainable homes 110 torsion 71–2
switched fuse 22 Town and Country Planning wages 262–3
symbols (Environmental Impact Assessment) walkie-talkies 260
drawings 243 Regulations 2017 88 walkover survey 105
units of measurement 49–50 Town and Country Planning Act 1990 walls
156–7 cavity 129, 211–13
external 211–13
T traditional building methods 96–9, 196
training and qualifications 14–15 internal 214–15
take-off sheets 136–7, 190 transformation process 58–9 partition 214–15, 227
tamping down 53, 205 transformers 63 party 218
team work 251–2 transport 155 solid 211
technical drawings 142 trees 73–4 warm-air heaters 313
tectonic plates 84 trenches see excavations 95 warning signage 33–6
temperature trestles 40 warranties 144, 366
and bricklaying 96 trunking 352 washing facilities 5
health and safety 74 trusses 73 Waste Electrical and Electronic
unit of measurement 49 trust 250 Equipment (WEEE) Regulations
see also heat loss Tudor houses 196 2013 4, 158–9
tender documents 101, 122–3 turbines 61 waste management 4, 89, 153, 155,
tendering process 121–3 turnover 115 158–61, 219
tension 71–2 water
terraced houses 197 drinking 5
U
testimonials 250 grey water 150, 173–4
theodolite 188 ultra-violet (UV) radiation 55 hydrology 105
thermal conductivity 76 units of measurement 48–50, 58, 186–7 legislation 313
thermal expansion 54 unplasticised polyvinyl chloride quality 148
thermoplastics 52 (uPVC) 52, 55, 217 rainwater harvesting 172–3
thermosetting plastics 52 unvented hot water systems, isolation reed beds 150
thin-joint blockwork/ 98 20 source and usage 155
three-dimensional (3D) modelling uranium 162 supply 313
273, 277 U-values 76, 99, 154, 189–90 surface 83–4, 151, 218
three-dimensional (3D) printing 201, vapour 75
279 V wholesome 219, 313–14
tidal energy 164 Water Act 2014 152
tilers 129 vaporising boilers 343 watercourses 83–4, 170
tiles 226 VAT (value added tax) 114 water heaters 323–4
timber velocity (speed) 49, 56 see also hot water systems
cladding and fabric 225 vented hot water systems 20–1 water source heat pumps 167

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 Index

Water Supply (Water Fittings) weight 55 wind 84

Regulations 1999 313 weirs 61 windows 99, 196, 217, 227
water table 83, 105–6 welfare facilities 5 wind turbines 61, 154, 163, 169–70
wattle and daub 196, 198 WELL Building Standard 148 wiring diagrams 142, 244
wattmeter 70 wet heating systems 78 woodworm 92
watts 48, 50 whistleblowing 252–3 work (mechanical loads) 57–8
wave energy 61, 164 whole building concept 110 Work at Height Regulations 2005 3,
weather 84 wholesome water 219, 313–14 10, 18
weep holes 213 Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 4 written communication 258–9

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The Publishers would like to thank City & Guilds for permission to reproduce photos and artworks from the
following textbooks:
Carpentry & Joinery for the Level 1 Diploma (6706)
Site Carpentry and Architectural Joinery for the Level 2 Apprenticeship (6571), Level 2 Technical Certificate (7906) & Level
2 Diploma (6706)
Site Carpentry & Architectural Joinery for the Level 3 Apprenticeship (6571), Level 3 Advanced Technical Diploma (7906)
& Level 3 Diploma (6706)
Bricklaying for the Level 1 Diploma (6705)
Bricklaying for the Level 2 Technical Certificate & Level 3 Advanced Technical Diploma (7905), Level 2 & 3 Diploma
(6705) and Level 2 Apprenticeship (9077)
Plumbing Book 1 for the Level 3 Apprenticeship (9189), Level 2 Technical Certificate (8202) & Level 2 Diploma (6035)
Plumbing Book 2 for the Level 3 Apprenticeship (9189), Level 3 Advanced Technical Diploma (8202) and Level 3 Diploma
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Electrical Installations Book 1 for the Level 3 Apprenticeship (5357), Level 2 Technical Certificate (8202) & Level 2 Diploma
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Electrical Installations Book 2 for the Level 3 Apprenticeship (5357), Level 3 Advanced Technical Diploma (8202) & Level 3
Diploma (2365)
Level 2 NVQ Diploma in Plumbing and Heating
Level 3 NVQ Diploma in Plumbing and Heating 6189

424

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