COMP 101: Introduction to Computer Applications

INTRODUCTION

What is a Computer?
• An electronic machine that works under the control of stored programs to accept, process & output
data/information for use by the operator.
• A device that accepts data, processes the data in accordance with a stored program, generates results,
and usually consists of input, output, storage, and arithmetic, logic, and control units.
• A functional unit that can perform substantial computation, including numerous arithmetic operations
or logic operations, without human intervention during a run.
• It is an electronic device/machine that accepts data (raw facts & figures) as input and processes it
(works on it) to produce information (data converted to meaningful form) as output
• A computer is a general purpose, p r o g r a m m a b l e d e v i c e t h a t i s u s e d for the production and
processing of information capable of calculating and storing results

Basic Terminologies
Data: data is the name given to basic facts, e.g. the number of items sold by a business, the name of a
customer, a line of text, or the numerical values used in mathematical formulae.
Computer: A computer is an electronic device that works under the control of stored programs,
automatically accepting, storing and processing data to produce information that is the result of
processing.
Program: a program is a set of instructions that is written in the language of the computer. A program is
used to make the computer perform a specific task, such as calculating interest to be paid to
savings account holders or producing a payroll. (Note: spelling program not programme). The
computer is only able to obey a program’s instructions if the program has been first stored within
the computer. This implies that the computer must be able to input and store programs in addition
to data. So, the computer works under the control of stored programs.
Instructions: are set of rules and regulations to be follow when solving a particular problem or executing
a command.
Information: a distinction is sometimes made between data and information. When data is converted
into a more useful or intelligible form then it is said to be processed into information.
Hardware: is the general term used to describe all the visible, tangible electronic and mechanical elements
of the computer, together with those devices used with the computer.
Software: is the general term used to describe all the invisible and intangible elements that may be used
on a computer system together with their associated documentation.
Peripheral Device: This is any device that is connected to the computer and whose absence
(disconnection) will not hinder the operations of the computer. It aids some function of the computer but
the computer can work without it.
User Interface: it is the part of the software with which you interact. It controls how data and instructions
are entered and how it is presented on the screen. Command line Interface Vs
GUI (Graphical User Interface)
An Icon: It’s a small image that presents a program, instructions or some object.

Advantages of Computers:
1. High speed: Computers have the ability to perform routine tasks at a greater speed than human
beings. They can perform millions of calculations in seconds.
2. Accuracy: Computers are used to perform tasks in a way that ensures accuracy.

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 COMP 101: Introduction to Computer Applications

3. Storage: Computers can store large amount of information. Any item of data or any instruction stored
in the memory can be retrieved by the computer at lightning speeds.
4. Automation: Computers can be instructed to perform complex tasks automatically and efficiently
which increases the productivity.
5. Diligence: Computers can perform the same task repeatedly & with the same level of accuracy without
getting tired.
6. Versatility: Computers are flexible to perform both simple and complex tasks.
7. Cost effectiveness: Computers reduce the amount of paper work and human effort, thereby reducing
costs.
Limitations of Computers:
1. Computers need clear, concise and complete instructions to perform a task accurately. If the
instructions are not clear and complete, the computer will not produce the required result.
2. Computers cannot think for themselves.
3. Computers cannot learn by experience.

Types of Computers
A computer may be classified according to three criteria; by technology (electronics), purpose, and size.

Computer Types according to technology (electronics)

a. Digital: Digital computers are so called because they process data that is represented in the form of
discrete values (e.g. 0,1,2,3 …) by operating on it in steps. Discrete values occur at each step in the
operation. Counting on one’s fingers is probably the simplest digital operation we all know. Digital
watches have special tiny, digital computers within them.
b. Analog: Analog computers are similar to measuring instruments such as thermometers and voltmeters
with pointers on circular dials. They process data in the form of electrical voltages, which are variable
like the variable positions of a pointer on a dial. The output from analog computers is often in the form
of smooth graphs from which information can be read.
c. Hybrid: Hybrid computers, as their name suggests, are computers that have the combined features of
digital and analog computers.

Computer Types by Purpose

a. Special Purpose Computers: as their name suggests, are designed for a particular job only; to solve
problems of a restricted nature. Examples are computers designed for use in digital watches, in petrol
pumps or in weapons guidance systems.
b. General Purpose Computers: are designed to solve a wide variety of problems within the limitations
imposed by their design capabilities. They can be adapted to perform particular tasks or solve
problems by means of specially written programs.

Examples of computers:
a A Home Computer: is a low-cost microcomputer of limited capability designed for domestic use
with programs that typically are used for such things as computer games or controlling family
finances.
b A Personal Computer (PC): as mentioned earlier, is a microcomputer designed for independent
use by an individual at work or in the home mainly for business purposes. Some PC’s are portable.
Many can be connected to minicomputers and mainframe computers so that the PC user can also
gain access to the facilities offered by the larger machine.

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 COMP 101: Introduction to Computer Applications

c A Desktop Computer: is any computer designed for use on a desk in an office environment.
Therefore Home computers and PC’s are types of desktop computers.
d A Workstation: Is another kind of desktop computer. Although larger more powerful PCS are
sometimes called workstations the term is normally used to imply the presence of advanced
features not provided by all PCs. These include in-built capabilities for their interconnection and
operation in conjunction with other computers, and for them to process pictorial data as well as
that presented in the form of text.
e A Lap-top: computer is a PC sufficiently small and light for its user comfortably to use it on his or
her lap. A typical lap-top operates on mains electricity or by rechargeable batteries and is small
enough to fit inside a brief case, still leaving room for other items. They have in-built flat screens
called Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD’s)
f An Embedded Computer: is one that is within some other device or system but is not accessed
directly. For example, there are embedded computers operating within petrol pumps, watches,
switches, cameras, video recorders and many type of domestic and industrial equipment.

Classification (Families) of Computers

Further classification is done in order of decreasing power and size:
a Supercomputers
b Mainframe Computers
c Minicomputers
d Microcomputers
e Laptops/Notebooks

Supercomputers are high-capacity machines that require special air-conditioned room and are the fastest
calculating devices ever invented. Super-Computers use “non-Von Neumann designs” multiprocessor
systems with simultaneous or “parallel” processing. They are used for complex scientific application like
weather forecasting, where large amount of data needs to be manipulated within a very short time.
Mainframe computers are very large, often filling an entire room. They can store enormous of
information, can perform many tasks at the same time, can communicate with many users at the same
time, and are very expensive. . The price of a mainframe computer frequently runs into the millions of
shillings. Mainframe computers usually have many terminals connected to them. These terminals look
like small computers but they are only devices used to send and receive information from the actual
computer using wires. Terminals can be located in the same room with the mainframe computer, but
they can also be in different rooms, buildings, or cities. Large businesses, government agencies, and
universities usually use this type of computer.

Minicomputers are much smaller than mainframe computers and they are also much less expensive. The
cost of these computers can vary from a few thousand shillings to several hundred thousand shillings.
They possess most of the features found on mainframe computers, but on a more limited scale. They can
still have many terminals, but not as many as the mainframes. They can store a tremendous amount of
information, but again usually not as much as the mainframe. Medium and small businesses typically use
these computers.

Microcomputers are the types of computers we are using in our labs. They are limited in what they can
do when compared to the larger models discussed above because they can only be used by one person at
a time, they are much slower than the larger computers, and they cannot store nearly as much

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information, but they are excellent when used in small businesses, homes, and schools. These computers
are inexpensive & easy to use. Two main categories of Microcomputers include:
1. Laptops/Notebooks These are portable computers equipped with a flat display screen and are smaller
in size. The expandability and the number of peripheral devices by the laptop are also limited.
However, as technology advances, more and more features are being incorporated into the system.
2. Handheld computers Is a small PC designed to fit in your hand e.g. personal digital assistant (PDA)
which can handle personal information e.g. calendar etc.

History of Computing

The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations of
computing devices. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development
that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and
more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices. Read about each generation and the developments
that led to the current devices that we use today. Otherwise computer history dates back to 1647 when
Frenchman Blaise Pascal invented the mechanical calculator.

First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often
enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great
deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. First generation
computers relied on machine language to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at
a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts. The
UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the
first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor
was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 50s. The transistor was
far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-
efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated
a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum
tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly,
languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming
languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These
were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic
drum to magnetic core technology.

The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically
increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

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 COMP 101: Introduction to Computer Applications

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through
keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many
different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the
first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their
predecessors.

Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were
built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm
of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer - from
the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls - on a single chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh.
Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more
and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which
eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the
development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there
are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing
and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and
molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of
fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable
of learning and self-organization.

COMPUTER SYSTEM

A computer system comprises of two main elements; the hardware and the software.

COMPUTER HARDWARE

The basic operations of computing

The basic elements that make up computer system are:
a. Input
b. Storage
c. Control
d. Processing
e. Output

A brief description of computer tasks:

1. Input: Input is a method of getting instructions and data into a computer from the user. Most
computers cannot accept data in forms that are customary to human communications such as

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speech or hand-written. The data is presented to the computer through devices like the keyboard,
which converts the data into machine-sensible forms. Data finally enters storage.

2. Storage: Data and instructions enter main storage, and are held there until required for processing.
The instructions dictate action to be taken on the data. Results of action will be held until they are
required for output. Main storage is supplemented by auxiliary storage, also called backing
storage, e.g. hard disks for mass storage purposes. Backing storage is servers an important role in
holding ‘maintained data’, i.e. data held by the computer so that it can provide information to the
user when required to do so.

3. Control: The processor controls the operation of the computer. It fetches instructions from the
main storage, interprets them and issues the necessary signals to the components making up the
system. It directs all hardware operation necessary in obeying instructions.

4. Processing: Instructions are obeyed and the necessary arithmetic operations are carried out on
the data. The part of the processor that does this sometimes called the Arithmetic-Logical Unit
(ALU). Although in reality, as for the “control unit”, there is often no physically separate
component that performs this function. In addition to arithmetic the processor also performs what
is called “logical” operations. These operations take place at incredibly high speeds, e.g. 10 million
numbers may be totaled in one second.
5. Output: Output is a method of producing outgoing information from the computer to the user.
Results are taken from main storage and fed onto an output device. This may be printed text,
sound, charts, and graphs displayed on a computer screen.

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 COMP 101: Introduction to Computer Applications

Central
Input Processing
Devices Unit (CPU) Output
Devices
Control
Unit

A.L.U.

Power TO System Bus

Supply ALL
UNITS

Memory /
Storage
Devices

The functional components of the computer hardware

CPU

CENTRAL
INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT
DEVICES UNIT (CPU) DEVICES

CONTROL
UNIT

A.L.U.
System Bus

POWER TO
SUPPLY ALL
UNITS MEMORY /
STORAGE
DEVICES

NB:
▪ Data normally flows from input devices or backing storage into main storage main storage to output
devices
▪ The processor performs operations on data from main storage and returns the results of processing
to main storage.

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 COMP 101: Introduction to Computer Applications

▪ In some cases, data flows directly between the processor and input or output devices
▪ The Arithmetic-Logical Unit (ALU) and control unit combine to form the processor.
NB: Unit – is a distinct function and not separate hardware components.
▪ There two types of flow shown in Fig 1.4; solid lines carry data or instructions but broken lines carry
commands or signals.
▪ Data held on backing storage may be input into main memory during processing, used and brought up
to date using newly input data, and then returned to backing storage.

1.2 Input Units

Input units consist of devices that translate data into a form the computer can understand. Divided into
three types:

▪ Keyboard hardware
▪ Pointing devices
▪ Source data-entry

Keyboard hardware: this is a device that converts letters, numbers, and other characters into electrical
signals that are machine-readable by the computer’s processors. It looks like typewriter keyboard, and
contains alphabetical & alphanumeric characters, numbers and other function keys.

Pointing devices: control the position of the cursor or pointer on the screen. Example are; mice, light-
pens, touchpads etc.

Source data-entry devices: these refer to menu forms of data-entry devices that are not keyboards or
pointing devices. They create machine-readable data on magnetic media or paper or feed it directly into
the computer’s processor. They include: scanning devices, sensors, etc.

1.3 Central Processing Unit

The brain of a computer system is the central processing unit, which we generally refer to as the CPU or
mainframe. The central processing unit is the computer. It is the CPU that processes the data transferred
to it from one of the various input devices, and then transfers either the intermediate or final results of
the processing to one of many output devices. A central control section and work areas are required to
perform calculations or manipulate data. The CPU is the computing center of the system. It consists of a
control section, internal storage section (main or primary memory), and arithmetic-logic section. Each of
the sections within the CPU serves a specific function and has a particular relationship to the other sections
within the CPU.

Control Section
The control section may be compared to a telephone exchange because it uses the instructions contained
in the program in much the same manner as the telephone exchange uses telephone numbers. When a
telephone number is dialed, it causes the telephone exchange to energize certain switches and control
lines to connect the dialing phone with the phone having the number dialed. In a similar manner, each
programmed instruction, when executed, causes the control section to energize certain control lines,
enabling the computer to perform the function or operation indicated by the instruction.

The program may be stored in the internal circuits of the computer (computer memory), or it may be read
instruction-by-instruction from external media. The internally stored program type of computer, generally

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 COMP 101: Introduction to Computer Applications

referred to only as a stored-program computer, is the most practical type to use when speed and fully
automatic operation are desired.

Computer programs may be so complex that the number of instructions plus the parameters necessary
for program execution will exceed the memory capacity of a stored-program computer. When this occurs,
the program may be sectionalized; that is, broken down into modules. One or more modules are then
stored in computer memory and the rest in an easily accessible auxiliary memory. Then as each module is
executed producing the desired results, it is swapped out of internal memory and the next succeeding
module read in.

In addition to the commands that tell the computer what to do, the control unit also dictates how and
when each specific operation is to be performed. It is also active in initiating circuits that locate any
information stored within the computer or in an auxiliary storage device and in moving this information
to the point where the actual manipulation or modification is to be accomplished.

The four major types of instructions are (1) transfer, (2) arithmetic, (3) logic, and (4) control. Transfer
instructions are those whose basic function is to move (transfer) data from one location to another.
Arithmetic instructions are those that combine two pieces of data to form a single piece of data using one
of the arithmetic operations.

Logic instructions transform the digital computer into a system that is more than a high-speed adding
machine. Using logic instructions, the programmer may construct a program with any number of alternate
sequences. For example, through the use of logic instructions, a computer being used for maintenance
inventory will have one sequence to follow if the number of a given item on hand is greater than the order
amount and another sequence if it is smaller. The choice of which sequence to use will be made by the
control section under the influence of the logic instruction. Logic instructions, thereby, provide the
computer with the ability to make decisions based on the results of previously generated data. That is,
the logic instructions permit the computer to select the proper program sequence to be executed from
among the alternatives provided by the programmer.

Control instructions are used to send commands to devices not under direct command of the control
section, such as input/output units or devices.

Arithmetic-Logic Section
The arithmetic-logic section performs all arithmetic operations-adding, subtracting, multiplying, and
dividing. Through its logic capability, it tests various conditions encountered during processing and takes
action based on the result. Data flows between the arithmetic-logic section and the internal storage
section during processing. Specifically, data is transferred as needed from the internal storage section to
the arithmetic-logic section, processed, and returned to the internal storage section. At no time does
processing take place in the storage section. Data may be transferred back and forth between these two
sections several times before processing is completed. The results are then transferred from internal
storage to an output unit, as indicated by the solid arrow.

Functions of the Central Processing Unit (CPU)

1. It interprets the instruction in the program according to the type and sequence of processing
operations that are to be performed on input data.

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 COMP 101: Introduction to Computer Applications

2. Performs the various arithmetic and logic operations that are necessary to convert input data
into output information.
3. Stores intermediate results of data being processed on its registers.
4. Directs or controls output to all other devices (input, output, auxiliary storage units), telling
each what to do and when to do it.

1.4 Output Units

These are output devices that translate information processed by the computer into a form that the user
(human) can understand. There are two forms of output; hardcopy and softcopy. The term hardcopy
refers to output that is permanent, tangible and one that can be stored for future reference while softcopy
refers to output that is temporary, intangible and one that cannot be stored for future reference.
Accordingly output devices are divided into:

▪ Softcopy output
▪ Hard copy output

Softcopy output devices: these are output devices that show programming instructions and data as they
are being input and information after it is processed. Examples monitor, flat panel display, etc.

Hard Copy output devices: These are devices that print characters, symbols, and perhaps graphics on
paper or another hard copy medium. Examples are: printer, plotters, etc.

Other output devices: These refer to output hardware for sound output, voice output, video output,
virtual reality, and simulation devices. This includes: speaker, etc.

1.4 System Bus

The system bus is a network of communication lines that enable the CPU to communicate effectively with
all other units of the computer. A bus is a transmission path on which signals are dropped off or picked up
at every device attached to the line.

There are three types of buses;

(a) The Data Bus – that is used for conveying data and information
(b) The Address Bus – that is used for relaying address location or signals
(c) The Control Bus – that is used for relaying control signals

The Data Bus

The control

Storage Unit
These refer to devices used for storing data or computer instructions. They divided into three:

▪ Primary or Main memory

▪ Secondary or Auxiliary memory
▪ Registers

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 COMP 101: Introduction to Computer Applications

Main memory: this is used for holding data and instructions required immediately by the CPU. It’s
characterized by fast access to information, low capacity and high cost. They are two main types

▪ RAM – Random Access Memory

They can both be read, to retrieve information or written into, to store information. The contents of
RAM remain stable as long as power is available i.e. volatile and has a short time response.

Volatility is an undesirable property of the RAM that means that RAMs ability to store information,
data or programs is dependent on the continuous supply of electrical energy.

▪ ROM - Read Only Memory

They provide permanent or semi-permanent storage only. Their contents can be read but cannot be
rewritten during normal computer operations. They are non–volatile

Secondary memory: It is used for storing backup information that is not needed immediately by the CPU.
They are characterized by slow access of information, higher capacity and lower cost. Examples: hard disk,
floppy.

Registers: a high-speed circuit that is a staging area for temporarily storing data during processing.

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