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Principles of Operation
A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which electric

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power in one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit.
The physical basis of a transformer is mutual induction between two circuits linked by a common
magnetic flux. In simplest form, it consists of two inductive coils which are electrically separated

DC & AC MACHINERY
but magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance.

It is a device that:
Transformers • transfers electric power from one circuit to another
• does so without change in frequency
• follows the principle of electromagnetic induction
• has electric circuits that are linked by a common
magnetic circuit.

Engr. Kristine Mariel B. Bejasa

Lecturer

Transformer Construction
A transformer has 3 basic parts:
• Primary Winding produces the magnetic
flux when connected to an AC source.

• Magnetic Core is the low reluctance path

Transformers
where the magnetic flux produced by the
primary winding passes. It links the
secondary winding through a closed
magnetic circuit.

• Secondary winding is linked with the flux

that the primary winding produced. It gives
the desired output of the transformer.

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Transformer Types Transformer Types

A. Based on core: C. Based on function:

• Shell type – the core surrounds a considerable portion of • Step-down transformer– A step down • Step-up transformer– These types of
the winding transformer converts high voltage from transformers work almost the same as
the primary side to low voltage on the step down transformers. A step up
• Core type – windings surrounds a considerable portion of secondary coil resulting in a decrease transformer can convert low voltage
the core. in the output voltage. In this, the overall from the primary side of the
winding ratio of primary and secondary transformer to high voltage on the
is always more than 1. secondary side of the transformer.

• Spiral core type - The core is assembled of a continuous

strip or ribbon of transformer steel wound in the form of a
circular or elliptical cylinder.

Transformer Types Transformer Types

B. Based on cooling method: C. Based on function:

• Oil-filled, self cooling – used in small and medium-sized • Single Phase transformer– A single- • Three-phase transformer– These
distribution transformers. The assembled windings and phase transformer is a type of power transformers are used to convert the
core of such transformers are mounted in a welded, oil- transformer that uses single-phase voltage of electronic systems with
tight steel tanks provided with a steel cover. The oil helps alternating current, which means it three-phase. They are available in
in transferring the heat from the core and the windings to relies on a voltage cycle that operates various configurations, such as star-
the case from where it is radiated out to the in an integrated time phase. These are star, delta-delta, star-delta, and delta-
surroundings. basically works based on the principle star. Three-phase transformers are
of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic used to generate electricity and
• Oil-filled water cooled – this type is used for much more induction. distribute it according to the power
economic construction of large transformers. The cooling usage.
coil is mounted near the surface of the oil, through which
cold water keeps circulating. This water carried the heat
from the device.

• Air Blast- This type is used for transformers that use

voltages below 25,000V. The transformer is used at
houses.

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Transformer Types Transformers in Power System

C. Based on function:

• Power transformer – A power transformer • Distribution transformer – The distribution

is used to convert power from one circuit transformer provides the last or final
to another without changing its frequency. voltage change in the power distribution
They are usually large in size and do not system. Distribution transformers are like
have any rotating or moving parts. The step down transformers, which convert
transformer works on the principle of high grid voltage into the voltage required
mutual induction and requires an AC by the end customer. These transformers
supply. Power transformer ratings are as have low ratings such as 11 kV, 6.6 kV, 3.3
follows 400kv, 200kv, 110kv, 66kv, 33kv. kV, 440 V, and 230 V.

Electricity entering a substation from the primary side is dropped to a lower voltage by transformers and
sent on to the secondary side.

Transformer Types Induced EMF equation

C. Based on function:
The flux increases from its zero value to maximum value in one quarter of a cycle.
𝛷 𝑊𝑏
• Current transformers - are • Potential transformers – 𝐴𝑣𝑒. 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 = = 𝟒𝒇𝜱𝒎 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
1 𝑠
commonly used to reduce also called voltage 𝑓
4
or multiply alternating transformers. These are The rate of change of flux per turn means induced emf in volts.
current (AC). This commonly used to reduce
transformer produces a voltage levels. They cannot 𝐴𝑣𝑒. 𝑒𝑚𝑓/𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 = 𝟒𝒇𝜱𝒎 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
current in its secondary be used to supply natural If flux varies sinusoidally, then rms value of induced emf is obtained by multiplying
winding while it is power to a load and are the ave. value with form factor.
proportional to the current used with voltmeters, watt 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 1.11
in its primary winding. In meters, frequency meters, 𝑎𝑣𝑒. 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
addition, they are also used circuit breaker tripping 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑓/𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 = 1.11 ∗ 4𝑓𝛷 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝒇𝜱𝒎 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
to measure and protect circuits, etc.
electricity. 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 Now, r.m.s. value of the induced emf in the whole of primary winding
𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
= induced emf/turn x(no. of primary turns)
𝛷 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑖𝑛 core in Webers
=𝛽 ∗ 𝐴 𝑬𝟏 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝒇𝑵𝟏 𝜱𝒎 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝒇𝑵𝟏 𝜷𝒎 𝑨
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐶 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑧

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Ideal Transformer Practical Transformer Equivalent Circuit

An ideal transformer is one which has no losses (i.e. its windings have no ohmic resistance,  Practical Transformer at No Load  Practical Transformer at Full Load
there is no magnetic leakage and hence which has no field and core losses.) In other words, an ideal
transformer consists of two purely inductive coils wound on a loss-free core.
Ideal transformer equivalent circuit

Note: At no load I2 = 0 and so is I1. Thus only the Note: At full load Ig is at least 20 times bigger than Io,
exciting current Io flows in R1 and X1. And these consequently Io can be neglected and the
impedances are so small that the voltage drop across corresponding magnetizing branch. This equivalent
them are negligible. circuit can be used even if the loading is only 10% of
the rated capacity of the transformer

Practical Transformer Equivalent Circuit Shifting Transformer Parameters from Primary to Secondary
and Vice Versa

Where:
V2 =load voltage (V)
I2 =load current (A)
𝜃 =power factor angle
-(sign) =leading pf
Where, +(sign) =lagging pf
R1 = resistance of primary winding (ohm)
𝑋1 = reactance of primary winding (ohm) Pm = iron losses (Watt)
R2 = resistance of secondary winding (ohm) Sm = apparent power absorbed by the core (VA)
𝑋2 = reactance of secondary winding (ohm) Qm = reactive power needed to set up the mutual flux (Var) Where:
E1 = induced emf of the primary winding (volt)
Xm = magnetizing reactance of primary winding (ohm)
Eg = supply voltage (volt) +𝜃 = leading pf
Rm = resistance representing the iron losses (ohm)
−𝜃 = lagging pf
𝛿 = angle bet. E2 & V2

Note: Transformers use VA (volt-ampere) power because it is a measure of the "apparent power" of the transformer, which is
the product of the voltage and current in the transformer. In an ideal transformer, the output power would be equal to the
input power, but in practice, there are losses due to factors such as resistance and core losses. As a result, the output power
of the transformer may be less than the input power, but the VA rating reflects the full amount of power that can be
transferred through the transformer. https://www.electrical4u.com/equivalent-circuit-of-transformer-referred-to-primary-and-secondary/

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Shifting Transformer Parameters from Primary to Secondary Open Circuit Test on Transformers
and Vice Versa  It is used to determine the core losses (eddy current loss and hysteresis loss) in transformer and parameters
of the equivalent circuit of the transformer.
 TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT REFERRED TO PRIMARY SIDE:

𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝑷𝒐𝒄

𝑹𝐞𝟏 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝑿𝐞𝟏 = 𝑿𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑿𝟐

Shifting Transformer Parameters from Primary to Secondary Short Circuit Test on Transformers
and Vice Versa • It is used to determine the copper losses which occurs on the windings of the transformer.

 TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT REFERRED TO SECONDARY SIDE:

𝑷𝒄𝒖𝑭𝑳 = 𝑷𝒔𝒄
𝑬𝒔𝒄 where,:
𝒁𝒆 =
𝑰𝒔𝒄 𝑿𝒆 = 𝒁𝒆 𝟐 − 𝑹𝒆 𝟐 Psc = wattmeter reading during the test
Isc = ammeter reading during the test
𝑷𝒔𝒄 Esc = voltmeter reading during the test
𝑹𝒆 = Re = equivalent resistance referred to the high side
𝑹𝐞𝟐 = (𝑹𝟏 /𝒂𝟐 ) + 𝑹𝟐 𝑿𝐞𝟐 = (𝑿𝟏 /𝒂𝟐 ) + 𝑿𝟐 𝑰𝒔𝒄 𝟐 Xe = equivalent reactance referred to the high side
Note: The supply voltage is adjusted so that the reading of the Ze = equivalent impedance referred to the high side
ammeter is approximately equal to the rated high side current PcuFL = copper losses at full load

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Power Losses and Efficiency Sample Problems

 Copper losses at any size of load
𝑃 𝑃 = 𝑉 𝐼 𝑝𝑓 3. A 25kVA transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the secondary winding. The primary is
η= 𝑥 100% 𝑃 = (𝑥) 𝑃 connected to 3000V, 50Hz supply. Find the full-load primary and secondary currents, the secondary emf and the
𝑃 𝑃 = 𝑃 +𝑃 +𝑃
maximum flux in the core. Neglect leakage drops and no-load primary current.
 All-Day Efficiency
𝑃 =𝐼 𝑅 +𝐼 𝑅 𝑊
η = Solution:
𝑊 +𝑊 +𝑊 𝑊 = (𝑃 )(24)
𝑃 =𝐼 𝑅 +𝐼 𝑅 a=N1/N2 = 500/50 = 10
Full load: I1= 25kVA/3kV = 8.33A
𝑊 = 𝑃 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑓 (𝑡) FL I2=[8.33(500)] / 50 = 83.3A
𝑃 =𝑃 +𝑃
Emf per turn on primary side = 3000/500 =6V
𝑊 = 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑃 )(𝑡) Secondary emf = [3000(50)]/500 = 300V
Where:
Pout = output power (watt)
𝐸 = 4.44𝑓𝑁 𝛷 ; 𝜱𝒎 = 𝟐𝟕𝐦𝐖𝐛
Pin = input power (watt)
Pcu = copper losses (watt)
Pcore = core or iron losses (watt)
V2 = load voltage (volt)
I2 = secondary current or load current (ampere)
pf = load power factor
PcuFL = copper losses at full load

Sample Problems Sample Problems

4. A single phase transformer has 500 turns in the primary and 1200 turns in the secondary. The cross-sectional area
2. An open circuit test for core losses in a 10 kVA of the core is 80sq.cm. If the primary winding is connected to a 50Hz supply at 500V, calculate (a) Peak flux density
transformer gives a reading of 70 W. If the PF of the load and (b) Voltage induced in the secondary
is 90% and Cu loss is 100W, find efficiency at full load.

Solution:
From the emf equation of transformer: 𝐸 = 4.44𝑓𝑁 𝛷
500 = 4.44(50)(500)𝛷
𝛷 = 4.5045𝑚𝑊𝑏
.
(a) Peak flux density 𝛽 = = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝟑 𝑾𝒃/𝒎𝟐
(b) Voltage induced in the secondary is obtained via turns ratio
=
𝐸 = 500 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔

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