Advanced English Grammar

Forms and Functions

Semester 3 - Grammar III

Prof. Noamane
 Objectives

● Learn the broad meaning of the concept of ‘Grammar’

● Learn some basic terminology to name types of words (or Parts of Speech),
to describe the way these words combine to form larger constituents (or
Phrases) and to recognize the functions these constituents can have in the
sentence.

● Learn how a sentence can be made up of not only one, but two or more
clauses.
 The broad meaning of grammar
❏ Descriptive grammar The term is used to refer to the rules or principles by which
a language works (its system or structure). Speakers of a language all have an
internalized grammar (their competence), whether they can articulate the rules of
the language or not.

❏ Prescriptive grammar This involves attempts to establish and maintain a

standard of correctness in the language, to “prescribe” (dictate) and “proscribe”
(forbid) certain ways of speaking; but this has little to do with the actual working of
the language.

❏ Universal grammar This refers to a more general set of constraints on

languages. These are features of language which are not language-specific, but
rather universal. That is, they would be found in all languages of the world.
 Background - Universal Grammar

>> UG refers to those features that all languages have in common and that therefore do not
need to be mentioned in grammars of particular languages

“Grammar is not the grammar of any single language: it is the prespecification in the brain that permits the
learning of language to take place. So the grammar-acquiring capacity is what Chomsky claims is innate. If the
child is not exposed to language, language will not develop. Perhaps the term “Universal Grammar” is misleading
and Chomsky should have called it “metagrammar” or “the seeds of grammar.” But in order to preserve historical
continuity, we are more or less forced to stick with this term, whatever incorrect connotations it invites.”
(Foundations of Language, Ray Jackendoff)

>> So what is universal to humans is the ability, in the appropriate conditions, to learn a
language, any language.
 Background - Noam Chomsky

● American Linguist / Activist

● MIT - University of Arizona

● The father of Generative Grammar

● Syntactic structures (1957)

● Aspects of the Theory of Syntax

(1965)
 Background - Language Acquisition Device

The Innateness Hypothesis >> Chomsky’s hypothesis that humans have a

cognitive specialization for learning language.

“It seems clear that many children acquire first or second languages quite successfully even though no special care
is taken to teach them and no special attention is given to their progress. It also seems apparent that much of the
actual speech observed consists of fragments and deviant expressions of a variety of sorts. Thus it seems that a
child must have the ability to “invent” a generative grammar that defines well-formedness and assigns
interpretations to sentences even though the primary linguistic data that he uses as a basis for this act of theory
construction may, from the point of view of the theory [“grammar”] he constructs, be deficient in various respects.”
(Chomsky 1965: 200–1)

Evidence >> Poverty of Stimulus or Impoverished input

 Background - the Critical-age Hypothesis

● The critical-age hypothesis assumes that language is biologically based and that the
ability to learn a native language develops within a fixed period, from birth to middle
childhood (8-9 years).

● During this critical period, language acquisition proceeds easily, swiftly, and without
external intervention.

● After this period, the acquisition of grammar is difficult and, for most individuals, never
fully achieved. Children deprived of language during this critical period show atypical
patterns of brain lateralization.
 Background - Competence vs. Performance

● Chomsky also distinguishes between the speakers’ actual knowledge of the language,
which is termed Competence (or I-Language) , and the use of that knowledge, which is
termed Performance (or E-language).

● Any piece of text (spoken or written) represents a performance of language, which will
match the speaker’s competence more or less inaccurately.

● Thus performance is often taken as a poor guide to competence, but competence is the
object of study for the linguist.
 Grammatical Form & Grammatical Function

1. ‘form’ refers to the category labels that we use for the building blocks of
language, i.e. word classes (e.g. noun, verb, adjective, etc.), phrases (e.g.
noun phrase, adjective phrase, etc.) and clauses (e.g. relative clause, if
clause, etc.).

2. ‘function’ refers to the grammatical functions (e.g. Subject, Object, Adverbial,

etc.) that the various building blocks mentioned above can perform.
I. Word Categories
 1. Nouns

❏ A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea:

● People: farmer, mechanic, father, Professor Haskins, editors, Marcia

● Places: ocean, Canada, porch, Spain, classroom
● Things: scissors, giraffe, pen, smiles, tugboat, skateboard, braces, drill
● Ideas: love, inspiration, courage, anxiety, eagerness, happiness
❏ Nouns are either common or proper:
● A common noun names any person, place, or thing. Examples are
basketball, video, wizard, coin, woman, and coach.
● A proper noun names a particular person, place, or thing and begins with a
capital letter. Examples are Winston Churchill, Daniel Day Lewis, and
Chicago.

❏ Some nouns can be collective or compound:

● A collective noun names a group of people or things. Examples of collective
nouns are jury, herd, flock, family, fleet, club, team, class, and group.
● A compound noun is a noun consisting of more than a single word.
Examples of compound nouns are social studies, dining room, sister-in-law,
landlord, and headmaster.
 2. Pronouns
❏ A pronoun is a word used to replace or refer to one or more nouns.

In the sentence, “Roberto feels that he can win the race”, he is the
pronoun, and Roberto is the antecedent.

In the sentence, “Terry and Jim know that they are best friends,” they is
the pronoun, and Terry and Jim are the noun antecedents.

❏ There are several types of pronouns: Personal Pronouns, Reflexive Pronouns

Interrogative Pronouns, Demonstrative Pronouns, and Indefinite Pronouns.
❏ These are demonstrated here:

● Personal pronouns refer to people and things (e.g. Subject pronouns: I, we,
you, he, she, they; Object pronouns: me, us, you, him, her, them; Possessive
pronouns: mine, yours, ours, hers, theirs)
● Reflexive pronouns are formed by adding - self or - selves to certain
personal pronouns (e.g. myself, himself, herself, themselves, ourselves,
yourself)
● Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions (e.g. who, what, which,
whose, when, where)
● Demonstrative pronouns are used to point out specific people or things (e.g.
this, that, these, those)
● Indefinite pronouns often do not refer to specific or definite people or things
(e.g. many, all, some, each, both, none, everybody, everyone, several...)
Possessive Pronouns vs. Possessive Adjectives

❏ my, your, her, his, its, our, their are possessive adjectives. They should not
be confused with possessive pronouns.

❏ Possessive adjectives modify nouns while possessive pronouns replace/refer

to nouns
 3. Adjectives
❏ An adjective modifies (qualifies or limits the meaning of ) a noun or a pronoun.
It answers the questions, What kind? Which one(s)? How many? How much?

Carrie read an interesting story. (What kind of story?)

The recent article has that information. (Which article?)
Kent owns those surfboards. (Which surfboards?)
Wendy paid fifty dollars for the jacket. (How many dollars?)
Much space was devoted to her artwork. (How much space?)
❏ People sometimes confuse adjectives with nouns or with pronouns. Here are
some points to Remember.

QUESTION 1: When is a word a noun? When is a word an adjective?

The magazine article applauded the students’ efforts in the charity drive.
(Magazine is an adjective that describes which article)
The article about the students’ efforts in the charity drive was in the magazine.
(Here magazine is a noun since it is the name of a thing and does not describe
anything.)
Our Thanksgiving celebration was fun. (Thanksgiving is an adjective describing
which celebration.)
We celebrated Thanksgiving. (Thanksgiving is the name of the holiday that was
celebrated.)
QUESTION 2: When is a word a pronoun? When is a word an adjective?
These demonstrative pronouns can be used as adjectives: that, these, this, and
those.
These interrogative pronouns can be used as adjectives: what and which.
These indefinite pronouns can be used as adjectives: all, another, any, both,
each, either, few, many, more, most, neither, other, several, and some.

This problem is difficult. (This is an adjective since it answers the question, Which
problem?)
This is difficult. (This is a pronoun since it takes the place of a noun and does not
modify a noun or a pronoun.)
Some people are very funny. (Some is an adjective since it answers the question,
Which people?)
Some are funny. (Some is a pronoun since it takes the place of a noun and does
not modify a noun or a pronoun.)
 4. Verbs
There are several types of verbs to be studied: the action verb, the linking verb,
and the helping verb.

An action verb tells what action (often a physical action) a subject is performing,
has performed, or will perform.

My father delivers packages to department stores each day.

Louie bowled a perfect game last night.
Suzanne skated across the rink in Central Park.
Turn at the next corner, Noel.
Oscar will help Petra with the project.
A linking verb connects (or links) a subject to a noun or an adjective in the
predicate. The most common linking verbs are the forms of the verb “to be” and
appear , become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, and
turn.

My sister is a doctor. (The linking verb, is, connects the subject, sister, with the predicate
nominative, doctor.)
My sister is studying to become a doctor. (In this sentence the word is is a helping verb for
the main verb, studying. Is does not function as a linking verb.)
He appeared tired. (The linking verb, appeared, links the subject, He, with the predicate
adjective, tired.)
He appeared at the game. (In this sentence the verb, appeared, is an action verb, not a
linking verb.)
A helping verb assists the main verb in a sentence. There can be more than one
helping verb in each sentence.

The common helping verbs are am, is, are, was, were, be, been, being, has, had,
have, do, does, did, may, might, must, can, could, shall, should, will, and would.
The word in bold in each sentence below is the helping verb. The underlined
word is the main verb.

The members are going to the city tomorrow evening.

Are the members going to the city tomorrow evening?
That joke has been heard around the office.
Has that joke been heard around the office?
Her brothers are leaving for the train.
Are her brothers leaving for the train?
 5. Adverbs
❏ An adverb is a word that modifies (qualifies or limits) a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb.

● Many adverbs end in -ly .

● Adverbs answer any of these four questions: Where? When? How? To what
extent?

Case 1. Adverbs modify verbs:

John ate quickly . (How did he eat?)
I walk there . (Where did I walk?)
Ashleigh will eat soon . (When will Ashleigh eat?)
Case 2. Adverbs modify adjectives:
Rex is very happy. (Very modifies the adjective happy and answers the question,
To what extent?)
The program was too unrealistic. (Too modifies the adjective unrealistic and
answers the question, To what extent?)

Case 3. Adverbs modify other adverbs:

Warren walks too quickly. (Too modifies the adverb quickly and answers the
question, How quickly?)
He moved rather recently. (Rather modifies the adverb recently and answers the
question, How recently?)
 6. Prepositions

A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun or a pronoun

and another word in the sentence.

The man swam under the bridge. (Under connects the idea of swam and bridge)
She walked down the aisle. (Down connects walked and aisle)
Julie walked around the campus and toward town. (Around connects walked and
campus. Toward connects walked and town)
 7. Conjunctions
❏ A conjunction connects words or group of words . There are three types of
conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions , correlative conjunctions , and
subordinating conjunctions.

● A coordinating conjunction is a single connecting word. These seven words

are for, and,nor, but, or, yet, and so.

The boys and girls worked at the fair. (And joins the names boys and girls)
Paula or Jeannine can go with you tonight. (Or joins the names Paula and
Jeannine)
I would like to help you, but I will be busy tonight. (But joins two sentences or
complete ideas)
❏ Correlative conjunctions are pairs of connecting words. These fi ve pairs of
words are both/and, either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also, and whether/or.

Both Henry and Henrietta are leaving the dance now. (The correlative
conjunctions join two names.)
Not only will they leave now, but they will also not be here to help clean up. (The
correlative conjunctions join two sentences or complete ideas.)
Either go with them or stay here and help. (The correlative conjunctions illustrate
a choice.)
He went neither to the stadium nor to the concert hall during this vacation. (The
correlative conjunctions join two prepositional phrases.)
❏ A subordinating conjunction is a word used to connect two clauses
together. Words such as: 'although', 'because', ‘if’ or 'when'…

A subordinating clause is a part of a sentence that adds additional information to

the main clause. A subordinating conjunction is simply the word that is used to join
a subordinating clause to another clause or sentence.

"He was annoyed. The train had stopped."

"He was annoyed because the train had stopped."
By adding 'because' we are linking the subordinating clause "the train had
stopped" with the main clause "He was annoyed".
 Practice
Look at the words below and identify the part of speech:

1. the; across; afraid; after; although; and; at

2. because; before; bird; book; must; during; theirs; write
3. enormous; fast; quickly; friendly; their; headache; Louise
4. house; if; man; many; from; record (stressed on 1st syllable)
5. or; London; sheep; since; work; record (stressed on 2nd syllable)
6. sing; cook; a; under; unless; wet; without
II. Phrases
 Prepositional Phrases
❏ The most common phrase is the prepositional phrase. You’ll find these
phrases everywhere—in sentences, clauses, and even in other phrases.

❏ Each prepositional phrase begins with a preposition (e.g. in, of, by, from, for,
etc.) and includes a noun or pronoun that is the object of the preposition.

❏ E.g. in the room, of the people, by the river, from the teacher, for the party
❏ The object of a preposition can have its own modifiers, which also are part of
the prepositional phrase.
in the smoky, crowded room
of the remaining few people
by the rushing river

❏ Prepositional phrases function as either adjectives or adverbs.

The woman in the trench coat pulled out her cellular phone.
(The prepositional phrase here acts as an adjective describing the noun woman)
Most of the audience snoozed during the tedious performance.
(The prepositional phrase here acts as an adverb modifying the verb snoozed)
 Participle Phrases
❏ A participial phrase begins with a past or present participle and is followed by
its objects and modifiers. Like participles alone, participial phrases are used
as adjectives.

❏ Example 1: Sniffing the fresh air, Jim realized he had found paradise.
In the preceding sentence, the present participle sniffing introduces the
participial phrase, which includes the participle’s object air and its modifiers
(the, fresh). This participial phrase acts as an adjective modifying the subject
of the sentence (Jim).
❏ Example 2: The soldiers, trapped by the enemy, threw down their guns.

Here, the past participle trapped introduces the participial phrase trapped by the
enemy. The entire phrase acts as an adjective modifying the subject of the
sentence (soldiers). Notice the phrase-within-a-phrase here. By the enemy is a
prepositional phrase modifying the participle trapped. Remember that phrases
can act as modifiers in other phrases.
 Gerund Phrases
❏ A gerund phrase may look like a participial phrase because gerund phrases
begin with the -ing form of a verb (riding, seeing, talking, etc.) and have
objects and modifiers.

❏ But a gerund phrase always acts as a noun in a sentence, not as an

adjective.

❏ Like other nouns, a gerund phrase can serve as the subject of a sentence, the
object of a verb or preposition, or the complement of a linking verb.
❏ Example 1: Riding the black stallion terrified Hugh.
In this example, the gerund phrase Riding the black stallion acts as a noun and
is the subject of the verb terrified.

❏ Example 2: The police officer reported seeing the suspect.

In this example, the gerund phrase seeing the suspect is the direct object of the
verb reported. Notice that the entire phrase, not just the word suspect, is the
direct object.
Example 3: The senator made his reputation by talking often and loudly
Here, the gerund phrase talking often and loudly is the object of the preposition
by.

Example 4: Calling Uncle Roberto is asking for trouble.

In this example, Calling Uncle Roberto is a gerund phrase acting as the subject
of the sentence. Asking for trouble is a gerund phrase acting as a complement of
the linking verb is.
 Infinitive Phrases
❏ An infinitive phrase contains an infinitive (for example, to sleep, to have slept,
to consider, to throw) and its objects and modifiers.

❏ Infinitive phrases usually function as nouns, though they can be used as

adjectives and adverbs.

Example 1: To sleep all night was his only wish.

In this example, To sleep all night is an infinitive phrase acting as a noun. It is the
subject of this sentence.
❏ Example 2: The representatives didn’t want to take an unpopular stand.
Here, To take an unpopular stand is an infinitive phrase acting as a noun. It is the
direct object of the predicate didn’t want.

❏ Example 3: He had plenty of money to spend foolishly.

The infinitive phrase to spend foolishly acts as an adjective modifying the noun
money.

❏ Example 4: After the confrontation, she drove miles to clear her mind.
In this sentence, the infinitive phrase to clear her mind acts as an adverb modifying
drove. It answers the question “Why did she drive?”
Practice
III. Clauses
 What is a clause?
❏ A clause is a group of related words, but unlike a phrase, a clause has a
subject and predicate.

❏ Clauses can be either independent or dependent:

● Independent clauses express complete thoughts and can stand alone.

● Dependent clauses are not complete thoughts and cannot stand alone.
 1. Adjective clauses
❏ A relative clause begins with a relative pronoun and functions as an adjective.
The novel that won the Pulitzer Prize didn’t sell well when it was first published.
In the following sentence, the relative pronoun that is the subject of its clause and won
is the predicate. This clause couldn’t stand by itself. Its role in the complete sentence is
to modify novel, the subject of the independent clause.

The ceremony, which several celebrities attended, received intense coverage.

In the next example, which is the relative pronoun that begins the subordinate clause.
Celebrities is the subject of the clause and attended is the predicate. In the complete
sentence, this clause functions as an adjective describing ceremony.
❏ Note that in a relative clause the relative pronoun is sometimes the subject of the
clause, as in the following sentence, and sometimes the object, as in the next
sentence.
Arthur, who comes to the games every week, offered to be scorekeeper.
Who is the subject of the clause and comes is the predicate. The clause modifies
Arthur.

Arthur, whom the team mother adored, was asked to be scorekeeper.

In this sentence, mother is the subject of the clause, adored is the predicate, and
whom is the direct object of adored. Again, the clause modifies Arthur.
 2. Noun Clauses
❏ A noun clause serves as a noun in a sentence. Let’s study the following
sentences:

What I want for dinner is a hamburger. (subject of the predicate is)

The host told us how he escaped. (object of the predicate told)
The vacation is what I need most. (subject complement )
Give it to whoever arrives first. (object of the preposition to)
 3. Adverbial Clauses
❏ Many subordinate clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions called
adverbial clauses. Examples of these conjunctions are because, unless, if,
when, and although…

❏ What these conjunctions have in common is that they make the clauses that
follow them unable to stand alone. The clauses act as adverbs, answering
questions like how, when, where, why, to what extent, and under what
conditions.
These are the various kinds of adverb clauses:
•Time clauses answer the question "When?"
•Place clauses answer the question "Where?"
•Clauses of manner answer the question "How?"
•Distance clauses answer the question "How far?"
•Frequency clauses answer the question "How often?"
•Purpose clauses answer the question "For what intention?"
•Result clauses answer the question "For what effect?"
•Conditional clauses answer the question "Under what circumstance?"
•Contrast clauses of direct opposition show how one thing differs from another.
•Contrast clauses of concession show an unexpected result.
 Examples

● She went to bed early because she was tired.

● As soon as they arrived, we had dinner.
● They’ll send us the information if we give them our address.
Practice
IV. The sentence
 The sentence

❏ The standard definition of a sentence is that it is a group of words containing

a subject and a predicate and expressing a complete thought.

❏ A sentence has a subject (what or whom the sentence is about) and a

predicate. The predicate tells what the subject does or is or what is done to
the subject (for example, The books were left outside).
❏ The argument that money is a burden probably originated with a rich man
who was trying to counter the envy of a poor man.

In this sentence, The argument that money is a burden is the complete subject.
Argument is the simple subject modified by the adjective clause that money is a
burden. The rest of the sentence is the complete predicate. The simple predicate
is the verb originated.
V. Functions
 Form vs. Function
❏ There is no one-to- one relationship between a particular form (type of
phrase) and a particular function. For instance, an NP can function as
Subject, Direct Object, Indirect Object, Subject Complement and Object
Complement.

Form = NP Function
[The boy] was playing alone in his room. Subject
I know [the boy (who is playing in his room)]. Direct Object
I gave [the boy] a toy to play with. Indirect Object
John is [the boy (I was talking about)]. Subject Complement
I consider John [the boy (for the job)]. Object Complement
❏ Conversely, one particular function can be fulfilled by a variety of forms. For
instance, an Adjunct can be an NP, a PrepP or an AdvP:

Function = Adjunct Form

I enjoy reading the newspaper [every day]. NP
She loves tending flowers [in the garden]. PrepP
They’ll be taking the train [early tomorrow]. AdvP
 Subject/Predicate
❏ In a sentence, we introduce someone or something and then say something
about it. The functional label for the ‘someone or something’ is the Subject

❏ We use the term Predicate to capture the function of ‘what is said about the
Subject’. In other words, the Predicate is everything in a sentence except the
Subject.

❏ Example:
[The foreign secretary] [announced that military forces might be withdrawn
quickly.]
 Other functions
Each of the constituents that make up the Predicate also performs a function:

● Direct Object (DO)

● Indirect Object (IO)
● Subject Complement (SC)
● Object Complement (OC)
● Adjunct
● Prepositional Object (PO)
● Prepositional Complement (PC)
 Examples
Below you will find some more examples that illustrate the other functions:

● More than 200 people lost their lives. (DO)

● Please give her your telephone number. (IO)
● Please give your telephone number to my mother. (IO)
● They are English teachers/exhausted. (SC)
● She appeared tired/out of sorts. (SC)
● His name was Benjamin, but they called him Ben. (OC)
● They painted their house red. (OC)
● I’ll finish the work tomorrow. (Adjunct)
● Henry started walking when he was thirteen months old. (Adjunct)
● My grandmother gave me this bracelet for my fifteenth birthday. (Adjunct)
● Sarah depends on her husband financially. (PO)
● I ran into an old school friend when I was on a holiday in Scotland. (PO)
● Put those books on my desk. (PC)
 My daughter bought a completely new smartphone over the summer

❏ Scanning this sentence from left to right, we can name each individual word
as follows:
1. my: determiner
2. daughter: noun
3. bought: verb
4. a: determiner
5. completely: adverb
6. new: adjective
7. smartphone: noun
8. over: preposition
9. the: determiner
10. summer: noun
 Paradigmatic vs. Syntagmatic relationships
❏ —Words in a language can be described in terms of two types of
relationships: paradigmatic and syntagmatic.

❏ A paradigmatic relationship refers to the relationship between words that are

the same parts of speech and which can be substituted for each other in the
same position within a given sentence. (such as cat with dog)

❏ —A syntagmatic relationship refers to the relationship a word has with other

words that surround it. for example, in The cat sat on the mat, cat with the and
sat on the mat).
Consider the following sentences:

● They closed the cinema last month.

● The weather improved over the weekend.
● He is an electrician.
● The radio played a track that I love.
● This class will visit a museum next week.
● The paper has published the allegations.
● The president hasn’t appeared on the news since the scandal erupted.
 Sentence 1

This is a simple sentence containing a Subject, Object and Adverbial. Each of these take
the form of a noun phrase. The verb in this example is transitive, which simply means that it
takes an Object.
 Sentence 2
In this case, we again have a Subject in the form of a noun phrase. The verb on this
occasion is intransitive, i.e. it does not take an Object. It is followed by a preposition phrase
that functions as Adverbial.
 Sentence 3
In this sentence, the Subject takes the form of a pronoun. The verb is a special kind of verb
called a linking verb (also called copula). The noun phrase that follows it functions as Subject
Complement. The latter gives information about the Subject.
 Sentence 4
Here again we have a sentence that contains a transitive verb (play). Both the Subject and
Object are in the form of a noun phrase. In this case the noun phrase that functions as
Object has a relative clause inside it. Relative clauses give additional information about the
noun they go with, in this case track.
 Sentence 5
In this example, the Subject and Object are again in the form of a noun phrase. We also
have an Adverbial in the form of a noun phrase. This sentence shows very clearly why we
should keep the levels of form and function apart: a noun phrase can perform different kinds
of functions. What about the verb? Well, in this case we have two of them: visit is the main
verb, preceded by the modal auxiliary verb will. The latter indicates that ‘visiting a museum’
is an event foreseen in the future.
 Sentence 6
In this example, apart from a Subject and Object in the shape of a noun phrase, we again
have two verbs, namely the auxiliary verb have and the past participle form of the main verb
publish. Together these two verbs form the perfect form of the verb have.
 Sentence 7
In this last example, the verb is intransitive. It is followed by two units functioning as
Adverbial: one is a preposition phrase; the other is a subordinate clause introduced by the
subordinating conjunction since. Within the subordinate clause the scandal functions as
Subject. Because erupt is an intransitive verb, there is no Object in this clause.