Complex Numbers

Department of Mathematics and Computer Science

Eindhoven University of Technology

2023
CONTENTS 1

Contents
1 Complex numbers 1
1.1 Complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Real and imaginary part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Addition and subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Fractions and division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Exponentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7 Complex conjugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2 The complex plane 11

2.1 The complex plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Addition in the plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 The absolute value and the argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Polar coordinates and multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5 Polar coordinates and division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6 Polar coordinates and exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.7 Polar coordinates and conjugates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.8 The complex exponential function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3 Complex equations 22
3.1 Soving equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2 The Power Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3 Equations involving the exponential funtion . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.4 Polynomial equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.5 Quadratic equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.6 The fundamental theorem of algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.7 Division with remainder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.8 Cardano’s formula [not for exam] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1 Complex numbers 1

1 Complex numbers
The equation
x2 = −1
does not have a solution in the real numbers. Already in the sixteenth
century it became clear that having a solution x to this equation would
make various computations easier and lead to the determination of solutions
of not only quadratic equations like x2 = −1 or x2 + 2x + 10 = 0, but also
cubic ones like x3 + x + 1 = 0. The most famous ones are the formulas of
Cardano, providing solutions to arbitrary cubic equations. See Section 3.8.
So, we introduce a new number (which is not real) with the name i satisfying

i2 = −1.

At first, this may look weird. But introducing new numbers is something
we have seen before. Indeed, think of the introduction of zero or negative
integers. We started with counting objects and learned about 1, 2, 3, . . . , the
positive integers. The numbers 0, −1, −2, . . . were introduced later. They
have been introduced as solutions to equations of the form

x+a=b

where a and b are positive integers with a ⩾ b. Then we learned about

fractions to solve equations like

ax + b = c,

with a, b, c arbitrary integers, and (square) roots to solve equations like

ax2 + bx + c = 0.

Finally irrational numbers like π or e have been introduced. All these num-
bers are real numbers. But now we enter the new world of complex numbers.
These extensions correspond to the following chain of sets of numbers:

N ⊆ Z ⊆ Q ⊆ R ⊆ C.

Here N denotes the set of natural numbers, Z the set of integers, Q the set
of rational numbers (i.e. fractions), R the set of real numbers and finally C
denotes the set of complex numbers.
 1.1 Complex numbers 2

1.1 Complex numbers

A complex number is an expression of the form a + bi where a and b are real

numbers. For i holds that i · i = i2 = −1. So the symbol i is now reserved
for this special complex number.
We denote the set of all complex numbers with C.
If b equals 1, then write a + i instead of a + 1i. If b = −1, then write a − i
instead of a − 1i. If a = 0, then just write bi, and if b = 0, then just write
a. In particular, write i instead of 0 + 1i. And instead of 0 + 0i we write 0.
Instead of a + bi we also write a + ib,
√ especially
√ if there is a risk of confusion.
For example, one prefers to write i 2 than 2i, because in the last formula
perhaps it is not so clear that the square root only applies to 2.
We may also write bi + a instead of a + bi.
The complex numbers a + 0i with a real are the ordinary real numbers. So
every real number a is also a complex number.
Complex numbers are often represented by a single letter. The letter √z is
then favorite, followed by the letter w, for example: define z = 1 + i 3.
The use of these letters is not an obligation, but more of a habit among
scientists.
If we are introducing a complex number as a + bi, then our convection is
that we consider a and b to be real numbers.

1.1.1 Examples.
2 = 2 + 0 · i.
1 + i is short for the complex number 1 + 1 · i.
i − 1 is the same as the complex number −1 + i.
√ √
i 3 is short for the complex number 0 + 3 · i.

1.2 Real and imaginary part

Two complex numbers a + bi and c + di are equal only if a = c and b =

d. Every pair of real numbers (a, b) therefore is associated to exactly one
complex number, namely a + bi. The number a is called the real part of
a + bi, and the number b is called the imaginary part of a + bi. So both the
real and imaginary parts of a complex number are themselves real.
 1.3 Addition and subtraction 3

A complex number whose real part equals 0 is called purely imaginary. So

it is of the form bi with b real.
Special notations have been introduced for real part and imaginary part:

Re(a + bi) = a

and
Im(a + bi) = b.

1.2.1 Examples.
√
Re(i 3 + 2) = 2.
Im(7 − 6i) = −6. Pay attention: the imaginary part is itself a real number.
The numbers 3 + 4i and 3 + 5i are different because their imaginary parts
are different: Im(3 + 4i) = 4 ̸= 5 = Im(3 + 5i).
√ √ √
The complex number i 3 is purely √ imaginary: Re(i 3) = 0, but 1 + i 3 is
not purely imaginary: Re(1 + i 3) = 1 ̸= 0.

1.3 Addition and subtraction

1.3.1 Definition. The sum of two complex numbers a + bi and c + di is defined

as:
(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i.

The real part of the sum is the sum of the real parts of the two original
complex numbers. The imaginary part of the sum is the sum of the imagi-
nary parts of the two complex numbers. In a similar way we can define the
difference of two complex numbers:

(a + bi) − (c + di) = (a − c) + (b − d)i.

These operations generalise the addition and subtraction of reals: if a and

c are real numbers, and add them as complex numbers a + 0 · i and c + 0 · i,
we obtain:

(a + 0 · i) + (c + 0 · i) = (a + c) + (0 + 0)i = (a + c) + 0 · i.

The complex number (a + c) + 0 · i is of course the real number a + c.

 1.4 Multiplication 4

1.3.2 Examples. We can add two complex numbers. For example:

(3 + i) + (2 − 4i) = (3 + 2) + (1 − 4)i = 5 − 3i.

And we can also subtract two complex numbers:

(23 − 7i) − (8 + 32i) = (23 − 8) + (−7 − 32)i = 15 − 39i.

1.3.3 Example. If bi and di are purely imaginary, then so is their sum:

bi + di = (0 + bi) + (0 + di) = (0 + 0) + (b + d)i = (b + d)i.

Similarly we have for subtraction:

bi − di = (0 + bi) − (0 + di) = (0 − 0) + (b − d)i = (b − d)i.

1.4 Multiplication

We will now define multiplication of complex numbers.

We will base the definition of multiplication on the usual rules of multipli-
cation of real numbers, and the extra rule that

i2 = −1.

So, for the product (a + bi)(c + di) of the two complexe numbers a + bi and
c + di we find

(a + bi)(c + di) = ac + adi + bic + bidi = ac + bdi2 + (ad + bc)i.

Now using that i2 = −1 we find:

(a+bi)(c+di) = ac+bdi2 +(ad+bc)i = ac+bd(−1)+(ad+bc)i = (ac−bd)+(ad+bc)i.

This leads to the following definition of the product.

1.4.1 Definition. The product of the complex numbers a+bi and c+di is defined
as:
(a + bi) · (c + di) := ac − bd + (ad + bc)i.

(Notice that we often do not write the multiplication symbol · and write
(a + bi)(c + di) for (a + bi) · (c + di).)
It is now straightforward to check the following rules for addition and mul-
tiplication. Let a + bi, c + di and e + f i be three complex numbers. Then
we have
 1.4 Multiplication 5

ˆ (a + bi) + (c + di) = (c + di) + (a + bi), addition is commutative.

ˆ (a + bi)(c + di) = (c + di)(a + bi), multiplication is commutative.

ˆ ((a + bi) + (c + di)) + (e + f i) = (a + bi) + ((c + di) + (e + f i)), addition

is associative.

ˆ ((a + bi) · (c + di)) · (e + f i) = (a + bi) · ((c + di) · (e + f i)), multiplication

is associative.

ˆ (a + bi) · ((c + di) + (e + f i)) = (a + bi) · (c + di) + (a + bi) · (e + f i),

multiplication distributes over addition.

Multiplication of complex numbers generalises multiplication of real num-

bers. Indeed, starting with two real numbers a and c, the product of the
complex numbers a + 0 · i and c + 0 · i is

(a + 0 · i)(c + 0 · i) = (ac − 0 · 0) + (a · 0 + 0 · c)i = ac + 0 · i.

So, the real number ac is the product of the two complex numbers a and c.

1.4.2 Example. According to the definition of the product we find (2+3i)(1−2i)

to be equal to

(2+3i)(1−2i) = 2·1−3·(−2)+(2·(−2)+3·1)i = 2+6+(−4+3)i = 8+(−1)i = 8−i.

We can also use the common rules for multiplication together with i2 = −1:

(2+3i)(1−2i) = 2·1+3i·1−2·(2i)−(3i)·(2i) = 2+3i−4i−6i2 = 2−i+6 = 8−i.

1.4.3 Example. The product of two purely imaginary numbers is real:

ai · bi = ab · i2 = ab · −1 = −ab.

1.4.4 Example. As multiplication of complex numbers satisfies the common rules,

we also have

(a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 − (bi)2 = a2 − (−b2 ) = a2 + b2 .

This can also be deduced using the definition of the product:

(a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 − (b · −b) + (a · −b + b · a)i = a2 + b2 + 0 · i = a2 + b2 .

 1.5 Fractions and division 6

1.5 Fractions and division

Division in C is also possible:

1.5.1 Definition. For every complex number z = a + bi ̸= 0 we define

1 a b
= 2 2
− 2 i.
z a +b a + b2

The number 1
z is also denoted by z −1 or 1/z and is called the inverse of z.
For all complex numbers w and z ̸= 0 we define
w 1
=w· .
z z
This definition is inspired by the following:

(a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 + b2 .

So, we find for all z = a + bi ̸= 0:

 
1 a−bi
z· z = (a + bi) a2 +b2
2 2
= aa2 +b
+b2
= 1,

which is what we expect from the definition of 1/z.

Several calculation rules apply to fractions and division, which we also know
for real numbers. We name a few.

ˆ If zw = 1, then w = 1/z and z = 1/w.

ˆ For all w, z ̸= 0 and u ̸= 0 we have

w wu
= .
z zu

ˆ For all w, z ̸= 0 and u we have

w u w+u
+ = .
z z z

ˆ For all w ̸= 0 and z ̸= 0 we have

1 z
= .
w/z w
 1.6 Exponentiation 7

1+i
1.5.2 Example. Calculate .
2+i
We can use the definition for w/z, but it can be done differently. If we
come across a fraction with denominator a + bi, multiply numerator and
denominator by a − bi. According to the second calculation rule, the value
of the fraction does not change. The trick is that (a + bi)(a − bi) is a real
number: (a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 − (bi)2 = a2 + b2 . We illustrate this method
by means of an example.

1+i (1 + i)(2 − i)
=
2+i (2 + i)(2 − i)
2 − i + 2i − i2
=
22 + 12
3+i
=
5
3 1
= + i.
5 5

1.6 Exponentiation

1.6.1 Definition. For every complex number z and for every positive integer n
the n-th power of z is defined as

n times
n
z }| {
z = z · z · z···z.

For exponents less than or equal to 0, we make the following convention:

z 0 = 1.
1
zn = if n < 0.
z −n
The usual exponentiation properties are also valid for complex numbers. We
mention a few:

ˆ z m · z n = z m+n ,

ˆ (z m )n = z mn ,

ˆ (zw)n = z n wn
 1.7 Complex conjugation 8

We may think that once we start defining negative exponents, we will im-
mediately continue with fractions as exponents, but that is disappointing.
√
Just consider (3 − 4i)1/2 or 3 − 4i. If we try to define this number we are
looking for a complex number z with z 2 = 3 − 4i. There are two solutions:
z = 2 − i and z = i − 2. Which one should we use?
This is similar to the square root of a positive real number. There are two
solutions of the equation x2 = 4, namely x√= 2 and x = −2. We then choose
the positive solution as the definition of 4. But none of the solutions of
z 2 = 3 − 4i is positive. There is also no other way to come up with a
sensible√ordering of the complex numbers so that we can unambiguously
define 3 − 4i. Therefore, we define powers of complex numbers only for
integer exponents.

1.6.2 Example. The complex number z −1 is equal to 1/z. The notation z −1 is

therefore often used as an alternative notation for 1/z.
√
1.6.3 Example. Define z = − 12 + 12 i 3, then
1 1 1√ 1 1 1 √
z2 = − 2. · · 3 − · 3 = − − i 3,
4 2 2 4 2 2
and
  2 
1 1 √ 1 1 √ 1 √ 2 1 3
  
1
z 3 = z·z 2 = − + i 3 − − i 3 = − − i 3 = + = 1.
2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4
So there is a complex number, unequal to 1, whose cube is equal to 1.

1.6.4 Example. Take z from the previous example. Define z1 = z 2 , then the
cube of z1 is also equal to 1:

3
2
z13 = z 2 = z 6 = z 3 = 12 = 1.

We now have √ three complex √numbers whose cube is equal to 1, namely

z = − 12 + 12 i 3, z1 = − 21 − 12 i 3 and 1. These are also the only ones, as we
will see later in Section 3.6.

1.7 Complex conjugation

1.7.1 Definition. For each complex number z = a + bi we define the complex

conjugate z of z by
z = a − bi.
 1.7 Complex conjugation 9

We often say conjugate instead of complex conjugate.

Properties
ˆ A complex number z is real if and only if z = z.
z+z
ˆ Re(z) = .
2
z−z
ˆ Im(z) = .
2i
ˆ If z = a + bi, then z · z = a2 + b2 .
ˆ z = z.
ˆ z + w = z + w.
ˆ b − w = z − w.
ˆ zw = z · w.
ˆ z/w = z/w.
ˆ z n = (z)n for all integer exponents n.
The expression zz is useful in many calculations. An example of this can be
found when writing 1/z in standard form. Indeed, for z = a + bi we have:
1 1 z z a − ib a b
= · = = 2 2
= 2 2
− 2 i.
z z z zz a +b a +b a + b2
1.7.2 Example. The conjugate of 2 + 3i is 2 − 3i. The conjugate of 1 − 2i is
1 + 2i. The conjugate of i is −i.
√ √ √
1.7.3 Example. The conjugate of 2 is 2, because 2 is a real number.
1+i
1.7.4 Example. Calculate .
2+i

1+i (1 + i)(2 + i)
=
2+i (2 + i)(2 + i)
(1 + i)(2 − i)
=
22 + 12
3+i
=
5
3 1
= + i.
5 5
 1.8 Exercises 10

1.7.5 Example. Calculate (1 + i)4 (1 + i)4 .

We can of course calculate the fourth power of 1 + i and 1 − i, but it can be
done faster:

4
(1 + i)4 (1 + i)4 = (1 + i)(1 + i) = (12 + 12 )4 = 24 = 16.

1.8 Exercises

Write the following complex numbers in the form a + bi, where a, b ∈ R

1.8.1 Exercise. Write the following sums and differences of complex numbers in
the form a + bi, where a, b ∈ R.

a. (1 + i) + (3 − i)

b. (1 + 2i) + (2 + i)

c. (2 − i) − (2 + i)

d. (3 + 2i) + (1 + 2i)

1.8.2 Exercise. Write the following products of complex numbers in the form
a + bi, where a, b ∈ R.

a. (1 + i)2

b. (1 + 2i)(2 + i)

c. (2 − i)(2 + i)

d. (3 + 2i)(1 + 2i)

1.8.3 Exercise. Write the following fractions of complex numbers in the form
a + bi, where a, b ∈ R.

1
a. (1+i)2

1+2i
b. 2+i

2−i
c. 2−i

3+2i
d. 1+2i
 2 The complex plane 11

2 The complex plane

2.1 The complex plane

A complex number can be seen as a point in the plane. The complex number
a + bi then corresponds to the point with coordinates (a, b). This way we
can think of the set of complex numbers as the set of points in R2 .
So, while complex numbers are simply points in the plane, several concepts
get other names referring to the complex numbers. The plane itself is now
called the complex plane. The x-axis is called real axis, and the y-axis is
called imaginary axis. The positive real axis is the portion of the x-axis
with points with a positive x-coordinate, and the negative real axis is the
portion of the x-axis with points with a negative x-coordinate.
From now the point (0, 0) is called 0, and the point (1, 0) is called 1 and the
point (0, 1) is called i.
The x-coordinate of a complex number z is the real part of z, and the
y-coordinate is the imaginary part.

2.1.1 Example. We draw the complex number z = 3 + 2i in the plane:

Imaginary axis

3
3 + 2i
2

Real axis
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1

−2

−3

−4

2.1.2 Examples. Consider a complex number z = a + bi.

If b = 0 then z = a + 0 · i = a + 0 = a, in other words: z is a real number.
On the other hand, the complex number z corresponds to the point (a, 0),
and therefore lies at the real axis. So the real axis (the x-axis) corresponds
to the real line.
2.2 Addition in the plane 12

If a = 0 holds z = 0 + b · i = bi, in other words: z is purely imaginary. On

the other hand, the complex number z corresponds to the point (0, b), and
therefore lies at the imaginary axis. The imaginary axis (the y-axis) thus
contains the purely imaginary complex numbers.

2.2 Addition in the plane

The addition of two complex numbers z and w can be geometrically con-

structed with the parallelogram construction. This means that the points 0,
z, w and z + w form the vertices of a parallelogram. Here 0 and z + w are
one diagonal, and z and w are on the other diagonal.

Imaginary axis z+w

Real axis

Subtraction can also be described using a parallelogram construction. We

can interpret the difference z − w as the addition

z − w = z + (−w).

The complex number −w is obtained by mirroring w by 0. So we can also

get z − w as a vertex of a parallelogram with vertices 0, z, −w and z − w.
 2.3 The absolute value and the argument 13

Imaginary axis

Real axis

z−w

−w

2.3 The absolute value and the argument

2.3.1 Definition. The absolute value or modulus of a complex number z = a + bi

is defined as the distance in the plane from 0 to z, and is written as |z|.
The argument of z ̸= 0 is defined as the angle between the segment from 0
to z and the positive real axis. It is written as arg(z).

Imaginary axis

|z|

arg(z)

Real axis

√
From the Pythagorean theorem it follows that |z| = a2 + b2 . Note that
|z|2 = a2 + b2 = zz.
The argument is measured in radians unless explicitly stated otherwise. The
argument of 0 is not defined.
The measurement of the argument is made from the positive real axis to z.
If we turn it to the left (that is, counterclockwise), the argument is positive.
And if we rotate clockwise (i.e. clockwise), the argument is negative.
 2.4 Polar coordinates and multiplication 14

When determining the angle, it is allowed to make one or more extra turns.
This makes no difference to the final direction in which z lies. So the argu-
ment is determined up to an integer multiple of 2π.
We can always find one (but no more than one) value for the argument in
the interval (−π, π]. This is called the principal value of the argument.
√
2.3.2 Example. The absolute value of i is 1: |i| = 02 + 12 = 1. The argument
is the angle that the imaginary axis makes with the real axis, where we start
at the real axis. If we rotate counterclockwise, the angle is 90◦ = π2 radians.
If we turn clockwise, the angle is 270◦ = 3π 2 radians. So we can say both
arg(i) = π2 and arg(i) = − 3π2 . But arg(i) = 5π
2 is also allowed.
There are actually infinitely many possible values for arg(i): for every integer
k holds arg(i) = π2 + 2kπ. There is exactly one principal value of arg(i),
namely π2 .

2.3.3 Example. For a complex number x on the positive real axis holds: |x| = x
and arg(x) = 0.

2.3.4 Example. The principal value of the argument of z is the smallest angle
that determines the direction of z. Only if a complex number x is on the
negative real axis are these angles equal. In that case arg(x) = π applies,
but arg(x) = −π is also good. By definition, the principal value is equal to
+π. This choice is arbitrary and has no further meaning.

2.4 Polar coordinates and multiplication

2.4.1 Definition. A complex number z, different from 0, is determined by its

modulus |z| together with its argument arg(z). Indeed we have

z = |z| · (cos(arg(z)) + sin(arg(z))).

Together (|z|, arg(z)) form the polar coordinates of z.

Although for z = 0 the argument is not defined, we can still assign (0, 0) to
be its polar coordinates.

Suppose two complex numbers z and w are represented in polar coordinates

(r, ϕ) and (s, θ) respectively, where r = |z|, s = |w|, ϕ = arg(z) and θ =
arg(w). So
z = r(cos(ϕ) + i sin(ϕ))
2.4 Polar coordinates and multiplication 15

and
w = s(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)).

Then for their product we find, using trigonometric formulas for sin(ϕ + θ)
and cos(ϕ + θ):

zw = r(cos(ϕ) + i sin(ϕ)) · s(cos(θ) + i sin(θ))

= rs · (cos(ϕ) cos θ − sin(ϕ) sin(θ) + i · (cos(ϕ) sin(θ) + sin(ϕ) cos(θ)))
= rs(cos(ϕ + θ) + i · sin(ϕ + θ)).

The representation in polar coordinates of zw is equal to

zw = (rs)(cos(ϕ + θ) + i sin(ϕ + θ)).

In other words:
|zw| = |z| · |w|
and
arg(zw) = arg(z) + arg(w).

A warning is in order with the last equality: because the argument of a

complex number is determined up to an integer multiple of 2π it can happen
that the equality holds up to multiples of 2π. So we say

arg(zw) = arg(z) + arg(w) + 2kπ

for some integer k.

The product of z and w can be constructed geometrically. Namely, it holds
that the triangle with vertices 0 , z and zw is similar to the triangle with
vertices 0, 1 and w. Moreover the triangle with vertices 0 , w and zw is
similar to the triangle with vertices 0, 1 and z.
 2.4 Polar coordinates and multiplication 16

Imaginary axis zw

w z
arg(z)

arg(w)

arg(z)

Real axis

2.4.2 Example. From z and w it is given that

|z| = 2
π
arg(z) =
3
and
|w| = 3
π
arg(z) =
6
Calculate zw.
For the product zw applies
|zw| = |z| · |w| = 2 · 3 = 6,
π π π
arg(zw) = arg(z) + arg(w) = + = .
3 6 2
So
zw = 6 (cos(π/2) + i sin(π/2)) = 6(0 + 1 · i) = 6i.
 2.5 Polar coordinates and division 17

2.5 Polar coordinates and division

Suppose two complex numbers z and w are represented by polar coordinates

(r, ϕ) and (s, θ) respectively, so

z = r(cos(ϕ) + i sin(ϕ))

and
w = s(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)),
where r = |z|, s = |w|, ϕ = arg(z) and θ = arg(w). Then the representation
in polar coordinates of z/w is equal to
z r
= (cos(ϕ − θ) + i sin(ϕ − θ)).
w s
In other words:
z |z|
=
w |w|
and
arg(z/w) = arg(z) − arg(w) + 2kπ
for some integer k.
A special case is 1/z. In that case applies
1 1 1
= (cos(0 − ϕ) + i sin(0 − ϕ)) = (cos(ϕ) − i sin(ϕ)).
z r r

If z is on the unity circle, then |z| = 1, and so

1
z −1 = = cos(ϕ) − i sin(ϕ) = (cos(ϕ) − i sin(ϕ) = z.
z
For points on the unit circle, inverting is the same as conjugating. That’s
no surprise, after all z −1 = 1/z = zz
z
.
The quotient of z and w can be constructed geometrically. Namely, it holds
that the triangle has vertices 0 , z/w and z is similar to the triangle with
vertices 0, 1 and w. The other side is the triangle with vertices 0 , w and z
is similar to the triangle with vertices 0, 1 and z/w.

2.5.1 Example. From z and w it is given that

|z| = 2
π
arg(z) =
3
 2.6 Polar coordinates and exponents 18

and

|w| = 3
π
arg(z) =
6
Calculate z/w.
For the quotient z/w holds

|z| 2
|z/w| = = ,
|w| 3
π π π
arg(z/w) = arg(z) − arg(w) = − = .
3 6 6
So
1√ 1√
 
z 2 2 1 1
= (cos(π/6) + i sin(π/6)) = 3+ i = 3 + i.
w 3 3 2 2 3 3

2.6 Polar coordinates and exponents

Because exponentiation is repeated multiplication, we can use the polar

coordinates when exponentiating as well. Let

z = r(cos(ϕ) + i sin(ϕ)),

and let n be an integer. Then the representation in polar coordinates of z n

is equal to
z n = rn (cos(nϕ) + i sin(nϕ)).
In other words:
|z n | = |z|n
and
arg(z n ) = n · arg(z) + 2kπ
for some integer k.

2.6.1 Example. The advantage of using polar coordinates only comes into its
own with large exponents. Suppose we want to calculate (1 + i)20 . If we
were to do this the usual way, we would have to eliminate parentheses in
the expression
(1 + i)(1 + i) · · · (1 + i) .
| {z }
20 times
 2.7 Polar coordinates and conjugates 19

It is clear that this is hopeless work. But with the help of polar coordinates
it is becomes straightforward.
First we write 1 + i using polar coordinates:
√
1 + i = 2(cos(π/4) + i sin(π/4)).

Then
√ 20 π π
(1 + i)20 = 2 (cos(20 · ) + i sin(20 · ))
4 4
 20
= 21/2 (cos(5π) + i sin(5π))
= 210 (−1 + 0 · i) = −210 = −1024.

2.7 Polar coordinates and conjugates

Let
z = r(cos(ϕ) + i sin(ϕ)),
Then the representation in polar coordinates of the conjugate z is equal to

z = r(cos(ϕ) − i sin(ϕ)).

Note that cos(−ϕ) = cos(ϕ), and that sin(−ϕ) = − sin(ϕ). So we can also
write:
z = r(cos(−ϕ) + i sin(−ϕ)).
In other words:
|z| = |z|
and
arg(z) = −arg(z).

Geometrically, to conjugate means to mirror with respect to the real axis.

We can achieve the same effect by changing the angle we need to turn.

2.7.1 Example. Suppose z = 1 + i, then arg(z) = π/4. For the conjugate of z

holds: arg(z) = −arg(z) = −π/4.
 2.8 The complex exponential function 20

2.8 The complex exponential function

2.8.1 Definition. Let z = a + bi be a complex number. Then ez is defined to be

the complex number
ea · (cos(b) + i sin(b)).

The function Exp : C → C defined by

Exp(z) = ez

is called the complex exponential function.

Notice that when we restrict the function Exp to the real axis R, then it is
just the well known real exponential function.

2.8.2 Examples. We have the following identities:

π
√
3
e3i = 1
2 +i 2 ,
π
e 2 i = i,
eπi = −1.
This latter formula is often written as

eiπ + 1 = 0

known as Euler’s formula. The famous physicist Richard Feynman called it

the most remarkable formula in mathematics.

Notice that for z = a + bi and w = c + di we have

ˆ |ez | = ea ;

ˆ arg(ez ) = b; The polar coordinates of ez are (ea , b). In particular, we

find that for a purely imaginary z we have that |ez | = 1.

ˆ ez+w = ez · ew .

ˆ ez = ez

ˆ e−z = 1
ez .

Furthermore we find
 2.9 Exercises 21

eib +e−ib
ˆ cos(b) = 2

eib −e−ib
ˆ sin(b) = 2i

We can also extend the latter formulas to extend the functions cos and sin
to complex functions where for all z ∈ C we have

eiz + e−iz eiz − e−iz

cos(z) = and sin(z) =
2 2i

2.9 Exercises
1
2.9.1 Exercise. Draw the numbers z, z and z in the complex plane, where z
equals:

a. 1 + i
√
b. 2 + i2 3
√
c. 3 + i
1√
d. 1+i 3

2.9.2 Exercise. Determine the modulus and the argument of the following com-
plex numbers.

a. 1 + i
√
b. 1 + i 3
1√
c. 1+i 3

d. 4 − 4i

e. (1 + i)5
√
f. ( 3 + i)7
1
g. (1−i)4

2.9.3 Exercise. Write the following complex numbers in the form a + bi:

a. e1−i
 3 Complex equations 22

b. e2−iπ
π
c. eln(2)+i 3

d. ei

e. cos(i)

f. sin(π + i)

g. cos(iπ)

2.9.4 Exercise. Write the following complex numbers in the form ea+bi :

a. 3i

b. 4 + 4i
√
c. 1 + i 3

d. 1 − i

2.9.5 Exercise. Determine the modus and argument of yje following complex
numbers, and draw them in the plane.
√
a. 3 − 2i
√
b. − 3 − 2i
√ √
c. ( 3 − 2i) + 3 − 2i
√ √
d. ( 3 − 2i) · ( 3 − 2i)

2.9.6 Exercise. Let ϕ ∈ R. Express cos(3ϕ) as well as sin(3ϕ) in terms of cos(ϕ)

and sin(ϕ).

3 Complex equations

3.1 Soving equations

Complex numbers come in handy when solving equations. The real numbers
sometimes fall short in that respect. The equation z 2 = −1 has no real
solutions, but does allow for complex ones.
 3.1 Soving equations 23

Complex equations can be considered to be systems of real equations, be-

cause a complex number is determined by two quantities, namely the real
part and the imaginary part. An equation of the form f (z) = g(z), with
f (z) and g(z) complex expressions in z can we then split it into a real and
an imaginary part:

Re(f (z)) = Re(g(z)),

Im(f (z)) = Im(g(z)).

This yields a system of two equations with two unknowns Re(z) and Im(z).
However, it is not always necessary to split the equation into the real and
imaginary parts, as we can see in the first example.
There are endless types of equations, each with its own solution method.
On this site we will review the most important ones. On this page we give
some examples, so that we can get a taste for it.

3.1.1 Example. Solve 2z = iz + 5.

First we isolate z. Bring the term iz to the left-hand side:

2z − iz = 5.

Remove z from parentheses:

(2 − i)z = 5.

Divide left and right sides by 2 − i:

5
z= .
2−i
This solves the equation.
We are not done yet, the solution is not yet in standard form.

5 5(2 + i) 5(2 + i)
z= = = = 2 + i.
2−i (2 − i)(2 + i) 5

Finally, we check if 2 + i is indeed a solution:

iz + 5 = i(2 + i) + 5 = 2i − 1 + 5 = 2i + 4 = 2(i + 2) = 2z.

 3.1 Soving equations 24

3.1.2 Example. Solve z = iz.

Write z = a + bi, then
z = iz
a + bi = i(a + bi)
a + bi = i(a − bi)
a + bi = ai + b
a − b + (b − a)i = 0
This means that a = b, or z = a + bi = a + ai = a(1 + i). Each value of a
yields a solution. Suppose z = a(1 + i), then
iz = ia(1 + i) = ai(1 − i) = ai + a = a(i + 1) = z.

So there are infinitely many solutions. The solutions form a line, namely
the line through 0 and 1 + i.

3.1.3 Example. Solve |z − i| = |z − 1|.

We can solve this equation by interpreting absolute values as a way of mea-
suring distances: |v − w| is the distance between the points u and v. The
solution of |z − i| = |z − 1| consists of all points z whose distance to 1 is
equal is on the distance to i. So this is the perpendicular bisector of i and
1, in other words: these are the complex numbers a(1 + i) with a any real
number.
The equation can also be solved algebraically. Since there are absolute values
in the equation, square roots are likely to occur in the calculation to arise.
To avoid this, we square the left and right sides of the equation first.
|z − i|2 = |z − 1|2
(z − i)(z − i) = (z − 1)(z − 1)
(z − i)(z + i) = (z − 1)(z − 1)
zz + iz − iz + 1 = zz − z − z + 1
iz − iz = −z − z
iz + z = iz − z
(i + 1)z = (i − 1)z
i−1
z = z
i+1
Since i−1
i+1 = i the equation |z − i| = |z − 1| can be reduced to z = iz, the
comparison from the previous example.
 3.2 The Power Equation 25

3.1.4 Example. Solve z 2 − 2z + 2 = 0.

This is a quadratic equation. We can solve quadratic equations using com-
pletion of the square:
z 2 − 2z + 2 = 0
z 2 − 2z + 1 + 1 = 0
(z − 1)2 + 1 = 0
(z − 1)2 = −1
Substitute w = z − 1, the equation becomes: w2 = −1. One solution is
obvious: w = i. But w = −i is also a solution, so
w = z − 1 = ±i,
in other words
z = 1 ± i.

3.2 The Power Equation

The equation z n = w (with unknown z and given complex number w ̸= 0

and positive integer n) solve using polar coordinates. Suppose the polar
notation of w is w = s(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)), with s = |w| and θ = arg(w). We
also write z in polar form: z = r(cos(ϕ) + i sin(ϕ)). Note that r = |z| and
ϕ = arg(z) are unknown. We determine r and ϕ separately.
First we take the absolute value of the left and right sides: |z|n = |w|, that
is
rn = s.
√
Because s = |w| > 0, r can be calculated using the nth root: r = n s.
We determine the argument ϕ of z by considering that except for an integer
multiple of 2π arg(z n ) is equal to n · arg(z). So
nϕ = narg(z) = arg(z n ) + 2kπ = arg(w) + 2kπ = θ + 2kπ
for an integer k. So
θ 2kπ
ϕ= + .
n n
The solutions have been determined:
p
zk = n |w|(cos(ϕk ) + i sin(ϕk )),

with ϕk = arg(w) 2kπ

n + n . It suffices to choose the numbers k in 0, 1, 2 . . . , n−1.
So we always get exactly n different solutions z0 , z1 , z2 . . . , zn−1 .
 3.2 The Power Equation 26

3.2.1 Example. Solve z 4 = −4.

√ n = 4 and w = −4. It holds that
So given is √ s = |w| = 4 and θ = arg(w) = π.
So |z| = 4 4 = 41/4 = (22 )1/4 = 21/2 = 2.
For the z argument, use the formula for ϕk :
arg(w) 2kπ π 2kπ π π
ϕk = + = + = +k
n n 4 4 4 2
with k = 0, 1, 2, 3. This calculates four values:
π
ϕ0 = ,
4
π π 3π
ϕ1 = + = ,
4 2 4
π π 5π
ϕ2 = + 2 = ,
4 2 4
π π 7π
ϕ3 = + 3 = .
4 2 4
This provides four solutions:
√
z0 = 2(cos(ϕ0 ) + i sin(ϕ0 ))
√  π   π 
= 2 cos + i sin
4  4
√ √ √

1 1
= 2 2+ i 2
2 2
= 1 + i.
With similar calculations we get the other solutions z1 = −1 + i, z2 = −1 − i
and z3 = 1 − i.

3.2.2 Example. The equation z 2 = w has one solution if w = 0 (namely z = 0),

and two solutions as w ̸= 0. In that case the solutions are (with θ = arg(w))
    
p θ θ
z0 = |w| cos + i sin
2 2
and     
p θ θ
z1 = |w| cos + π + i sin + pi .
2 2
Note that cos(a + π) = − cos(a) and sin(a + π) = − sin(a), so z1 = −z0 .
That is why the solutions of z 2 = w are often described as
    
p θ θ
z0,1 = ± |w| cos + i sin
2 2
 3.3 Equations involving the exponential funtion 27

3.3 Equations involving the exponential funtion

Below you find some examples in which ez plays a role.

3.3.1 Example. Solve

ez = ez .

Suppose
ez = ez .
Then
ez−z = 1
from which it follows that
e2i·Im(z) = e0 .
Hence 2Im(z) = 2kπ and Im(z) = kπ with k ∈ Z.

3.3.2 Example. Find all z ∈ C with

ez = i · eiz .

As i = eiπ/2 we find
ez = eiπ/2 · eiz = eiπ/2+iz ,
from which it follows that

ez−iπ/2−iz = 1.

But then
(1 − i)z − iπ/2 = 2kπ · i
and
iπ 1 (i − 1)π 1
z= · ( + 2k) = · ( + 2k)
1−i 2 2 2
with k ∈ Z.
 3.4 Polynomial equations 28

3.4 Polynomial equations

3.4.1 Definition. A polynomial of degree n in z is an expression of the form

an z n + an−1 z n−1 + · · · + a2 z 2 + a1 z + a0 ,

where a0 , a1 , . . . , an are complex numbers and where an ̸= 0. The numbers

a0 , a1 , . . . , an are called the coefficients of the polynomial.

3.4.2 Definition. A polynomial equation of degree n is an equation of the form

an z n + an−1 z n−1 + · · · + a2 z 2 + a1 z + a0 = 0,

where a0 , a1 , . . . , an are complex numbers and where an ̸= 0. The number

n is called the degree of the polynomial.

3.4.3 Definition. A complex number u is a solution or root of the equation

an z n + an−1 z n−1 + · · · + a2 z 2 + a1 z + a0 = 0,

if
an un + an−1 un−1 + · · · + a2 u2 + a1 u + a0 = 0.
A solution u is also called a zero of the polynomial an z n +· · ·+a2 z 2 +a1 z+a0 .

If n = 2 one also speaks of an quadratic equation. We can solve quadratic

equations with the abc-formula, even if they have complex coefficients. The
abc-formula expresses the solution in a formula in which the square root
plays a role.
There is also a formula for cubic polynomial equations, the so-called Formula
of Cardano. In this formula we will find square and cube roots.
Even for polynomial equations of degree 4 there do exist formulae for the
roots, just like the abc-formula and Cardano’s formula. However, the famous
Abel-Ruffini theorem says that for n-th degree polynomial equations with
n ⩾ 5 it is, in general, not possible to give a formula for the roots. That’s not
to say there aren’t solutions. In fact, the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
3.6.1 just says that every polynomial equation has solutions.
 3.5 Quadratic equations 29

3.4.4 Example. The equation z 2 − (2 + 2i)z + 1 + 2i = 0 is a quadratic equation

with complex coefficients. This equation has two roots. The number 1 is a
root:
12 − (2 + 2i) · 1 + 1 + 2i = 1 − 2 − 2i + 1 + 2i = 0.
The other square root is 1 + 2i:

(1+2i)2 −(2+2i)(1+2i)+1+2i = ((1+2i)−(2+2i)+1)(1+2i) = 0(1+2i) = 0.

√
3.4.5 Example. The complex number ζ = 12 + 12 i 3 is solution of the fifth degree
equation z 5 + z 4 + z 3 + z 2 + z + 1 = 0. This simply follows from equality

(z − 1)(z 5 + z 4 + z 3 + z 2 + z + 1) = z 6 − 1.

So
z6 − 1
z5 + z4 + z3 + z2 + z + 1 = .
z−1
The complex number ζ is the point on the unit circle with argument π/6,
so ζ 6 = 1, and with that we calculate easily

ζ6 − 1 1−1
ζ5 + ζ4 + ζ3 + ζ2 + ζ + 1 = = 1 1 √ = 0.
ζ −1 −2 + 2i 3

3.5 Quadratic equations

A quadratic equation is an equation of the form az 2 + bz + c = 0 with

unknown z and given complex numbers a ̸= 0, b and c. The abc-formula
is usually not useful, because it contains the square root. The square root
function is not defined for complex numbers.
We use a method to solve the quadratic equation by a method which is
called completing the square. This method takes advantage of the fact that:

(z + 21 α)2 = z 2 + 2 · 12 αz + 41 α2 = z 2 + αz + 14 α2 ,

So
z 2 + αz = (z + 12 α)2 − 41 α2 .
This explains the name completing squares: we wrote z 2 + αz as a sum of a
square (namely (z + 12 α)2 ) and a constant (− 14 α2 ).
 3.5 Quadratic equations 30

Before we can complete the square, we must first divide the quadratic equa-
tion by a.
az 2 + bz + c =0 ⇔
2 b c
z + az + a =0 ⇔
z 2 + ab z = − ac ⇔

2
2
z + 12 ab − 14 ab = − ac ⇔
b

2 1 b 2

c
z + 2a =4 a −a
2 −4ac
= b 4a 2

The number b2 − 4ac is called the discriminant of the equation. We denote

the discriminant with D. Multiply left and right by 4a2 = (2a)2 :

(2az + b)2 = D.

If we define u = 2az + b the equation is reduced to

u2 = D.

In general, D is a complex number. There are now two options:

D = 0 The only solution is u = 0, so z = −b/2a.

D ̸= 0 Solve the equation as power equation: write D polar: D = s(cos(θ) +

i sin(θ)), with s = |D| and θ = arg(D). The solutions of u2 = D are
p
u = ±ρ |D|,

where ρ = cos 2θ + i sin 2θ . Then holds for z

p
−b ± ρ |D|
z=
2a
This is the abc formula for complex quadratic equations.

Note that if D = 0 the abc formula also yields the solution −b/2a.

3.5.1 Example. If a, b and c are real numbers, the discriminant D is also real.
For D ⩾ 0 s = |D| = D and θ = arg(D) = 0, so ρ = 1. The abc formula
then becomes √
−b ± D
z= ,
2a
The old familiar abc formula as we learned it for real coefficients.
 3.6 The fundamental theorem of algebra 31

For D < 0 the real abc formula gives no solutions, but the complex one does.
In that case s = |D| = −D and θ = arg(D) = π, so ρ = cos π2 + i sin π2 =

0 + 1 · i = i . We can then reduce the abc formula to

√
−b ± i −D
z= ,
2a
Note that one solution is the conjugate of the other.
For example, take the equation x2 + x + 1 = 0. The discriminant is D =
12 − 4 · 1 · 1 = −3 < 0. The solutions are
√
−1 ± i 3 1 1 √
z= = − ± i 3.
2 2 2
2π
These solutions lie on the unit circle and have argument 3 and − 2π
3 .

3.5.2 Example. Solve z 2 − (2 + 2i)z + 1 + 2i = 0.

The discriminant is D = (2 + 2i)2 − 4(1 + 2i) = 4 + 8i − 4 − 4 − 8i = −4.
The argument of D is θ = π, so ρ = cos(π) + i sin(pi) = i, and so
p √
−b ± ρ |D| −(−(2 + 2i)) ± i 4 2 + 2i ± 2i
z= = = = 1+i±i = 1 of 1+2i.
2a 2 2

3.6 The fundamental theorem of algebra

The fundamental theorem of algebra says that every polynomial equation of

degree n ⩾ 1 has solutions. Precisely stated:

3.6.1 Theorem. (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra) Suppose

p(z) = an z n + an−1 z n−1 + · · · + a2 z 2 + a1 z + a0

is a polynomial of degree n, then there are complex numbers z1 , z2 , . . . , zn

such that

an z n + an−1 z n−1 + · · · + a2 z 2 + a1 z + a0 = an (z − z1 )(z − z2 ) · · · (z − zn ).

It is clear that z1 , z2 , . . . , zn are zeros of p(z). These are also immediately

all zeros of p(z).
The product an (z − z1 )(z − z2 ) · · · (z − zn ) is called an decomposition into
linear factors. The linear factors are the expressions z − z1 , z − z2 and so
on. The decomposition is unique, except for the order of the linear factors.
 3.6 The fundamental theorem of algebra 32

The roots z1 , z2 , . . . , zn don’t all have to be different. However, the number

of factors is equal to the degree of the polynomial. The polynomial z 2 +2z+1
can be factored as (z + 1)2 = (z + 1)(z + 1).
The main theorem just says there are roots, but the theorem doesn’t tell us
how to find them. For degree n polynomial equations with n ⩾ 5 there isn’t
even a general square root formula. This is a theorem: the Abel-Ruffini
theorem.
Sometimes we can make a global statement. For example

If all coefficients are real, and the degree is odd, then there is at
least one real zero.

Or

If all coefficients are real, and z is a square root, then z is also a

square root.

3.6.1 Example. The third-degree polynomial z 3 − 2z 2 + 1 has real coefficients,

so it has at least one real zero. The plot of the function f (x) =√x3 − 2x2 +
√
1
1+ 5 1− 5
shows that there are even three real zeros. The zeros are 1, 2 and 2 .
The decomposition into linear factors is
√ ! √ !
3 2 1+ 5 1− 5
z − 2z + 1 = (z − 1) z − z− .
2 2

3.6.2 Example. The third degree polynomial z 3 − z + 1 has real coefficients, so it

has at least one real zero. The plot of the function f (x) = x3 − x + 1 shows
that there is one real zero point. The real zero point is

1√ 1√
r r
3 1 3 1
− + 69 + − − 69 ≈ −1.3247.
2 18 2 18
There are two more zeros, but they are not real.

3.6.3 Example. The fifth-degree polynomial z 5 − z + 1 has real coefficients, so

it has at least one real zero. The plot of the function f (x) = x5 − x + 1
shows that this zero point is between −2 and −1. That zero point is the
only real zero point: the other zero points are all imaginary. A numerical
approximation for this zero point is −1.16730. However, there is no nice
square root formula for this solution.
 3.7 Division with remainder 33

3.6.4 Example. Note: it is not the case that fifth- or higher-degree polynomials
do not have zeros, or that these zeros cannot be written using square root
functions. The Abel-Ruffini theorem says that there is no general root
formula. The fifth-degree polynomial z 5 − 15z 4 + 85z 3 − 225z 2 + 274z − 120
has five real zeros, namely the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.

3.7 Division with remainder

Just like with integers, we can also divide polynomials by each other. The
division produces a quotient and a remainder. The method is called long
division, and the method is basically the same as the long division on whole
numbers. We explain long division with polynomials using an example.
We want to divide 2z 3 − 3z 2 + 2 by z 2 − 1. We start like this:

z 2 − 1 / 2z 3 − 3z 2 + 2 \

Now we look at the highest degree terms (boxed):

z 2 − 1 / 2z 3 − 3z 2 + 2 \

The quotient of the boxed terms is 2z 3 /z 2 = 2z, put this to the right of the
right slanted steep:
z 2 − 1/ 2z 3 − 3z 2 + 2 \ 2z
The expression 2z will turn out to be one of the terms of the quotient. We
multiply this by the polynomial z 2 − 1:

2z · (z 2 − 1) = 2z 3 − 2z

We write this under the middle polynomial. We have written the polynomi-
als so that terms with equal degree are below each other. There is no term
with z, so we write an artificial term 0 · z:

z 2 − 1 / 2z 3 − 3z 2 + 0z + 2 \ 2z
2z 3 − 2z

Subtract the polynomials:

z 2 − 1 / 2z 3 − 3z 2 + 0z + 2 \ 2z
2z 3 − 2z
− 3z 2 + 2z + 2
3.7 Division with remainder 34

We repeat the steps just made. This creates a “tail” of polynomials, which
explains the name.
We again frame the highest degree terms. Divide the boxed terms: −3z 2 /z 2 =
−3, and write the result on the right: Multiply z 2 − 1 by −3, and write this
at the bottom of the tail:
z 2 − 1 / 2z 3 − 3z 2 + 0z + 2 \ 2z − 3
2z 3 − 2z
− 3z 2 + 2z + 2
− 3z 2 + 3

and subtract:
z 2 − 1 / 2z 3 − 3z 2 + 0z + 2 \ 2z − 3
2z 3 − 2z
− 3z 2 + 2z + 2
−3z 2 + 3
2z − 1
Now we can’t go any further:

z 2 − 1 / 2z 3 − 3z 2 + 0z + 2 \ 2z − 3
2z 3 − 2z
− 3z 2 + 2z + 2
−3z 2 + 3
2z − 1

The quotient of 2z/z 2 no longer yields the power of z that we used with
the quotient on the right can add to the long division. In general, we stop
when the degree of the polynomial at the bottom of the tail is 0, or when
the degree smaller is than the degree of the polynomial we are dividing by.
The polynomial to the right of the right bar is the quotient, and the poly-
nomial at the bottom of the tail is the remainder .
If we divide a polynomial p(z) by f (z) with long division, and the result is
a quotient q(z) and a remainder r(z), then

p(z) = f (z)q(z) + r(z).

Actually we have the following result:

 3.7 Division with remainder 35

3.7.1 Theorem. Given a polynomial p(z) and a polynomial f (z) of degree n,

then there exist unique polynomials q(z) and r(z), with the degree of r(z)
smaller than n such that

p(z) = f (z)q(z) + r(z).

The polynomial q(z) and r(z) can be obtained as quotient and remainder,
respectively, of long division of p(z) by f (z).

3.7.1 Example. Divide z 2 − 1 by z − 1:

z − 1 / z2 −1\z+1
2
z −z
z−1
z−1
0

In this case the remainder is 0. That in itself is not strange, after all z 2 −1 =
(z + 1)(z − 1) holds.

3.7.2 Example. If we divide a polynomial p(z) by a polynomial whose degree is

greater than the degree of p(z) the algorithm stops immediately. We then
agree that the quotient is 0, and the remainder is p(z).

Obviously if we can write a polynomial p(z) as a product in the form

p(z) = (z − α)q(z)

with q(z) another polynomial, that α is a zero of p(z). Just enter α in p(z):

p(α) = (α − α)q(α) = 0 · q(α) = 0.

However, the reverse is also true:

If α is a zero of the polynomial p(z), then there is a polynomial

q(z) such that
p(z) = (z − α)q(z).

The principle of division is actually based on long division. If we do a

long division where we divide p(z) by z − α we get a quotient q(z) and a
remainder r(z). This remainder r(z) is ór 0, ór a polynomial with degree
 3.7 Division with remainder 36

smaller than the degree of x − α. Since the degree of z − α is 1, r(z) is a

constant polynomial, i.e.

p(z) = (z − α)q(z) + c

for some complex number c. By entering α we see that c must be equal to

zero.
With the help of division we can determine the factorization of polynomials.
We demonstrate this using an example.

3.7.3 Example. Consider the cubic polynomial z 3 − 2z 2 + 1. We can easily see

that 1 is a zero of this polynomial. This means that there exists a (second
degree) polynomial q(z) such that z 3 −2z 2 +1 = (z −1)q(z). The polynomial
q(z) can be found by performing long division:

z − 1 / z 3 − 2z 2 + 1 \ z2 − z − 1
3
z − z 2

− z2 +1
−z 2 + z
−z+1
−z + 1
0
So q(z) = z 2 − z − 1. This is a quadratic polynomial, whose zeros can be
determined with the abc formula:
√
1± 5 1 1√
z= = ± 5.
2 2 2
So the linear factorization of q(z) is
1 1√ 1 1√
q(z) = (z − + 5)(z − − 5),
2 2 2 2
and the factorization of p(z) is thus
1 1√ 1 1√
p(z) = z 3 − 2z 2 + 1 = (z − 1)q(z) = (z − 1)(z − + 5)(z − − 5).
2 2 2 2

3.7.4 Example. Consider the equation z 4 − 2z 3 + 2z 2 − z + 1 = 0. After some

3.8 Cardano’s formula [not for exam] 37

searching we find the square root z = 1. Divide the factor (z − 1):

z − 1 / z 4 − 2z 3 + 2z 2 − 2z + 1 \ z 3 − z 2 + z − 1
z4 − z3
− z 3 + 2z 2
− z3 + z2
z 2 − 2z
z2 − z
−z+1
−z+1
0

So z 4 − 2z 3 + 2z 2 − 2z + 1 = (z − 1)(z 3 − z 2 + z − 1)
Of the quotient z 3 − z 2 + z − 1, 1 is again a zero, and we divide the factor
z − 1 again:
z − 1 / z3 − z2 + z − 1 \ z2 + 1
z3 − z2
z−1
z−1
0
So z 3 − z 2 + z − 1 = (z − 1)(z 2 + 1).
Finally, we factor z 2 + 1:

z 2 + 1 = (z − i)(z + i)

If we combine everything, the final result is the decomposition of z 4 − 2z 3 +

2z 2 − z + 1 into linear factors:

z 4 − 2z 3 + 2z 2 − z + 1 = (z − 1)(z − 1)(z − i)(z + i),

what we usually write as

z 4 − 2z 3 + 2z 2 − z + 1 = (z − 1)2 (z − i)(z + i).

3.8 Cardano’s formula [not for exam]

Cardano’s formula gives a general solution to the cubic equation

az 3 + bz 2 + cz + d = 0,
 3.8 Cardano’s formula [not for exam] 38

with a, b, c and d complex numbers and a ̸= 0. The equation is first reduced

by defining the constants p and q as follows:

c b2
p= − 2
a 3a
and
d 2b3 − 9abc
q= + .
a 27a3
A solution of the equation is now given by
s r s r
b 3 q p3 q 2 3 q p3 q2
z=− + − + + + − − + .
3a 2 27 4 2 27 4

This formula is due to Nicolo Tartaglia (1500-1557), but is nevertheless

known as the formula of Cardano (1501-1576). Incidentally, only polynomi-
als with real coefficients were studied in the sixteenth century.
The above formula is actually not complete. Somewhere in the derivation an
equation of type u3 = w must be solved, and this means that three complex
solutions should appear. In Tartaglia’s time complex numbers were not
√
yet known, so he only wrote down the (apparently) real solution u = 3 w.
Apart from that, complex numbers can also occur in Tartaglia’s formula (for
p3 2
example if 27 + q4 is negative). Cardano’s formula was actually the reason
for the discovery of the complex numbers.
A better formulation of Cardano’s formula reads:
s r s r
b 3 q p 3 q 2 q p3 q2
k −k 3
zk = − + ρ − + + +ρ − − + .
3a 2 27 4 2 27 4
√
where k = 0, 1 or 2, and where ρ = − 21 + 12 i 3 = cos(2π/3) + i sin(2π/3),
the complex number on the unit circle with argument 2π/3.

3.8.1 Example. Determine the solutions of the equation z 3 − 3z 2 − 84z − 44 = 0.

Filling in the formulas for p and q yields p = −87 and q = −130. The
p3 2
number under the radical sign is 27 + q4 = −20164 = −1422 . This number
is negative, so the square root of this is 142i or −142i. It turns out that
it doesn’t matter which one we choose. Cardano’s formula provides the
solutions: √ √
zk = 1 + ρk 3 65 + 142i + ρ−k 3 65 − 142i.
 3.9 Exercises 39

Here we can immediately see what the problem is with Cardano’s formula:
we need to search for a complex number u with the property u3 = 65 + 142i.
One solution is u = 5 + 2i. All solutions can be written as ρk (5 + 2i) with
k = 0, 1 or 2. This means that all solutions are given by

zk = 1 + ρk (5 + 2i) + ρ−k (5 − 2i)

= 1 + ρk (5 + 2i) + ρk (5 + 2i)
= 1 + 2Re(ρk (5 + 2i)).

For k = 0 this gives

z0 = 1 + 2 · 5 = 11.
For k = 1 this yields
√ √ √
z1 = 1 + 2Re((− 12 + 12 i 3)(5 + 2i)) = 1 + 2Re(− 52 − 3) = −4 − 2 3.

For k = 2 this yields

√ √ √
z2 = 1 + 2Re((− 12 − 12 i 3)(5 + 2i)) = 1 + 2Re(− 52 + 3) = −4 + 2 3.

With this we have determined the factorization of the polynomial z 3 − 3z 2 −

84z − 44 = 0:
√ √
z 3 − 3z 2 − 84z − 44 = (z − 11)(z + 4 − 2 3)(z + 4 − 2 3).

By expanding parentheses in the right-hand side, we can easily check that

the equality is correct.

3.9 Exercises

3.9.1 Exercise. Solve the following linear equations for z:

a. 5z = 2iz + 3

b. (1 + i)z = (1 − i)z + i

c. z − iz = 1

3.9.2 Exercise. Solve the following quadratic equations for z:

a. 5z 2 = 2z − 3

b. (1 + i)z 2 = (1 − i)z + i
 3.9 Exercises 40

c. z 2 − iz 2 = 1

3.9.3 Exercise. Solve the following equations for z:

a. z 5 + 1 = 0

b. z 3 + 3z 2 + 3z + 1 = 0
√
c. z 6 = 1 + i 3

d. z 7 − z 3 = 0

3.9.4 Exercise. Find all z ∈ C with

a. zz = |(1 − z)2 |

b. zz = (1 − z)2

3.9.5 Exercise. Describe the set of all z ∈ C satisfying:

a. |z − 1 − i| = |z + 1 + i|

b. |z 2 − 1| = |z − 1|2

c. |z − 1| ⩽ |z − 2i|

3.9.6 Exercise. Determine all z ∈ C satisfying the following equation:

a. (4 + 3i)z + (4 − 3i)z = 10

b. |z − 3i| = |4 + 2i|

c. (1 + i)z = (2 − i)z

d. |z + i| = |z − 1|

3.9.7 Exercise. The polynomial p(z) = z 4 − 4z 3 + 14z 2 − 4z + 13 has the complex

number i as a root. Determine all roots of the polynomial.

3.9.8 Exercise. Give a real polynomial p(z) of degree 3, with the property that
1 and 1 + i are roots of p(z).

3.9.9 Exercise. Write the following polynomials in z as products of linear factors.

 3.9 Exercises 41

a. z 3 + 1

b. z 4 − 16

c. z 3 + −2z 2 + 4z − 8

d. z 3 + 3iz 2 − 2z

3.9.10 Exercise. Suppose p(z) = an z n + · · · + a1 z + a0 is a complex polynomial

with real coefficients an ̸= 0, . . . , a0 . Assume that r ∈ C is a root of p(z).

a. Prove that r is also a root of p(z).

b. Prove, using the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, that p(z) can be

written as a product of degree 1 and degree 2 polynomials with real
coefficients.

c. Prove that if n is odd, that p(z) has a real root.

Index

absolute value, 13 long division, 33

argument, 13
modulus, 13
coefficients, 28
completing the square, 29 parallelogram construction, 12
completion of the square, 25 polar coordinates, 14
complex conjugate, 8 polynomial, 28
complex number, 2 polynomial of degree n, 28
complex plane, 11 principal value, 14
conjugate, 9 product, 4
purely imaginary, 3
decomposition into linear factors,
31 quadratic equation, 28
degree, 28 quotient, 34
difference, 3
discriminant, 30 real axis, 11
real part, 2
Formula of Cardano, 28
remainder, 34
Fundamental Theorem of
root, 28
Algebra, 28

imaginary axis, 11 solution, 28

imaginary part, 2 sum, 3
inverse, 6 systems, 23

linear factor, 31 zero, 28

42