Basic Radio

e key b i i
398780 1605
Joel Hallas, WIZR Michelle Bloom, WB lENT Sue Fagan

Jodi Morin, KAlJPA
David Pingree, NINAS
Copyright © 2005 by
The American Radio Relay League, Inc.
Copyright secured under the Pan-American

Convention
International Copyright secured
This work is Publication No. 313 of the Radio

Amateur's Library, published by the ARRL.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may
be reproduced in any form except by written
permission of the publisher. All rights of
translation are reserved.
Printed in the USA
Quedan reservados todos los derechos
1st Edition
1st Printing
ISBN: 0-87259-955-8
Radio is all around us. We can't escape it. The radio spec-
trum follows us wherever we go, whether we useit or not. But
we do use it: We listen to the radio in our car, use our cell phones
and count on the radio in Fido's collar to keep him in our yard.
Radio is one of the many applications of electronics. Others
that come to mind are computers, entertainment systems, other
telecommunications systems, control systems, security systems,
manufacturing systems, automotive systems, game players and
almost everything we touch or use in the twenty-first century.
But radio was one of the first developments of electronic prin-
ciples, because of its importance to public safety.
This book will explore radio-what it does and how it does
it. Basic Radio will take you beyond the elementary electronic
concepts presented in a book such as ARRL's Understanding
Basic Electronics or a similar course of study in electronic prin-
ciples to a more complete understanding of how radio works its
magic.
David Sumner, KIZZ

Executive Vice President
Newington, Connecticut
September 2005
Chapter 1 Communicating Without Wires
Chapter 2 The Simplest Receiver-The Crystal Set
Chapter 3 Enhancing the Simplest Receiver
Chapter 4 Oscillators-the Beating Hearts of Modem Radios
Chapter 5 Frequency Synthesizers
Chapter 6 Mixing it Up With a Mixer
Chapter 7 Filtering Out What You Don't Want
Chapter 8 Active and Digital Filtering
Chapter 9 Heterodyne Receivers-Putting the Pieces Together
Chapter 10 The Modem Superheterodyne
Chapter 11 Superheterodyne Receivers-Making them Sing
Chapter 12 Transmitters-the Other Side of the Equation
Chapter 13 Transmitting Voice
Chapter 14 Power Amplifiers, a Step Up
Chapter 15 Propagation-Getting Your Signal Where You Want It
Chapter 16 Transmitting Antennas
Chapter 17 Receiving Signals, the Other Side of the Coin
Chapter 18 Using EZNEC to Model Real Antennas
Chapter 19 Line-of-Sight Communications Systems
Chapter 20 Communications Systems-Going the Extra Mile
Chapter 21 Ground-Wave And Ionospheric Communications
Chapter 22 Communications Regulation and Services
Chapter 23 Radiolocation Systems
Chapter 24 Radionavigation Systems
Chapter 25 Where is Technology Taking Us Next?
Appendix Radio Construction Projects
Glossary
Index
The national association for Am.ateur Radio
The seed for Amateur Radio was planted in the 1890s, when Guglielmo Marconi began his experiments
in wireless telegraphy. Soon he was joined by dozens, then hundreds, of others who were enthusiastic about
sending and receiving messages through the air-some with a commercial interest, but others solely out
of a love for this new communications medium. The United States government began licensing Amateur
Radio operators in 1912.
By 1914, there were thousands of Amateur Radio operators-hams-in the United States. Hiram
Percy Maxim, a leading Hartford, Connecticut inventor and industrialist, saw the need for an organi-
zation to band together this fledgling group of radio experimenters. In May 1914 he founded the
American Radio Relay League (ARRL) to meet that need.
Today ARRL, with approximately 170,000 members, is the largest organization of radio amateurs
in the United States. The ARRL is a not-for-profit organization that:
1II promotes interest in Amateur Radio communications and experimentation
• represents US radio amateurs in legislative matters, and

.. maintains fraternalism and a high standard of conduct among Amateur Radio operators.
At ARRL headquarters in the Hartford suburb of Newington, the staff helps serve the needs of
members. ARRL is also International Secretariat for the International Amateur Radio Union, which
is made up of similar societies in 150 countries around the world.
ARRL publishes the monthly journal QST, as well as newsletters and many publications covering
all aspects of Amateur Radio. Its headquarters station, WIAW, transmits bulletins of interest to radio
amateurs and Morse code practice sessions. The ARRL also coordinates an extensive field organiza-
tion, which includes volunteers who provide technical information and other support services for radio
amateurs as well as communications for public-service activities. In addition, ARRL represents US
amateurs with the Federal Communications Commission and other government agencies in the US and
abroad.
Membership in ARRL means much more than receiving QST each month. In addition to the services
already described, ARRL offers membership services on a personal level, such as the ARRL Volunteer
Examiner Coordinator Program and a QSL bureau.
Full ARRL membership (available only to licensed radio amateurs) gives you a voice in how the
affairs of the organization are governed. ARRL policy is set by a Board of Directors (one from each
of 15 Divisions). Each year, one-third of the ARRL Board of Directors stands for election by the full
members they represent. The day-to-day operation of ARRL HQ is managed by an Executive Vice
President and his staff.
No matter what aspect of Amateur Radio attracts you, ARRL membership is relevant and important.
There would be no Amateur Radio as we know it today were it not for the ARRL. We would be happy
to welcome you as a member! (An Amateur Radio license is not required for Associate Membership.)
For more information about ARRL and answers to any questions you may have about Amateur Radio,
write or call:
ARRL-The national association for Amateur Radio

225 Main Street
Newington CT 06111-1494
Voice: 860-594-0200
Fax: 860-594-0259
E-mail: [email protected]
Internet: www.arrl.org/
Prospective new amateurs call (toll-free):
800-32-NEW HAM (800-326-3942)
You can also contact us via e-mail at newham @arrl.org
or check out ARRLWeb at http://www.arrl.org/
ommunica YlJ Without WireJ'
(Wef{ fm ·tlll)
Chuck Hutchinson, K8CH, works on the Vagi antennas on his tower.
Contents
Where Did Radio Come From? 1-2
What is This Radio Thing All About? 1-5
So How Do the Signals Get There? 1-7
Antennas-The Long and Short of It 1-9
Review Questions 1-10
Radio was on the logical Fig 1-1. While semaphore communi-
evolutionary path behind a number cation can be quite efficient, it suffers
of other systems designed to carry from some limitations. It can only be
information over distances. Before used in daylight, anyone within sight
there were electrical communica- could read the mail and a signalman
tions systems, there were a number standing up on a high spot so his
of communications systems that flags could be seen at a distance was
were visually based. Anyone who an easy target. Perhaps that's why
has ever watched an American that kind of signalman is hard to find
Western movie has likely seen these days! (A)
Native Americans communicating The mechanically driven sema-
through the use of smoke signals, phore, a device with mechanical arms
only one of a number of visual- activated by levers from an office
communications systems. Parallel below, and situated on a mountaintop
developments going back perhaps tower was the basis for a communica-
even longer included the use of tions network spanning much of
signal fires, as well as a sophisti- Europe during the Napoleonic era, a
cated system of drum-based long time before radio. These towers,
communications that could send positioned so each one could see the
messages across the African next, allowed a message to be relayed
continent. from station to station. While the data
rate may have been slower than we're
Semaphore used to, the messages traveled at the
The insignia of the US Army speed of light! A variant of such a (8)
Signal Corps, with which your system, with electrically driven arms,
author once served, consists of two was used as a railroad signaling
crossed signal flags. These signal, system for many years and may still
or semaphore flags, could be used be in use in some areas.
to signal over relatively large line-
of-sight distances by the transmit- Electrical Communications-
ting signalman holding the two the Telegraph
flags at particular angular positions The telegraph, perhaps the first in
around the body, each position a long line of electrically operated
indicating a letter of the alphabet or communications systems had its
a numeral. The space around the genesis in the invention of the
body was divided into eight electromagnet in 1825. A number of
positions with the first seven letters people operated an electromagnet
corresponding to left-hand flag from a remote location to perform
down, with the right-hand flag rudimentary signaling, however, (C)
progressing from part way up Samuel F. B. Morse is generally UBR1-0101
around the circle. The next seven credited with developing the first
with the left-hand flag part way up complete system. This struggling Fig t-t-s-Hand semaphore
on the right, etc. positions for the letters A, Band C.
artist and NYU Art Professor made a
In an interesting bridge to later- mid-life career change that changed
day technology, rather than having not only his life, but the lives of telegraph used a clever electrome-
separate codes for numerals, the everyone who followed as well. chanical arrangement to cause a pen
code used the letters A through I to His telegraph, first publicly to move across moving paper tape
mean the numerals 1 through 9, if demonstrated in 1838, was a major when the sending key was closed.
preceded by a special NUMERALS milestone and perhaps the first This is the origin of the terms mark
signal, in a manner similar to the system that could be called a tele- and space, the gap between marks,
much later Baudot teletype code. communications system, although still in current use in data communi-
The positions of the flags for the that term came into vogue many cations. Later versions used other
letters A, Band C are shown in years later. The original Morse marking mechanisms and eventually,
1-2 Chapter 1
based on their being sent on different competing companies at each end of
frequencies. Today we would call long-distance lines than of technol-
this a frequency division multiplexer, ogy. The automatic (forerunner of
but at that time it led Bell to the the dial) exchange was invented in
thought that instead of carrying 1889 by Almon B. Strowger, a
telegraph signals his apparatus might Kansas City undertaker, who was
be used to carry the different sounds upset after finding that the local
of human speech. human telephone exchange operator
Bell succeeded in his experiments was steering business to a competi-
Fig 1-2-Early wire-line telegraph and in 1875 was able to file for a tor.
key and sounder. This was well patent for his invention, surprisingly
used in US railroad telegraph just hours ahead of another inventor. Next Step-Radio
service in the 1800s. (Thanks to Bell's early telephones were offered While the telegraph was being
Dan Henderson, NtND, for the loan as rental units, a practice that rolled out across the US frontier and
of this family heirloom.) continued until the US antitrust much of the rest of the world, a
especially in the US, operators settlement known as the modified Scottish physicist and mathemati-
learned to more efficiently decode by final judgment of 1984. Renters of cian' James Clerk Maxwell, was
ear, allowing a significant increase in his apparatus would independently formulating the mathematical basis
speed and thus throughput. contract to have wires installed of electromagnetic theory. In 1861 he
In 1844, a government-sponsored between the end points to provide a published his work predicting the
demonstration system was put in kind of intercom service. Within a waves that would travel from a wire
place between Washington, DC, and few years after Bell invented his carrying a changing current, laying
Baltimore, Maryland. Following a telephone, switchboards were the groundwork for what we call
successful demonstration to members devised to let a user communicate radio. Maxwell's equations allow the
of Congress the inventor and his with other users, and in 1878 the first prediction of all the resulting fields
partners extended the line to Phila- telephone exchange was established involved in the generations of such
delphia and New York City and in New Haven, Connecticut. This waves.
offered commercial service. In 1851, made the telephone a viable facilita- It remained for another scientist,
the telegraph began use as a railroad tor of commerce and communica- the German Heinrich Hertz in 1886,
dispatch system, a telegraph key and tions. Long-distance service started to actually demonstrate the existence
sounder from the late 1800s is shown quickly thereafter and for the next of radio waves. His experiment was a
in Fig 1-2. Ten years later the few decades, the history of the validation of Maxwell's work, not an
Western Union Telegraph Company telephone was more a story of legal attempt to establish a new communi-
built a transcontinental telegraph and regulatory battles between cations medium.
system effectively making the two-
year old Pony Express
service obsolete
overnight. Interestingly,
the first transatlantic
telegraph cable was
installed some years
earlier but burned out
after only 30 days due
to the fact that the users
didn't fully understand
the limitations of the
then-current technology.
The Telephone-
the Next Step
Alexander Graham
Bell had been working
on a harmonic tele-
graph, a system that
would allow multiple
telegraph channels to be Fig 1-3-Marconi shore radiotelegraph station at South Wellfleet, Cape Cod,
sent simultaneously over Massachusetts in 1901. The towers were 200 feet tall and made of wood. They did not
a single pair of wires, survive Atlantic storms for long. (Photo courtesy of Marconi Corporation, Pt.c.)
Communicating Without Wires 1=3

Development of radio into a code then used by landline operators. the operators for each. Shipboard
commercial communications system, By that time, wire-line telegraph radio operators wore the uniform of
including a corporate structure that was well established for communica- the Marconi Company. Their
still bears his name, was left to tions on land, and by undersea cable exploits at saving lives, often at risk
Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian. across bodies of water. The missing of their own, made them heroes of
Although Nikola Telsa is actually link was communication with ships the day.
credited with the invention of radio, at sea, which were at the mercy of Since the time of Marconi's radio
Marconi clearly developed radio into the elements without any way to call operators, radio has grown in all
a significant business enterprise. He for help. Marconi sought to fill that dimensions and has become a major
is said to have sent his first signals in need through the provisioning of part of our lives in countless ways.
1895, communicated across the what today would be called a turnkey We will explore these developments
English Channel in 1899 and across service. His company supplied the from both a technological and
the Atlantic three years later. His shore stations (see Fig 1-3), the historical perspective as we progress
system used a variant of the Morse shipboard stations (see Fig 1-4), and through these chapters.
Fig 1-4-Marconi shipboard radiotelegraph station from 1900. (Photo courtesy of Marconi Corporation, PLC.)
1-4 Chapter 1
I'Jl&I:~ I: rJlis fllliru rftJ'i'll rilIJllfJrlJlil/!!, .. .. . .
t ~ , , ) ~ '"
Where do we start? It's a bit like

the chicken and egg problem. How
can we talk about receivers unless
you start with transmitters, and vice
versa? Every radio system contains a
number of elements and we will
cover each in tum. See Fig 1-5.
While we could begin anywhere,
here we will start in the middle with
the actual "wireless" part of the
system.
Radio seems a bit like magic.
Fortunately we have all experienced
this magic, so we start out as believ-
ers, making this a bit easier to
explain. Your preparation in basic
electronics should have introduced
the concepts of electric and magnetic
fields,' You likely learned- that a
voltage applied to two metal plates
generates an electric field between
them, and that a current in a wire
results in a magnetic field around it.'
Fig 1-5-Elements of a radio communications system.
Radio happens because of the way
changing electric and magnetic fields
behave together.
You also learned that a change in
~+r !\ !\ !\ !\ !\ !\
the current in a wire results in a
changing magnetic field, and that a
wire in a changing field produces a
voltage based on the strength of the
field and the rate of change of the
-. V V V V V V Time - UBR1-0102
current. Further, a changing current
in a wire will cause a changing
magnetic field in the space around it, Fig 1-6-Sinusoidal signal waveform.
resulting in a changing electric field
perpendicular to that magnetic field.
The coupled set of electric and
magnetic fields will move outward many of the same characteristics. time-varying current. A time-varying
from the wire at the speed of light, The actions we observe with light- current can take a number of forms,
forming what we call an electromag- reflection, refraction, diffraction, but the most frequently encountered
netic field. The movement of this absorption and filtering-all happen takes the form of a sinusoidal'
field is referred to as an electromag- with radio waves as well. This makes waveform, as shown in Fig 1-6.
netic wave. radio somewhat easier to understand Other waveforms can be used to
While we can't see an electromag- since we can relate it to something generate an electromagnetic wave,
netic wave resulting from a current in with which we are already very but most practical systems are based
a wire, we can see such a wave when familiar. on sinusoidal signals.
it is in the form of light. Yes, light is A sinusoidal signal can be
How Do We Talk About Radio described as having afrequency, the
also an electromagnetic wave! This is
handy, since most of us understand
Waves? number of cycles it makes every
how light moves through space and We mentioned above that one of second. If a sinusoidal signal is used
how other objects interact with it. the requirements for an electromag- to generate the time-varying current
Electromagnetic radio waves share netic wave to be generated was a that results in a radio wave, then the
Communicating Without Wires 1-5

wave will have the same frequency as
Table 1-1
the signal that generated it.
Frequency is a particularly Name Symbol Frequency Range Wavelength Range
important measure associated with Low Frequency LF 30 - 300 kHz 10,000- 1000 meters
radio waves since, as we will discuss,
Medium Frequency MF 300 - 3000 kHz 1000 - 100 meters
the signal's frequency often is a
major factor in understanding how High Frequency HF 3 - 30 MHz 100 -10 meters
signals get from one place to another. Very High Frequency VHF 30 -300 MHz 10 - 1 meters
Different frequency waves react Ultra High Frequency UHF 300 - 3000 MHz 100 - 10 centimeters
differently with their surroundings. Super High Frequency SHF 3 - 30 GHz 10- 1 centimeters
A related measure of a wave is
wavelength. Wavelength is just the
distance the wave travels during one
cycle at its frequency. This can easily ways signals move from place to requirement obsolete. Radiotele-
be determined by dividing the speed place. graph is still in common use in some
that the radio wave travels (at the Note that because 1000 kilohertz parts of the world, however.
speed of light) by the frequency. So, (kHz) equals 1 megahertz (MHz), we • HF is often referred to as
for example, if we have a signal at change notation as we move from shortwave and is the frequency range
10 MHz, we just take the speed of MF to HE Similarly, 3000 kHz is the of many types of long-range commu-
light (300,000,000 meters per same frequency as 3 MHz. We use nications, including international
second) and divide it by MHz to avoid lots of zeros. In the broadcasting, much of amateur radio,
10,000,000 cycles per second to same way, and for the same reason, marine and aviation long-distance
determine that the wavelength is we change from meters to centime- communications and others. Before
30 meters. Again, that's just how far ters as the wavelengths get shorter, as the days of quality undersea cables
the wave will travel during one cycle well as moving from megahertz to for voice, HF carried most long-
of its waveform. It's about one gigahertz (GHz). There are similar distance telephone conversations
stone's throw! descriptions for higher and lower across the oceans.
Since the speed of light is constant, radio frequencies; however, the • VHF carries the on-air VHF TV
every signal could be described by ranges shown in the table above (channels 2-13), FM broadcasting,
either its frequency or its wavelength. include only those of interest to this public-service vehicle communica-
In the beginning days of radio, no book. Just to get a perspective on the tions, such as police, fire, taxi, local
one could decide which to use so you various ranges: ship-to-shore, aircraft communica-
will find early radios (before around • LF signals are used mainly for tion and navigation, plus some
1930) with dial markings in both strategic military communication and amateur segments.
frequency and wavelength. Govern- some navigation systems (Loran C, • UHF is used for UHF television,
ment regulations began to specify for example, around 100 kHz). cellular-phone service, military
frequency rather than wavelength • MF signals include the standard radar, trunking networks that carry
around then, so common usage AM broadcast band (550 to multiple channels of public-service
locked in step and now frequency is 1700 kHz) and one amateur band, vehicle traffic and more amateur
almost always used to specify a radio 160 meters. Before 1964 local ship- bands. The term microwave is used
signal. However, you will still find to-shore traffic was carried in this to refer to frequencies above
wavelength used to describe a band range; it has now been moved to the 1000 MHz. This range includes
of frequencies, such as the 31-meter VHF range. The international city-to-city microwave telephone
shortwave broadcast band or the 20- shipboard radiotelegraph calling and communication (mostly now
meter amateur band. This is conve- distress frequency is in this range at replaced by fiber optical cables in
nient since when we talk about 500 kHz. Until 1995, all US ships the US).
antennas, you will observe the were required to monitor that • SHF is a continuation of the
relationship between wavelength and frequency and have a licensed radio microwave region and is used for
the physical size of antennas. operator on-board who could most satellite communications,
For purposes of discussion here, it communicate via radiotelegraph. The some point-to-point terrestrial links
is convenient to consider a grouping availability of reliable satellite and, no surprise, more amateur
of radio frequencies. We will use the systems is now considered sufficient bands!
names in Table 1-1 as we discuss the to make the MF radiotelegraph
1u6 Chapter 1
C I ,
Ifm . . . . . l'i.~I.1rlJJ.~..
~ ~ 'Y' ~~" ,,'-" '"
. '" ~
One of the facets of radio that it could be a non-conductive material in the signal being tilted. Think of it
make it an interesting topic is the with a shiny surface. being dragged down as it travels
manner by which signals get from If you look at various radio along. The dragged-down signal hugs
one place to another. Signals can reflectors, you will notice that they the ground and continues along to
always be described by the line-of- aren't always solid-sometimes they provide coverage beyond the line-of-
sight path that works just like light. are made of screen-like material. If sight distance. The signals get
It starts here and goes there, and you these were used as reflectors for weaker quickly, however. This is the
can see one point from the other. light, some of the light would leak way high-powered AM broadcast
How far you can shine a light through. Why doesn't this happen to transmitters reach radios 50 to
depends pretty much on how bright radio waves? The reason is that light 100 miles away during the day, far
the light is and how sensitive the eye is at a very much higher frequency (a beyond the line of sight.
is. So it is with radio signals. shorter wavelength) than radio
A path is pretty easy to determine frequencies. The designer of a radar So What Happens To Signals
with just a bit of analysis. You must reflector selects the size of the holes That Go Up?
know the height of each endpoint in the reflector so that they would be Signals that leave the transmitting
and how much the earth curves in- small in terms of the radio signal's antenna in an upward direction are
between to determine the maximum wavelength and thus the radio signal called sky wave signals. They can
line-of-sight distance. If there are doesn't see the holes at all. We can travel in a line-of-sight fashion, such
obstructions in the path, it is no consider a reflected signal as being a as in ground-to-air communications,
longer line-of-sight and we have to bent line-of-sight signal. but the most interesting ones to hams
look for other means to get the signal Something that happens with are the HF signals that interact with
around the obstruction. As with lower-frequency radio waves that something called the ionosphere. The
light, radio signals can reflect off doesn't happen with light is called ionosphere is a region surrounding
objects (especially metal, but also ground-wave propagation. Here the the earth at a height of roughly 30 to
water, for example) and refract radio signal tends to be absorbed as 260 miles (see Fig 1-7). Because this
(bend) while traveling through some it passes over the ground, resulting
objects, just as light does going
through water.
The intensity of the light-or of a
radio signal-as it moves from the
source to the observer appears to
diminish as the distance gets greater.
This is true even if the signal is not
being absorbed by anything in
between, but is due to the amount of
energy available to your eye-or to
the receiving antenna-due to the
energy spreading out over a wider
area as it travels from the source.
Just as light can be reflected from
a mirror, radio waves can be re-
flected, but by an electric mirror.
The actions of such a electric
reflector can be very much like those
that reflect light. For example, the
reflector behind the bulb in a
flashlight or car headlight has a
shape similar to the reflector behind
an aircraft's radar antenna. The
difference is that the radar reflector
is made from a conducting material
such as metal, while the light
reflector is usually polished metal, or 1-7-The ionosphere is the region above the Earth's surface.

is farther away from the pull of
gravity than our atmosphere, the
molecules at ionospheric heights are
less dense than they are where we
can breathe. The density of air
molecules is reduced from the
bottom of the ionosphere towards the
upper reaches, until there are almost
no molecules left, just as in deep
space.
Since the effect on radio waves
varies with the height of the iono-
sphere, it is convenient to talk about
the ionosphere in terms of regions,
also known as layers, as shown in
Fig 1-8. In all portions of the
ionosphere, energy from the sun
during daylight periods interacts
with the molecules. Ultraviolet
radiation has the biggest effect but
X-rays and other forms of radiation
interact with the air molecules as
well. The effect of radiation is to
raise the energy in the molecules,
causing them to release electrons.
When an electron is released from an
electrically neutral molecule (that is,
one that has the same number of
positive and negative particles) the
result is a free electron (negative
charge) and a positively charged ion.
A radio signal encountering an Fig 1-8-The ionosphere considered as layers
ionized area will react in one of the
following ways, depending on its
wavelength and the density of ions:
similar to a reflection from a surface longer, sometimes staying ionized
1. The radio wave can be ab- higher than the actual refracting area. throughout the night.
sorbed. This will occur if the ion The combination of these effects
density is high and the wavelength is Ionization occurs because of the
and the variability of solar activity
long. energy of the sun, and it happens
have made HF radio propagation
2. It can be transmitted through only on the side of the Earth in
difficult to predict in the past. In the
the ionosphere without much loss. daylight. As the Earth rotates from
computer age, sophisticated com-
This will happen if the wavelength is daylight into night, free electrons
puter modeling programs have made
short compared to the space between recombine with the positive ions,
it possible to predict the frequencies
ions. It also depends on the angle at returning air molecules to an
to use to maximize the likelihood of
which the wavefront strikes the electrically neutral state. All areas do
successful transmission in any of the
ionized layer. not recombine equally quickly
above modes. Of course, actually
3. It can be bent, or refracted. though. The recombination occurs in
trying out each path at a number of
This happens to the wavelengths a rather random fashion with
frequencies is an even better method
between the first two cases. As the electrons recombining with ions they
and some automated HF radio
wavefront continues to be refracted happen to run into. As a conse-
systems do exactly that, simulating
it tends to bend down and return to ' quence, denser areas closer to the
the knowledgeable radio operator of
earth. Even though it is a refraction Earth's surface recombine more
days gone by, but in seconds instead
rather than a reflection, the effect is quickly, and those further away take
of hours!
1-8 Chapter 1
Any piece of wire or metal tubing dipole as an antenna. This is often antenna systems using more than a
could work as an antenna if we could employed when the antenna is simple dipole. Earlier we discussed
cause a time-varying current to flow vertical (as in the AM broadcast how a reflector behind a light bulb
in it. The trick is to get the current to antenna tower mentioned above). makes the light appear stronger in
flow properly. While there are many Essentially, the missing half of the some directions and weaker in
exceptions and special cases, this is dipole is mirrored by a connection to others. Antennas work the same way.
easiest to do with a structure compa- a ground system beneath the The energy leaving an antenna can
rable in size to half a wavelength at antenna. Such an antenna is often be focused through an appropriate
the frequency we want to launch. called a quarter-wave monopole lens or reflector. A reflector like that
It is important to not confuse the antenna and its effectiveness is of a flashlight can be effectively used
antenna with the support structure. directly related to the quality of the at UHF and higher frequencies,
For example, the antenna for a MF ground system. where it can be a manageable size.
AM broadcast station is likely a While a half-wave dipole or At lower frequencies it is more
vertical tower from 150 to 500 feet quarter-wave monopole is easy to common to use less-complex
tall. In this case the tower is the sketch and discuss, at lower frequen- reflectors or multiple-dipole ele-
antenna. A VHF-FM broadcast cies neither may be practical. ments to focus the signals. We will
station will have an antenna that is Consider an AM broadcast receiving discuss the ionosphere and antennas
only 10 to 20 feet in height, but to antenna. At a frequency of 1 MHz, more when we get to Chapter 16.
obtain a long line-of-sight path to its near the middle of the AM band, the
listeners, it may be located on top of wavelength is 300 meters. A half- Notes
a tower or building that is 1000 feet wave antenna would be 150 meters, 1Wolfgang, L, Understanding Basic
high. Unless you look carefully it or almost 500 feet long. A quarter- Electronics, ARRL, Chapter 9.
may be hard to tell the difference wave monopole would be 250 feet Available from the ARRL Bookstore
long. These lengths are practical in for $20 plus shipping. Order
between antenna and support number 3983. Telephone toll-free in
structure! some applications, but 250 feet the US 888-277-5289, or 860-594-
would be rather long on a car fender! 0355; www.arrl.org/shop/
The Dipole Antenna [email protected].
The simplest and one of the most More Complex Antenna 2lbid, Chapter 17.
frequently encountered types of Systems 3lbid, Chapter 19.
4lbid, Chapter 16.
antenna is called a half-wave dipole It is quite possible to construct
and is shown in Fig 1-9. It is merely
a length of wire or metal rod an
electrical half-wavelength long, A "Half-wave" antenna is easy to use, easy to make and
generally split in the center and forms the basis for most antenna types.
connected to a transmitter sending
Voltage Along Wire
signals on a frequency corresponding
to the half wavelength. In many
cases it is desirable to have the 1/4 Wave Each Side
transmitter and antenna located in
different places, connected by a 1/4 Wave Each Side
transmission line, which we will
discuss further in Chapter 16.
It is also possible to use half of a Fig 1-9-The dipole antenna.

1. Radio waves act a lot like light. In fact, before radio was around, light
was used as a mechanism for medium-to-long distance communications.
Can you think of three types of early light-based communication systems?
2. Compute the approximate length of a "half-wave dipole" antenna
designed for the AM broadcast band, say 1 MHz; the 31-meter international
broadcast band at 9.5 MHz; TV channel 2 at 58 MHz; and a satellite earth
station downlink at 3000 MHz. What do you notice about the size of these
antennas?
3. Consider a world without an ionosphere. How would radio communi-
cation be different than in our world?
1-10 Chapter 1
7he~J ecene«
;
--the et
An early crystal radio using a "Oat's Whisker" galena detectorl
Contents
Where Do We Start? 2-2
A Simple Crystal Set We Can Build 2-4
Souping Up Our Crystal Set 2-6
As was the case in Chapter 1, we modulation. A crystal set can receive We now multiply the two wave-
have another chicken and egg amplitude-modulated signals. The forms. During the time we have a
problem-how do you describe a process of transmitting amplitude 1-V pulse we see a transmitted
receiver if you don't know what modulation that a crystal set can carrier wave. During the time we
kind of signal you will be receiving receive simply requires that we have a zero for data, we have no
and the type of transmitter that sent multiply a signal by a waveform output. We could send this code
it? As before, I will introduce just conveying the information. An across the street by turning a light
enough about transmitters and example should make this easy to switch on and off! If we want to use
signals to be able to start a discus- grasp. For our signal, we will again radio waves instead, the carrier can
sion on receivers. consider the sinusoid that was shown be turned on and off, and we have
in Chapter 1 in Fig 1-6. Let's say we the simplest form of amplitude
Signals-What Do We Mean want to transmit the letter "a" in the modulation, as shown in Fig 2-2.
By Signals? ASCII computer language. The
In Chapter 1 we discussed radio lower case "a" is represented in How Do We Get the
signals and how they move through computer language (ones and zeros) Information Out at the Far
space. We talked about alternating as 1100001. The next step in the End?
current (ac) signals as sinusoidal process is to convert that code into a
If the transmitted waveform
voltages and currents resulting in waveform. We will represent the
reaches us, we can detect it with an
electromagnetic waves moving "ones" by pulses of 1.0 V and the
antenna connected to a simple crystal
outward from antennas. A single- "zeros" by pulses of 0.0 V. The data
receiver. The simplest receiver circuit
frequency ac signal will certainly (or information) waveform looks like
is based on a half-wave rectifier! and
do exactly that, but it is not a very Fig 2-1.
it will form the first basic building
interesting signal unless it carries
information. Sometimes just being
there is all the information we
need, such as would be true of a
primitive rescue beacon. But most
of the time we want the signal to Voltage
UBR1-0201
carry voices, music, pictures or Level

+1--
data.
How Can We Apply

Information To a Signal?
a-- J
Logical 1 a a a a
Value
Each sinusoidal signal can be
described by a number of param-
eters: Fig 2-1-Voltage pulses corresponding to the ASCII representation for the
o Frequency-This is the number lower-case letter "a".
of complete cycles the signal
makes per second.
o Amplitude-Although the
amplitude, or strength, of a
sinusoid is constantly changing
with time, we can characterize
the amplitude by the maximum UBR1-0202
Voltage
value that it reaches. Level
o Phase-The phase of a sinusoid +---
is a measure of when it starts
compared to another sinusoid at
the same frequency. Logical 1 a a a a
Value
Any of the above parameters can
be changed to apply information to
the signal in a process called Fig 2-2-Sinusoidal waveform modulated by the data waveform of Fig 2-1.
2-2 Chapter 2
Antenna UBR1-0203
Voltage
UBR1-0204
Level
\V + ---
0- - ......-....,-J-l._....,.. ..I...I-I-. --'.-l-I-. ....,11-
....... Logical o o o o
Value
>-
Load ..~ Output
..
Fig 2-4-Received pulsed-data waveform from a simple receiver.
Ground
Fig 2-3-The simplest radio Antenna UBR1-0205
receiver.
block of a simple receiver. If we

apply a modulated signal to a half-
wave rectifier, with the input a Output
connection to an antenna and ground
(Fig 2-3), the voltage at the output is
a series of positive carrier pulses Smoothing Filter
Ground
during the ones and zero voltage
during the zeros, as shown in Fig 2-4. Fig 2-S-Simple radio receiver with
The signal doesn't look quite like added smoothing filter.
the data we are trying to recover, but
by adding a carefully selected
capacitor value-one that will charge
and discharge between the cycles of
the carrier but not stay charged
UBR1-0206
during the zeros-we can recover a Voltage
reasonable copy of our original data. Level
This capacitor is referred to as a
smoothing filter. A receiver with a 0--
filtering capacitor is shown in Fig 2-
5, with the resulting data output in Logical o o o o
Value
Fig 2-6. While this isn't quite a
perfect copy of the original, a
computer could easily recognize the Fig 2-6-Received pulsed data waveform from receiver with smoothing
filter.
data.
The sunptest Receiver-The Crystal Set 2-3

Yes, we could actually build our
own crystal radio receiver! Retailers v-r-f'.,
used to sell electronic parts in most / l'--

+ /
towns and cities, but today it is a bit / 1\
more difficult to find electronic parts 1\
~\
needed for projects like this. There
are many computer parts available,
but not as many radio parts available
/
If
as there used to be.
So What Do We Need?
Luckily, as noted in Fig 2-5, there
aren't very many parts required for a
simple receiver! It may, however, be
hard to find the high-impedance Fig 2-7-A single tone amplitude modulating a carrier. In this example,
headphones that were popular when there would be 600 cycles of the carrier in each cycle of the modulating
crystal sets were "high tech" back in . waveform. The recovered audio waveform is a GOO-Hz sine wave.
the 1920s. The values for the other
parts are not too critical, but should
be fairly close to the values shown. will be shorter than optimum, and
For the crystal we can avoid the How Do I Hear the Top-40
will therefore pick up less signal. As
difficulty of finding old-fashioned with my Simple Radio?
a young lad, I had good results with
galena crystals and buy a very about 30 feet of wire run to a tree Yes, a simple receiver can do a
inexpensive modem semiconductor outside my second floor bedroom nice job picking up AM broadcast
diode. It will work better and needs window, perhaps 10 to 15 feet above signals. A voice (or music) AM
no adjustments. Almost any diode ground. I was able to hear strong signal works pretty much the same
will work, but your radio will be broadcast stations from about 25 way as the data signal illustrated in
more sensitive with a germanium miles away. Fig 2-2. Instead of multiplying a
diode, such as a IN34, than with a For a ground connection, the transmitter carrier signal using ones
more common silicon diode, such as classic connection point in a house is and zeros, we can modulate with a
a IN914. a cold-water pipe. This works more complex waveform. Suppose
Construction methods are not too because pipes are usually copper and we have a carrier signal of 600 kHz
critical either. Perhaps the best way they end up underground outside the and wish to multiply it by the signal
to build this is by placing the parts house. Make sure there's no PVC from a musical instrument holding a
on a perforated circuit board and (plastic) pipe in the path, especially steady note of a single frequency,
soldering the connections. Use the if your house was built fairly say 600 Hz. The resulting waveform
minimum amount of heat on the recently. Plastic pipes do not conduct would look like Fig 2-7.
diode to avoid damage. Use just electricity! Another ground possibil- A simple crystal receiver like
enough heat to solder to its leads. ity is to connect to the screw on the Fig 2-5 will recover a slightly
The most effective antenna we can outside of a power outlet plate. If distorted copy of the 600-Hz tone,
probably manage for this simple proper grounding has been employed which we could listen to by replac-
radio is a piece of wire as long and in your house's wiring, this should ing the load resistor with sensitive,
as high as practical. If we really connect all the way back to the ac high-impedance earphones. While
wanted to do the best job we could, mains service-entrance ground. the original audio signal is centered
we would want to have a vertical How well you can receive stations around 0 V, the recovered audio
wire 1/4 wavelength long. This makes with this simple receiver will depend signal from our simple crystal
for half a dipole and requires a good on how close you are to an AM receiver is centered around a de
ground for the other side of the transmitter, the power of that voltage equal to half the peak
connection. Look at your answers to transmitter and the length and the voltage of the received carrier. This
Review Question 3 in Chapter 1 and effectiveness of your antenna and causes a slight bias to the position of
divide by two for a 1/4-wave antenna. ground connections. the earphone diaphragm, and can be
But this is probably still longer than removed by inserting a series
you can deal with. So your antenna
2-4 Chapter 2
Fig 2-8-Schematic
diagram of a crystal
receiver with de blocking
capacitor. Note that a
500-1500 IJH series coil is used to
resonate the capacitive
reactance of the antenna.
38-365 Further, the antenna is
105t pF transformer-coupled to
230
IJH the input tuned circuit to
avoid undue loading,
which would decrease
receiver selectivity.
LowZ
Headphones
500-1500 IJH 1N34
230 38-365
pF 0.01
IJH
105t IJF
Fig 2-9-Schematic a crystal receiver with a RadioShack 273-1380, 1000:8-0 audio transformer so that low-
impedance headphones can be used.
capacitor to block the de component 2. This receiver puts out a signal applications. Lower-impedance
of the signal, as shown in Fig 2-8. equal to the received carrier phones either will provide less
level. It is actually powered by output or will require a stronger
What's Wrong With This the energy received from the signal. A high-impedance to
Simple Receiver? transmitter, but if we're not close low-impedance output trans-
A receiver like this actually does enough to the transmitter or former can help avoid this
work and I encourage readers to try don't have a big-enough problem, as shown in Fig 2-9 in
it. If you do, you may find out that it antenna, we will struggle to hear which a lOOO:8-Q audio
has some significant limitations. The anything. There is also no way transformer (RadioS hack 273-
following are the most noticeable: to easily control the received 1380) has been added so that
1. It will receive not only the signal level. We will need adjustable low-impedance headphones can
we want, but also all others at amplification or gain to over- be used.
the same time. This is not a come this limitation. The next sections will describe
problem if the signal we want is 3. Another limitation mentioned more details of how we can over-
far stronger than all others, but previously is that most modern come these limitations. If you built a
in the real world we will need headphones are low impedance, simple receiver on a breadboard and
selectivity to receive just our typically 600 Q or lower, left some room you will be able to
desired signal. Receiving five sometimes as low as 8 Q. The easily make these improvements.
top-40 stations at the same time earphones of the crystal-set era
is not necessarily an improve- back in the 1920s were 2000 Q
ment over receiving only one! or higher, designed to give
higher sensitivity for such
The Simplest Receiver-The Crystal Set 2-5

\
I~r/fli~ II rI(j{fiy 'I1m,IW'fi1 . '

From a Historical
Perspective
The steps towards improving the
simple crystal set that we're going to
discuss in the following sections are
pretty much the way radios evolved
in the early part of the 20th century.
The earliest receivers were very
much like our simple crystal set.
Instead of a packaged semiconductor
diode, however, early radio pioneers
used a piece of galena crystal with a
eat's whisker wire probe to make
their crystal detectors. This was
before vacuum tubes were devel-
oped, so amplification was not an
option. The pioneers first worked on
the selectivity problem, refining it to
quite an art with various types of
exotic tuning mechanisms intended
to bring in only the signals they
wanted. Fig 2-10-Close-up of a coherer tube in a Marconi detector. (Photo
courtesy of the Marconi Corporation, ptc.)
There was Other
Technology Too
The crystal set is the kind of radio
many would associate with the
earliest radio equipment, but it may
have survived into current literature
largely because it is easy to duplicate
with available materials and has the
virtue of receiving voice signals as
well as the radiotelegraph signals for
which early receivers were designed.
There were earlier and competing
technologies as well.
The Coherer Detector

The early Marconi stations made
use of a device called a eoherer,
named after the action of metal
filings under the influence of a
voltage across them. If a voltage is
applied to a collection of loose metal
filings, they tend to line up between
the charged electrodes in response to
the electric field between them. A
phtograph of a coherer detector tube
is shown in Fig 2-10, with a view of
Fig 2-11-Complete Marconi coherer detector. (Photo courtesy of the
the complete Marconi coherer in
Antique Wireless Association)
Fig 2-11. Loose filings show a high
2-6 Chapter 2
resistance, while lined-up ones wire that was passed by permanent the coils with a clockwork mecha-
exhibit a low resistance, allowing magnets and an input and output nism.
current to flow in a secondary circuit. coil. The signal was applied to the Marconi found that the magnetic
The electrodes in the partial vacuum input coil and the headphones were effect of the permanent magnets
in the coherer tube were adjustable connected to the output coil. The upon the wire could be distorted by
in-and-out to give maximum sensi- wire was pulled past the magnets and the application of an ac signal to the
tivity. This occurred at the point just
before the filings were pushed into
direct contact.
The coherer receiver worked with
a second circuit operating a relay.
The relay could be used to provide a
local signal to a pen recorder of the
type used in land telegraph, allowing
an automatic record to be made, or to
a sounder, as if the radio system
became a direct replacement for the
connecting wires of a land-telegraph
system.
Unfortunately, the coherer did not
decohere by itself after the radio
pulse had finished. That is to say that
once the filings lined up they tended
to stay where they were until the
coherer tube was tapped or vibrated
to shake them back to their rest
position. Fortunately, this was
another function of the second
circuit, in that the relay could be
provided with additional contacts
that caused a bell-like clapper to
strike the tube to shake the filings
free. The other limitation of the
coherer was that it took quite a
strong signal to move the filings in
the first place. Many early receivers Fig 2-12-A complete Marconi coherer receiver. (Photo courtesy of the
Marconi Corporation, plc.}
were equipped with multiple detec-
tors so that the optimum one for the
conditions could be selected. A
photo of a Marconi receiver with
coherer detector is shown in
Fig 2-12. The coherer was, in effect,
an on-off switch, not a detector that
could recover AM voice signals. It
thus never became popular with the
residential market. Another disad-
vantage was that occasionally the
decoherer hammer would break the
glass tube rather than just shaking
the filings loose. Of course, this only
happened when a message was being
received.
The Magnetic Detector

An unusual detector attributed to
Marconi was the magnetic detector. Fig 2-13-Close-up of a Marconi magnetic detector. (Photo courtesy of
This device consisted of an endless the Antique Wireless Association.)
band of stranded, silk covered iron

wire as it moved through the assem-
bly. This would result in a signal
being heard in the headsets. Fig 2-13
provides a closeup of a magnetic
detector.
The magnetic detector was more
sensitive and reliable than the coherer
detector and remained the standard
detector on Marconi equipment until
the crystal detector was developed.
An early Marconi receiver with
magnetic detector connected to
tuning circuit is shown in Fig 2-14.
The Crystal Set

The crystal set made the earlier
detectors obsolete. It had more
sensitivity than its predecessors, was
less complicated to manufacture and
could detect later voice transmissions
as well as the telegraph signals of the
day. Fig 2-14-Complete Marconi receivering setup with magnetic detector
The crystal set had its drawbacks and multiple tuner, circa 1910. (Photo courtesy of the Antique Wireless
as well as advantages. Although a Association.)
crystal set was perhaps the most
sensitive of the early radio detectors, battery power, was fragile and made
it only operated at all if the detector's for a less portable receiver than a
cat whisker was positioned on a crystal set.
sensitive spot on the crystal material, The vacuum tube was more
a delicate and fragile proposition. successful early on as an audio
The exact spot was hard to locate amplifier following a crystal detec-
without a signal present, although an tor. This gave enough audio signal
auxiliary buzzer could be used as a power to allow a family to listen
substitute signal for adjustment and around a loudspeaker, rather than
was part of the Marconi equipment. one person at a time listening to
Heavy seas or shellfire could result in headphones. We'll talk about
the whisker being dislodged, with amplifiers in the next chapter, first on
consequent loss of reception. In the audio side of the detector and
addition, crystal detectors were then on the radio frequency side. As
vulnerable to the kind of pulses that noted in the following sections, there
lightning or static discharge could was a lot of room for improvement
generate, a real problem on ship- before we could say we moved on to Fig 2-15-Early crystal set with
board. "modern electronics." built-in tuning circuitry.
Enter the Vacuum Tube- A Step Towards Better

Modern Electronics is Born! Selectivity
In the days before the US entry A parallel-resonant circuit' Note that to be able to select
into WW I, the Deforest Company exhibits its maximum impedance different stations, we need to be able
marketed the Audion, I a vacuum tube (and thus highest voltage) at its to change the value of either the
with versions designed to provide resonant frequency. If we put a signal inductor or capacitor, or both. In the
both detector and amplifier functions. from an antenna across such a circuit early days it was usually the inductor
A diode detector had the advantage and tune the circuit to be resonant at (then called a coil) that was variable.
of sensitivity almost comparable to a the frequency of the station we want Later, the capacitor (then called a
well-adjusted crystal detector, but it to hear, that station will be empha- condenser) was more often the
required no adjustments and neither sized more at the detector compared variable element.
did it show other quirky traits. On the to stations at other frequencies. An Let's see if we can design a
negative side, however, the vacuum- early crystal set with a tuning circuit resonant circuit that will cover the
tube detector was expensive, required is shown below in Fig 2-15. standard AM broadcast band using a
2-8 Chapter 2
variable capacitor. The resonant Hooking up the Antenna The effect of the shunt resistance is to
frequency of a parallel-tuned circuit' lower the Q to the point that it might
Having a selective resonant circuit no longer have sufficient selectivity
is: should help us be able to separate to separate stations.
1 stations. However, we must use care Instead of directly connecting to
f--- (Eq 2-1)
r - 2nJLC to keep from diminishing selectivity the resonant circuit we can overcome
when we connect the antenna. There these issues by using transformer
Note that there are no "magic
are two concerns. One is a change in coupling to match the antenna
values" used here. Any combination
resonant frequency and the other is a impedance to the radio's resonant
of inductor and capacitor values can
reduction in selectivity due to circuit and by using a series coil to
be selected to meet the above
loading or reducing the Q (quality cancel the antenna's capacitive
resonant condition at the desired
factor) of the circuit.
frequency. If we want to cover the reactance. These two techniques were
All wiring has both stray capaci- shown in Figs 2-8 and 2-9 earlier.
standard AM broadcast band, from
tance and inductance, in addition to
550 to 1700 kHz, we will be cover- Note that we now have two circuits
any resistance in the wire itself.
ing a frequency range of 1700/550 or to adjust and this is just what people
These effects can be determined by did in the early days. Fig 2-16 is a
about 3.1:1. Note from Eq 2-1 that
calculation based on the physical
the frequency varies with the square photo of an early two-coil.tu~er for a
root of the capacitance, so we will properties of the wires ~n~ th~ir crystal set designed to optimize both
surroundings. For the winng in a tuning and antenna coupling.
need a variable capacitor that covers
small radio, particularly at broadcast- On the other side of the tuned
a range of values of about 9.6: 1, the
band frequencies, the ability to trim circuit, we have another potential
square of 3.1: 1. A standard maxi-
the inductance in the resonant circuit
mum value used for broadcast problem. The headphones a~t li~e a
means we needn't be unduly con-
coverage is a 365-pF variable resistive load on the tuned CIrcUIt and
cerned about the actual values of also lower the Q. This is another
capacitor, with a minimum value
strays, since they are quite small. reason for using high-impedance
(including wiring capacitance) of
The antenna connection is quite headphones to listen to a crystal set.
capacitance no more than 38 pF, a
another matter. At broadcast-band
practical value.
frequencies, the usual outside wire Notes
Knowing the maximum value of
antenna needed to pick up signals for
capacitance, and noting from Eq 2-1 1Wolfgang, L, Understanding Basic
our crystal set is not itself resonant, Electronics, ARRL, Chap 26,
that the larger the capacitance the
as we discussed earlier. Our "ran- Figure 7. Available from the ARRL
lower the frequency, we can deter-
dom-wire" antenna looks like a Bookstore for $20 plus shipping.
mine the value of inductance
moderate-sized capacitor shunted by Order number 3983. Telephone toll-
required to make the circuit resonant.
a large resistor. free in the US 888-277-5289,
We solve Eq 2-1 for L in terms of C
If we were to hook such an elsewhere 860-594-0355;
and f with the following result: www.arrl.org/shop/
antenna directly to the resonant
circuit we would find that the pubsales ssarrl.orq.
L 2lbid, Chap 24.
C(2nfr )2 resonant frequency shifts down due
3lbid, Chap 24, p 24-7.
to the additional parallel capacitance.
1 -229.6j.lH
365 pF (2 x 3.14 x 550 kHz) 2
(Eq 2-2)
As a check we can plug the values

of Land C back into the resonant
frequency formula and we should get
a frequency of 550 kHz. If we use
229.6 ~H and 38 pF (the minimum
value for the capacitor) in the
resonant-frequency formula, we
confirm the upper end of the fre-
quency range at 1700 kHz. .
In most radios, the inductance IS
made with a moveable iron slug to
trim the value so that it is resonant at
the right place on the dial, compen-
sating for any stray reactive compo-
nents in the circuit wiring and for the
effect of the antenna. Fig 2-16-Photo of an early two-coil tuner for enhanced selectivity.

1<§view QueJ'tionJ'
1. Assume that the variable capacitor for a crystal set is linear-that is, the
capacitance increases the same amount with each equal amount of rotation.
What would the effect be on the frequency dial? For example, consider a
minimum of 38 pF at 0° rotation and a maximum of 365 pF at 180°. Then
119.75 pF would be at 45°, 201.5 pF at 90°, and 283.25 pF at 135°. Calculate
the corresponding frequencies at each of the five positions. What do you
notice about the dial scale? What could be done to improve the "tunability"?
2. If a radio's tuned circuit bandwidth happens to equal 5% of the resonant
frequency, what would the bandwidth be at each end of the radio dial? What
would be the impact of that be on the ability to separate stations?
3. Compute the length of a half-wave dipole for each end of the broadcast
band.
2-10 Chapter 2
r.nhancin the
I
I
An icieal way to learn radio.
This kit is complete, rea4ty tc
assemble, with tubes and all
other parts. Operates trom
110V.. AC. Simple, clear de-
taile. instructions make this
a good radio training course.
Covera regular broadcasts and
short wave bands. Plug-in
coils. Regenerative circuit.
Operates loud speaker ,
Shipping Wt. :3 Lbe,
HS30 Headphones per set '1.00

2~11 Permanent Magnet Loudspeaker 1.95
Mahogany Cabinet 2..95
An early Heathkit a-tube radio receiver kit.
Conten n'
Let's Crank It Up! 3-2
Enter the TRF (Tuned Radio Frequency) Receiver 3-4
The Final Step-the Superhet 3-7
I "
, IJJr I~_"j I!I'~ ".,' .

- -
With the addition of a selective Fig 3-1. A small change in grid After all, transistors are much easier
resonant circuit at the front of our voltage from the AC Input Signal to find and they avoid potentially
receiver, we can start to look at the (such as a crystal detector) results in lethal voltages. We will add a simple
back end and address some of the a larger change in plate current and single-transistor audio amplifier'
other concerns raised in Chapter 2. the resulting signal coupled from the between the output of our crystal
We will not consider the selectivity plate circuit is an amplified version receiver and our high-impedance
question closed, since we will of the signal on the grid. The result is headphones. In the circuit shown in
improve upon it in other ways later a louder signal from the crystal Fig 3-2 I have added such an
in this chapter, but we will move detector. Multiple amplifier stages amplifier to the crystal radio and
forward in a manner that parallels can build up the signal to any desired included a volume control between
actual early receiver development. level. the stages. This might be a bit
With enough audio amplification, optimistic, but I put it there so that
An Audio Amplifier-Just we can take the weak signal from a the output level can be reduced if it is
What We Need crystal radio and increase its level to too loud.
Radio began to have the capabil- fill a room. One way to easily verify This amplifier provides a voltage
ity to fill a room with sound around this is to hook the output of your gain into a high-impedance load,
the time of WW I with the advent crystal set into the auxiliary input of such as the crystal-set headphones
of the triode vacuum tube. I The a stereo system and turn up the discussed in the last chapter. You
development of the triode- is a volume. In the early days of "Hi-Fi," could modify the amplifier to drive a
worthwhile topic for those with an crystal-set AM tuners were a popular pair of the more common low-
interest in the history of technol- accessory, since they did not intro- impedance headphones by changing
ogy. There are still applications duce any extraneous hum or noise to a common-collector configuration,
that are best served by vacuum into the system from the circuits as shown in Fig 3-3.
tubes, especially high-power radio- associated with the
transmitter stages using special vacuum tubes of the
tubes for UHF and microwave day. They were most UBR1-0301
radar. Nowadays, however, solid- popular with listeners

state devices more readily handle who lived in major
most receiver functions, so we will metropolitan areas
focus on their use in this book. near big transmitters.
Output
In our original crystal set + Signal
described in Chapter 2, the only How Do We E p LATE =
ways to increase the volume of a Make It Happen? EGR10 =_

350 V
received signal were to extend the While we can still 6V

+
antenna or move closer to the find tubes, for our
transmitter. Both of these solutions receiver we will use a
have obvious practical limitations! transistor amplifier. Fig 3-1-A simple triode audio amplifier.
So the introduction
of amplifying
devices made radio Fig 3-2-Crystal receiver with single-
a more practical transistor common-emitter audio
+VEE +12V
medium for enter- amplifier stage for high-impedance

tainment and headphones.
information distri-
bution.
A triode vacuum- 1N34
tube amplifier uses a
small signal applied High Z
Output
to the control grid to 230
change the current f.JH
105t 38-365
in the circuit pF
between the plate

UBR1-0302
and the cathode. See
3-2
+12 V
100 IJF
1N34
500-1500 IJH
230
IJH
0.01
+ t----t
1 IJF Low Z
105t 38-365 Output
pF IJF
UBR1-0303
Fig 3-3-Crystal receiver with single-transistor common-collector audio power amplifier stage for low-
impedance headphones.
UBR1-0304 Audio Amp

1
270 k
Antenna
3.31JF
20V
1N34
500-1500 IJH .-----...-+l----<l~__t--___t+
230
IJH
0.01
105t 38-365
pF IJF
+12V
Fig 3-4-Crystal receiver with integrated-circuit audio output amplifier.
The common-collector amplifier is Moving Into the Integrated.. The LM-386 analog integrated
often referred to as a power amplifier Circuit Age circuit I've specified includes stages
rather than the usual voltage ampli- internally that provide both gain and
fier shown in Fig 3-2. A voltage With very little additional effort, sufficient power output to drive a
amplifier provides an increase in the we can make use of an integrated loudspeaker. If you have already built
voltage of a signal, operating into circuit amplifier stage. See Fig 3-4. the single-transistor amplifier, it can
roughly the same load impedance as An integrated circuit is a device that be used as a preamplifier stage
seen by the source. A power ampli- includes many transistors and other between the detector and the inte-
fier typically provides an output at components designed to provide a grated circuit.
about the same voltage as the input, completely functioning circuit. They This circuit makes the crystal
but at a higher current so that the are available both in the form of receiver into one that is almost
power is higher. This is perfect to analog circuits and digital ones. practical. Unfortunately, with the
drive low-impedance headphones or Digital integrated circuits are the additional gain provided by the audio
even a loudspeaker. reason that computers fit on a desk amplifier, we are more likely to hear
instead of taking up rooms as they multiple stations, resulting from the
used to do back three or four decades selectivity limitations of our simple
ago. tuning circuit discussed in Chapter 2.
Enhancing the Simplest Receiver 3..3

I
I'WAIl~ 'Ii1/, • • rlllJlflJrS81lh -,prltlfJr;jfA Il.~i.~

I ~ ~ : ~ '1~
Radio listeners of the 1920s were What about a TRF set? has at some time heard what happens
faced with the same selectivity
Yes, we could make transistor or if a microphone is in front of a
problems, but usually had a lot fewer
integrated-circuit RF amplifiers for a loudspeaker connected to the output
stations to deal with. After all, if
radio that include additional tuned of the same amplifier. The micro-
there's only one station within range,
circuits. These can separate signals phone picks up some of the sound
you don't have a problem! The
much better, just as the vacuum tube from the speaker, amplifies it to
answer in the old days was to add
TRF radios our great grandparents produce a louder version, which then
vacuum-tube amplifiers with
used. At the same time we would hits the microphone. Before long we
additional tuning circuits to provide
find that we could pick up additional have an embarrassing howl filling
more selectivity in front of the
signals due to the amplification of the room. The same thing can
detector. These radios were called
the signals from the antenna. happen at radio frequencies. The
tuned radio frequency sets. While the
The circuit shown in Fig 3-6 name of the effect is oscillation. In
earliest vacuum tubes were only
includes a single RF amplifier stage; the next chapter we'll describe how
useable at audio frequencies, it
however, additional ones can be to make it happen, but only when we
wasn't long before they were
added as needed. With an RF stage, want it to happen.
developed to the point that they
however, we have added a complica- Oscillation can occur in an RF
could be used at radio frequencies as
tion that we didn't have to worry stage if there is gain (which we
well. surely want) and the output signal
about before. I would guess everyone
A popular arrangement was the
"three-dial TRF" receiver. A photo-
graph of an Atwater-Kent three
dialer is shown below in Fig 3-5. To
tune stations the user had to manu-
ally adjust each of the three dials to
the proper position on the dial. This
was better suited for tuning in known
stations than searching the dial for a
new station. The dials are not
calibrated directly in frequency.
Rather, each has a 0 to 100 scale, so
a tuning chart had to be checked to
find out how to tune in each station. Fig 3-5-Photo of early Atwater-Kent three-dial TRF receiver (Thanks to
This was not for the faint of heart! Rick Lindquist, N1RL, for equipment loan).
0.05
3300
500-1500 IJH 1N34
0.01
IJF
38-365
pF 38-365 to
0.05
pF AFAmp
IJF
UBR1-0306 +
12V
Fig 3-6-Crystal receiver with RF amplification stage.
3-4 Chapter 3
can couple somehow back to the
input of that amplifying stage. This
can happen through:
• Coupling within the active device.
• Transformer coupling between the
input and output inductors.
• Capacitive coupling between the
input and output tuned circuit
elements.
We can avoid oscillation if we
isolate the input and output circuits
through orientation and shielding to
minimize any stray coupling. Notice
the orientation of the inductors in the
old three-dial TRF shown in Fig 3-7.
Each are at right angles to the other Fig 3-7-lnside the Atwater-Kent TRF receiver. Note that the three
two to minimize transformer cou- inductors are perpendicular to each other to reduce unintentional
pling. Shielding between stages transformer coupling. (Equpment loan, Rick Lindquist, N1RL)
could also be used to reduce the
capacitive coupling between stages.
If too much signal couples back up the audio amplifier. Audio of multisection capacitors turned by
through the transistor, we may have amplifiers are generally less a single shaft.
to add an additional circuit to cancel complicated and require less The TRF with ganged capacitors
out the coupled energy. This is called special parts than RF amplifiers. and high-fidelity audio systems
neutral ization. moved radio from a hobbyist
What About That Pesky curiosity to an entertainment and
How Far Can You Take This? Crystal? information system given a promi-
You might think that the more RF In addition to amplifying, vacuum nent place in the front parlor. The
amplifiers you add, the more gain tubes also were used as detectors. In radio now had just two knobs, a
you can achieve and the shorter the the early days of radio, a convenient tuning knob and a volume knob.
antenna you would need. This is true solid-state semiconductor diode People who just wanted to listen to
to a point, but runs out of gas for wasn't yet available, although it the radio-not play with it-could
three reasons: preceded the transistor (1948) by now easily use it. The new TRF sets
• The higher the gain at the signal some years and was in widespread were often in large console cabinets
frequency, the more likely oscilla- use as a radar detector during with 12- or IS-inch speakers de-
tion will happen in the RF stages, WW II. The original crystal detector, signed to fill a room with music and
or the more trouble you have to go with its fussy-to-adjust eat's whisker, news, and some sounded very good.
through to keep oscillation from was a major stumbling block in the
way of popular acceptance of radio. So why aren't we still using
occurring.
• Each amplifier adds noise as well as Early vacuum-tube detectors, the TRF?
amplifying the signal. The higher combined with RF and audio amplifi- The TRF had two remaining
the gain, the louder the noise. The cation, made radio come of age. problems. The most serious is that
resultant noise level detracts from The first vacuum-tube detectors the bandwidth, also known as the
the signal quality. This internal were diodes, which served the same selectivity, was generally a fraction
noise in the receiver is most evident function as the fussy cat's-whisker of the tuned-circuit frequency. Thus,
in the higher HF and VHF ranges, crystal detector. Development using if the percentage were 3% using
where it can be louder than the a triode tube led to a number of multiple tuned circuits, at the low
external noise coming from the circuits in which a triode could both end of the tuning range we would
antenna. detect and amplify, thus replacing a hear a band of frequencies about
e External noise due mainly to separate first audio amplifier stage. 15 kHz wide. But at the other end of
nearby thunderstorms and the range it would be 45 kHz wide.
powerline noise goes up with lower Where did the TRF go Next? The usual FCC broadcast-channel
frequencies. At the MF broadcast As noted earlier, a major problem assignment is 10kHz, so obviously
band it is relatively high and gets with the TRF was that every added with this receiver we would have a
picked up by the antenna with the stage added an additional tuning problem at the high end of the
signal. High amplification ahead of knob! The TRF didn't become broadcast band in congested areas or
the crystal detector brings up both popular for casual listening until when nighttime ionospheric propaga-
signal and noise, so it's easier to someone thought of ganging the tion brings in high-power stations
make signals louder by just turning capacitors together through the use from all over the country.
Enhancing the Simplest Receiver 3-5

/-r-- ,..-r-i'-
+
/ r- /.'\
/ 1\ / 1\
/ 1\ / 1\
J I\~vl ~\
o ~\
\ V
V~
\ V
,t
\ II \ 1/
-, V '\ 1/ Fig 3-9-Signal output from an ideal detector.
....... '-1.--' ',-I.---
Fig 3-B-Signal envelope input to a detector.
The other problem was largely a signals and look like an insulator to
mechanical issue. The tuned circuits negative ones. Fig 3-8 shows a signal
had to be constructed in a more coming into a detector. Fig 3-9
precise way so that all the circuits shows the output of an ideal diode
were on the same frequency at any detector. This is all well and good,
point of the dial. This was a problem but in order to have an ideal detector
that the three-dial radio didn't have. we need an ideal diode.
To compensate for manufacturing With early eat's whisker detectors,
irregularities, usually both the it was possible to find a "hot spot"
inductor and capacitors had trimming on the material that was the most Fig 3-10-Schematic diagram of a
adjustments. This required an sensitive. There might have been a crystal receiver using a modern
additional manufacturing step of number of parameters involved in diode with biasing circuit.
alignment, in which a skilled this hot spot, including the diode
technician would use calibrated forward-conducting voltage.
signal generators to adjust all the An ideal diode starts to conduct as
trimmers so that the radio actually soon as the applied voltage becomes doesn't interfere with its operation so
received the frequency shown on the greater than zero. Unfortunately, a that it is almost ready to conduct, we
dial and all the circuits were tuned to real diode doesn't start until some can make this problem go away. For
the same frequency at the same forward voltage has been exceeded. example, if we have a diode with a
position of the dial. A receiver that For the case of early germanium forward turn-on voltage of 0.6 V and
did so was said to track properly. diodes, about 0.1 V was needed we provide a dc bias of 0.599 V, it
TRF receivers are occasionally before conduction started. Germa- will start conducting with a signal of
seen today in special applications, nium diodes are less commonly 0.001 V, a much easier to get signal
particularly in the case of a receiver found nowadays, and the more- from a reasonable antenna than if we
that only requires reception of a common silicon diodes require 0.6 V needed greater than 0.6 V!
single frequency. before they start to conduct. Fig 3-10 shows an example of such
What this means is that the input a circuit. The l-MQ potentiometer can
Modern Diodes-There's signal must be much stronger than be adjusted to put any voltage between
Always a Catch! the diode forward voltage. In the o and 1.5 V across the diode. The
The use of modern diodes instead case of a silicon diode, and to a potentiometer resistance reduces the
of that "chunk of galena and eat's lesser extent early germanium ones, load on the circuit so that it has
whisker" that granddad fought with this requires a mighty big signal minimal impact on detector perfor-
may seem like a real blessing. It from a transmitter pretty close by, a mance. Note that if the potentiometer
certainly makes for an easier to build very large antenna or both. is set just below the point at which
and operate crystal-set radio receiver, diode conduction occurs, no current
but it seems like there's always a What Do We Do Now? will flow. Even when the diode
gotcha! We could go back to galena and conducts due to incoming signals,
To recover the envelope of the eat's whiskers, although galena is no there is no battery current flowing and
transmitted signal, the crystal or longer readily available at radio thus we still do not use any power
diode detector must conduct when dealers. (In fact, radio dealers have except that provided by the incoming
the incoming signal is positive and become something of a rare species.) signal. The battery voltage just moves
not conduct when the signal is An alternative is to forward bias the the free electrons and holes at the
negative. An ideal diode would act detector. If we apply a de voltage diode junction closer together so it's
like a small resistor to positive-going across the diode, in a way that easier for conduction to occur.
3-6 Chapter 3
Superhet is short for superhetero- understand how this happens, we Notes
dyne. So what's a heterodyne? I'm need to introduce a few concepts: 1A. Cole, "Practical Pointers on the
glad you asked! A heterodyne is a IIOscillator circuits to generate new Audion", QST, Mar 1916, pp 41-44.
signal produced by two other signals, signals
2 Wolfgang, L, Understanding Basic
in a process similar to modulation IIMixer circuits to perform signal Electronics, ARRL, Chap 30, p 30-
that we discussed in Chapter 2. The multiplication 5. Available from the ARRL
superheterodyne radio receiver uses IIFiltering to set the desired band- Bookstore for $20 plus shipping.
that method to translate the incoming width. Order number 3983. Telephone
signal, along with all its information These subjects are basic to radio toll-free in the US 888-277-5289,
content, to a new frequency called an and electronics. Fortunately they are or 860-594-0355; www.arrl.org/
intermediate frequency (IF). The shop/[email protected].
all straightforward topics based on
trick is that any frequency we wish to tools we have used before. We will 3lbid, Chap 27, p 27-8, Figure 4.
tune to is translated to the same fixed cover them all in the next few
IF frequency for processing. To chapters.
1<.§view
1. Describe why an audio amplifier makes a crystal set a more practical
receiver.
2. How would you be able to tell if a TRF RF amplifier stage were
oscillating?
3. Without changing the circuit, how could you make an RF stage stop
oscillating?
4. What applications might make use of a single-frequency TRF receiver?
Enhancing the Simplest Receiver 3-7

j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
'ciff'a f'J'- he eafiYJj 1-fearfJ'
of Diem JoJ'
A common WWII type of crystal shown disassembled. The quartz wafer itself is at bottom-center.
Conients
What Is An Oscillator? 4-2
Types of Oscillators 4-3
Crystal Oscillators 4-5
The first function in our quest for howl (the new signal) results. That's integrated-circuit operational
the superheterodyne receiver is a not the result we want in a public- amplifier (op amp).
signal source. We will begin with address system, of course, but the To make a positive feedback
the oscillator. Oscillators are not effect is one of which we can make amplifier into an oscillator we just
only an important part of the good use in a more controlled way. have to do two things. We can either
superheterodyne receiver; they play restrict the feedback signal to the
an important part in almost all Feedback Amplifiers desired frequency of oscillation, or
electronic circuits and systems. Feedback results from applying a we can amplify only the desired
As mentioned earlier in Chapter sample of the output of an amplifier frequency and then make the
3, oscillators generate a signal in (for example) back to its input. Note feedback sufficient so that the
much the same way a public-address that we can either apply the sample amplifier gain times the feedback
system can generate a signal if the in-phase with the input signal, which ratio is greater than one. In either
microphone is placed in front of the tends to increase the output; or we case the feedback will increase until
speaker. As the gain is turned up, a can apply it out-of-phase to reduce the circuit oscillates at the desired
point is reached at which the the output. The former is known as frequency. We will then have an
feedback from output to input is positive feedback, while the latter is oscillator we can use in a superhet-
amplified enough so that the system known as negative feedback. The two erodyne receiver or for many other
breaks into oscillation and a large options are shown in Fig 4-1 for an applications.
Input f----JV'V\r-~l---'\N'\r---. Input 1---'\Nv----1p--VVI\r---,
Output Output
UBR1-0401 (A) (8)
Fig 4-1-Amplifiers with positive (A) and negative (8) feedback.
4-2 Chapter 3
.1 rtlr&rir;l.flJ·~
j
.
Inductance-Capacitance
(lC) Oscillators
As noted above, if we want to turn
an amplifier into an oscillator at a
particular frequency, we must either
control the frequency that gets
amplified, or control the frequency
that gets fed back, or both. Fig 4-2
shows the RF-amplifier circuit we
used ahead of the crystal detector in
the TRF receiver described in + UBR1·0402
Chapter 3 (Fig 3-6). In that applica-

tion, we discussed ways to keep the
amplifier from oscillating, since we Fig 4-2-RF amplifier without feedback.
wanted to hear radio stations-not
our own amplifier!
To make the amplifier into an
oscillator, all we have to do is put a
large-enough sample of the output
0.01
signal back to the input circuit and
tune both circuits to the same
{h5
1
frequency. One method of doing this
is shown in Fig 4-3.
You might wonder what causes the 10 k
Am L...-/...-_P_F_...-_+-_-o----' 100
oscillation to start, since we would
seem to have no input to begin with.
Remember that all amplifiers
generate some noise, along with the + UBR1·0403
signals we want them to amplify.

That noise generally covers the
Fig 4-3-RF amplifier with inductively coupled feedback.
whole frequency spectrum, including
the frequency we are tuned to. Some
of the noise on our tuned frequency
gets coupled back to the input reference in a computer, or even in these problems. Each still carries the
through the feedback loop. Again, an electronic clock. inventor's name, even though the
depending on the direction of the circuits have evolved through four
connections, this can either add to or Even Better lC Oscillators generations of vacuum tubes and a
subtract from the input signal. In an The oscillator circuit we just few solid-state devices. The circuits
oscillator we want to add, so we described will work. Sometimes, as in Figs 4-4 and 4-5 come from The
connect the wires in the right noted in Chapter 3, it will even work ARRL Handbook: and they make use
direction. when we don't want it to! It does of field-effect transistors (FETs).
The new signal goes around and have a few areas we can improve. However, the same tuning and
around the loop, getting stronger First, it requires two tuned circuits to feedback mechanisms can be used
each time, until it reaches the operate. It would be nice if we could with bipolar transistors, integrated
maximum level the circuit can change the frequency with just one circuit amplifiers or vacuum tubes.
handle. From the output winding we knob. Second, the amount of The Colpitts oscillator shown in
get a sinusoid at the frequency to feedback is difficult to precisely set, Fig 4-4 neatly solves both problems.
which the circuits are tuned. We have since it depends on the tightness of Note that the frequency is set by a
generated a signal that can be used in coupling between the windings and single tuned circuit composed mostly
a heterodyne receiver (Chapter 9) or the location of each coil. of Land C1 (I say mostly to point
as the beginning of a transmitter Over the years a number of out that the combination of C3, C4
(Chapter 12). The same oscillator inventors developed circuits for and C2 in series are in parallel with
could be used to generate a timing vacuum-tube oscillators that avoided Cl, limiting the minimum capaci-
Oscillators-s-The Beating Hearts of Modern Radios 4-3

+ +
Hartley
D r+;ypass
C1
Tuning
e--------+----IOutput
C1 RF >-e------c~\/\.I\r__e_-t.--_I Output
C4
Tuning 1 kO' Choke
UBR1-0404
Fig 4-4-The Colpitts oscillator. Fig 4-5-The Hartley oscillator.
tance of the circuit and thus the high- mechanical issues. For example, in device and exact tuning methods, but
frequency end of the tuning range). many applications the stability (the these are the two most common LC
The feedback is derived from the ability of an oscillator to stay on oscillator circuits. They are espe-
FET source (at the bottom in the frequency in spite of environmental cially useful ways to have an
diagram) connection, also the output changes) is important. Often move- oscillator that is mechanically tuned.
point. The amount of feedback is set ment of the coil due to shock and By the way, a variable capacitor is
by the impedance of C4 as a fraction vibration is a problem and more shown as the tuning element in the
of the total of C2 + C3 + C4. The connections may make secure LC circuit; however, the frequency
larger the fraction, the more energy mounting more difficult. can be changed as well using a fixed
gets coupled back into the input Another consideration is fre- capacitor and a variable inductor.
circuit. The general rule is to use just quency range. If a large frequency Some of the highest quality variable
enough feedback to allow oscillation, range is needed, sometimes different frequency oscillators (VFOs) over
leaving a good signal for the output values of L are switched in using the years have used a precision
where we need it. multiple inductors selected with a threaded rod to move an iron core in
The Hartley oscillator in Fig 4-5 is band switch. The Colpitts only and out of an inductor to vary the
very similar in operation to the requires switching two wires; the frequency.
Colpitts in Fig 4-4, except that the Hartley requires three. The Hartley To remember the names of the
feedback is set by the ratio of the tap has the advantage on total parts circuits, note that Colpitts uses
point on the inductor L as a fraction count, however. feedback through capacitors ("C"),
of the value of total L. The choice There are variations of these while the Hartley uses inductors
between them may come down to circuits, both in terms of active (units of "H").
4-4 Chapter 3
A completely different type of circuit. Such a crystal can be used in a crystal oscillator we don't have a
crystal than the one used in a crystal almost anywhere an LC circuit can coil tap across an equivalent resonat-
radio in Chapter 2 is the piezoelectric be used, including acting as the ing inductance, so we can't make a
crystal. This kind of crystal is made frequency control for an oscillator. Hartley circuit.
from quartz crystals, just as you may Fig 4-7A shows a crystal oscillator The 30-pF variable capacitor in
have seen growing in rock forma- in a Colpitts configuration. Note that Fig 4-7A can be used to slightly shift
tions. They have an interesting and
useful property. If a voltage is
applied across them, an electric field
results and this causes a mechanical
motion of the structure. When the
voltage is removed, the crystal
returns to its original configuration.
Just like pushing a mechanical
weight suspended from a spring, the
crystal has a natural frequency at
which it wishes to sway to and fro.
The frequency of oscillation depends
on the dimensions of the crystal.
Representative crystal types are
shown in Fig 4-6.
By precise cutting, grinding and
polishing, quartz crystals can be
made to oscillate at a specific Fig 4-6-Some examples of frequency-control crystals. The types in the
frequency. Functionally, they operate metal cans are sealed, while earlier types dating from WW II can be
as if they were an LC resonant opened to expose the parts.
+12 V .--------l.--------Gl~----__( +12 V
82 kO
2N2857
30 pF
Outputto
.....---e---; H Buffer Amplifier
c:::J 3-15 MHz
OdBm
500
220 pF
1 kO
0.1 ";L
UBR1-0407 (A) (8)
Fig 4-7-Crystal-controlled Colpitts oscillators.
Oscillators-The Beating Hearts of Modern Radios 4-5

the oscillation frequency. The crystal controlled miniature oven designed makes them useful as the element in
must be specifically cut taking into to avoid frequency changes from a microphone.
account the circuit configuration and temperature shifts.
capacitance into which it operates. One disadvantage of crystals is Notes
While the oscillator in Fig 4-7A that they will operate only on a 1 The ARRL Handbook for Radio
uses the crystal as a part of the single frequency. In many applica- Communication, 2005 Ed. See
equivalent amplifier tuning network, tions, this can be overcome by Chapter 10 for detailed technical
information on oscillators and
it is also possible to use the crystal in having multiple crystals and chang- synthesizers. Available from the
the feedback and output path to allow ing to the desired frequency by ARRL Bookstore for $39.95 plus
only the desired frequency to operate. switching crystals. $8 shipping in the US, $10
There are a number of such configu- In addition to the quartz crystals elsewhere. Order number 9280.
rations and Fig 4-7B shows one. we mentioned, there are some salt Telephone toll-free in the US 888-
Crystal oscillators have one major crystals, such as those made of 277-5289, 860-594-0355; or
www.arrl.org/shop/
advantage over LC oscillators-they Rochelle salts, that have useful
pubsales esarrl.orq.
are stable as long as the size of the properties in the audio frequency
crystal itself remains constant. Of range. When driven by an audio
course, this will change slightly with signal, they can be used as head-
temperature, and thus crystals used in phones or even as small speakers.
oscillators requiring high precision Such crystals also work the other
are often mounted in a temperature- way. If you stress them and release
them they will generate a voltage
waveform related to the motion. This
~view
1. Describe some of the limitations of LC oscillators intended for preci-
sion or high-stability applications. Describe alternatives for fixed and
variable-frequency applications. What problems do they solve?
2. A crystal manufacturer provides crystals with a frequency tolerance of
±.005%. If you purchase such a crystal for 7.0 MHz, what range of frequen-
cies might you end up with?
3. You need to provide a reference oscillator to generate a frequency of
10.125 MHz. Your requirements are that you must be close enough to the
design frequency that your signal be between 10.1245 and 10.1255 MHz.
What frequency tolerance do you need to provide?
4-6 Chapter 3
uenCJ ~nfheJ # BY'S
UR3IQO's homebrew tractlonal-N synthesizer from Nov/Dec 2003 QEX.
Contents
Frequency Synthesizers 5-2
More Frequency Synthesizes 5-4
The ideal oscillator has long been depletion region exists between the electrons in the N material and holes
considered a combination of the LC Nand P material. It is just as if there in the P material are attracted closer
oscillator, with its wide adjustment were two pieces of metal with an to the diode terminals. This makes
range, and the crystal oscillator, insulator (the depletion region) in- the insulator (depletion region) wider
with its precision and stability. Over between. Well, we could also call and decreases the capacitance of the
the years there have been many that a capacitor! The interesting diode. This is the effect we want-
efforts to make an oscillator that property of this configuration is that We can vary the capacitance of this
provided the benefits of both. Some as the voltage is increased, the free device just by changing the voltage.
have been more successful than No moving parts, and it doesn't draw
others. Early efforts used multiple any current so no power is con-
crystal oscillators mixed together, as sumed. It's almost free.
will be described in the next chapter. Semiconductor diodes are made
However, modem digital integrated especially for this purpose and are
circuits have made this task easier called varactors or tuning diodes. An
and less expensive. We will discuss example of a Colpitts oscillator with
the two most frequently encountered voltage tuning is shown in Fig 5-2.
+ Note that the same arrangement can
methods of frequency synthesis.
But first we will discuss electri-
Cathode I~ Anode be used to change the frequency of a
cally tuned oscillators, a key crystal oscillator, although the
element in many synthesizers. change is generally less because the
main thing that determines the
Electrically Tuned frequency is the crystal itself.
UBR1·0S01 Ammeter
Oscillators
The Phase-locked-loop
The variable oscillators we have
Fig 5-1-A semiconductor diode The phase-Iocked-Ioop (PLL)
talked about so far have used connected so no current flows. The
mechanical rotation of a variable combines digital circuitry with an
depletion region in the middle acts
capacitor or an inductor's tuning analog voltage-controlled oscillator
as an insulator. With two
slug to change frequency. Often we conductors sandwiching an (VCO), as described above. The
want to change an oscillator insulator in-between, this looks system causes the VCO to be
frequency in response to an electri- exactly like a capacitor! adjusted in steps that are as accurate
cal command, either for frequency
change from a remote position or
sometimes to correct for frequency
errors. UBR1-0502 +12V
In the early days of radio, this
was accomplished by attaching
remotely controlled electric motors,
called servomotors, to a capacitor
shaft and having the motor tum the
30-30.5 MHz
shaft as if it were a local operator.
The semiconductor revolution has
brought us a more elegant way to
Output
accomplish this task, and without 1/288204
moving parts! We have discussed
4
0 kQ
the use of semiconductor diodes as Tuning
receiver detectors in Chapter 2.

oltage
rJ:68 pF
There, we were most concerned
with diodes when they were 1/2882°1 TOKO 818 from
7-1/2 turns
conducting, but here we will focus (violet)
'" 0.35 ~H
on when they're not conducting.
In a diode connected so it does
not conduct, as shown in Fig 5-1, a Fig 5-2-A voltage-controlled Colpitts oscillator.
5-2 Chapter 5
as a crystal, but covers the whole
frequency range of the Yeo. The Voltage Controlled
Oscillator (VCO)
configuration is shown in Fig 5-3.
The basic operation is straightfor-
ward. But as usual, the devil is in the
details. A voltage-controlled oscilla-
tor (VeO) covers the range of
frequencies desired. If left to its own
devices, it would just be an LC
controlled oscillator-convenient,
but not very stable. To synthesize the
stability of a crystal, we also need a
reference crystal oscillator. We select
the desired frequency by using
digital dividers to divide down the
frequencies of both the reference Digital Control
oscillator and the VCO (by different

numbers) until they are the same. We f out _ f ref SO f =Nx f ref
N-M' out M UBR1-0503
then compare the two using a phase
detector (essentially a mixer, to be
described later) and use any differ-
ence to drive the VCO until the input Fig 5-3-A phase-locked-loop controlled stable oscillator.
frequencies to the phase detector are
the same.
This system is called a phase- phase-locked loop takes less than a crystal reference.
locked loop and is designed to cycle to measure and react to a phase Synthesizers are now found in
operate quickly as soon as there is difference. In practice, the speed may most modern variable-frequency
any phase difference between the come out to about the same, since all equipment. Like all apparent good
divided oscillator and the divided loops contain smoothing filters to things, however, synthesizers do have
reference. Earlier implementations of keep the loops from responding so limitations. The most serious may be
such systems were based on a quickly that they hunt back and forth that the signal often contains extrane-
frequency-locked loop instead of a trying to "lock up." ous components resulting from the
phase-locked loop. However, by its Early frequency synthesizers were correction signal. For the purest of
nature a frequency-locked loop takes sometimes called crystal synthesizers. signals, traditional LC or crystal
multiple cycles to determine fre- This conveyed the idea that the output oscillator circuits are still employed.
quency error, while theoretically a frequency would be as stable as the

Direct Digital Synthesis Angle Sine of Angle crystal set receiver, and we have
(DDS) 00 o generated very close to a sine wave.
360 0.588 If we have 1000 points, the output
The frequency synthesizers just
720 0.951 frequency will just be equal to the
described bring together the
108 0 0.951 number of times we go around all the
technologies of analog oscillator
1440 0.588 memory locations in a second
circuits and dedicated digital
circuits performing a control
180 0 o divided by 1000. To set the fre-
2160 -0.588 quency, we just program the com-
function. The actual signal still
2520 -0.951 puter to do it at the correct rate. With
comes from an LC oscillator,
288 0 -0.951 modern computers being clocked
however.
3240 -0.588 well above 1000 MHz, we can make
Direct Digital Synthesis (DDS)
this happen at pretty high frequen-
takes the migration to digital
Since computer memory is cheap, cies without working the processor
circuitry the final step. In a DDS
we could store these values in too hard.
signal source, there is no oscillator
memory. In a dedicated memory
dedicated to this function. A Hybrid Synthesizers
device, we could put them in a read-
microcomputer generates the signal
only-memory (ROM) and forever The DDS synthesizer offers high
instead, completely eliminating a
have values associated with an resolution (a small step size), while a
direct connection to an analog
almost perfect sine wave, in as many PLL synthesizer offers a wide
circuit.
increments as we want. We could frequency range. DSS synthesizers
Even so, somewhere in the
just as easily have 1000 points as 10. are available as dedicated processors,
microprocessor architecture there is
Now we put the computer to work. all on a single chip to achieve
a clock function that serves as a
We merely write code that retrieves reasonable costs. Many synthesizer
time base for all processor activity
the values from ROM in sequence designs combine the two technolo-
and in reality is the standard against
and applies them to the DAC to form gies, to get the benefits of both.
which the DDS process happens.
our analog output. We filter to Fig 5-4 is a greatly simplified
What's different here is that this
smooth out between the samples, just version of such a design. A DDS is
clock crystal oscillator is further
as we did the audio output of the used to generate a sine wave with a
removed from the signal generation
process, and it supports all proces-
sor timekeeping functions. After all
is said and done, however, the Band-Pass Filter
accuracy of the process can be no
R--_ _ 10 to 50 MHz
better than the reference crystal.
in 1 Hz Steps
So How's it Work?
Computers, especially sound VCO
cards, contain devices known as 9 to 48
I MHz
digital-to-analog converters or I
DACs. A DAC reads in a binary I
I I
based number, let's say 01010101, I I
decodes it as 85 (decimal) and puts I I . ide by N Phase
out an analog voltage related to the I r---- 9 to 48 Detector
I I
decimal value-let's say 851100 or I I
0.85 volts. If we can select any 1 Hz 1 MHz
number, we can define the voltages Adjust Adjust 1 MHz
corresponding to a sine wave. Let's Reference
UBR1-0504
say we want to represent one cycle
of a sine wave by 10 values. We can
easily calculate them as follows: Fig 5-~-Simplifie~ hybrid frequency synthesizer. A DDS is used for the
small Increments In frequency, while a Pll is used for larger frequency
steps.
5-4 Chapter 5
frequency from 1 to 2 MHz, in I-Hz If we wanted to generate a fre- 11 MHz from the PLL and 1.5673 to
steps. A PLL is usedto generate a quency of, let's say, 12.5673 MHz, get 12.5673 MHz. The filter is used
signal from 9 to 48 MHz, in I-MHz we would have the DDS in Fig5-4 to eliminate undesired mixer
steps. A mixer (which we'll cover in generate a 1.5673-MHz signal. We products. And we thus have gener-
Chapter 6) combines the signals and would set the -;- N divider to divide by ated our desired signal, ready for
takes the sum of the two. A filter is 11 and set up the bandpass output use.
used to make sure the correct filter after the mixer to pass from 12
frequency is selected. to 13 MHz. The mixer would sum the
1. Describe advantages of a synthesized frequency generator as compared

to crystal oscillators. What are the disadvantages?
2. Repeat question 1 in comparison with tunable L-C oscillators.
3. What special requirements are placed on the power supply of synthesiz-
ers using voltage controlled oscillators as shown in Fig 5-2?

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I
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I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
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I
Who says youngsters are rare in ham radio? Nine year old ARRL
Member Emily (Chick) Bishop from Cleveland, TN, checks in at the
Dayton 2004 ARRl booth with her dad, Mike, KI4AME.
Contents
A Bit of Background-Multiplying Two Signals 6-2
Let's Look Again At A Diode 6-3
In Chapter 1 we briefly dis- For the earlier case of a 600 kHz more, using a linear amplifier for
cussed multiplying two signals to radio signal multiplied by a 600 Hz illustration.
modulate the amplitude of one by audio tone, Eq 6-1 says we will have When we build an amplifier, a
the other. Fig 2-7 in Chapter 2 two radio signals, one at (600,000 - goal is to have at the output an exact
showed the graphical result of the 600) Hz, or 599.4 kHz, and the other copy (except larger) of the input
multiplication of two sine waves at (600,000 + 600) Hz, or 600.6 kHz. signal. If the amplifier gain is K and
plotted against time. As you may In a regular AM system, we don't the input signal is x, we generally
remember from high school cancel out the carrier frequency so look for an output y = K x x. This is
trigonometry, the result of multi- we would also have the original known as a linear system since the
plying two sinusoids is well 600 kHz carrier signal. The result is relationship between y and x is a
defined by the following trigono- that we would have three signals as straight line with a slope of K. The
metric identity: shown in Fig 6-1, a plot of amplitude output versus input (known as the
versus frequency. transfer function) of a linear ampli-
sin A x sin B = ![cos(A + B) + cos(A - B)] This representation is also called a fier is shown in Fig 6-2.
2
Eq 6-1 frequency domain plot, in contrast to The true test of linearity is to
Fig 2-7, which is called a time apply two signals simultaneously and
This is a very important result domain plot. Both are representations make sure that the only outputs are
and we will make use of it in a of the same signals. Note particularly replicas of the two inputs. Expressed
number of ways. Note what it tells that this result doesn't say anything mathematically: If the two signals
us. If we multiply sine waves at about one signal being a radio signal are a and b, the output becomes, y =
two frequencies, the results consist and one an audio signal. It applies to K x (a + b) = K x a + K x b. If a and
of sine waves at two new frequen- any two signals. b are sinusoids at two frequencies,
cies, the sum and difference of the we just get two louder sinusoids at
How we get Multiplication the output. In such an amplifier, this
two original signals. The fact that
they are cosines rather than sines A mixer circuit is the place that the is exactly what we want. If we are
just means that they are shifted 90 0 actual multiplication takes place. A listening to a violin and an oboe, we
from the original signals. The scale mixer can be used in many applica- don't want the amplifier to generate
factor of 112 just means that each of tions, and as a consequence has the sounds of a piano and flute! This
the new signals is half the ampli- many names-first detector, transla- ideal amplifier will not serve as a
tude of the originals. Note also, in tor, modulator, demodulator and mixer.
this idealized multiplication, the multiplier. In all cases the function is
original signals are no longer there simple-to perform the multiplica-
at all. We not only made new tion of two signals. Let us look into
signals, we made the old ones this multiplication business some
disappear!
UBR1-0602
. Output Level
UBR1-0601
Amplitude
Kx
1 - -_ _--11- .11.-_ _--11- Frequency

599.4 kHz 600 kHz 600.6 kHz
Fig 6-1-Frequency-domain representation of Fig 6-2-lnput-output relationship of an ideal linear

multiplication of the two signals with a carrier. amplifier.
6-2 Chapter 6
1~~w.lrri~IlI.,~will . ,.
" ~","" _ _ Ott ~ _ "~l - - -
The diode has a more complicated When we modulate a transmitter, Note that we have effectively
transfer function, shown in simpli- we usually use signals within one of translated the frequency range of the
fled form below in Fig 6-3. Note that the above ranges, depending on the modulating, or information, signal up
if the diode is operated well above kind of information we wish to send. to a frequency at which it can be sent
the forward-biased conduction point, Let's take our 600-kHz carrier as an via radio. The resulting spectrum is
it is quite linear and looks a lot like a example. Since it's in the AM shown in Fig 6-5.
resistor. If we operate it well below broadcast band, we will assume the
the conduction point, it is also linear, information is contained in the 20 to Mixer Circuits
but it looks like an insulator (y = 5000 Hz range. A simple transmitter The simplest mixer circuit is our
o x x). For a narrow range of x just might consist of an audio source earlier diode crystal set. When used
above the point at which current (from the announcer's microphone as a receiver of AM signals the
starts to flow, it has a response that for example), a carrier signal at the detection process can also be
looks a bit like a parabola, with a assigned frequency of 600 kHz and a described mathematically as a
response close to y = K X x". mixer (also known as a modulator in multiplication process. If we receive
In this case, if we apply two this application) to bring them all a signal for a 600-kHz carrier,
signals, we get a more complicated together. This is shown in block amplitude modulated by a single
result. For inputs a and b, we have: diagram form in Fig 6-4. tone of 600 Hz, we have shown that
y = K x (a + b)2 = K x (a2 + 2ab + b2 )
(Eq 6-2) UBR1·0603
Output Output
Note what we have here-the Current Current
middle term represents the product
of the two inputs, just what we
wanted! We also have the square of
each input, resulting in a twice-
frequency term. But these extraneous
results will not be a problem if we
design our system carefully. Taking
the case of our earlier example of a
modulator, for example, with 600 Hz o Input Voltage o Input Voltage
and 600 kHz signals, we have
(A) (B)
unwanted signals at 1200 Hz and
1200 kHz, both easy to eliminate
Fig 6-3-At A, an ideal diode response compared to a real diode's
with simple filtering from our response at B.
desired 600 kHz ± 600 Hz signals.
Frequency Translation
While moving around a single
600 Hz signal up to region around
600 kHz may be of academic interest,
AM Transmitter
most practical applications involve 1---- Output
bands of frequencies. Telephone-
quality speech covers audio frequen-
cies from 300 to 3300 Hz. (This is
called "toll quality"-as in making a
"toll call," for which the telephone 600 kHz
company charges you.) AM broad- Carrier
UBR1·0604
cast-quality audio extends from
around 20 to 5000 Hz, while hi-fi
music is generally considered to be
within the range of 20 to 20,000 Hz. Fig 6-4-Simple AM radio transmitter.
Mixing It Up With A Mixer 6-3

the signal is represented by the
UBR1-0605
carrier surrounded by frequencies of
599.4 and 600.6 kHz. All three
frequencies transmitted are in Fig 6-1
600 kHz
at the input of the diode. Since there
are products of equal amplitude and
phase on either side of the 600-kHz
carrier they add up at the output of
the diode detector together, eliminat-
ing the factor of I h in Eq 6-1. At the
output of the diode, the twice-carrier Frequency
595 kHz 599.8 600.2 605 kHz
frequency terms are all around
1200 kHz, well above the response of
our headphones, audio amplifier or Fig 6-5-Frequency-domain representation of the output of simple AM
radio transmitter.
ears.
The single-diode mixer is some-
times encountered in actual practice,
3-
T1
often in simple microwave receivers.
For most other applications, some-
what more complicated configura-
tions are usually employed. Often
they are variants of the single diode
detector, using the multiple diode
ring or balanced mixer. A circuit for
Input
nsu
LO 1
~
Pri
(J:h ri Input2
RF
such scheme is shown in Fig 6-6.

This mixer has a number of IF
advantages over the single diode :h0utput

UBR1-0606
mixer. A major one is that the input
signals cancel at the output, so they
are eliminated from the process. Fig 6-6-Diode-ring balanced mixer.
+ 20V
Input 1
Output
Input 2
UBR1-0607 2.5 V Injection
Fig 6-7-An amplifying mixer circuit
6-4 Chapter 6
Sin (F 1 t) x Cos (F 2 t) = UBR1-060B
Sin {(F 1 t) + (F 2 t)}/2 +

Sin {(F 1 t) + (F 2 t)}/2
Mixer 1
Signal 1 Sin F 1t Cos {(F 1 t) + (F 2 t)}/2 +
Sin F 1 t Cos {(F 1 t) - (F 2 t)}/2
Sum Cos {(F 1 t) + (F 2 t)}
Sin F 1 t
Signal 2 Sin (F 1 t) x Sin (F 2 t) =

Sin F 2 t 1------........ Cos {(F 1 t) + (F 2 t)}/2-
Cos {(F 1 t) - (F 2 t)}/2
Mixer2
Fig 6-8-lmage rejecting mixer, block diagram and signal relationships.
Another advantage is that the the input signals and combinations of canceling. This clever design makes
coupling transformers for each these harmonics. A truly ideal mixer use of two mixers and two phase-
signal are separate and thus can be is hard to find! Generally, we resort to shift networks to cancel either of the
optimized for each frequency range. filtering (discussed later in Chapter 7) outputs, depending on the phase
None of the mixer circuits to eliminate the outputs we don't shifts of the two arms. The design is
described so far provide any gain. want, which are often called images shown in Fig 6-8 along with the
The result is an output signal less because they are symmetrical around description of the trigonometric
than any of the inputs. For this type the carrier frequency. relations that result in the desired
of mixer, any increase in signal operation. This design makes use of
level, if needed, must occur in an Image-Canceling Mixer additional trigonometry relationships
amplifier following the mixer. It is An interesting if somewhat more similar to the one at the beginning of
also possible to have amplifying complicated mixer is known as an this chapter. Note that at the summa-
mixer circuits that take advantage of image-canceling mixer. The word tion point on the right of the figure,
an active amplifier circuit with a canceling may be a bit optimistic, as the difference term cancels out,
non-linear input range, or a process we will discuss, so sometimes the leaving just the sum of the two input
in which one signal multiplies the word rejecting is used in place of frequencies.
other by changing the effective gain.
A representative amplifying mixer
circuits is shown in Fig 6-7.
Mixer Image Response

One fact to keep in mind about all
the mixers we have discussed so far
is that they provide signals at both
the sum and the difference frequen-
cies of the two inputs. Sometimes,
as in an AM modulated transmitter,
that's exactly what we want. In most
cases, we would really rather have 1. If you use a simple mixer to multiply signals of 10 MHz and 1 MHz,
just one output frequency. In many what are the frequencies of the resulting signals?
mixers, it's actually worse than that 2. If you wish to translate a signal at 14 MHz to 9 MHz for further
because we also get harmonics of all processing, and you use a signal at 5 MHz for your other signal, signals at
what other frequency will be translated to 9 MHz?
3. The image-canceling mixer of Fig 5-6 provides an output of only the
sum of F1 and F2. How could it be rearranged to provide the difference
instead of the sum?
Mixing It Up With A Mixer 6-5

tWhat au
vent
Photo of author Joel Hallas, W1ZR, at his home station.
Contents
A Bit of Background-Separating Signals 7-2
A View of an Ideal Filter , 7-4
In Chapters 2 and 3, we dis- cut-off frequency below the low-pass I=E/R
cussed the use of resonant circuits cut-off frequency, you will have a
where R is the series combination
to separate stations in a simple band-pass filter.
ofR] and RL .
crystal set. Using such circuits for • Band-reject filters. Band-reject
that purpose is a form of filtering. filters pass signals except for those So
A short description of filtering is to with frequencies within a selected I = E/(R] + RL )
note that a filter passes selected band of frequencies. If you combine
frequencies and reduces or attenu- a high-pass and low-pass filter, with The output voltage is just
ates others. There are a number of the high-pass having a cut-off E=IxR
places within radio and other types frequency above the low-pass cut-off
of electronic equipment where frequency, you will have a band- or in our case
filtering plays a critical role. This reject filter. Eo= [E/(R] + RL ) ] X RL
chapter will start to describe some
One-Element Filters To find the ratio of output voltage
of the types of filters that you will
to input voltage, we just recombine
encounter in radio equipment. The simplest filters are those with our terms and divide each side by Es
one element. More complicated to yield
Filter Functions filters are just combinations of
Filters can be separated into multiple elements, so single element EolEs= R/(R] + ~)
categories both by what they do filters make a great place to start. This relationship is often called a
and by how they do it. In terms of The first filter I discuss is not a filter transfer junction, since it expresses
what they do the general classifica- at all, but should get us ready to start the amount of signal that transfers
tions are: looking at real ones. Let's invent the through the network.
• Low-pass filters. These pass term all-pass filter. Based on the The transfer function for this
signals with frequencies below a definitions above, you would expect circuit has no dependence on
cut-offfrequency and attenuate, or such a filter to pass all frequencies frequency. So if you plotted the
reduce, signals with frequencies and reject none. It may not be very function against frequency you
above that cut-off frequency. interesting but it will provide a would see a straight line, as shown in
• High-pass filters. Not surpris- starting point. Fig 7-2.
ingly, these pass signals with Fig 7-1 is a schematic of such a Suppose we replace resistor R]
frequencies above a cut-off device. It is composed of two with an inductor? See Fig 7-3. What
frequency and attenuate signals resistors of equal value connected in will this do to our transfer function?
with frequencies below that cut-off an "L" configuration. The source is At low frequencies (we'll work some
frequency. on the left and applies a signal to the numbers shortly), the reactance of
• Band-pass filters. Band-pass two resistors in series. The output is the inductor will be small compared
filters pass signals with frequencies taken across the shunt element or to the resistor and the transfer
within a band of frequencies. If you load resistor, RL" function will be almost unity. Above
combine a high-pass and low-pass Note that from Ohm's law, we can some high frequency, the reactance
filter, with the high-pass having a compute the current in the circuit as of the inductor will be much higher
Amplitude UBR1-0702
UBR1-0701
Source Output ~-------------

Eo
Frequency
Fig 7-1-Schematic diagram of "all-pass" filter. Fig 7-2-Transfer function of all-pass filter.
7-2 Chapter 7
UBR1-0703 dB Filter Transfer Function
L
0.0 r o ; : : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
-2.0 f----~,,----------------____i
-4.0 f------~----------__j
Source Output
Eo -6.0 f-------~:__-------__1
-8.0 f---------------"'_-----__j
-10.0 f------------~_--__1
Fig 7-3-Schematic diagram of single-element low- -12.0 f--------------------''''''''''''=.,-4
pass filter.
-14.0 '------L----'------'-------1-----'------'-----L-L---'-----L-.J.-----'------'-----L-L---'-----L-.J.-----'------'-----'------.L----'
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5
kHz
Fig 7-4-Single-element RL filter response.
than the resistance and the transfer

function will be almost zero. This
sounds a lot like a low-pass filter, determine the output voltage at the filter is half the input power at the
since the lows get through and the load resistor. Remember that the design frequency, where the induc-
highs don't! magnitude of the impedance of an tive reactance equals the resistance.
Now let's do some real numbers. RL circuit is not just the sum of their At twice that frequency, the output is
Remember that the reactance of an impedances but is equal to the square down by another half power, an
inductor is root of the sum of squares of the additional 3 dB. Doubling the
resistance and reactance. So at our frequency is referred to as an
X L = 2 x 1t x F x L design frequency, octave-this also includes eight
musical notes. A filter that has such a
Let's pick a load resistance of Z=~(R2+XL2)=~6002 +600 2 =848.50
response is often referred to as a "3-
600 Q (this will usually depend on
where the filtered signal goes next), dB-per-octave" filter.
The current magnitude (we could If we replaced the inductor with a
and decide that we want the reac-
also compute the phase if we wanted capacitor, we could have a high-pass
tance to equal the resistance at
3000 Hz. To find the value of L, we to) of the output is just I = E/Z and rather than low-pass filter. The
the voltage is just I x Rc The output design approach and analysis are
solve the equation above for Land
get: voltage can be determined as similar to the example presented
above.
L = XL 1 (2 x 1t x F) Eo = (E/Z) X RL The simple one-element filter in
The resulting transfer function is Fig 7-3 is useable, but does not have
Since we know all the values, we
a sufficiently rapid roll-off for many
can substitute and find EiEs = RL/Z applications. The roll-off is often
L = 600 1 (2 x P x 3000) = 0.032 H We could solve for the output at referred to as the filter's skirts,
which is 32 mll. 3000 Hz and get 600/848.5 or 0.707 especially in the case of a band-pass
Es' This represents a reduction in filter. This filter would work well to
Now that we've designed a low- signal of 3 dB, or half of the power separate audio from radio frequen-
pass filter, let's analyze how it will applied to the input goes to the load. cies, but often the requirements are
work. As in the case of our all-pass We could solve for the output as a much more stringent. In the next
filter, we will first determine the function of frequency. section, we will discuss how we can
current through the filter as a I show some values of interest in achieve better filtering. You guessed
function of frequency and then Fig 7-4. Note that the output of the it-with more complicated filters!
Filtering Out What You Don't Want 7-3

~
II e~ ~!~1J1 rj!J[.lll/jf.~
For some applications, a single-
element filter will provide the needed Amplitude UBR1-0705
amount of filtering. In most cases,

however, the requirement for filtering
is more demanding. We have
previously talked about some filter -------
applications, such as those used to I I
I Passband I
separate adjacent radio channels. In
an ideal AM broadcast receiver, we I I
I I
would have a 10-kHz wide radio I I I
channel assigned to one radio station Fe - 5 kHz Fe Fe + 5 kHz Frequency

and the next station on the dial could
be as close as 10kHz away. Note Fig 7-5-Transfer function of an ideal band-pass filter with infinitely
that each channel extends 5 kHz steep skirts.
either side of the carrier. Thus the
high end of one channel is exactly
oHz away from the low end of the
Amplitude UBR1-0706
next. Our ideal receiver filter would
accept the full 10-kHz channel that
we wanted to listen to and would
completely reject the channels above
and below it. The response of such a --------,
band-pass filter would look like that I
shown in Fig 7-5. An ideal low-pass I
filter response is shown in Fig 7-6. I
I
So How Do We Get There Cut-Off Frequency Frequency
From Here
The general rule is that to get Fig 7-6-Transfer function of an ideal low-pass filter with infinitely steep
skirts.
better filtering, we need more
filtering. As with anything else, more
is not quite enough-it must be the
correct more to do the job! One way Another way to increase the
to apply additional filtering is to just effectiveness of a filter is to use both
add additional sections to our simple inductance and capacitance in each
filter. Each time we add an additional section. Our simple one-element
identical section, we reduce the filter used a series inductance or
output at the cut-off frequency by an capacitance in a low or high pass
additional 3 dB. Of more signifi- filter respectively. By eliminating the
cance is that the filter skirts get shunt resistor in the intermediate
steeper with each added section.
C1 =C5 L2 =L4 UBR1-0707
stages, and using a shunt capacitor
Note that if we define our cut-off instead or the resistor in a low-pass
Fig 7-7-Schematic diagram of
frequency as the frequency at which filter, for example, we have twice the five element low-pass filter.
we are down 3 dB, we must move effect with frequency as we have
each section slightly to accommodate with just one reactive element per
the effect of the multiple sections. section. As the frequency goes up,
For example, if we have three not only does the inductor series with five reactive elements is shown
sections, the output at the cut-off reactance increase, but the capacitor in Fig 7-7. Note that we can keep
frequency should be set at a level of shunt reactance decreases, both adding elements and adjusting the
1 dB in each section so that the total resulting in a lower voltage at the values and the response will continue
attenuation of the combined filter is output of the section. to have progressively steeper slopes.
3 dB at the cut-off frequency. An example of a low-pass filter The actual values of the elements for
7-4 Chapter 7
UBR1-0709
UBR1-0708
PL/PO
-t-
o w o w
Fig 7-8-Transfer function of a Butterworth low-pass Fig 7-9-Transfer function of a Chebyshev low-pass
filter with finite skirts. filter showing passband ripple.
such filters have been studied at

great lengths and tables of values Normalized Frequency f If c
are available for optimum filters 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
based on a number of criteria. The
two most common formulations are: v P
94 89
e Butterworth-This set of filter
values provides the best skirt slope 89 79
possible while maintaining a flat
response in the pass region. An 84 71 1---+--+---t---t--+---po.....----+-rf-h"If---JI--\-Wi\\\-----l 1.5
example of the Butterworth
response is shown in Fig 7-8. 79 63
e Chebyshev-This set of filter

75 56
values provides sharper skirt
slopes than the Butterworth, at a
71 50 1---+--+--+---I--+--+---=------+---+---t--"'1 3.0
cost of some ripple in the pass-
band. An example of the '-_-'-----_-'-----_-'-----_--'--_--'-----_-'--_-'--_-'--_-'-_ _ 3.5
Chebyshev response is shown in a 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Fig 7-9. UBR1-0710
Normalized Frequency fI f c
The effect of adding elements is

shown graphically in Fig 7-10. Here
the skirts are shown for 1 to 10 Fig 7-10-Effect of adding elements to the skirts of a Butterworth low-
pass filter.
elements in a Butterworth design,
with all other parameters adjusted to
keep the curves lined up at the
edges. The change in slope of the
skirts shows up dramatically. Amplitude UBR1-0711
Band-Pass Filters
In many applications, a band-pass
response is desired, such as the case F---------_ , '\
where we wish to separate out a '\
'\
single channel from other nearby \
radio channels. One way to get this '\
\
result is by combining low and high
pass filters, as shown in the ex- Cut-Off Frequency Frequency
amples in Figs 7-11 to 7-13. This

technique is particularly effective if Fig 7-11-Transfer function of low-pass filter part of band-pass filter
the desired band edges are separated combination.

Amplitude UBR1-0712 UBR1-0713
Amplitude
~!- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
/
/
/
/
/
,/
Cut-Off Frequency Frequency Low Cut-Off High Cut-Off Frequency
Frequency Frequency
Fig 7-12-Transfer function of a high-pass filter part Fig 7-13-Transfer function of resulting band-pass
of band-pass filter combination filter.
by a relatively large difference in As with low and high-pass filters,

1.0 ~-~--~--~-~
frequency. the method by which we can get the
In cases when the desired pass- Q = 100 skirts and the passband width we
band is a small fraction of the center 0.8 f - - - - - l - - - - I - I - l - - - - I - - - - - I want is to use multiple tuned circuits,
frequency, it's better to use a filter generally with slightly different
that starts off as a band-pass filter. resonant frequencies. This technique,
ffi~ 0.6 f - - - - - l - - - - I - I - l - - - - I - - - - - I
You will remember that we used a "§. called stagger tuning, results in a
tuned circuit, a parallel combination .§
Q)
I:LL_-+- Q = 50 relatively smooth passband, wider
of inductor and capacitor, resonant at ~ 0.4 1----+---lI--J-.1II~--l-----I than with a single sharp section, and
a:;
our desired receive frequency to 0::: steep skirts with each filter section
select' a station with the simple helping to reduce the level of signals
0.2 1-------'!" ---I--...",.k---4,.<~--l----1
crystal set in earlier chapters. Such a away from the desired passband. A
tuned circuit forms the basis of many filter consisting of two parallel tuned
band-pass filters. The impedance of a circuits coupled by a series tuned
-10 +10 +20
single parallel tuned circuit is shown Percent Deviation From
circuit is shown in Fig 7-15.
in Fig 7-14. Note that the sharpness Resonant Frequency To realize a passband sharper than
of the filter is a function of the Q. a single tuned circuit, we may tune
For most lumped-constant circuits, Fig 7-14-Relative impedance of a all to the same frequency. If we wish
this is the ratio of the reactance to the parallel-tuned circuit as a function to achieve a passband wider than any
resistance. In such circuits, the of circuit "Q." one of the sections, we might set the
majority of the resistance is in the series-tuned circuit near the middle
wire of the inductor, although other of the desired passband and the two
losses can act in the same way. parallel circuits near the edges.
It can be shown that the half- Depending on how far apart the edge
L2 C2
power (3-dB) bandwidth of such a frequencies are, we can achieve a
circuit is just the Q divided by the fairly flat passband response, as
resonant frequency. While a parallel- shown in Fig 7-16.
resonant circuit has a high imped-
ance at its resonant frequency, and Piezoelectric Crystal Filters
can thus develop a high voltage In our discussion of oscillators in
across it at resonance, a series- Chapter 4, we discussed the piezo-
resonant circuit has a low imped- electric crystal, a slab of quartz (see
ance. It allows high current to pass at N = 3, RC = 4.796 % Fig 4-6) that is precisely shaped to
L 1,3 = 0.549 ~H
resonance. It would seem that we respond to signals at a particular
=
L2 12.7 ~H
could use such circuits as the basis of =
C1,3 3294 pF frequency. Not surprisingly, the same
a band-pass filter of any desired =
C2 142.5 pF
kind of response can be used for
Fe = 3.742 MHz
relative bandwidth, however, note Ripple BW = 0.608 MHz filtering. A quartz crystal of this type
UBR1-0715
from Fig 7-14 that as the Q is has a much higher Q than circuits of
decreased, the slope of the skirts gets inductors and capacitors, and thus a
less and less steep, allowing other Fig 7-15-Representative three- crystal-based filter can be quite
signals to enter the pass band. stage band-pass filter. effective if applied to the right kind
7-6 Chapter 7
UBR1.Q719
UBR1-0716
0,---,------,-----...----------,
-10 f----+--+-----jt-ff\---""'o",.;;r:---,----I
co -20
"0
:5 -30
%-40
~ -50
-60
-70
-3 -2 -1 2
kHz from Center
(A) Single Crystal Response with Notch
Fig 7-19- Response of a single-

crystal filter with holder
capacitance purposely not
balanced. Shown for two values of
Rout·
(8) UBR1-0720
f + Ll
Fig 7-16-At A, response for each tuned circuit in Fig 7-15, and at B, the
combined response. 0
Output
of signals. A single crystal can be

used as a filter in the circuit of
)IF f ± Ll
IF8
G
;. \: Out
Fig 7-17. The crystal acts like a In
0 P
series-resonant circuit, passing
signals at its resonant frequency. The
Z = 200 0
>
"S> Rout
(See text)
f - Ll
holder that the quartz is mounted in -rh

acts like an additional capacitance Fig 7-20- Circuit of a two-crystal
across the crystal. Note the capacitor filter.
C; in the circuit. If this is set to LS = 1.22481 H
c=:J
cancel the capacitance of the holder,
the response is that of a high-Q
series-resonant circuit, as shown in only series resonances are involved.
Fig 7-18. If the capacitance is not The response of two crystals 1.5-kHz
cancelled out, it results in both a apart, each with a frequency of
Co = 4.12 pF
series and a parallel resonance at Fs = 1.5 MHz
around 1.5 MHz is shown in
slightly different frequencies. The * fF = Femto Farads (10 -15 F) UBR1-0717 Fig 7-21. As in the case of LC filters,
response in this case is quite interest- often many additional stages are used
ing' as Fig 7-19 shows. Note that this to obtain steeper skirts, with configu-
Fig 7-17-Circuit of a single-
response both selects a desired signal crystal filter for CWo rations of up to eight crystals
and notches a nearby undesired one, commonly used.
a useful arrangement in some cases,
as we'll discuss later. Mechanical Filters
UBR1-0718
For many kinds of signals, the o In the early 1950s, engineers at

-10
sharpness of a single crystal filter is Collins Radio Company (now a part
co -20
too sharp to pass the required signal -0
:5 -30
of Rockwell-Collins) developed a
bandwidth. By using multiple % -40 radical kind of band-pass filter called
crystals in a lattice configuration, a ~ -50 a mechanical filter. The Collins
-60
response with a wider passband can -70
mechanical filter used a transducer, a
be achieved, while still maintaining -3 -2 -1 device to convert electrical signals
the steep skirts inherent in the crystal kHz from Center into mechanical movement, very
Single Crystal Response
response. The simplest dual-crystal much like a tiny loudspeaker, to
circuit is shown in Fig 7·20. Note Fig 7-18-Response of a single- drive a row of metal disks. The disks
that with two crystals in the same crystal filter with holder were held apart, but coupled together
size and type holder, the capacitance capacitance balanced for CW use. by small rods along their edges. The
of each balances out the other, so Shown for two values of Rout. output at the far end of the row was

passband and steeper skirts than
Half - Lattice Response UBR1-0721
filters of other types of the day.
0 Typical center frequencies ranged
~
,~
-4 / from 200 to 500 kHz and bandwidths
ranged from 500 Hz to 16 kHz,
-8 / \ covering most of the communication

signal bandwidths of the day. In the
co
"0 Jf \ next chapter we will discuss how we
-,
"5 -12 \. will move higher frequency signals
1/
0..
::;
0 to allow them to be processed by
!:!:: -16 such filters.
-20 /
'\
-, In recent years, crystal-lattice
filters have become available that
-24
/
-4 -3 -2 -1 o
kHz from Center
2 3
" 4
have similar response to the
mechanical filters. But in their day,
mechanical filters were the best
available. They are still produced
today and used in many types of
Fig 7-21-Response of a two-crystal filter for SSB use.
equipment. New mechanical filters
are smaller-closer to the diameter
converted back to an electrical signal The disks were designed to be of a cigarette and half as long.
by a second transducer. The whole mechanically resonant and to vibrate Mechanically resonant filters of
device was narrower than a cigar and over a narrow frequency range. The other materials (such as ceramics)
half as long. result was a filter with a flatter are sometimes encountered as well.
1. Design a single element, passive RC high-pass filter with a load imped-

ance of 600 Q and a cut-off frequency of 3000 Hz. Evaluate the transfer
function in voltage and dB at 100, 3000, 6000 and 100,000 Hz.
2. If we wish to filter a 10-kHz AM broadcast signal at 500 kHz, 1.5 MHz
and a SW broadcast signal at 10 MHz, what percentage of bandwidth are we
talking about at each carrier frequency?
3. If we were to use a 7-kHz wide filter, instead of a 10-kHz filter to
process an AM broadcast signal, what would be the result?
7-8 Chapter 7
j!a(
Insulators #10002 (2) Insulators #10007 (8)
<c: 50-60' or More
/ #14 Antenium Wire
2'-4' Apart
4 Wires or More Spars 8' Long

for 4 Wire Aerial
Spar of Bamboo Pipe or Wood
Tarred or Waxed Rope _i-----.:'''c----\~
Lead-in Wire Same Wire as Aerial
to
Instruments
QS0504-0R01
A well-made spark station back in the early 1900s had an antenna system like this!
Conten 0'
Active Filters 8-2
Digital Filtering 8-3
A special case of filters is the
active filter. The filters we've talked UBR1-0801
about so far have been constructed Input !--.I\j\I\r--...---'V'I!\r----,

of passive elements, such as
inductors, capacitors and resistors.
Inverting Input
An active element is one that
">--+----1 Output
provides gain, operates with
Non-Inverting Input
external applied power and gener-
ally has three or more terminals,
such as an amplifier module or
integrated circuit. An active filter is
based on an operational amplifier, Fig 8-1-0perational amplifier with feedback (power connections not
shown).
an amplifier building block origi-
nally developed for analog comput-
ers, something we don't see very
much anymore. An ideal operational
UBR1-0802
amplifier uses feedback to deter-
mine its characteristics and is
assumed to be an infinite gain,
Input J---.JV\/V---+---'V'II'v-----t
infinite input impedance, zero
output impedance device when
feedback isn't applied. Of course, Inverting Input
no amplifier has these ideal charac- >--+----( Output
teristics, but a practical op-amp is Non-Inverting Input
close enough that it makes the
analysis work. Op-amps can be used Cutoff Frequency =1/(2 x 11 x R f x c.)
for many functions and are often
seen as basic de, audio or RF Fig 8-2-0perational amplifier with feedback becomes an active low-pass
amplifiers. A simple "all-pass" filter with the addition of a capacitor.
operational amplifier with feedback
is shown in Fig 8-1. Note the
expression for the inverted amplifier
gain, just equal to the value of the network approaches zero and there is the active filter can simultaneously
feedback resistor divided by the no output, while at very low frequen- function as an amplifier and a filter.
input resistor. It is independent of cies the impedance of the feedback Next, it allows a large amount of
the actual gain of the op-amp as network is just that of the resistor and flexibility in selection of values-
long as the op-amp gain without we get full gain. At the frequency at You can adjust the resistance values
feedback is much larger than the which the capacitive reactance equals to allow use of a convenient capaci-
design gain when feedback is the resistance of the feedback tor value. Finally, very effective
applied. resistor, the total reactance is 0.707 filters can be constructed without
To make this amplifier into an of the resistor and thus the output is inductors, usually the bulkiest and
active low-pass filter, we merely at the - 3-dB point, also known as the often most expensive components.
connect a capacitor in parallel with cutoff frequency. As you would expect, low-pass and
the feedback resistor, as shown in The active filter has a number of band-pass configurations are possible
Fig 8-2. At very high frequencies, benefits. First, unlike a passive filter in addition to the high-pass filter we
the impedance of the feedback that always has loss of some amount, just discussed.
8-2 Chapter 8
It should come as a surprise to no
one, but the digital revolution is upon o
us! Many tasks successfully com-
pleted in an analog fashion for many -10
A
\ IReference Level: 0 dB I
years are now done more effectively
and efficiently with digital process- -20
J
\
ing. While some resist this trend,
there is no question that digital J \
-30
processing can do a good job,
especially if we understand the -40 ~\
design guidelines and limitations-
Filtering is no exception.
-50
While general-purpose digital
computers can be made to filter
~ •..•
signals, most successful digital -60 . 1I

filtering is carried out using digital .......
signal processors or DSPs. DSPs -70

~lJMl. •• ..J'l•• "ll.l A JA•
perform the same general tasks as t 1 IV..... 'II'" V""Mf\<{'
general-purpose processors; however, -80
they are especially designed to 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0
process signals in real time at high Audio Frequency: 0 to 4 kHz
speed. While many functions can be
performed, we will concentrate here Fig 8-3-Response of a commercial audio digital filter. (SGC ADSp2in
on the filtering process. voice mode).
To process signals digitally, the
first task required is to convert our
analog signal into a digital one. This
is accomplished with a digital to This is comparable to other receiver brain turn things back into a continu-
analog converter or DAC. The DAC dynamic ranges, but by no means up ous view.
establishes a key parameter of the to the state of the analog art. DSPs Let's say we want to process the
process-the dynamic range of the are available, however, with 24 or audio signal coming out of our
signals the processing can handle. even 32-bit sampling and processing, crystal set. (Now adding a compli-
This is the range of amplitude of the so dynamic range needn't be a cated Digital Signal Processor on the
signals the processing must handle. problem. You just need to be aware output of a simple crystal set does
In an analog filter, there is a dynamic that it can be an issue. give this author pause!) If we are
range too, but it's very wide. At some The DAC sampling and subse- listening to broadcast stations with
high level, we could crack a crystal quent processing must occur rapidly frequency components up to 5 kHz,
or melt an inductor, but our intuition enough to represent signals that are we would need to use a DAC that
usually keeps us on safe ground. changing. You can't process a signal sampled at least twice that, or 10,000
With a DAC, the number of bits that if you don't capture the way it's times a second. That is something
the DAC converts the data to sets the changing. that we could buy off-the-shelf at a
range. We can adjust the process so In 1924, long before people were reasonable price. On the other hand,
that the smallest signal we expect to talking about computer data, Henry if we wanted to replace a 500-kHz
deal with can be coded into a few Nyquist, an AT&T engineer, es- mechanical filter with a DSP based
bits, and then the total number of bits poused his famous theorem, now the digital filter, we would need one that
determines the maximum signal we basis for digital telecommunications, sampled at 1 MHz minimum. That is
can handle. The dynamic range is the stating that you needed a minimum not yet readily available in 2005, but
difference between the two. of two samples at the highest it's not far over the horizon.
For example, if we have a 16-bit frequency you wished to process. You will perhaps be relieved to
DAC, the maximum value is just 2 16 This is very much like a motion know that in this book, we don't
or 65,536 above the size of a single picture camera that takes a snapshot intend to dig deeply into either the
bit. Expressed in dB, this is 96 dB. 30 times a second. Our eyes and theory or the software involved in
Active and Digital Filtering 8-3

digital filtering. We can briefly processing equivalent is known as is possible with an analog filter,
mention that a mathematical process difference equations. The predicted simulating many cascaded stages,
known as differential equations can behavior during one sample time is with the result that the filter response
exactly define the detailed time compared with the value of the signal becomes very close to the idea
response of LC filtering, in which the at the next sample and a similar shapes described earlier in the
rate of change of voltage of capacitors response can be predicted. chapter. See Fig 8-3 for an example.
and inductors over time can be used With DSPs, it is possible to Expect to see digital filters in more
to predict their behavior. The digital perform this many more times than and more applications in the future.
<Review
1. Describe two advantages of active filters compared to passive filters.
2. Sometimes it is necessary to have multiple bandwidths available.
Discuss how the bandwidth of active and digital filters could be changed.
3. What would be the maximum dynamic range for voltage samples from
8, 16 and 24-bit DACs?
8-4 Chapter 8
tero':.Jne ceiverJ'--"""""
the Pieces 7l ether
Sometimes a group of hams will get together to operate from a rare and exotic location. This is
called a "OXpedition," this one to Rodriques Island in the Indian Ocean, deriving from the term
"OX" used by hams to describe a distant contact.
ContenD'
Step i-The Heterodyne Receiver 9-2
Data Communication 9-6
making it act like a mixer, and the problems. The heterodyne receiver
difference frequency would go to an makes use of separate oscillator,
audio amplifier, resulting in an mixer (detector) and amplifier, as
audible tone replica of the received shown in the block diagram of Fig 9-
signal that was only present when the 1. By not trying to use the amplifier
key was down. both as amplifier and local oscillator,
The resulting receiver was called a as in the regenerative receiver, the
regenerative receiver. It was refined heterodyne receiver's circuits can be
into a reasonable performer and was optimized for each function. One
in popular use for the reception of simple heterodyne configuration that
continuous-wave (CW) radiotele- is sometimes encountered today is
graph signals from the 1920s through called a direct-conversion receiver.
the 1930s. AM voice could be
received by setting the gain just Finally-The
below the point at which the receiver Superheterodyne!
In the early days of radio, all started oscillating. Even though The superheterodyne, or superhet
transmission was done with the usable, the regenerative receiver for short, uses the principles of the
dots and dashes of Morse code. suffered from a number of problems, heterodyne above-twice. In so
The earliest spark gap and later including all the limitations of the doing, it neatly sidesteps the prob-
rotary gap transmitters were not TRF, since it was just a TRF (see lems of both the TRF and the
just on-and-off keying, as de- Chapter 3) with a different form of regenerative receiver. In the superhet,
scribed in Chapter 1. They also detector. In addition the regenerative a local oscillator and mixer are used
included the modulating frequency detector was very touchy to keep on to translate the received signal to an
of the buzzing interrupter of the the correct frequency since the gain intermediate frequency or IF, for
spark gap or the more musical and tuning tended to interact. It also additional amplification and process-
note of a higher-pitched rotary generated a signal that could be ing. Then a second mixer is used to
gap. These allowed the receiving radiated by the antenna, resulting in detect the IF signal, translating it to
operator to hear the key-down on interference to other users of audio. The configuration is shown in
periods so an operator listening on adjacent frequencies unless steps Fig 9-2.
a simple crystal set could under- were taken to isolate the detector In a typical configuration, the
stand the code characters. Contrast from the antenna. I local oscillator (LO) and RF ampli-
this with our earlier example in A better approach is the hetero- fier stages are adjusted so that as the
Chapter 2 of on-off data transmis- dyne receiver. This performs the local oscillator is changed in fre-
sion. There the received pulse train same functions as the regenerative quency, the RF amplifier is also
would not be audible to someone receiver above but separates the tuned to the appropriate frequency to
listening with a crystal set. pieces, eliminating some of the receive the desired station. An
When radio moved from the
spark era to vacuum-tube transmit-
ters sending continuous rather than
the interrupted waves of the spark
transmitters, operators had a Antenna
problem hearing the tone of such
clean signals! One early solution RF Amplifier Mixer AF Amplifier
was to put enough feedback
around an RF amplifier stage such
that it would just oscillate at a
frequency slightly above or below
the desired signal. The stage
would simultaneously amplify the
desired signal and generate a local UBR1-0901 Oscillator
signal to mix with the incoming
one. The signals would drive the
amplifier into a non-linear region, Fig 9-1-The heterodyne, or direct-conversion, receiver.
9-2 Chapter 9
Antenna
RF IF AF
Amplifier Amplifier Amplifier
UBR1-0902
Fig 9-2-A block diagram of a superheterodyne receiver.
example may help. Let's pick a selectivity (the ability to separate Designed for Application-
common IF frequency used in an AM stations) occurs in the intermediate- Signal Bandwidth
broadcast radio, 455 kHz. Now if we frequency stages and is thus the In the last section we discussed the
want to listen to a 600-kHz broadcast same no matter what frequencies we evolution of the superhet receiver,
station, the RF stage should be set to choose to listen to. The superhet starting from the era of the crystal
amplify the 600-kHz signal and the design has thus eliminated the major set. In this section we will discuss the
La should be set to 600 + 455 kHz = limitations of the TRF, at the cost of requirements of different applications
1055 kHz. 2 The 600-kHz signal, two additional building blocks. and the resulting details of superhet
along with any audio information it It should be no surprise then that designs.
contains, is translated to the IF the superhet, in various flavors that Earlier, I mentioned that one
frequency and is amplified. It is then we will discuss, has become the advantage of a superhet is that the
detected, just as if it were a TRF primary receiver architecture in use bandwidth is established by the IF
receiver at 455 kHz. today. The superhet concept was portion. It is thus independent of the
Note that to detect standard AM introduced by Major Edwin RF frequency to which the receiver is
signals, the second oscillator, usually Armstrong,' a US Army Artillery tuned. It should not be surprising that
called a beat frequency oscillator or officer, just as WW I was coming to the detailed design of a superhet
BFO, is turned off since the AM a close. The superhet quickly gained receiver is dependent on the nature of
station provides its own carrier signal popularity and following the typical signal being received.
over the air. Receivers designed only patent battles of the times became
for standard AM reception generally the standard of a generation of Signal Bandwidth-an
don't have a BFa at all. vacuum-tube broadcast receivers. Example-Amplitude
It's not clear yet that we've gained These were found in virtually every Modulation (AM)
anything by doing this; so let's look US home from the late 1920s In Chapter 2 we developed the
at another example. If we decide to through the 1960s, when they were concept that if we multiplied (in
change from listening to our station slowly replaced by transistor sets, other words, modulated) a 600-kHz
at 600 kHz, we can tune the single but still of superhet design. carrier with a 600-Hz tone, we would
dial of our superhet to 1560 kHz. The superhet has withstood the generate additional new frequencies
With the appropriate ganged and test of time and is the basic architec- at 599.4 and 600.6 kHz, as shown in
tracked tuning capacitor, the La is ture in radios covering all sorts of Fig 9-3A. If instead we were to
set to 1560 + 455 = 2010 kHz and frequencies and applications-from modulate the 600-kHz carrier signal
now that station is translated to our standard broadcast sets to television with a band of frequencies corre-
455-kHz IF. sets, microwave radios and other sponding to toll-quality human
Note that the bulk of our amplifica- communications systems, radar speech of 300 to 3300 Hz, we would
tion can take place at the 455-kHz IF systems and even cell phones. Now have a pair of bands of information
frequency, so not as many stages we will discuss some different carrying waveforms extending from
must be tuned as we change to a new operating modes that require 596.7 to 603.3 kHz, as shown in
frequency. Note also that with the different bandwidths and how to Fig 9-3B. These bands are called
superheterodyne configuration the implement them in a superhet. sidebands, and some form of these is
Heterodyne Receivers-Putting the Pieces Together 9m3

present in any signal carrying information.
UBR1-0903
Note that the total bandwidth of this AM voice signal
600 kHz
is twice the highest frequency transmitted, or 6600 Hz.
If we choose to transmit speech and limited music, we
might allow modulating frequencies up to 5000 Hz,
resulting in a bandwidth of 10,000 Hz, or 10kHz. This
is the standard channel bandwidth that commercial AM
broadcasters are permitted to occupy in the US. We
would refer to this as a narrow-bandwidth mode.
What does this say about the bandwidth needed for
our receiver? If we want to receive the full information
content transmitted by a US AM station, then we need
to set the bandwidth to 10 kHz. What if we have a
599.4 600 600.6
narrower bandwidth? Well, you will lose the higher
Frequency (kHz) frequency components of the transmitted signal,
(A) perhaps ending up with a radio suitable for voice but
not very good at reproducing music.
On the other hand, what is the impact of having too
600 kHz wide a bandwidth in our receiver? In that case, you
will be able to receive the full transmitted spectrum
but you will also receive some of the adjacent
Q)
-0 channel's information. This will sound like interfer-
~ ence and reduce the quality of what you are receiving.
Q.
E If there are no adjacent channel stations, you will get
«
any additional noise appearing in the additional
bandwidth, but no additional information. The general
rule is that the received bandwidth should be matched
to the bandwidth of the signal you are trying to
596.7 599.7 600.3 603.3 receive.
Frequency (kHz)
(B) Another Choice-Single Sideband
Suppressed Carrier Modulation (SSB)
The standard commercial AM format is very
Fig 9-3-At A, frequency spectrum of a GOO-kHz convenient for receiver design, since the carrier needed
carrier modulated by a GOO-Hz tone. At B, frequency
spectrum of a GOO-kHz carrier modulated by speech to demodulate the received sidebands is sent along with
(300 to 3300-Hz). the sidebands. Applying the total received signal to a
detector or multiplier, such as in our crystal set, allows
the audio to be recovered without having to worry
about any of the finer points we will discuss later. This
is very cost effective in a broadcast environment when
there are many receivers and only a few transmitters.
In looking at Fig 9-3, you might have noticed that
both sidebands carry the same information, and are
600 kHz
Suppressed
thus redundant. In addition, the carrier itself conveys no
Carrier information. It is thus possible to transmit a single
Q)
-0
.-E
Q.
•I
I
sideband and no carrier, as shown in Fig 9·4, relying
on the BFa (beat frequency oscillator) in the receiver
to provide a signal to multiply the sideband with to
E provide demodulated audio output. The implications in
« I the receiver are that the bandwidth can be slightly less
I than half that required for double sideband AM (DSB).
I There must be an additional mechanism to carefully
replace the missing carrier within the receiver. This is
600.3 603.3
the function of the BFa, which must be at just exactly
the right frequency. If the frequency is improperly set,
Frequency (kHz)
UBR1-0904 even by a few Hz, James Earl Jones can come out
sounding like Donald Duck!
Fig 9-4-Single (upper) sideband of the AM speech This makes a requirement for a much more stable
signal sent without a carrier. receiver design, with a much finer tuning system. Such
9-4 Chapter 9
a receiver thus is more expensive. An Radio Telegraph A rule of thumb is to consider the
alternate is to transmit a reduced I have described radiotelegraphy in rise and fall time as about 10% of the
carrier and have the receiver lock its earlier chapters as being transmitted pulse width and the bandwidth as the
tuning to the weak carrier, usually by "on-off keying of a carrier." You reciprocal of the quickest of rise or fall
called a pilot carrier. Note that the might think that since a carrier takes time. This results in a bandwidth
pilot carrier need not be of sufficient up just a single frequency, the receive requirement of about 50 to 200 Hz for
amplitude to demodulate the signal, bandwidth needed should be almost the usual radiotelegraph transmission
just enough to allow a BFO to lock zero. This is only true if the carrier is rates. Another way to visualize this is
to it. These alternatives are effective, never turned on and off. In the case of with the bandwidth being set by a
but tend to make SSB receivers telegraphy using Morse code, it can be hiqh-Q tuned circuit. Such a circuit
expensive and most appropriate for turned on and off quite rapidly. The will continue to "ring" after the input
the case in which a small number of rise and fall of the carrier results in pulse is gone. Thus too narrow a
receivers are listening to a single sidebands extending out from the bandwidth will actually "fill in"
transmitter, as is the case of most carrier for some distance, and they between the code elements and act like
two-way communication systems. must be received in order to recon- a no-bandwidth, full-period carrier.
struct the signal in the receiver.
Heterodyne Receivers-Putting the Pieces Together 9-5

I
.;at~ Ir!JlJiJff)JiflJ}llfJ)i~;afiWJI8A i
- i '
Data Communication-Radio common ASCII code (American frequency for a mark; the other for a
Teletype Standard Code for Information space, shifting back and forth as the
One of the first successful ma- Interchange), use seven elements to typist's keystrokes generate each
chine telegraph systems was the provide 27 = 128 possible characters. five-pulse burst. Each tone can be
Teletype. This innovative system, This is enough for lower- and upper- considered as a separate Morse-like
when new in the late 1800s, allowed case letters (26 each), numerical stream as discussed above, except the
data (or then more properly called digits (l0), punctuation codes (30 on speeds are higher, ranging from 65 to
record) communication to be carried a computer keyboard) and special 133 words per minute, depending on
out by anyone who could operate a characters associated with various the standard used.
typewriter. This system made use of languages, as well as non-printing Baudot transmission is being
a five-unit code-named after its control characters. ASCII characters replaced by more modern coding,
inventor, Emile Baudot, to send may also have an error-indicating such as ASCII, which can be readily
letters and numbers over a telegraph parity bit appended, making them derived from computers or computer
circuit. With five elements, the into a computer-convenient eight-bit terminals. Amateur Radio operators
maximum number of characters that code. They also may have start and and some other services" still
can be sent is 25 = 32. This causes a stop characters, as with Baudot code, continue to use Baudot and typically
problem for our alphabet with 26 if used in keyboard applications. The use a 170 to 850-Hz separation
letters, ten numerals and a number of ASCII code of the letter "a" is shown between the mark and space
punctuation and special characters. in Fig 9-6. frequencies, depending on the data
Baudot decided that instead of While the Baudot code can be sent rate and local convention. The
having separate characters for using on-off keying, the ability to minimum bandwidth to recover the
numbers and punctuation marks, he detect characters in the presence of data is around twice the spacing
would assign a special character to noise is improved by having a well- between the tones. Note that the
switch between letters and figures. defined state for both a Baudot mark tones could be generated by directly
This results in each key or code (named after the early Morse tape shifting the carrier frequency, or by
element being able to be used for two readers that placed a pen mark on a using a pair of 170-Hz spaced audio
characters, although extra characters paper tape when the key was down) tones applied to the audio input of
must be sent to switch between the and space, the state where the key is an SSB transmitter. If the frequen-
two functions. The Baudot code up. In wire-line transmission, the line cies are appropriately adjusted, both
always includes a start and a stop current is reversed between a mark will appear the same to a distant
pulse to indicate the beginning and and space. receiver.
end of each character. This was This well-defined, two-state Even if the standard audio tones of
necessary since a character could encoding was carried over to radio 2125 Hz (mark) and 2295 Hz (space)
start whenever an operator struck a transmission of Baudot radio teletype are used, the required bandwidth is
key on the keyboard. Fig 9-5 shows (RTTY). It is thus customary to send still around 340 Hz (for 170-Hz
the letter "A" in Baudot code, with two distinct tones to carry RTTY: shift), even though the tones are
start and stop pulses. Note that the one for mark and one for space. This quite a bit removed from the
stop "pulse" is really an undefined is referred to as frequency shift (suppressed) carrier frequency. Note
interval until the operator hits keying (FSK) and is the simplest also that the tones fit within the
another key. form offrequency modulation or bandwidth of a voice channel and
More recent codes, such as the FM. The transmitter sends one thus the facilities of a voice transmit-
UBR1-0905 Voltage UBR1-0906

Voltage
Level Level
1
+0 J u _ _IL
Logical Start o Stop Interval Logical o o o o
Value Pulse Value
Fig 9-6-Voltage pulses corresponding to ASCII code

Fig 9-5-The Baudot code for the letter "a". of letter "a".
9-6 Chapter 9
ter and receiver can be employed theorm, described in Chapter 8 1/64000 = 15.6 msec. Using the 10%
without any additional processing requires that if at least two samples rule, this requires a bandwidth of
needed outside the radio equipment. are taken at the highest frequency about 640 kHz, well beyond our
Alternately, the receiver can employ of a signal, the signal could be usual narrow-bandwidth criterion.
detectors for each frequency and accurately reproduced from the However, with appropriate process-
provide an output directly to a samples. To sample voice signals ing, compression and modem
Teletype machine or terminal. up to 3300 Hz, you need to sample techniques-making use of multiple
at twice that rate or at least tones per signal-a digitized voice
Data Communication-ASCII 6600 times a second. Even with the channel can be made to just fit in an
Transmission best filters of that day, some higher analog voice channel slot.
As I mentioned above, modern frequency signals passed through, So why go to all this trouble,
computer codes can be accommo- so 8000 samples per second was when a voice channel fits very well
dated in a similar manner to RTTY, established as the standard voice- in an analog voice channel? One
with a tone used for each state of the sampling rate. reason is SNR. We noted above that
data pulses. Using a pair of tones as • Encoding: To transmit a digital the effective SNR of digital voice is
in RTTY results in a maximum data signal, each sample must be based on the encoding. So long as
rate of about 1200 bps over a voice encoded into a digital word we can detect whether the data bits
channel. However, the error perfor- representing the value of that corresponding to the voice samples
mance is quite good in the presence sample. The accuracy of the are a one or zero, we will have a
of noise. If the channel performance encoding is dependent on the SNR of the 40 or so dB described
is solid (there is a high signal-to- number of bits we allocate to each above-even if the actual transmis-
noise ratio, described later), standard sample. For example, if we just sion SNR drops to perhaps 10 dB.
telephone voice-modem techniques have one bit, about the best we can Another reason is that if we require
can be used, making use of multiple do is specify whether a sample is privacy, we can use powerful digital-
carriers, multiple levels or multiple positive or negative. If we have two encryption techniques to encode the
phase shifts (more generally a bits, we can encode as four values: data.
combination of these techniques) to 00,01,10 and 11. With three bits The primary use of PCM, how-
achieve a data throughput of close to there are eight values. In general, ever, is as a part of a multi-channel
30,000 bps over a voice-bandwidth we can have 2n values for n bits. voice multiplex system. This will be
channel. described in the next chapter.
Let's look at the data standard of
Sending Voice as Data - eight bits (a Byte to computer folks).
Pulse Code Modulation With eight bits, you can specify a Notes
sample as being one of 256 values. If 11t took a while for the US Navy to
Transmission and processing
your voice signal can be between determine that these signals were
systems designed for data applica- providing a direction-finding
± 1 V, you can specify the value to
tions can also be used for voice and beacon for enemy U-boats!
the nearest 2/256 = 0.01 V. The
other analog signals if they are 2The local oscillator (LO) could also
difference between the real value and
encoded into data-type words. The be set to 600 - 455 kHz = 145 kHz.
the actual one can be considered a However, this choice would make it
first successful, and still most
kind of noise. Compared to the more difficult to cover the entire
common, format was called pulse
maximum value this amount of noise band.
code modulation (PCM). The
represents a signal-to-noise ratio 3He is the same Armstrong who
conversion of analog signals into invented Frequency Modulation
(SNR) of 40 dB.
digital format occurs in two steps. (FM) some years later and who
If we generate and send one of
held many radio patents between
• Sampling: A snapshot of the level these eight-bit coded words 8000
WW II andWW I.
of the analog signal is taken at times a second, we end up with a 4The Baudot code is still the standard
regular intervals. In 1924, long PCM throughput of 64,000 or employed in wire-line teletype
before people were talking about 64 kbps. If we just send these bits (TTY) keyboard terminals used by
computer data, The Nyquist over a digital radio, each bit time is hearing-impaired people.
Heterodyne Receivers-Putting the Pieces Together 9-7

1. What frequencies can a superheterodyne receiver hear if the intermediate
frequency is 1 MHz and the local oscillator is set to 4 MHz? How can you
make it receive only one of the signals?
2. It is desired to transmit music with frequency components from 50 to
10,000 Hz. Compute the bandwidth required to transmit the resulting signal
using AM (DSB) or SSB.
3. Discuss benefits of each of the above modulation schemes.
4. List all the eight bit patterns that correspond to the allowed encoding of
a three-bit code word.
9-8 Chapter 9
erhefero'Jne
The "Squad 14" high-tech communications bus used by the Kodiak Amateur Radio Emergency
Services (KARES) volunteer fire and rescue group in Alaska.
Contents
Signal Bandwidth-Wide Bandwidth Modes 10-2
The discussion in the preceding changed. The loudest voice peaks in referred to as narrowband FM, while
section related to transmissions the amplitude of the modulating a modulation index of five or higher
typically employed in the MF, HF signal result in the maximum change is referred to as wideband FM. Wide-
and the lower VHF ranges. In that in the carrier frequency. band FM can be shown to have an
portion of the radio spectrum, The frequency is said to deviate improved signal-to-noise ratio over
bandwidth is generally limited to with the modulating signal. The narrowband FM (or ANI), all other
modulation methods occupying maximum amount that the carrier things being equal, and is used for
bandwidths comparable to a normal signal is allowed to shift is called the high-quality music transmission. In
voice channel. National and interna- frequency deviation. You might the FM broadcast band (88 to
tional regulatory bodies impose such expect that the required bandwidth 108 MHz in the US) a l50-kHz
restrictions, taking into account the would be the difference between the bandwidth channel is assigned to
limited bandwidth available and the carrier minus the deviation, and the each station. If mono (rather than
international nature of radio signals, carrier plus the deviation, which is stereo) transmission is employed, a
particularly in the HF region. twice the deviation. For real modu- frequency response to 20 kHz can be
Above the lower VHF regions, lating signals, the required band- supported while using a modulation
wider bandwidths are often used. width is somewhat greater, and is index of five.
Signals tend to,stay confined in a approximately equal to 2 (M + D) The simplest detector for FM is
relatively small geographic area, so where D is the deviation as described just to use the response of an AM
channels may be reused in other above and M is the highest modulat- receiver with sufficient bandwidth-
areas. This, provides more effective ing frequency. If we have 3.3 kHz as noted, even narrowband FM is
use of the radio spectrum. Another voice and a deviation of 3.3 kHz, the wider than AM-and the response of
factor to consider is that the total required bandwidth would be a tuned circuit as shown in Fig 10-1.
bandwidth in VHF (30 to 300 MHz) 13.2 kHz, or just twice that of As the signal deviates back and forth
is more than nine times the band- standard AM for the same signal. across the slope of the tuned circuit,
width of the entire VLF, LF, MF and The ratio of deviation-to-maxi- the output voltage goes up and down,
HF ranges combined (30 kHz to mum-modulating-frequency is called reproducing the modulating signal.
30 MHz). the modulation index. It can be By combining two resonant
While narrow-band transmissions, shown that the modulating index circuits and two amplitude detectors,
such as the ones found in the lower- must be at least one, but it can be it is possible to have an FM detector
frequency regions, are frequently higher. When the modulation index in which the center frequency is in
used at VHF and above, it is also is small, typically less than two, it is the center of the passband. Such an
common to encounter wider band-
widths. Some examples are those
used by wideband FM, television,
pulsed radar and multiplexed multi- Carrier Frequency UBR1-1001
channel transmissions. We will of FM Signal
briefly discuss each-and their I
implications on receiver bandwidth- I
below.
I
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Transmission
The simplest form of Frequency Audio Output
Modulation (FM) was introduced Voltage
under the topic of Data Transmis-
~
sion-Radio Teletype in Chapter 9.
FM can also be used to carry voice
and other kinds of information.
Unlike AM, in which the amplitude
is varied to convey the information
about the magnitude of the modulat-
ing signal, with FM the frequency is Fig 10-1-Using a parallel-resonant circuit as an FM detector.
10-2 Chapter 10
Antenna
RF IF Amplifier AF
Amplifier /Limiter Amplifier
Fig 10-2-Bloek diagram of an FM radio receiver.
FM detector is called a discriminator significantly extended for VHF and If you allocate 4 kHz of bandwidth
and is probably the most common microwave use. There is nothing that to a voice channel (easy if you are
type encountered in FM systems. prevents multiple SSB voice chan- using audio frequencies from 300 to
Because the FM receiver responds nels from being stacked up above (or 3300 Hz), you can group twelve
to frequency rather than amplitude below) a suppressed-carrier fre- channels into a voice channel (Vt,')
variations, it is possible to eliminate quency in order to carry many voice group with a bandwidth of 48 kHz.
amplitude noise added to the signal circuits on a single wideband radio By convention, this group will
using a limiter. The limiter is just an channel. This was the method used extend from 60 to 108 kHz. A block
amplifier that is biased so that the by telephone companies to provide diagram of the transmit side of such
positive and negative peaks of the long-distance voice service by a frequency division multiplexer
signal waveforms are clipped, and microwave radio until the fiber-optic (FDM) is shown in Fig 10-3. This
therefore eliminated at the output. A revolution starting in the mid 1980s. could be applied directly to the
block diagram of a basic FM receiver
is shown in Fig 10-2. As you may 108 kHz UBR1-1003
observe, it is quite similar to an AM

receiver. Some receivers are designed
to receive both FM and AM signals
by switching from an AM detector to Channel 1
limiter(s) and a discriminator. Note
that for best performance in each 300 - 3300 Hz
mode, different IF bandwidth filters Channel 2 104 KHz
are needed as well.
Channel 3 100 kHz
Multi-Channel Multiplex
Channel 4 96 kHz
Transmission
ChannelS 92 kHz 60 - 108 kHz
If we consider a SSB transmitter, Standard FDM Group
we can imagine that nothing prevents Channel 6 88 kHz
us from simultaneously transmitting
multiple SSB transmissions using the Channel 7 84 kHz
same transmitter at the same time.
Channel 8 80 kHz
Some early implementations used an
AM channel to transmit two SSB Channel 9 76 kHz
channels, one using the upper and
Channel 10 72 kHz
the other the lower sideband. This
transmission method is called Channel 11 68 kHz
Independent Sideband or ISB, and
allows two different voice transmis-
sions to be sent, one on either side of
a suppressed carrier.
While ISB is fine for HF transmis-
sion of two voice signals in the 64 kHz
bandwidth of a single AM voice
channel, the concept has been Fig 10-3-Frequency-division multiplex 12-channel group.
The Modern Superheterodyne 10-3

Table 10-1
Worldwide digital-voice hierarchies used in radio transmission.
NORTH AMERICA JAPAN EUROPE
Name Rate VC Name Rate VC Name Rate VC
TO 64 Kbps 1 JO 64 Kbps 1 EO 64 Kbps 1
T1 1.544 Mbps 24 J1 1.544Mbps 24 E1 2.048 Mbps 30
T1C 3.152 48
T2 6.312 96 J2 6.312 96 E2 8.448 120
T3 44.736 672 J3 32.064 480 E3 34.368 480
T4 274.176 4032 E4 139.264 1920
modulator of an SSB transmitter and after that from another to make up a cable. The radio and multiplex
sent to the next telephone office. In frame. In North America and Japan equipment share a common set of
the microwave region, the phone 24 such channels (1.536 Mbps total) interface standards so that different
company radio channel assignments are combined with a synchronizing manufacturers' equipment can be
are significantly wider than 48 kHz, bit to make up a data frame selected to optimize the combined
so the groups have been multiplexed (1.544 Mbps) called a T1 in NA and system for a given application.
up with four other groups to become a 11 in Japan. In Europe, 30 PCM The signal that crosses the
a supergroup of 240-kHz bandwidth voice channels are combined with a boundary between the multiplexer
carrying 60 channels, or a signaling channel and a synchroniz- and the radio is called a baseband
mastergroup of five supergroups at ing channel to make a 32-channel signal. Radios are specified to accept
1200 kHz (1.2 MHz) carrying 300 frame, called an E1 with a resulting baseband inputs composed of
voice channels, topping out at a throughput of 2.048 Mbps. different kinds of signals and don't
supermastergroup of three super- Each of the standards provides for really care if they come from voice,
groups requiring 3.6 MHz of higher-level multiplexing through data or image sources, so long as
bandwidth and carrying 900 voice bit-by-bit interleaving of the PCM they occupy a bandwidth equal to or
channels. data streams for higher throughput narrower than the transmit band-
Such microwave-transmission systems. The levels used in radio width. People who design and
systems formed the backbone of the systems are summarized in manufacture such equipment tend to
US national voice network until the Table 10-1. Higher-throughput focus on different parts of the
end of the analog telecommunica- systems are defined and used for spectrum and have different but
tions era, just before 1990. While fiber-based systems, with modern appropriate skills for either job.
appearing massive to those thinking fiber transmission systems carrying
in terms of a single voice channel on Gbps data on each light carrier and Television (TV) Transmission
a radio circuit, each of the 900 wavelength-division multiplexing Each North American standard
channels was just an SSB channel of used to combine multiple light broadcast television signal is
the type we described earlier, one carriers on a single strand. The fact assigned a bandwidth of 6 MHz. The
stacked on top of another. While this that fiber is relatively inexpensive signal is referred to as a composite-
arrangement worked well, fiber (compared to the cost of digging a video signal since it contains a
worked better for this application and trench to put it in) has made long- number of separate signals within the
telephone microwave systems in the haul telecommunications costs drop same channel. The channel spectrum
US have been largely replaced by dramatically. is shown graphically in Fig 10-4.
digitally encoded fiber-based Note that the bulk of the channel,
systems. The analog technology is Baseband-s-The lntormatlon more than 5 MHz, is comprised of
still viable and is used in many areas Signal video information. This is transmit-
that are not hospitable to buried fiber In many system designs, such as ted via an amplitude-modulated
systems or those that were in place the multi-channel voice systems carrier located 1.25 MHz above the
and don't need the added capacity described above, the equipment used bottom of the channel. This is sent as
available from fiber. to combine the individual channels double sideband AM, however, the
The peM encoding described in (usually called a multiplexer) is sidebands are not equal-the higher-
the previous chapter has now separate from the radio equipment. frequency components are attenuated
replaced most analog multiplexing. In this way, the same multiplexer can in the lower sideband. The sound is
In typical use, multiple 64-kbps be used with different radio equip- carried via a separate FM subchannel
channels are combined, by inserting ment, or even for direct transmission starting at 5.75 MHz above the
one eight-bit sample from a channel via terrestrial coaxial or undersea channel lower limit (4.5 MHz above
10-4 Chapter 10
the video carrier) with a maximum
deviation of ± 25 kHz. The video Video Color Audio
signal also includes provision for Carrier Subcarrier Carrier
various control signals related to
picture synchronization.
A simplified block diagram of a
Q)
"0
€
D..
t•
I
television receiver is shown in E
« I \
Fig 10-5. Note that it starts out the
V
l - i--
same as an AM receiver with a video I
detector demodulating the spectrum I
of Fig 10-4. The AM video signal is
applied to the picture tube to control
I .I I I II 1\
a 0.5 1.25 4.83 io io
I'--
0
<0
video brightness and color informa- ..n
""" ..n
tion. At the same time, the vertical UBR1-1004
Frequency (MHz)
and horizontal synchronization
information is extracted and used to
synchronize vertical and horizontal Fig 10-4-Spectrum definition of the North American standard analog
oscillators and amplifiers. These are television signal.
used to drive the cathode-ray tube
(CRT) deflection coils, to move the
beam back and forth and up and
down the screen.
At the output of the video detector, RF IF Video
Video
the audio carrier and sidebands Amplifier Amplifier Amp
Detector
appear as if they were just a 4.5-
MHz FM signal. A standard FM
receiver, set for 25-kHz deviation is
used to reproduce the audio signal.
CRT
One fact that is not apparent from Deflection
what I've said is the frequency range Signals
required. In the days when TV Local Oscillator
signals were mostly sent by radio,
the receivers first just received the
VHF band. This consisted of two
segments: 54 to 88 MHz (channels 2
4.5 MHz
to 6, with a gap from 68 to 76 MHz) FM Receiver 1------iJFo-I
and 174 to 216 MHz (channels 7 to as Fig10-2
13). Later the UHF channels were
added, originally 470 to 890 MHz
Fig 10-S-Simplified block diagram of an analog television receiver.
(channels 14 to 83) and later, 470 to
806 MHz, to provide for cellular
telephone service in the upper
portion of the original TV UHF tion is occurring towards digital antenna. Most radar systems convey
band. This provided a challenge to television transmission. Standards no explicit information in their
receiver designers of the day-to are becoming established, but it's signal-truly a communications
design radios that could cover a clear that the analog baseband signal system in which the medium is the
frequency range from lower VHF to we have been discussing will be message.' On the other hand, the
UHF, almost into the microwave replaced with a pulsed digital format. transmitter sends out a signal, rather
region. And yet these receivers had like a Morse code dot, and the
to be easily (and at low cost) Pulsed Radar Systems receiver receives the same-over and
manufactured and used by the Radar is an interesting application over. The radio portion of the system
general public. The migration to of radio that has a number of is just like any other in many ways.
cable systems with hundreds of differences from most communica- The basic operation is easy to
channels just made things even more tion systems we have discussed to understand. The transmitter at
challenging, with a frequency range this point-yet the underlying regular intervals (the Pulse Repeti-
from HF to SHF. The transition from technology is very similar. Most (but tion Interval, or PRI) sends a pulsed
vacuum-tube to solid-state technol- not all) radar systems have the radio signal towards the sky. If
ogy in the sixties made it all feasible. transmitter and receiver in the same nothing comes back, there is no
As this is being written, a migra- location and they share the same signal to receive. If an aircraft is in

the path of the signal, it will reflect
back a small bit of the signal (called UBR1-1006
Horizon Limited Distance Aircraft, Typically Less than 10 Miles Altitude
an echo) that can be detected. You
Typ. 300 Mile, \
can measure the elapsed time from
transmission to reception and, since
you know the speed of light, you can
--
___~~F7':7777'7"'::"/'"'/'?"'"..,....,..~
calculate the distance to the target. If

the antenna has a narrow beam and is
rotating, you can also determine the
direction to the target.
The radar sends its pulses under Fig 10-6-0perating environment for typical ground-based search radar.
conditions that are well established
and understood. If you want the radar
to observe a particular range, you - E - - - - - - - - - 3 msec =280 miles - - - - - - - - - - "
A~~A
need to have an interval between our
pulses at least long enough for the
signal to get that far and return. A
typical example is a ground-based
radar designed to detect and track
aircraft for air traffic control or Transmit Time Next
Transmit Time
military applications. A curved earth (A)
and limited flying altitude establish
the maximum range of interest as
shown in Fig 10-6. This results in a
round-trip propagation time of about
3 msec, a fairly standard pulse
repetition interval aircraft (PRI) for
search radar and perhaps the first
fundamental radar parameter.
The second fundamental radar UBR1-1007 (8)
parameter is the signal pulse width. A
wide pulse can be easily received in a Fig 10-7-A search radar signal without targets (at A) and with targets
receiver with a relatively narrow (at B).
bandwidth, however, all targets that
are encountered within the pulse time
will tend to appear as a single
(although wider) reflection signal A-scope provided a view of one slice about 0.03%. This has an impact on
rather than as distinct targets. This is of the environment corresponding to transmitter and power supply design,
obviously a serious problem for both the antenna beamwidth. The more in particular.
the air-traffic control application (it commonly seen circular scope with Another radar parameter is the
would be great to know if there were the beam synchronized to the transmit power required to receive a
one or two aircraft in that little piece antenna position to provide azimuth detectable return echo. While this is
of sky) as well as for the military information was called a Plan an issue in all radio systems, we will
(how many interceptors do we need Position Indicator (PPI) or B-scope. show in Chapter 11 that a radio
to scramble?). This parameter is A target's distance at a particular PRI system's received power is reduced
referred to as range resolution and is can be easily read from the scope by the square root of the distance,
the distance that the pulse travels display by appropriate calibration. while a radar system's signal level
during the length of the pulse. A A major difference between data drops with the fourth power of
typical pulse width used is 1 usee. communications and radar radio distance, since the transmitted pulses
The distance the signal travels during equipment is that the data signal must travel to the target and then
the pulse interval is about 1000 feet, tends to be on about as much time as travel back to the receiver. Long-
a reasonable resolution for most it's off, for about a 50% transmitter range radars need lots of peak power.
purposes. duty cycle. This depends on the
Fig 10-7 shows a view of what
Notes
coding- and can be as much as 100%
would be seen on an oscilloscope for frequency-shift keying, for 1With apologies to Marshall
with such a system. This was the McLuhan.
example. On the other hand, a radar 21n fact much more clever encoding
earliest type of radar display (WW II system is transmitting only for schemes are employed to improve
era) and was called an A-scope. The 1 usee every 3 msec, a duty cycle of the average signal-to-noise ratio.
10-6 Chapter 10
1. Discuss reason why the US long-distance telephone network found it
desirable to move from analog to digital multiplexing.
2. What is the average transmitter power (over time) if a radar with
1.0 usee pulse width and a 3 msec Pulse Repetition Interval has a peak
power output of 10,000 W?
3. Consider the appearance of a radar return from a target beyond the
design maximum range of a radar system. How would it compare to a target
within the range?

em
He's loud for a good reason! Andl, UA3DPX, of Russia does very well in HF DX
contests with this antenna setup.
Contents
Superhet Design Considerations-Some Fine Points 11-2
How Strong a Signal Must You Handle ,. 11-4
Superhet Image Response 11-7
Intermodulation Distortion 11-10
Review Questions 11.11
- - ~ - ~ ~ --~ ~ - - - -
Irfl~,fJ~~~ ""J~tJlJfj 'fIlfJJ(JJJif/A.ilJroJJ!aJ'~ l"rJ!fjJjjJJA i/ifJ,rJ, r/ffJifJ,'i'

I
There are a few fundamental design '" With signals about 100 to 1000 dent on local activity rather than
considerations I should mention up times the noise power (giving a 20 on geography and weather. The
front so you don't leave the previous to 30 dB signal-to-noise ratio, sources tend to be rotating electri-
chapter thinking that the basic SNR), automated systems can cal machinery, as well as gasoline
superhet is without limitations of its make a bit/no-bit decision and be engine ignition systems and some
own. First, you should be aware of the correct most of the time (not types of lighting. All things being
range of signal amplitudes that a always, because noise power is equal, this source drops off on
receiver should be able to listen to. specified as the average level, so average by about 20 dB every time
The determination of required receiver sometimes a noise peak will be the frequency is increased by a
sensitivity and management of much higher than average). factor of ten. The higher frequency
receiver gain are key considerations in • A telephone call with a 30 dB is due to some sparks having faster
effective receiver design. Next, I will (1000 times power) SNR is rise times than lightning. The
discuss some signals you don't ever considered "toll quality." effect tends to be comparable to
want to listen to-image signals and • A television signal with a 50 dB atmospheric noise in the broadcast
intermodulation products. Both SNR will have virtually no visible band, less at lower frequencies and
involve reception of undesired signals "snow" in the background. a bit more at HE Your mileage
that must be taken into account. may vary!
Where Does Noise Come • Galactic Noise. This is noise
RECEIVER AMPLITUDE From? generated by the radiation from
RESPONSE There are a number of answers to heavenly bodies outside our
When I discussed crystal sets in this one, because there are multiple atmosphere. Of course, while this
Chapter 1 and 2, I noted that to noise sources to consider. While all is noise to communicators, it is the
increase the loudness of the signal are always present, one or more of desired signal for radio astrono-
you were listening to, you had to the following sources are usually mers. This noise source is a major
either install a larger antenna or move dominant, depending on the fre- factor at VHF and UHF and is
closer to the transmitter. By adding quency or other parameters. quite dependent on exactly where
audio and RF amplifiers, you could '" Atmospheric Noise. This is noise you point an antenna (antennas for
compensate for those shortcomings generated within our atmosphere those ranges tend to be small and
to a certain extent. But it's easy to due to natural phenomena. The are often pointable). It also
fall into the trap of thinking that you principal cause is lightning, acting happens that the earth turns and
can get as loud a signal as you'd like very much like an old-fashioned sometimes moves an antenna into
just by adding enough amplifiers. gigantic spark transmitter and a noisy area. If the sun, not
There are limits to how far you can sending wideband signals great surprisingly the strongest noise
go in this direction. If you amplify distances. All points on the Earth signal in our solar system, appears
enough, you will find that in addition receive this noise, however, it is behind a communications satellite,
to amplifying the desired signal, you much stronger in some geographic communications are generally
start to amplify noise. This is areas than others, depending on the disrupted until the sun is out of the
ultimately the factor that limits our amount of local lightning activity. antenna's receiving pattern.
ability to receive signals. In general, Lightning is usually the strongest • Thermal Noise. Unlike the other
it's fair to say that noise defines the noise source in the LF range and noise sources, this one originates
lower bound of signals that you can may dominate well into the HF in Our equipment. All atomic
receive. In fact, if the signals are region, depending on the other particles have electrons that move
much lower than the noise, you can't noises in the region. The level of within their structures. This
hear the desired signals at all. If the atmospheric noise tends to drop off motion results in very small
signals are stronger than the noise, by around 50 dB every time the currents that generate small
you have a chance of doing some- frequency is increased by a factor amounts of wideband radiation.
thing with them. Some approximate of 10. This source usually drops in While each particle's radiation is
reference points may give an idea: importance by the top of the HF small, the cumulative effect of all
'" A highly trained Morse operator range. particles becomes significant as
can actually decode Morse signals • Man-made noise. This source acts the previous types of noise
that are somewhat weaker than the in a similar manner to atmospheric sources roll off with increasing
noise. noise, although it is more depen- frequency. The reason that this
11-2 Chapter 11
effect is called thermal noise is
because the electron motion 11-1
increases with the particle's Typical noise levels (into the receiver) and their source, by
temperature. In fact the noise frequency.
strength is directly proportional to
Frequency range Dominant noise sources Typical level (dBmp*
a change in temperature, if
measured in terms of absolute LF 30 to 300 kHz atmospheric -16.6
zero (0 degrees kelvin, abbrevi- MF 300 to 3000 kHz atmospheric/man-made -39.7
ated 0 K). For example, if we Low HF 3 to 10 MHz man-made/atmospheric -31.7
increase the temperature from 270
to 280 K, that represents an High HF 10 to 30 MHz man-made/thermal -47.3
increase in noise power of 10/270 VHF 30 to 300 MHz thermal/galactic -96.6
= 0.037, or about 0.16 dB. UHF 300 to 3000 MHz galactic/ thermal -136.6
Why do we Care? *The level assumes a one square meter antenna size for LF, MF, VHF and UHF.
A half-wavelength antenna is assumed at HF.
A receiver designer needs to know
how strong the signals are so you can
establish the range of signals the
receiver will be required to handle. small a signal we might need to deal
Since noise power is a widely with. A designer must create a
varying average, it is a good idea to receiver that will handle signals from
set the sensitivity floor at perhaps 10 below the noise floor to as strong a
to 20 dB below the expected noise. signal as the closest nearby transmit-
As noted above, this is related ter can generate. Mostreceivers have
closely to the frequency we want to a specified (or sometimes not)
receive. Table 11-1 below is a rough highest input power that can be
guide of the noise power you might tolerated, representing the high end
expect to deal with in each frequency of the spectrum. Usually the maxi-
range. Note that for frequencies at mum power specified is the power at
which external noise sources are which the receiver will survive
most important, the noise power (and without being damaged (see Fig 11-1
signal power) will also be a function for an example of a mid 1950s
of the antenna design. In other deluxe receiver, the Collins 75A4). Fig 11-1-The warning on this
receiver is clear about the
words, pick up more signals with a A somewhat lower power level is
maximum voltage that can be
more effective antenna and you also generally the highest signal that the tolerated coming from the antenna.
generally get more noise! receiver can receive without over- (Photo courtesy Chris Galbraith,
Table 11-1 gives us an idea of how load. KA8WFC.)
Superheterodyne Receivers-Making Them Sing 11-3

~ >'; ~ - ~
1f_IT_,. PJ - , , .• •W ~f1tll .tJ"~

The highest signal you will want receiver can deal with the full range the left of the figure. The RF attenua-
to receive is very much dependent on without somehow adjusting the gain tor is the best approach to avoid
the application and the operational of some of its stages. Even if the overload problems associated with
environment. For a standard broad- receiver could work over such a just adjusting the audio gain. It can
cast receiver, you can easily imagine range, the volume would be more be very effective, since it can lower
living next door to a transmitting than our ears would like to hear! the receiver input to any desired
antenna, and you would expect to be level. Unfortunately, as the input is
able to receive that signal, as well as How do You Handle Such a reduced, the signal gets progressively
signals from distant stations. A point- Range of Signals? weaker while the thermal noise in the
to-point microwave system will A first reaction might be to set all receiver stays the same. If too much
likely have a much smaller variation gains in receiver amplifiers to allow attenuation is used, you will not hear
in signal strength, since it will reception of the weakest signal, and the desired signal because of the
receive a signal from a single then reduce the volume or gain of the noise of all the amplifiers. Note that
transmitter, at a fixed distance from audio amplifier to provide the since each amplifier amplifies both
you. A naval vessel or military desired sound level for any signal in the desired signal and the noise from
headquarters may have multiple the range. While this is a logical all stages in front of it, the first
communications systems running conclusion, and would work if all the amplifier (the RF amplifier) often is
simultaneously, and will need to amplifiers were linear over the whole the biggest contributor to internal
receive weak signals while strong range, unfortunately they aren't! If thermal noise.
signals are on nearby frequencies this approach were followed when
(see also the next few topics). An very strong signals are received, it is Automatic Gain Control-
airport search radar receiver will likely that RF or IF amplifiers would Why Didn't I Think of That?
need to deal with reflected signals be overloaded and would clip and In addition to the problems of
from aircraft 200 miles away as well distort the signal. Even if the volume overload, distortion and reducing
as reflections from nearby structures were turned down, the resulting signal-to-noise ratio; early radio
or aircraft, perhaps only 500 feet signal would not be satisfactory operators grew tired of lunging for a
away. because of the distortion. manual gain control whenever they
The range of signals a receiver The locations at which receiver tuned across a signal that was much
must respond to can run from less gain could be adjusted are shown in louder than the one they had been
than 0.1 pW (pico watt) to as much Fig 11-2. Some receivers make use listening to. Before they all lost their
as 1 W. This range defines the of all of them, while others use hearing, someone invented automatic
dynamic range (the difference fewer. The opposite end of the gain control (AGC), in earlier times
between strongest and weakest receiver from the audio gain pro- known as automatic volume control
signals) of 130 dB. This is a very posed below is the location for the (AVC). This great idea makes use of
large range, and it is unlikely that any adjustable RF attenuator shown on a sample of the average level of
Antenna
RF IF AF
Amplifier Amplifier Detector Amplifier
Beat
UBR1-1102 Oscillator
. Fig 11-2-A superheterodyne receiver, showing possible gain-control locations.
11-4 Chapter 11
Antenna
RF IF AF
Mixer
AGC
Detector
!
@ Beat
Oscillator
Gain Control Signal
Fig 11-3-A superheterodyne receiver with automatic gain control (AGe).
received signal to control the gain of knob and a volume control. Every- discussed is found in most types of
the receiver so that the output stays thing else happens "under the radio equipment-FM radios,
constant over most of the dynamic covers!" televisions, microwave links, etc.
range of the receiver. Most users of This shouldn't be too surprising,
radio equipment take this for granted AGC for Different Signals since all must deal with signals of
and don't even know that it is The earliest AGC was used for the multiple levels and none do well if
happening. reception of AM broadcasts-that overloaded. One type of system that
Our block diagram of Fig 11-2 has was the early kitchen radio, before operates a bit differently is a radar
been enhanced with the inclusion of FM was popular. For AM operation receiver. The radar receives signal of
AGC in Fig 11-3. Note that while it's AGC is fairly straightforward. widely different amplitude, but
easy to describe, as above, and easy Another detector is provided that has unlike communications systems, the
to show in a simple diagram, the a long time constant and responds to radar system obtains information
design of an AGC system must be the average level of the received about the size of the target based on
performed carefully to insure that the carrier. The higher the level, the less received signal strength, so gain
receiver's signal-to-noise ratio is gain the receiver provided. In the adjustment needs to be handled
optimized at all gain levels. This early days of "modern" radio (say differently to avoid loss of informa-
means, for example, that the RF gain through the 1950s) that was the only tion. In a radar system, the receiver
should be held high until the level type of signal that AGC had to deal can predict when the signals will be
gets close to the overload point. with. As more and more services very strong.
Delayed AGe is a term that is used to migrated to SSB, there was a need to Following the transmission of an
describe an AGC system that makes provide a similar function for those outgoing pulse, the radar will first
no gain adjustment at the front end signals, and AGC detectors were receive reflected signals from its
of the receiver for very weak signals, adapted to take longer averaging immediate surroundings, then from
delaying the effect until they are well times to adjust the gain for signals aircraft nearby and later from more
above the receiver's noise floor. that didn't have a constant carrier distant aircraft. In Chapter 23 we will
With a well-designed AGC level. Some modern receivers have show that, unlike communications
system, the signal level entering the adjustable attack and decay times to systems in which the received signal
detector is set to the optimum level allow optimization for different is reduced by the square of the
for any strength within the receiver's signals and conditions. In all cases, distance, with radar the received
dynamic range. This means that no the principle is the same-measure signal drops off with the fourth
stage ahead of the detector can the level, compute the average as power of distance. Distant reflections
overload and the audio gain, or appropriate and adjust the gain. are thus much weaker than nearby
volume control, can be set to ones, and the highly sensitive
whatever sound level the listener Gain Control in Other receiver generally does better if the
prefers. This is why even the usual Systems gain is reduced for nearby signals.
"kitchen radio" just has a tuning The kind of AGC we have For the case of our long-range

search radar with a 3 msec pulse
repetition rate, closer signals will be
received within the first msec after
the pulse is transmitted. A system
known as sensitivity time control Receiver Gain
(STC) operates much like AGC, but

is based on the time since the start of 3 mSec - 280 Miles
the transmit pulse. With radar, the
amplitude of the reflected signal can
provide a measure of the size of the
target and it is not desired to make all
signals seem the same level, as is
done with AGe. Fig 11-4 shows how
the gain might be adjusted in an STC Transmit Time Next Transmit Time
equipped radar receiver.

Fig 11-4-A search-radar with sensitivity time control (STC).
11-6 Chapter 11
- ~ ,
IffffilJlJJ11• "'flMSrA .
In addition to dealing with the frequency. The noise received will image problem. Rather than having
signals we want to receive, with a likely double the noise power, while to decide between a high IF fre-
superhet we also need to deal with a the desired signal level remains quency for good image rejection, or
number of types of signals we don't unchanged. This results in a reduced a low IF frequency for narrow
want to receive at all. When we signal to noise ratio. channel selectivity, some bright soul
discussed mixers, we noted that a Receivers covering the standard decided to do both! As shown in
mixer would provide an output into AM broadcast band (550 to Fig 11-5, a conversion of the desired
the IF amplifier of signals at the local 1750 kHz) and using a 455 kHz IF signal to a relatively high IF is
oscillator plus the IF frequency, and can often provide sufficient image followed by a conversion to a lower
also at the local oscillator minus the rejection with a single tuned circuit IF to set the selectivity. This arrange-
IF frequency. Let's do an example to and thus do not even have an RF ment solved the image problem
make this clear. Let's say our IF stage in front of the mixer. For higher nicely, while the rest of the receiver
frequency is 455 kHz and we want to frequencies, up to around 15 MHz, a could be pretty much kept the same
receive a signal with a frequency of single RF amplifier with two or three as before. A number of manufactur-
14,000 kHz. We could set our local tuned circuits is usually sufficient to ers made receivers in the 1950s that
oscillator (La) at 14,455 kHz and we provide adequate image rejection for added an additional conversion
would translate the 14,000 kHz signal most applications. stage, for reception above 10 or
to 455 kHz by accepting the differ- Note that the higher the IF 15 MHz, where the image response
ence frequency. All is well and good. frequency, the further away the had been poor with single-conver-
image frequency is. And conversely, sion radios.
Then the Image Appears the lower the IF, the closer is the Some manufacturers decided that
Let's consider the case in which image-making it harder to elimi- if two conversions were good, three
we also have a signal that we don't nate. On the other hand, using must be even better. These folk
want to hear at 14,910 kHz. Our regular LC circuits to create selectiv- started in the same place, but
receiver would also respond to that ity, the higher the IF, the wider the converted the 455 kHz second IF
signal since 14,455 kHz plus our IF selectivity becomes. The lower the down to 50 or 100 kHz for even
of 455 kHz is 14,910 kHz. Thus, IF, the sharper the selectivity, which sharper selectivity. This approach
unless we take measures to avoid it, also means the bandwidth is nar- lasted until crystal lattice filters
we will also translate this signal to rowed. So you have yet another became available that outperformed
455 kHz IF. This is called an image design trade-off! The broadcast radio the low frequency LC circuits.
signal. We now have to deal with two standard of 455 kHz is a compromise Shortly after WWII a visionary
signals at the input of our receiver, that works well for AM broadcast radio pioneer, Arthur Collins,
when we wanted just one. radios and receivers into the lower founder of Collins Radio in the
Image response is the result of the HF region. 1930s, came up with another
fact that a superhet will respond to Early communications receivers approach to double conversion. One
signals above and below the La using the superhet architecture problem with earlier MF and HF
signal unless we eliminate the addressed this problem by adding RF receivers was that they used a
undesired signal before it reaches the stages with tuned circuits on each standard LC (first) oscillator using a
mixer. The answer is to have the RF side to amplify the desired signal variable capacitor of the type used in
stage tuning sufficiently sharp to while attenuating the image, located broadcast receivers. As noted earlier,
respond to 14,000 but not to 910kHz away. This required large these capacitors typically had a 9:1
14,910 kHz. Note that this is much ganged multi-section tuning capaci- capacitance range resulting in a 3:1
easier than in a TRF receiver, in tors with associated alignment efforts frequency range. The typical tuning
which the RF stages must eliminate to achieve the desired result. This arrangement for multi-band receivers
the next channel, perhaps at was the state of the communications was 0.5 to 1.5, 1.5 to 4.5, 4.5 to 13.5,
14010 kHz. receiver art from the mid 1930s to and 13.5 to 30 MHz. This covered
It is important to take this effect the mid 1950s. from the MF AM broadcast band to
into account even if there is no the top of the HF range in four
station at 14,910 kHz. Any atmo- Double Conversion- bands.' With this arrangement, the
spheric or other noise at 14,910 kHz Another Good Idea tuning rate and dial calibration
will be translated to 455 kHz even if A different technique, double marks got less and less precise as
there is no signal directly on that conversion, was created to solve the higher bands were selected, making

Antenna
RF 2nd IF AF
Beat
Variable Frequency Oscillator
Typ 1600 kHz Fixed Frequency
Above Receiver Typ 2055 kHz
Frequency UBR1-1105
Fig 11-5-Double-conversion superhet receiver. Early type.
Antenna
RF 1st IF 2nd IF AF
Amplifier 1st IF Filter Amplifier Amplifier Detector Amplifier
Tunable 1st IF Filter

\ Typ 1500 to 2000 kHz
\
\
\ Above Bottom of \ Variable Frequency
Desired 500 kHz \ \ Typ 1955 to 2455 kHz
~ ~a~Tune~ _ _ \
UBR1-1106
_ _segement_ -l
Fig 11-6-Double-conversion superhet receiver: Collins system.
Antenna
RF 2nd IF AF
Pre-mix Output
Typ 1600 kHz
Above Receiver
Selectable
Frequency
Oscillator
Fixed Range Typical Crystal Fixed Frequency
Typically 50 kHz Oscillator with Crystal Typ 2055 kHz
Wide for Each Range UBR1-1107
Fig 11-7-Double-conversion superhet receiver. Pre-mixed configuration.
11-8 Chapter 11
exact tuning difficult. The Collins (no pun intended). The pre-mixed having a high enough IF frequency
system (see Fig 11-6) moved the arrangement, see Fig 11-7, uses a to avoid image problems. Receivers
variable oscillator to the second single variable oscillator range, like that cover a wide tuning range,
mixer and used crystal-controlled the Collins, but does the mixing however, often have a first IF
oscillators as the first oscillator. outside of the signal path. This frequency in the VHF region. Crystal
Although many more bands were avoided the need for variable tuning filters have become available well
required (30 for the famous 5lJ at the first IF, allowing a tighter into the VHF region.
series), each tuned with exactly the roofing filter (more about this in the
same tuning rate-that is, the rate set next section) but traded it for the The Image-Rejecting Mixer-
by the second oscillator. need for filtering at the output of the What a Concept
Collins went a step further and pre-mixer (not shown). In our discussion of types of
designed an inductance-tuned mixers in Chapter 6, we discussed
oscillator that was linear throughout Back to the Future-Single the image-canceling mixer and
its range. These oscillators could be Conversion Returns! showed the signal relationships in
tuned to the nearest 1 kHz from Receivers of today can be found in Fig 6-6. This kind of mixer is used to
beginning to end, thus avoiding the any of the previous configurations. reduce image response and has been
tuning uncertainty of other receiver In addition, over the last quarter used for many years in fixed fre-
types. For this to work properly, century there have been remarkable quency systems (radar for example),
synchronized or gang tuning is breakthroughs in the development of but not often for variable frequency
required between the oscillator, first crystal lattice filters at progressively receivers since it can be difficult to
IF variable filter and RF stages. This higher frequencies. For years, maintain the phase relationships as
was no problem for the engineers at reasonably priced crystal filters have frequency is changed. Some recent
Collins Radio, but their equipment been available throughout the HF receivers have taken advantage of
brought a premium price. region. This allows a single conver- this technique, often in addition to
A third approach to double sion receiver to obtain the desired dual conversion, to improve image
conversion was a mix of the first two selectivity characteristics, while still rejection still further.

flmlutJJfJJJflrfJrikrfllflVUJJ1A Bu'WrIJJflllVUJH1
I I I
Another type of undesired signal is a strong station 20 kHz above this make the mixer as close to a square
a direct result of the mixing process, frequency (1580 kHz is b in the law device as possible, with a very
although it also happens in amplifi- above discussion) and another small third order coefficient. The
ers, particularly as they approach 40 kHz above a, at 1600 kHz. Note second approach is to put a filter in
their amplitude limits and start to that if the IF stages have a bandwidth front of the mixer to eliminate signals
saturate. Intermodulation distortion of 15 kHz (±7.5 kHz), you wouldn't that are further from the desired
results from the fact that no real hear these stations if the mixer were signal than needed to just hear the
mixer has a perfect square-law a perfect square law device. desired signal. The best receivers can
response. If its response curve is not Because there is a non-zero provide up to about 90 dB of reduc-
exactly y = x2 , it can be expressed coefficient for the x3 term, you will tion of 30IMD signals.
mathematically as the infinite series get the response of a times twice b
y = ko + k]x + k2x2 + k.x.' + k.x" + ... resulting in the sum and difference Notes
+ k x". This expression can be used frequencies. Note that the difference 1 Reference Data for Radio Engineers,
to describe any two-dimensional between 1600 and 2 x1580 = Fourth Edition, International Tele-
curve. 1560 kHz. Thus the imperfect mixer phone and Telegraph Corporation,
Note that if all the k coefficients translates two signals you shouldn't 1956, New York, NY, p 763. Data
above zero equal zero, it describes a be able to hear at all into a new derived assuming a half-wavelength
straight line. If only ko and k] are signal right on top of the one you are antenna in mid band.
non-zero, it describes our ideal trying to listen to! 2A notable exception was the
mixer's parabolic response curve. This effect is called third order Hammarlund Manufacturing Corpo-
The higher order terms result in other intermodulation distortion (30IMD) ration whose receivers used a 2:1
combinations of two frequencies. For and can be a serious limitation of a tuning range. The typical bands were
real mixers, the terms above the x2 0.5 to 1, 1 to 2, 2 to 4, 4 to 8, 8 to 16
superheterodyne that tries to operate
and 16 to 32 MHz. By covering the
term fall off rapidly and the x3 term in the presence of many strong range in six rather than four bands,
causes the most problems. The so- signals. There are two ways to make the tuning was noticeably more
called third-order response to two this effect manageable, and good precise, especially at the higher
signals can be described as follows: receivers employ both. The first is to bands.
(a + b):' = a3 + 3ab 2 + 3a2b +b 3 •
The terms 3ab 2 and 3a2b represent
product terms of a sinusoid at
frequency a, and another at the
frequency 2b, for the first term, and
the other way around for the second Interfering
Signals
term. In a mixer, you get an output at
the sum and difference. So consider- (lJ
ing the first term, you get an output u

~ 30lMD
from 2b-a. 0..
E
In this case, the a and b signals are <C Roofing BW
signals you don't want to hear. These ,,
are outside the receiver's IF band- ,,
width but can get into the mixer. L-- ---S~ -+_ __l.._ ___L_-'--_ _.....l-....L-_. . . . . Frequency
Remember that a squared term has a FO+20 FO+40
twice frequency component. Let's UBR1-1108 1580 1600
say you are trying to listen to a

station at 1560 kHz and that there is Fig ii-a-Graphical representation of two-tone third-order IMD.
11-10 Chapter 11
1. Imagine an AM car radio if AGC were not part of the design. What
would you have to do as you drove along listening to the radio?
2. If you have a superhet with the local oscillator tuned to 25 MHz and an
IF of 455 kHz, what frequency signals could you receive? Repeat the
exercise for a 3 MHz IF. Discuss the differences you observe.
3. If you used LC circuits for IF selectivity in Question 2, discuss the
difference in performance between the two IF frequencies.
4. You are trying to receive a weak signal on a frequency of 15 MHz.
There are strong signals at 15.007 and 15.014 MHz. Describe the problem
you might have listening to the desired signal.

Transm: l3rJ,---the her
0JJeofthe n
Bill Stein, KC6T, built this elegant homemade multiband Vagi beam antenna.
Contents
What's In a Transmitter 12-2
So far, I have been talking mostly to apply the information content. some care is needed in how you
about receivers, with the implicit This must be done in such a way that implement such a function. Let's say
assumption that there must be some the information can be extracted at that you perform the obvious step of
transmitters out there to which you the receiver. As previously noted, the just removing and turning on the
can listen. Now I will switch over to parameters available for modulation power supply. You might be sur-
talking about transmitters. Fortu- are: prised to find that it takes too much
nately, much that we have discussed .. Frequency-This is the number of time for the voltage to rise suffi-
about receivers will help you cycles the signal makes in a ciently at the oscillator to actually
understand how transmitters are put second's worth of time. turn it on at the time you make the
together, since they both are made up .. Amplitude-Although the ampli- connection.
of the essentially the same pieces. tude, or strength, of a sinusoidal Similarly, you might be surprised
While transmitters have many of signal is constantly changing with to find that when we turn off the
the same building blocks used in time, we can express the amplitude power you would still be transmitting
receivers, it's important to keep in by the maximum value that it for some time after the switch is
mind that the components used may reaches. turned off. These finite intervals are
not be the same size. An RF ampli- .. Phase-The phase of a sinusoidal referred to as rise and fall times.
fier in a receiver may deal with signal is a measure of when that They generally depend on the value
amplifying picowatts, while one in a sinusoid starts, compared to of filter capacitors in the circuit-
transmitter may output up to mega- another sinusoid at the same designed to remove extraneous
watts. While the circuits may even frequency. signals, ac hum and noise from the
look similar, the size of the compo- You could use any of the above power wiring.
nents-especially cooling systems parameters to modulate a simple Here is an easy to visualize
and power supplies-may differ transmitter; however, the easiest to analogy-the use of light to transmit
significantly in scale. We will discuss visualize is probably amplitude code signals. If you've ever seen a
RF power amplifiers and high- modulation. If you were to just turn WW II movie showing a Navy
powered transmitters in more detail the transmitter on and off (with on Morse operator sending data between
in the next chapter. standing for a binary "one" and off ships with a lantern, you may have
for a binary "zero"), you could wondered why they used a special
A Simple Data, Telegraph or surely send data. Unfortunately, mechanical shutter device instead of
Pulse Transmitter turning the light bulb on and off.2
Tlie very simplest transmitter One reason is that the bulb continues
consists of an oscillator that gener- to radiate for a period while the
ates a signal at the desired transmit- filament is still hot, even after the
ting frequency. If the oscillator is power goes off.
connected to an antenna, the signal A simple, low power HF Morse
will propagate outward and be oscillator transmitter is shown
picked up by any receivers within schematically in Fig 12-1 with a
range. 1 Such a transmitter will carry photo of an example in Fig 12-2.3
little information, except perhaps for This transmitter will generate a
L1
its location. This could serve as a signal in the MF broadcast band and
rudimentary beacon, for direction RFC can be heard at short distances
finding or radiolocation, although without any antenna.'
250
real beacons transmit identification pF Fig 12-3 is the schematic of a
1000 crystal oscillator transmitter designed
data. A true beacon also indicates
whether or not it is turned on,
perhaps useful as part of an alarm
1 pF
for HF operation. By using a crystal-
controlled oscillator, you gain
system. frequency accuracy and stability, but
Fig i2-i-A simple solid-state, low-
To actually transmit information, power HF oscillator-transmitter
lose a certain amount of flexibility
you must modulate a transmitter. The built by Chuck Counselman, because the frequency is determined
modulation process was introduced Wi HIS. l is a pre-assembled coil in largest part by the mechanical
in Chapter 2 and involves changing stock; 3-inch diameter, 6 inches properties of the crystal itself.
one or more of the signal parameters long and 4 turns per inch. In this design the key just turns the
12-2 Chapter 12
3.5 MHz
IlrAnlan"
UBR1-1203
5600
fJ Kay
+12V
Fig 12-3-A simple solid-state low-

power HF crystal controlled
oscillator-transmitter. The
unspecified tuned circuit values
are resonant at the crystal
frequency.
at the keying rate of a Morse Code

transmission!
The Next Step-a Two-Stage

HF Transmitter
By adding an amplifier stage to
your little transmitter, you can
address the first problem of fre-
quency change while the oscillator
starts up. While we're at it, you
should add filtering to solve the
second problem of harmonics. I will
Fig 12-2-Photo of the simple solid-state, oscillator-transmitter.
(Courtesy Chuck Counselman, W1HIS.) , defer dealing with the third problem,
but you could deal with this too if
you needed to, by not keying the
crystal oscillator itself, only keying
power on and off. The 0.01 /-IF line example, could change the load and the following amplifier stage(s).
bypass capacitor was chosen so that cause the frequency to shift very Fig 12-4 is the circuit of a much
it would not delay the rise or fall at slightly. Second, the oscillator better, but still simple radiotelegraph
reasonable keying speeds. This generates not only a signal at the transmitter, called the Tuna Tin 2
transmitter actually works and can crystal's fundamental frequency, but because it was built to fit in a tin can
generate a few mW of RF power at also at harmonics (multiples) of the that once contained tuna fish. This
the crystal frequency. However, it has frequency. Third, every time the key circuit uses an oscillator similar to
a number of limitations. These is depressed, the oscillator must start that of Fig 12-3, but followed by a
limitations are in common with the up, possibly taking a finite time to stage of amplification. The amplifier
early vacuum-tube oscillator trans- stabilize at its rest frequency. Since increases the output power to about
mitters of the 1920s-although they the frequency could change slightly lh W. Note that the output circuit
were a major improvement over the due to the first and third factors, the includes a low-pass filter to reduce
spark transmitters that preceded sound of such a simple transmitter any harmonic output below the
them. First, the oscillator is depen- often might have a "chirp" or even a levels required by the US Federal
dent on the environment. Changes in "yoop" to it. Imagine the "yooping" Communications Commission
the antenna, due to wind, for sound generated by a bird warbling (FCC).
Transmitters-The Other Side of the Equation 12-3

7 MHZ Bandpass Filter
OSCILLATOR AMPLIFIER
L2 L3 L4
0. 1
01 100
E
O
e e
01,02
C (Bottom)
Decimal values of capacitance are in microfarads

(IJF); others are in picofarads (pF); Resistances
are in ohms; k=1,000, M=1,000,000. UBR1-1204
Fig 12-4-Circuit diagram of the Tuna Tin 2, two-stage radiotelegraph transmitter.

J1-Single-hole-mount phone l3, l4-21 turns of #24 wire on a T1-4:1 broadband transformer.
jack. Must be insulated from T-37-6 toroidal core. 16 turns of #26 wire on the
ground. Mounts on printed 01, 02-2N2222A or equivalent secondary, on an FT-37-43
circuit board. NPN transistor. toroidal core.
l1-22 JlH molded inductor. S1-Antenna changeover switch. Vi-Fundamental crystal, 7 MHz.
l2-19 turns of #26 wire on a Miniature SPDT toggle.
T-37-2 toroidal core.
A simple single-stage oscillator/

transmitter can be useful, and is still
employed in special circumstances,
particularly in the microwave region.
However, one advantage of separat-
ing the oscillator from the device
providing the output power is that,
for applications requiring frequency
stability, an oscillator that doesn't
have to deliver much power is more
easily stabilized. The configuration is
sometimes referred to as a master
oscillator-power amplifier or MOPA.
(This signifies that the oscillator is
master of the frequency and the
power amplifier delivers the needed
output.)
While lh W doesn't sound like a
lot of power (and it isn'tl), this
transmitter has been built by many
Amateur Radio operators and used
for worldwide communication on the
7-MHz (40-meter) amateur band.
Fig 12-5 shows the original model
fitted in its tuna fish can." If you have
an Amateur Radio operator's license
and are authorized to operate in this
band using radiotelegraph, you may Fig i2-5-Photo of the original Tuna Tin 2, built into a tuna fish can.
12-4 Chapter 12
want to build one of these and try receive switching is required for the person talking using the second
your hand at low-power operation. most two-way radio systems, and it's direction path.
You will be surprised at how worth digressing for a moment since Fig 12-6 provides examples of the
effective it is, so long as there isn't a the switching may be an important three possibilities for a simple
stronger signal on your frequency! consideration in the design of the telegraph system using wires to
transmitter. interconnect the telegraph keyes) and
Moving Beyond the Tuna Tin Note that different types of the buzzer(s). In the half-duplex
The Tuna Tin 2 is a real radio systems will have different switching configuration, in order to receive a
transmitter and has been used for requirements. There are generally signal from the far end, you must
worldwide communication. The three broad categories of transmit- close the switch across your end's
output power of I h W can be a receive switching: telegraph key. If both stations have
limitation, however. Most transmit- III Simplex operation-This describes their switch open, no one hears
ters provide a higher output power, one-way transmission. Typically anything, nor do they if both are
especially on HE The Tuna Tin 2 doorbells and broadcast transmit- closed. Analogously, if two taxi
transmitter does have all the essential ters operate as simplex systems. drivers both push their microphone
elements, however, and is a good III Half-duplex operation-This buttons at the same time, neither will
example of a radiotelegraph trans- describes a two-way system that hear the other.
mitter design. can operate in either direction, but
The low I h W level requires Long Should it to
only one-way at a time. A taxi
considerable operator skill, effective radio with a push-to-talk button on Switch?
antennas, very good propagation the microphone is a half-duplex It won't be a surprise to find that
and, yes, a bit of luck, to get system, as is the Tuna Tin 2. different applications have different
through. While you may be able to III Full-duplex operation (sometimes requirements for switching time. A
talk somewhere most of the time, just called duplex)- This describes radar system may be the most
you may not be able to get your a two-way system that can operate demanding. A typical radar system
signal where you want it. In the next in both directions at the same time. uses the same antenna for transmis-
chapter, we will discuss power The telephone system is full sion and reception, and it must
amplifiers for transmitters. Addi- duplex, in that you can interrupt switch from transmitting a pulse to
tional amplifier stages may be added
to this (or any other simple transmit-
ter) as needed, to achieve whatever
output power is required.
This is where the decibel earns its Key
keep! A power output of lh W is
about -5 dBW, or 5 decibels below
1 W. A typical amplifier stage might
have 15 dB of gain. An additional
stage at that gain would provide
an output of -5 dBW + 15 dB = Battery
10 dBW or 10 W. Another stage with (A) Simplex Telegraph Circuit

15 dB of gain would yield 25 dBW,
which is 316 W. Another stage
would bring this to 40 dBW or
10,000 W. Not very many stages and
before long we're talking serious
power here! Although higher-power
amplifiers are bigger, more expen- I 11 1 1-+- - - - - - - - - - --'
sive and tougher to build (not to
(B) Half-Duplex Telegraph Circuit
mention noisier when they blow up),
they are conceptually similar in
design.
ee=~ 1 1111c---+ --ijO

The careful observer of Fig 12-4
(C) Three-Wire Full-Duplex Telegraph Circuit UBR1-1206
will note that the transmitter output
is routed through a transmit-receive
switch S1. Some kind of transmit- Fig 12-6-Transmit-receive control. Three wire-line tP.ll~fU'::1ln,n examples.
Transmitters-The Other Side of the Ib..'I.ilYUlbIUI 12-5

receiving a reflected pulse quite It is also possible to have an geographic separation between the
quickly. If it doesn't switch quickly automated switchover in which a transmitter and receiver can be
enough it will miss reflections from telegraph transmitter switches to employed. In the days before high-
targets close to the antenna. The transmit as soon as the key is capacity transatlantic cables, most
speed of light is 186,000 miles per pressed. If it switches back to receive telephone calls between North
second, or 0.186 miles per microsec- as soon as the key is released, so the America and Europe were transmit-
ond. In that microsecond, the wave operator can hear between each dot ted over HE At the US end, the
will go travel 0.093 miles out and and dash, this is called break-in transmit and receive locations were
back to the antenna. A radar engineer keying. This can approach full- hundreds of miles apart so that full-
would round that to "I 0 usee per duplex operation. But just as in the duplex operation could be used.
radar mile." case of VOX operation, if both send
Thus for every 10 usee of lost at the same time, neither can hear. Notes
switching time, we lose about one The other flavor is called semi 11n Chapter 17, I will describe how to
mile of coverage starting at the break-in, usually using the same best predict what range we can
antenna. Since the pulse width may circuitry used for VOX operation. expect-not an exact science,
be 10 usee long, we can't do much The switch to transmit occurs when especially at H F.
about the first mile, but we don't the key is depressed. However, the 'The technology may well predate the
want to give up too many, especially switch to return to receive is delayed light bulb, and the US Navy was
not known for making changes
if we are worried about aircraft until after a pause, so no reception easily.
landing at our airport! On the other occurs between dots and dashes. This
3There is serious possibility for
hand, if we "jump the gun" and strategy is much like half-duplex, but interference, especially if con-
switch before the transmit pulse is eliminates the need for the operator nected to an antenna. Causing
completely over, we risk dumping to manually throw a switch to such interference is in violation of
lots of transmitter power into our transition between transmit and FCC regulations with potentially
sensitive receiver. This is not a good recerve. serious consequences.
plan, especially if your radar runs Full-duplex operation usually "This transmitter is based on the
megawatts of output power! requires a separation between the simple Colpitts LC oscillator shown
in Figure 14.13(B) on page 14.14
Other systems generally have less transmitter and the receiver fre-
of The ARRL Handbook, 2000
demanding requirements. A push-to- quency, plus extensive filtering to Edition.
talk radiotelephone system probably keep the transmitter's power from 5E. Hare, "The Tuna Tin 2 Today",
will not lose much if it takes a few overloading the receiver. Alternately, QST, Mar 2002.
tenths of a second to switch over.
Some two-way voice systems,
especially those that don't transmit a
carrier, such as SSB, use voice-
operated-transmit or VOX operation.
This allows operation that is close to
full duplex, if both parties are polite.
When the operator at one end stops
talking, between words if not
syllables, his radio automatically
switches to receive, in case the
operator at the other end wishes to
make a comment. Unlike real full
duplex, this doesn't work if both
speak at the same time.
There are analogous systems for
radiotelegraph, in two flavors. The
Tuna Tin 2 uses a straightforward
half-duplex system. When one
operator is finished with her trans- 1. Describe how to change the transmit frequency of the simple transmitter
mission, she sends the letter "K," the in Fig 12-1. Repeat for the transmitter in Fig 12-3.
telegraph equivalent of "over" and
throws her switch from transmit to 2. Why must the rise times of the circuits being keyed in a telegraph
receive. The other station then transmitter be carefully considered?
switches to transmit and starts 3. What might happen if the power supply voltage dropped every time a
sending. telegraph transmitter was keyed?
12-6 rh~nh:u' 12
ra
Some Amateur-Radle operators will travel great distances to be a "rare one." These
adventuresome hams are at the of Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania.
Amplitude-Modulated Voice 13-2

Other Transmitter Configurations 13~4

While the telegraph key in the power from the modulator is applied the supply to the RF amplifier
transmitters of Chapter 12 can be in series with the de supply of the collector from zero volts on negative
considered a modulator of sorts, we output stage of the RF channel of the peaks, to twice the normal supply
usually reserve that term for a transmitter. The level of the voice voltage on voice This
somewhat more sophisticated system peaks must be just enough to vary usually requires an AF amplifier with
that adds more information to the about half the average power output
transmitted signal than just on-off as the de input power (the product of
Morse Code keying. As noted earlier, AM
the de collector times the dc
there are three signal parameters that Transmitter collector current) of the final RF
Output
can be used to modulate a radio amplifier stage.
signal and they all can be used in The output signal occupies a
various ways to place voice (or other frequency spectrum shown in
information) onto a transmitted UBR1-1301 Fig 13-3. The spectrum shown is that
signal. I will describe each modula- of a standard broadcast station, with
tion system in some detail in this Fig 13-1-810ck diagram of a an audio passband from 50 Hz to
chapter. conceptual AM radio transmitter. 5 kHz. Note that the resulting
One possible way to add voice to a
radio signal is to first convert the
analog voice signal to digital data RF RF Power
Pream piifier Amplifier
and then transmit it as "ones" and
"zeros" of digital data. This is a Oscillator
AM
Transmitter
technique employed for some 600 kHz
Output
applications using data applied to a
pulse transmitter. However, here I
will talk about the more straightfor-
ward application of analog voice to
the amplitude of a carrier signal.
20-5000 Hz
The form of voice amplitude Audio to Mic
modulation first employed in the
early days of radio was called high- AF AF Power
Preamplifier Amplifier UBR1-1302
level amplitude modulation. This was
generated by modulating an RF
carrier with an audio signal. I Fig 13-2-810cl< diagram of an actual 600-kHz high-level modulated AM
described the conceptual view of this radio transmitter.
in Chapter 6. Fig 13-1 is a repeat of
the figure from that earlier chapter.
In Fig 13-2 I have shown a more UBR1-1303
detailed view of how such a voice 600 kHz
transmitter would actually be (1)
implemented. The upper portion is -0

.~
the RF channel. For example, you 0..
E
could think of the simple Tuna Tin 2 <
transmitter from Chapter 12 as a
transmitter, assuming that the crystal
setting the CW frequency is changed
to the voice portion of the band.
The lower portion is the audio or
AF (audio frequency) channel,
usually called the modulator. This is
nothing more than an audio amplifier 1 :'1:_:·~_.lI-rlP;nl'OIl"..... "_rlni"l",,,,iill"<; 1l",:.n[foo:~oll""t~H,.."n of the AM radio
fed by a microphone. The output transmitter.
13-2 13
channel width is just twice the (abbreviated as SSE) transmitter is sideband filter is a complex narrow
highest audio frequency transmitted. shown in Fig 13-4. This transmitter band filter and most manufacturers
If the audio bandwidth were limited uses one of the balanced mixers from would rather not have to make a new
to typical "telephone quality speech" Chapter 6 as a balanced modulator filter design every time a transmitter
of 300 to 3300 Hz, the resulting to generate a double-sideband signal is ordered for a new frequency! Most
bandwidth would be reduced to without a carrier. That signal is then SSB transmitters can operate on
6.6 kHz. sent through a filter designed to pass different channels as well, so this
Note also that a perfect multiplica- just one of the sidebands. The avoids having to provide a bunch of
tion process (as described by Eq 6-1 resulting SSB signal is next ampli- expensive single-sideband filters, at a
at the beginning of Chapter 6) would fied to the desired power level, and cost of an additional mixer, oscillator
create just the two sidebands and no we have an SSB transmitter. and one filter.
carrier. The high-level modulation While a transmitter of the type in Note that the block diagram of our
scheme in Fig 13-2, however, Fig 13-4, with all processing done at SSB transmitter bears a striking
provides a carrier and the two the desired transmit frequency, will resemblance to the diagram of a
sidebands from the product terms. work, the configuration is not often communications receiver discussed
used. Instead, the carrier oscillator in Chapter 10, except that it is turned
More Efficient AM Voice- and sideband filter are often at an around end-for-end. The same kind
Single-Sideband, intermediate frequency (IF) that is of requirements for image rejection
Suppressed-Carrier then heterodyned (mixed) to the that were receiver design constraints
Transmission operating frequency, as shown in discussed in Chapter 11 apply here
Fig 13-5. The reason is that the as well for a transmitter.
As we discussed in Chapter 9, the
two sidebands of a standard AM
transmitter carry (reversed) copies of
Antenna
the same information, and the carrier
Speech RF
carries essentially no information. Amplifier
Balanced Sideband Amplifier(s)
Modulator Filter
We can more efficiently transmit the
information alone by transmitting
just a single sideband and no carrier.
In so doing, we use somewhat less
than half the bandwidth, a scarce Signal With Suppressed
resource, and also consume much Carrier Carrier and Both Sidebands
less transmitter power by not Oscillator UBR1-1304
transmitting the carrier.

The block diagram of a simple Fig 13-4-Block diagram of a filter type single-sideband, suppressed-
single-sideband, suppressed-carrier carrier (SSB) transmitter.
Antenna
Speech Balanced IF RF
Sideband Transmit
Amplifier Modulator Amplifier Amplifier(s)
Filter Mixer Bandpass Filter
UBR1-1305
13-5-Block diagram of a filter-type SSB transmitter for multiple output frequency operation.
Transmitting Voice 13-3

While many current radio commu- HF two-way SSB installations, produce the upper sideband signal as
nication transmitters are designed in especially in the land mobile, aircraft shown in Fig 13-9. By a shift in the
the form of the SSB transmitter just and maritime services use transceiv- sign of either of the phase-shift
discussed, there are other types that ers. Two representative SSB trans- networks, the opposite sideband can
should be described, since you may ceivers from the amateur service are be generated. This method trades a
encounter them in the field. I will shown in Fig 13-7 and Fig 13-8. few phase-shift networks and an
briefly discuss the most significant in Note that with appropriate switching extra balanced modulator for the
this section. of filters and other slight changes, sharp sideband filter of the filter
most SSB transceivers are also method. While it looks deceptively
The Single Sideband capable of radiotelegraph, simple, a limitation is in the con-
Transceiver radioteletype and in some cases struction of a phase-shift network
Since the SSB transmitter and double-sideband (DSB) AM and FM that will have a constant 90 phase 0
receiver are so similar, it is possible voice operation. shift over the whole audio range.
to combine them into a single Errors in phase shift result in less
package that shares many functions.
SSB Phasing Method than full carrier and sideband
A simple example is illustrated in Transmitter suppression. Nonetheless, there have
Fig 13-6, in which common oscilla- Most current SSB transmitters use been some successful examples
tors are used for transmitting and the method shown in Fig 13-4 and offered over the years.
receiving. An advantage of this discussed in the previous section to
configuration in a two-way system is generate the SSB signal. That
Independent Sideband or
that the radios at both ends are set to method is called the filter method, Multiplex Transmission
transmit and receive on the same but really occurs in two parts. First, a Some early SSB transmitters that
frequency as soon as an operator balanced modulator is used to were parts of systems designed for
tunes his receiver to the frequency of eliminate the carrier, and then a filter DSB AM were offered with inde-
the station at the far end. is used to eliminate the undesired pendent sideband (ISB) capability.
In many transceivers, the sideband sideband. The filter will often In this system, two audio channels
filter, some amplifiers and other improve carrier rejection as well. are provided, each translated to one
filters are also shared between the The phasing method of SSB of the sidebands surrounding a
transmitter and receiver. This is done generation is exactly the same (suppressed) carrier. Two audio
through the use of extensive switch- configuration as the image-canceling channels were thus provided in the
ing between transmit and receive. mixer described in Chapter 6. This same channel bandwidth previously
While some fixed stations con- uses two balanced modulators and a assigned to a single AM channel.
tinue to use separate transmitters for phase shift network for both the This can be effective, but only for
maximum flexibility, the majority of audio and RF carrier signals to broadcast or full-duplex operation
Speech Balanced IF RF
Sideband Transmit
Amplifier Modulator Amplifier Amplifier(s)
Filter Mixer Bandpass Filter
Antenna
Balanced Sideband Mixer Receive

Speaker Audio IF RF
Mixer Filter Bandpass Filter UBR1-1306
Amplifier Amplifier Amplifier
Fig 13-6-Block diagram of an SSB transceiver.
13-4 Chapter 13
since it would be hard to imagine
two two-way communications
systems in which both users would
be ready to switch from transmit to
receive at exactly the same time.
The ISB idea quickly expanded
into the more general frequency-
division multiplex approach de-
scribed in Chapter 7 and illustrated
in Fig 7-9. The transmitter is
designed to handle a bandwidth
appropriate to the government-
assigned allocated channel width,
typically as an SSB transmitter using
a baseband input (as described in
Chapter 7). A multi-channel multi- Fig 13-7-Photo of a modern basic SSB transceiver.
plex system, usually outside the
transmitter proper, would supply a
modulating signal of the appropriate
bandwidth. The result is a transmitter
carrying multiple voice channels
suitable for broadcast or full-duplex
operation.
Angle Modulated
Transmitters
Transmitters using frequency or
phase modulation are generally
grouped into the category of angle
modulation because the resulting
signals are often indistinguishable,
since an instantaneous change in Fig 13-8-Photo of a modern advanced SSB transceiver.
either can appear identical, even
though the method of modulating the
signal is somewhat different. To
generate an FM signal, you need an
oscillator whose frequency can be
changed by the modulating signal.
Fortunately, there are only a finite Sin (F 1 t) x Cos (~2 t) = UBR1-1307
number of different circuits around, Carrier

Sin {(F 1 t) + (F 2 t)} / 2 +
Sin {(F 1 t) - (F 2 t)} /2
and I've already discussed one that Signal Balanced -90 0
will do what you want. In Chapter 5, Sin F 1 t Modulator 1 Phase Cos {(F 1 t) + (F 2 t)} /2 +
Cos {(F 1 t) - (F 2 t)} / 2
when discussing phased-Iocked-Ioop
oscillators, I described an oscillator
whose frequency could be changed
by a "tuning voltage." Well, if you
apply a voice signal to the TUNE
connection point in Fig 5-3, you will
change the frequency with the Sin (F 2 t - 90)
amplitude and frequency of the =Cos F 2 t
applied modulating signal, resulting
in an FM signal.
The phase of a signal can be Sin (F 1 t) x Cos (F 2 t) =
varied by changing the values of an Modulating Balanced
Cos {(F 1 t) + (F 2 t)} / 2 +
R-C phase-shift network. One way to Signal Modulator 2
Cos {(F 1 t) - (F 2 t)} /2
Sin F 2 t
accomplish phase modulation is with
an active element. See, for example
Fig 13-10, in which the current Fig 13-9-Phasing method of SSB generation.
Transmitting Voice 13-5

through the field-effect transistor RF RF bands would be multiplied, resulting
INPUT 75 47 0.001 OUTPUT
varies with the applied modulating in a transmitted signal n times as
o-j 1----e---1I---e---lil~E---o
signal to shift the phase and thus wide as required by the information,
generate a PM signal. Because the and it would not be recoverable
effective stage load is changed, the through normal receiver means.
carrier is also amplitude modulated The frequency multiplier is right at
and must be run through an FM home, however, as a part of a
limiter to remove amplitude varia- 0.001 radiotelegraph transmitter, since a
tions. £ carrier going on and off at frequency
f sounds about the same as one at
Transmitters Using Audio
Input n x f, except for the frequency.
Frequency Multiplication PHASE MODULATOR The major application for fre-
So far I have talked about chang- quency multiplication these days is
ing transmitter frequency through Fig 13-10-Phase modulator circuit in FM transmitters, where the
heterodyning with different fre- multiplication is used to advantage to
quency oscillators to translate the obtain the desired frequency devia-
frequency to another range. An tion. For example, a wideband high-
alternative is to start with an oscilla- fidelity FM broadcast transmitter
tor frequency that is a fraction of the stage beyond cut-off so that there is a seeking to fill a 150-kHz channel at a
desired transmitter output and use large harmonic content. The output 100-MHz carrier frequency with
frequency multiplier stages to get to tuned circuit or filter is then adjusted music extending to 15 kHz would
the desired output frequency. to the desired harmonic and the require a deviation of ±60 kHz [that
A classic frequency multiplier is desired result is obtained. is, the bandwidth BW = 2 x (M x D)
just an RF amplifier stage with the Note that this approach has a as described in Chapter 10]. Such a
input tuned to frequency f and the limited number of applications. In transmitter might start with an 8.333-
output tuned to n x f, where n is an particular, it is not useable for AM in MHz oscillator modulated at an easy-
integer greater than one, typically any of its forms since the amplitude to-generate ±5 kHz deviation. This is
two or three. This will only work variations do not make it through the multiplied by 3, then 2 and then 2
well if the amplifier is designed to be nonlinear stage. If they did, each again to end up at 100 MHz with
non-linear, typically by biasing the frequency component of the side- ±60 kHz deviation.
1. Why is it important to receive the same sideband that is being sent by an

SSB transmitter?
2. If the SSB transmitter of Fig 13-5 uses a IF carrier oscillator of 455 kHz,
a sideband filter that passes from 455.3 kHz to 458.3 kHz, and a heterodyne
oscillator of IO MHz, what frequencies and sidebands come out of the mixer?
3. Describe two ways in which the opposite sidebands could be selected in
such a system as in Question 2.
13-6 Chapter 13
Inside view of Emtron DX-1d RF section. The quality of construction is evident.
Contents
Power Amplifiers 14-2
Tubes-Weren't They Little Glass Doodads in Grandpas Radio 14-6
Review Questions 14.9
In the last chapter, I discussed the clipping and distortion, generally not is off, such as when a telegraph key
various flavors of transmitters and a desirable attribute for a small- is up, or between syllables during an
transceivers that a radio worker signal amplifier. Fig 14-1 shows the SSB transmission. During those
might encounter. The designs had in input and output waveforms of a periods, the amplifying device is
common that they worked at a capacitor-coupled Class-A amplifier. dissipating power, even though no
relatively low power level, with In this example, the amplifier bias RF power is being generated.
additional power provided by power network would have to cause a rest The collector-or for a vacuum
amplifiers as might be needed. We or quiescent collector current, of at tube-plate, efficiency of an ampli-
have seen power amplifiers before. least 40 mA to insure that the fier can be defined as the ratio of RF
Even the two-stage "Tuna-Tin 2" amplifier will stay in the Class-A output power to the de collector, or
transmitter from Fig 12-4 consisted operating region; that is, to make plate, input power. This can be found
of a crystal oscillator followed by a sure that the collector current is by multiplying the collector voltage
small power amplifier. never cut off. times the average collector current.
What is it that makes an amplifier So why would we want to do Note that this is not quite equal to the
into a power amplifier? Not much anything different? Good question- total efficiency of the amplifier, since
really, since almost all amplifiers I'm glad you asked! The implication other power consumers in the circuit
produce higher power at their output of having the device biased at Class are not considered; however, this is
than at their input, and thus could be A is that there is current flow during the generally accepted definition.
correctly called power amplifiers. A all parts of the input cycle. In For a Class- A amplifier, it can be
comparison of the Tuna Tin 2 power addition there is current flow, even shown that the maximum efficiency
amplifier shown in Fig 12-4 with the during periods when the input signal is 33%. This is not a major concern
receiver RF amplifier shown in
Fig 3-6 shows little difference. Since
both are designed to increase the
40
level of RF signals, that should not
be too surprising! When amplifiers
start being asked to deliver signifi-
cant power to drive loudspeakers, 30
servomotors or antennas, we start to
call them power amplifiers. The
distinction is rather arbitrary; 20
however, the differences start to
become evident as the power level
gets higher and issues such as 10
efficiency, thermal management,
protection systems, distortion and
filtering become significant.
o
Scoop?
-10
Most small-signal amplifiers are
operated in what is called Class A.
This means that the device-it could
be a transistor or vacuum tube -20
here-is operated so that the ex-
pected range of input signal level
never exceeds the bias voltage, and -30
where the output current is not ~Output
driven so hard that the device stops
conducting current at its output. If an -40 UBR1-1401
input signal did push the device into
non-conduction, there would be
14-1-The input and output waveforms of a Class-A amplifier.
14-2
for small signal amplifiers, or even raise some other issues. A Class-A powerful. Recall, please, our earlier
small power amplifiers. For example, amplifier is inherently linear. That is, discussion of nonlinear devices,
if the 113_ W output Tuna Tin 2 the output signal is a faithful repre- where a linear amplifier is one with a
amplifier stage were run in Class A, sentation of the input, only more transfer function of Y = K x X. Here,
that would mean that the total
collector de power would be at least
1 W. A 12 V de supply would have 40
to deliver at least 83 mA to provide
the output. The more efficient
amplifiers that we will discuss next
30 -
could deliver the same output with
less than half the supply current. It
doesn't sound like a lot, but for a
portable transmitter, it would mean 20
that the batteries for this stage would
last twice as long, sometimes an
important consideration. 10
The difference becomes even more
dramatic as we get to higher power
levels. Consider an RF power o
amplifier that delivers 1000 W. If the
efficiency were 33%, we must supply
Time --.-
3000 W of de power to the unit. This
-10
raises two concerns. First, if the
amplifier runs on 12 V de, a power
supply must deliver a very hefty
250 A (a typical automobile storage -20 -
battery might last ten minutes) to
provide the needed power. Second, if
we put in 3000 Wand get 1000 W -30
out, there's 2000 W left to be
dissipated as heat. Extreme measures
must be taken to remove the heat.
-40
Imagine the heat from 20 fully
illuminated 100 W light bulbs in a
small box!
Now, if we could achieve 75% 20
efficiency, only 1,333 W would be
needed from the power supply. This
would require only about III A, 10
instead of the 250 A for the previous
case. Note that rather than having to
dissipate 2000 W of heat we must
eliminate 333 W. That's still a lot,
but a reduction of 83%.
So How we do
It probably won't come as a
surprise that by adjusting the
amplifier's bias we can change the -20
conditions and class of amplifier
operation to improve the efficiency.
Let's first examine another topic. -30
Linear versus nonlinear

amplifiers UBR1-1402
-40
The previous discussion about
output power versus efficiency does 14-2-The input and output waveforms of a Class-B amplifier.
Power Amplifiers, a Step Up 14-3

X is the input; Y is the output and K UBR1-1405
is the gain of the amplifier. The

200
transfer function from input to output
Fortunately, we aren't restricted to ~
is a straight line, with a slope K. 5 150
Class A if we want an amplifier to be
Hence, we use the term linear to c
linear. The next level in efficiency is ~
:s 100
characterize this system. u
called Class B. A Class-B amplifier
High efficiency amplifiers tend to -0
Co
has its bias set to just below conduc- ~
50
be nonlinear. They put out lots of 0
tion when no signal is present. For a LL
power on the frequency of their input
signal whenever the input signal is
present at sufficient amplitude. If the
common-emitter transistor amplifier
there is no base-to-emitter current- 0/ \ Forward Volts
2
and hence no collector current- (Germanium) (Silicon)

input is below a threshold established J unction Threshold
when no input signal is present. As
by the bias level they put out
soon as a signal is applied, current 14-5-PN runcnon
nothing.
begins to flow and the output follows function of aooued
To amplify signals that convey
the level of the input, only larger-
amplitude information, such as AM
just what we want, almost! Fig 14=2
or SSB, we must use linear amplifi-
shows the input and output wave-
ers. If we want to increase the power
forms of a Class- B amplifier. copy of the input, the positive values
level of signals that don't contain
The good news is that the Class-B are gone. This is because a negative
such amplitude information (such as
amplifier can be up to about 66% input current cannot cause the zero-
FM or on-off keyed AM, radiotele-
efficient. The bad news is that we biased base-to-emitter junction to
graph or data), we can use higher
have a new problem to deal with. conduct, and there is no collector
efficiency, but inherently non-linear,
While the negative values are a larger current as a result. If this were an
amplifiers.
audio power amplifier, it would mean
that the loudspeaker would just move
outwards, never in the other direc-
tion. Audio would be a distorted, and
would not look very linear.
It can be shown that any complex
~outPut waveform can be represented as a
series of sinusoids, with a fundamen-
tal frequency and various amplitudes
of harmonics, just as we discussed in
UBR1-1403 our earlier development of inter-
modulation distortion. The effect is
14=3-Simplified circuit of a trenstormer-counled, push-pull Class-B called harmonic distortion. If this
amplifier. were an RF amplifier, a connected
antenna would radiate not just the
desired signal but signals at multiples
of the desired frequency at different
UBR1-1404
amplitudes. This would not be a
good plan!
Top
Transistor
One way to can get rid of harmon-

ics is to use a filter to eliminate the
undesired frequencies. As hard as it
may be to imagine, if the second and
harmonics of the signal shown
14-2 are eliminated with a
the signal will look a
Bottom
Input
Transistor
lot like that of Fig 10-1. There
an even more clever way to
(A) (8) solve this push-pull
amplifier.
14=4-Collector current waveforms of the and bottom transistors
an ideal push-pull Class-B amplifier.
Introducing Push-Pull
B-E
Amplifier Voltage
Correction
Current
A simplified circuit of a trans-
0.9
former coupled Class-B amplifier is
shown in Fig 14-3. It is simplified 0.6
because it assumes ideal transistors
whose collector-to-emitter junctions 0.3
will conduct when any current flows
in the base-emitter junctions. No bias Ol----,;r-----
Time~
circuit is shown in this figure; this
-0.3
will be discussed later. Note that this
circuit could be either an audio or an -0.6
RF power amplifier, depending on
the frequency response of the -0.9 UBR1-1406
transformers.
During times when the input
signal is positive, the transformer Fig 14-6-lIIustration of crossover distortion. At A, input voltage, at B,
will deliver positive current to the output current.
top transistor and negative current to
the bottom transistor. During that
interval the top transistor will follow
silicon devices, so we are stuck with in this way, it can not be entirely
the input, with the collector current
a region on each side of the input eliminated. This means that to meet
an amplified version of the input
waveform of the transistors during US federal regulations for harmonic
signal, as shown in Fig 14-4. When
which no current will flow. This output, some filtering will still be
the input signal is negative, the
region extends to an input voltage of required.
bottom transistor will receive a
±O.6 V, resulting in a new kind of If we continue to increase the bias
positive input and will conduct. The
distortion as the signal crosses "no current, so the transistors move up to
two signals will combine in the
man's land" around the zero voltage the more linear portion of their
output transformer to produce a
level. This is referred to as crossover operating curve, we tend to make the
signal like that in Fig 14-1, except
distortion. The effect is shown in amplifier more linear. The downside
the efficiency will be higher, since
Fig 14-6, the input voltage on the is that we make the amplifier
there is no collector current when
left, the output current on the right, somewhat less efficient as well. The
there is no signal present.
with the scale exaggerated for effect. results are somewhere between the
looks Pretty Good-What The effect can be significantly efficiency of Class-A amplifiers and
reduced by adding a bias circuit that Class-B amplifiers. By no coinci-
Makes it less Than Ideal?
causes each transistor to be forward dence at all, such amplifiers are
Well, we're stuck with using real- biased to just to the point at which it called Class-AB amplifiers! There
world devices, and they have limita- is about to conduct when no signal is are even definitions of sub-classes in
tions set by device physics. A look at present. While this helps, a look at Class AB operation. Class AB 1 is
Fig 14-5 will show the real conduc- Fig 14-5 will indicate that the closer to A, while Class AB 2 is closer
tion characteristics of PN junctions junction response is not quite a to B. There is a specific difference
such as the base-emitter junction of straight line near the point where defined in the next module-for
the transistors in our less-than-ideal conduction starts, and thus while vacuum tube amplifiers.
amplifier. Most power amplifiers use crossover distortion can be reduced

OK, we've put it off as long as we although often using more than one an external heat exchanger, very
could. It's time to face the horrible device sharing the load within the similar to the radiator on a car.
truth-there are still places where amplifier. In some cases, input power A simplified vacuum tube power
vacuum tubes are king! Arguably, is divided among multiple lower- amplifier circuit is shown in
anything that can be done with a powered amplifier modules and then Fig 14-7. Note that unlike generally
solid-state device can, and used to recombined at the output. While low impedance solid-state amplifiers
be, done with a vacuum tube. high-power capable tubes are not that use wide-band transformers at
Starting with the invention of the inexpensive, high-power, RF-capable the input and output, many vacuum
transistor by three Bell Labs' solid-state devices tend to be even tube circuits use high-impedance
scientists in 1947, there has been a more pricey. Above a few hundred resonant L-C coupling circuits
migration away from tubes and watts, it is common to see amplifiers instead. In general, they need to be
towards transistors and even more of either technology. The lead photo carefully tuned to the operating
exotic solid-state devices. is of an HF linear power amplifier frequency, but they also remove
This is as it should be. Writing as with an output rating of 1000 W peak much of the harmonic energy at the
a person whose career and experi- envelope power (PEP) from 1.8 to same time that they pass on signals at
ence spans both generations, most of 30 MHz. It requires 50 W of input the desired frequency.
the time I find it great to work in the power for full output and does it with Some typical values may be of
solid-state environment. Solid-state a single vacuum tube. interest, Table 14-1 shows represen-
devices are more reliable-tubes tative conditions for a tetrode
have filaments like light bulbs, and So What are These Tube amplifier using two tubes
need to be replaced almost as often; Critters Li ke?
tubes break when you drop them; The tube is the round object in the
tubes get hot even when nothing else upper left corner of the picture at the Table 14-1
is going on and tubes use dangerous beginning of this chapter. This tube is
high voltages that can make you Pair of 4CX1000A tube in Class
of ceramic rather than glass construc-
jump, or worse, if you put your AB1 operation
tion. The anode, from which any
fingers in the wrong places! undelivered power must be dissi- Plate voltage 2500 V
On the other hand, tubes can pated, surrounds the outer surface Maximum plate current 2A
handle more power than most solid- and is attached to a honeycomb of Minimum plate current 0.05 A
state devices. Here we are in the vertical fins. Forced air is blown up Screen grid voltage 325 V
Power Amplifier chapter, so we past the fins to dissipate the heat. Maximum screen current 0.06 A
better talk about tubes. Tubes do Other tubes, especially those at the Control grid bias -55 V
have some other advantages as well. tens of kilowatt level and above, may Filament voltage 6V
They tend to be more forgiving- have a jacket around the anode to Filament current 25 A
briefly exceed their ratings and they allow for pumped water cooling with (both tubes)
may glow more brightly than usual
for a while, but they still work-not
so transistors. They also are less Plate
subject to transients such as those
caused by the effects of lightning or
nuclear electromagnetic pulse
SOU!PU!
(NEMP-glad I don't have to worry
about that depressing cold-war issue Inpu~
any more!).
With each generation, transistors
are able to move further and further
into the vacuum-tube domain. Check
1
+vp UBR1-1407
your local listings, but as this is
written, solid-state power amplifiers
are easily putting out power in the Fig 14-7-Simplified schematic of a tetrode vacuum tube power
single digits of kilowatts range- amplifier.
14-6 Chapter 14
2500 pF
10kV L2 L3
C16
35-700 pF
o ILOAD I
160
o S1A
500pF 0 0 ~
C1 R1 80
160
5i<V.r:9. 0 0
'1' C17J.. C15
~- r17 l' 200 pF
0.02 15 Q
500V
O..L C14 rt7 5kV
R3 R4 20 M
o 0:h
3W 500 pF
71.2 71.2
Q Q 5kV
rJ.,C2 R5
C1
6.2 k
0.02 2500 pF
500V 10kV
K1
IGRID CURRENT I
~DS4RED
360
+~~~ HE]-..,..--------t;---t;-.... --JVV\;.--+-+--H--+--------------~

R15 3.9 Q
B- 1------------11---1---------4
B+ /------------1---1--------------1
FL1
6 A1110Vac
MOT B1
Blower
-56
Vdc
+12
Vdc
K3
115Vac
I TRANSMIT I
TR FB
Switch l--G-!<I>--------------<
~Cb STANDBY
UBR1-1408
Fig 14-8-Schematic of a real tetrode vacuum tube power amplifier.

(4CX1000A) at the 3000-W output won't go through all the design the input circuit. This tube has
level: The -55 V grid bias estab- details here, but will cover the high enough gain that by loading the input
lishes the operation at Class AB]. points. Note first that the actual with a resistive network, the required
Some comments may be in order amplifier covers just the quarter of input voltage can be obtained so an
for those not too familiar with the page. The rest of the schematic L-C circuit is not needed.
vacuum tubes and how they operate. deals with support circuitry, includ-
First, it's very important to exercise ing that for safety (of the tube, not Can we get even less
all safety considerations when the peoplel) so that the amplifier will You bet! For many services
working around equipment like this. shut down if key limits are exceeded. linearity is less important than
With a solid-state power amplifier, There is also metering so that efficiency, and power amplifiers can
the 12 or perhaps 50 V de generally conditions can be observed during be made much less linear than we
encountered, can be somewhat operation. There is control circuitry, have discussed so far. As I men-
dangerous (your author has had transmit-receive switching and tioned previously, radiotelegraph
watchbands and wedding rings amplifier bypass when it not needed. signals have no need to be amplified
melted from contact with such Note that the power supply required linearly, as one example. If the key is
supplies with high current capabil- to provide all the required voltages down, we want a burst of power
ity). With a vacuum tube amplifier fills up another whole schematic output and if the key is up we want
with 2500 V de running around, you page. none. An amplifier that is not linear
usually die from your first encounter. This amplifier is somewhat similar at all can support this input/output
Please make sure power is not just to the one in the lead photo, but does relationship.
off, but disconnected and that all have some design features that
capacitors are discharged using an contrast it from our simplified class-C amplifier
insulated and grounded shorting circuit, as well as from the one in the What comes next? It almost has to
stick before venturing inside. photo. The output-tuned circuit be a Class-C amplifier! The Class-C
Some less dire comments: The consists of a combination equivalent amplifier is biased well beyond cut-
filament is about the same as one in L-C resonant circuit (a Pi configura- off (for a vacuum-tube amplifier), or
a light bulb, hopefully longer lasting, tion, in this case), combined with a heavily into the non-conducting
and only serves to heat the cathode. wide-band transformer. The transfor- region for a solid-state device. If we
The 150 W of heat generated by the mation from high output impedance think about the part of a sinusoid that
filament must be dissipated along to the 50-W load in this amplifier results in collector or plate current
with all other heat sources. The plate takes place in two steps. The output flow, a Class-A amplifier has current
is the element that acts very much circuit looks complicated because it flow for 360 0 of the time; a Class- B
like the collector in a transistor is switchable to cover multiple amplifier for 180 0 of the time, and an
amplifier. The plate current is frequency ranges. Another difference AB-amplifier somewhere in-
controlled by changes in the control in the output circuit is that the de is between. On the other hand, a Class-
grid voltage. Think of the screen grid shunt-fed to the plate instead of C amplifier conducts through 90 0 (or
as an accelerator. While the dc bias connecting through the L-C circuit. less) of the full cycle. Current in the
on it has an effect on the properties This doesn't change operation except output circuit flows only during a
of the tube, the bias is generally to keep the high voltage dc from quarter or less of each cycle of the
static once its value is set. appearing on the output circuit input waveform. Fig 14-9 shows the
A vacuum tube Class-All. components. Another difference is in input and output waveforms of a
amplifier is defined as an amplifier
between Class A and Class B in
which the grids never get driven to a
positive voltage. On the other hand, a
Class AB 2 tube does get driven into
grid current by the peaks of the input
signal. Based on the table above, we
can see that at no signal, (grids at
-55 V) the amplifier's plate dc
current is 0.05 A. At peak input, the
grid is driven to 0.0 V, and the plate
current goes to 2.0 A.
How _b,UIl"U.
Fig 14-8 is the schematic] of a

1500 W PEP output HF power UBR1-1409 (A) (B)
amplifier designed for home con-
struction by advanced amateurs. We 14-9-The input and waveforms of a Class-C amplifier.
14-8
push-pull Class-C amplifier. You won't see many amplifiers
A Class-C amplifier can have an above Class C in typical radio
OK, you broke the code: after
efficiency of up to about 75%, an applications, but they will appear
Class-C amplifiers come Class-D
improvement over our linear breth- from time to time in very high-power
amplifier, and even some others
ren. It cannot be used in applications applications including radar.
beyond that. Beyond Class C, we get
requiring linear service, however,
into what is called switching-mode Notes
such as SSB or other "variable
amplifiers. These amplifiers start
amplitude" modes. It can be used for IThe ARRL Handbook for Radio
acting a bit like digital switches-
FM or pulse applications-including Communications, 2005 Edition,
when the input exceeds a certain
radiotelegraph, data and radar. It also Chapter 18, pp 29-35. Available
threshold, the collector or plate
can be used as the final RF stage of from the ARRL Bookstore. Order
current rises instantly to full value. It
an AM transmitter using a high-level number 9280. Telephone toll-free
stays there through each cycle of the
modulation scheme, such as was in the US 888-277-5289, or 860-
input waveform until the input signal
shown in Chapter 13. 594-0355; www.arrl.org/shop/
drops below the threshold and then
Note that my statements about pubsalests'arrl.org.
the collector or plate current drops to
classes of amplifiers are not device-
zero. These act like Class-C+
dependent; each class can be
amplifiers on steroids and can be
implemented either in solid-state or
very efficient with up to 90% or even
vacuum-tube technology. One limit
more of the dc input power leaving
on the previous statement is that the
as RF output.
distinction between classes AB 1 and
AB2, based on whether or not "grid
current" flows, apply only to
amplifiers with grids-that is, to
vacuum tubes!
Also note that I haven't had to
differentiate between circuits when I
talk about amplifier classes. In
general, the same circuits can be
made to operate in any of the classes
I've discussed so far-only the bias
voltage (vacuum tube) or bias current
(transistor) needs to be changed to
change the class of operation. 1. Under what condition can an amplifier with a voltage gain of 1.0 be a
I should also mention Field-Effect power amplifier? Consider an amplifier with a power input of 1.0 W, a power
Transistors (FET). FETs are solid- output of 10 W into 50 Q and a voltage gain of 1.0. What is the output
state devices that act very much like voltage? Input voltage? Input impedance?
vacuum tubes, because they are
2. Consider the values in Table 14-1 above describing 4CX 1OOOA tubes in
controlled by a gate that acts much
AB 1 operation. If these were run at full input (and output) for a period of
like the grid of a vacuum tube. Some
time, what would the plate input power be? If the output were 3000 W, what
FETs are used as power amplifier
would the plate efficiency be?
elements and they share some
characteristics of both tubes and 3. Repeat the above calculation considering all the applied voltages and
transistors. currents for each grid. What would the amplifier (rather than plate) efficiency
be?
Power a Up 14-9
When there are sunspots on the sun, the ionization level in the Earth's
ionosphere is boosted-providing better communications on the
higher HF bands.
Conten is
So How Do the Signals Get There? 15-2
So What Happens To the Signals That Go Up? 15-4
Layers of the Ionosphere 15-5
What About Antennas 15-5
How Does the Ionosphere Impact Radio Transmisison 15-6
One of the facets of radio that we know the distance from the around the sphere.
make it an interesting topic is the source. From geometry we know that If you double the distance to
manner by which signals get from the area of a sphere is 4 rcr 2, where r 20 meters, you can perform the same
one place to another. Many signals is the radius. calculations. The power density (the
can be described by the line-oj-sight Let's find out how much light power per unit area) is now 2 mw/m?
path that works just like light. It intensity is available at two dis- or 0.02 J.lW in your eye. Notice that
starts here and goes there, and you tances. First, at 10 meters away the because the area is proportional to
can see one end from the other. Just area of the imaginary sphere is 1256 the square of the distance, the power
as in the case with light, the bright- square meters. The 1 W of light is density also falls off as the square of
ness of the light at the end depends spread evenly over the whole the distance. If you knew the
pretty much on how bright the light is surface, so the power available in a minimum amount of light you could
when it starts, how far apart the ends square meter is 1/1256 or about see, you could easily calculate the
are and how sensitive the eye is at the 0.0008 W/m 2 , which can also be maximum line-of-sight-distance at
far end. expressed as 0.8 mw/m". If your eye which you could still see the source,
A line-of-sight path is pretty easy picks up light from a square centime- under the assumption that there was
to determine with just a bit of ter of surface area, it will receive nothing in the way to block the light.
analysis. You must know the height 0.8 mW/10,000 cmvm", which is See Fig 15-1.
of each endpoint and how much the 0.08 J.lW in each square centimeter
earth curves in-between to determine
the maximum distance. Note that if
there are obstructions in the path, it is
no longer line-of-sight and we have
to look toward other means to get the
signal through. As with light, radio 20 Meter Sphere
signals can reflect off objects
(especially metal, but also water, for
example) and refract (bend) while
traveling through some objects, just
as light does going through water.
The intensity of the light-or a
radio signal-as it moves from the
source to the observer appears to
diminish as the distance becomes
larger. This is true even if the signal
is not being absorbed by anything in
between, but is simply due to the
amount of energy available to your
eye-or to the receiving antenna-as
the energy spreads out over a wider
area as it goes. Visualize (in your
mind or actually try an experiment) a
candle or a flashlight bulb putting out
light in all directions. Let's assume
that it is a 1-W bulb. How can we
determine how much energy will be
there for a receiving area at a certain
distance from the source? If the light
goes out in all directions, we can
examine the total light as if passing
through an imaginary sphere at any
distance from the source. The surface Fig 15-1-lIIustration of reduction of signal energy with distance from
area of a sphere can be determined if source.
15-2
Suppose we place a mirror behind away behind the mirror would move away from the ref1ector. If you
the bulb-how would our results encounter an energy density of look at the lens in a flashlight, you
change? If the mirror is a good one, zero mw/m", The receiver on the will likely see a more complicated
and is properly placed, the energy side in front of the mirror would see reflector than just a flat mirror. The
that would have gone in the direction a power density of 1.6 mw/m". An typical reflector is a parabola, which
of the mirror would now reflect away observer on the this side could easily takes the light from the focal point
from the mirror. In a perfect world, assume that someone had "turned up (where the bulb is positioned) and
all the signal radiated in the direction the light" and couldn't tell the then focuses the light into a much
of the mirror would be reflected, difference between a 1-W source narrower beam. The light appears
meaning that there would be twice with a mirror and a 2-W source brighter to an observer in the beam
the power in the direction away from without one. (or an object in the beam) than
the mirror reflected back toward the Note that the power density is would be the case with a flat mirror.
source. Thus a receiver 10 meters reduced in the same way as you
Where You Want It 15-3

Signals that leave the transmitting during daylight periods interacts with 3. It can be bent, or refracted. This
antenna in an upward direction are the molecules as shown in Fig 15-3. happens if the wavelength is between
called sky wave signals. They still Ultraviolet radiation has the biggest the other two cases. As the
travel in a line-of-sight fashion, such effect; however, X-rays and other wavefront continues to be refracted,
as in ground-to-air communications, forms of radiation interact with the it tends to bend down away from the
but the most interesting ones to me air molecules as well. The effect of highest concentration of ions and
are the HF signals that interact with radiation is to raise the energy in the returns to earth. Even though it is a
something called the ionosphere. The molecules, causing them to release refraction rather than a reflection, the
ionosphere is a region surrounding electrons. When an electron is effect is similar to a reflection from a
the earth at a height of roughly 30 to released from an electrically neutral surface slightly higher than the
260 miles (see Fig 15-2). Because molecule (that is, one that has the actual refracting area.
this is farther away from the pull of same number of positive and nega- Ionization occurs because of the
gravity than our atmosphere, the tive particles) we end up with an energy of the sun, and it happens
molecules encountered by radio electron (negative charge) and a only on the side of the Earth in
signals at ionospheric heights are positively charged ion. A radio signal daylight. As an area on the Earth
less dense than they are down where encountering an ionized area will moves from daylight into night, the
we can breath. The density of air react in one of the following ways, electrons tend to recombine with the
molecules encountered by the radio depending on its wavelength and the ions, returning air molecules to an
signals is reduced as the signals density of ions. electrically neutral state. All areas do
move from the bottom of the 1. It can be absorbed. This will not recombine instantly though. The
ionosphere towards the upper occur if the ion density is high and recombination occurs in a rather
reaches, until there are almost no the wavelength is long. random fashion with electrons
molecules left, just as in deep space. 2. It can be transmitted through the recombining with ions they happen
It is convenient to talk about the ionosphere without much loss. This to run into. As a consequence, denser
ionosphere in terms of regions or will happen if the wavelength is short areas, closer to the Earth's surface,
layers, since the effect on radio compared to the space between ions. recombine more quickly, and those
waves varies with the height of the It also depends on the angle at which further away take longer, sometimes
ionosphere. In all portions of the the wavefront strikes the ionized staying ionized throughout the night.
ionosphere energy from the sun layer.
Fig 15-2-The ionosphere is the region above

the Earth's surface (not to scale). Fig 15-3-The layers of the ionosphere.
15-4 Chapter 15
The ionosphere doesn't really have convenient to group the regions "electric layer"), there are no A, B
"layers." Spaceships don't observe together as if they formed discrete and C layers. The D, E and F layers
bumps or roadsigns as they pass layers. Each layer is labeled with a make up the parts of the ionosphere
through, but people talk about letter starting at our atmosphere and that generally effect radio communi-
ionospheric layers because of how continuing up through the iono- cations. These layers and their
the ionosphere interacts with radio Because pioneers in the approximate distances are shown in
waves passing through them differ- study of radio propagation started Fig 15-3.
ently at different heights. It's out with the letter E, (standing for
We mentioned earlier that radio that they aren't always solid- Something that happens with low-
signals act much like light. Just as sometimes they are made of screen- frequency radio waves that doesn't
light can be ret1ected from a mirror, like material. If these were used as happen with light is called ground-
radio waves can be ret1ected, but by light ret1ectors, some of the light wave propagation. Here the radio
an "electric minor." The actions of would leak doesn't tends to be absorbed as it
such a radio-signal reflector can be this happen to radio waves? The passes over the ground, resulting in
very much like those that reflect reason is that light is at a very high the signal being tilted. Think of it
light. For example, the ret1ector (a short waverenztn dragged down as it travels
behind the bulb in a flashlight, or car compared to radio frequencies. The along. The dragged-down signal
headlight, has a shape similar to the of a radio reflector selected
uv,ni",uv1. the ground and continues along
ret1ector behind a radar antenna. The the size of the holes in the reflector to coverage beyond the line-
difference is, the radar reflector is so that they would be small in terms of-sight distance. The signals get
made from a conducting material of the radio and weaker rather however. This
such as metal, while the light thus the radio signal doesn't see the is the way high-powered AM
ret1ector is usually polished metal, or holes at all. We can consider a broadcast transmitters in the 530 to
it could be a non-conductive material reflected a sort of bent line-of- nOO-kHz range can reach radios 50
with a shiny surface. sight signal. We'll talk more about to 100 miles away, far beyond the
If you spend a lot of time .~v'n.u,; antennas later in this chapter and line of sight.
at radio reflectors, you will notice towards the end of the book.
\I\Jhere You Want It 15=5

Again, the reason we divide the directly (by sending signals into it). earth, is responsible for the longest-
ionosphere into layers is that each We can discern some general range communication, with hops of
region tends to impact radio trans- characteristics according to the 2500 miles not unusual. Since the F
mission differently. In addition, just ionospheric layer and the frequency layer can stay ionized even after
as the size of holes in a reflector range to an idea what to expect. dark, the propagation can be very
determine which frequencies get good then, since the absorption of
reflected and which pass through, the the D and E layers is minimal after
action of the ions in the ionosphere Ionization in the D layer recom- they have recombined when the sun
depend on the relationship between bines quickly at sunset because it is goes down. Longer ranges are
spacing of ions and radio wave- dense compared to the layers further possible through multiple-hop paths.
length. Thus, each ionospheric effect from the effects of the earth's Since the particular frequencies at
acts differently for different frequen- gravity. Thus, the D layer has impact which these effects change on a daily
cies. only during daylight hours. HF and and hourly basis, the frequencies are
If those were the only changes we above signals tend to pass through identified with particular names as
had to worry about, this would be the D layer, while MF and lower follows:
merely difficult! However, we have frequencies tend to be absorbed. It's " The Lowest Usable Frequency or
one more major effect to consider the D layer that causes MF broad- LUF is the lowest frequency that can
here and that is changes in the sun. cast-band transmission to be limited make it through the D layer and be
The radiation levels of UV and X- to ground wave during the day rather refracted to reach a particular
rays from the sun cause the ioniza- than allowing propagation. destination. This term is generally
tion in the ionosphere. While we are HF signals that make it through destination-specific, so some far-
pretty good at predicting when it will the D layer can be impacted by the E away destinations requiring long-
be day and night, we are less able to layer. This can refract HF signals and distance hops by means of F layer
predict the level of non-visible result in medium distance (500 to propagation will have a higher LUF
energy leaving the sun. In addition to 1000 mile) communications. At than other paths that could be
the sunlight that we enjoy most days, some times even VHF signals will supported by the E layer. Frequen-
the sun has frequent hydrogen- refract via the D layer, but this is an cies below the LUF tend to be
bomb-sized eruptions from areas unusual phenomenon. absorbed, as shown in Fig 15-4.
called sunspots. Sunspots have the The F layer, the highest above the Frequencies above the LUF tend to
appearance of black spots on the
surface of the sun. (Never look
directly at the sun or your eyes can
be damaged. Instead, focus the
image of the sun onto a piece of
white paper.)
Sunspots are major contributors of
energy that cause ionization of our
ionosphere, some 93 million miles
away from the sun. People have been
observing and recording the presence
of sunspots on the sun for hundreds
of years, long before worried
about radio propagation. looking
at the historical data, we see that the
average number of sunspots changes
in an 1
We can't accurately the
quantity of spots on any given day,
but we can predict general trends.
For this reason, the way to be
sure how the ionosphere will act at a
particular time is to test it, either ,,,,,,niP''''.,,,, below the lUF usable
indirectly (by counting or
15-6
be refracted or bent back to return to
the earth long distances away. Down
on the lower HF frequencies,
received noise from lightning
discharges and other such atmo-
spheric noises limits the LUF.
.. The Maximum Usable Frequency
or MUF is the highest frequency that
will be refracted on its way to a
destination, rather than continuing on
through the ionosphere to be lost in
outer space. Frequencies between the
MUF and the LUF will generally be
useful for a specific path, although
the higher the frequency in that
range, the stronger the received
signal will tend to be since there will
be less absorption. See 15-5.
Ol Communication in the region
between the LUF and MUF generally
occurs in the shortwave region of the Fig 15-5-Propagation of signals between the LUF and MUF (maximum
HF spectrum. This provides a useful usable frequency).
method of communication; however,
it requires a certain level of skill to
take advantage of it, since the useful
frequencies change due to sunspot
activity, the month of the year and
during each day as well. This kind of
propagation is referred to as skip,
since the region between the trans-
mitter and receiver includes a skip
zone in which there is no reception.
This is illustrated in Fig 15-6.
.. In addition, there is a critical
frequency or Fe and an associated
critical angle, above which a signal
will plow through the entire iono-
sphere, as shown in Fig 15-7. This
angle is very much like the angle
above which you can see the bottom
of a pond and below which you see a
reflection of the trees and sky
above-again, light and radio waves
share some characteristics. Both the
critical frequency and the critical 15-6-The between the ground-wave coverage area and the
area where refracted signals are present is known as the skip zone.
angle change with ionospheric
conditions. Satellite and space
communication require transmission
above the critical frequency and
critical angle. 15-8 shows some
types of space communication.
Where You Want It 15-7

Fig 15-7-Propagation for
frequencies above the critical
frequency or critical angle.
Fig 15-8-Some examples of

space communications.
1. I mentioned that radio waves act a lot like light. In fact, before radio
was around light was used as a mechanism for medium to long distance
communications. Can you think of three types of early light-based
communication systems?
2. Consider a world without an ionosphere. How would radio
communication be different than in our world?
3. Describe why ionospheric communication can not always be counted on
to behave in a certain way.
4. Why do long range HF communications systems usually have a number
of frequency assignments in different parts of the HF spectrum?
15-8 Chapter 15
7ranJmiftin ntenn
Transmitting antenna for quick setup and takedown in emergency

portable operations.
Contents
Putting Your Signal Where You Want It 16-2
More Complex Antenna Systems 16-3
Effective Radiated Power 16-5
Antenna "Gain" 16-6
Any piece of wire or tubing will
work as an antenna if you could
Voltage Along Wire
cause a time-varying current to flow
through it. The trick is to get the
current to flow and have the return 1/4 Wave Each Side
current not cause an opposite
electromagnetic field to cancel things 1/4 Wave Each Side
out. Transmitter
UBR1-1601
While there are many exceptions
and special cases, this is easiest to do
with a structure comparable in size to Fig 16-1-The dipole antenna. A "half-wave" antenna is easy to use, easy
half a wavelength at the frequency to make and forms the basis of most antenna types.
you want to launch. In this discus-
sion, it is important to not confuse
the antenna with the support (ideally zero), and the maximum
structure. For example, the antenna No Radiation
voltage also occurs at the outside
for a MF AM broadcast station is ends. At the point in the center to
likely to be a vertical tower from 150 which the transmitter is connected,
to 500 feet tall. In this case the tower we are a quarter wavelength back
is the antenna. A VHF FM broadcast from the ends and thus the current is
station will have an antenna that is at a maximum, while the voltage is at
IOta 20 feet in height. But to obtain a minimum. The magnetic field
a long line-of-sight path to its surrounding each increment of the
listeners, it may be located on top of current in an antenna will combine
Max Radiation Max Radiation
a tower that is 500 feet high. Unless with the incremental electric field to
you look carefully it may be hard to form an electromagnetic field that
tell the difference! leaves the dipole antenna primarily in
a direction perpendicular to the axis
..........LIl.= Antenna of the wire, as shown in Fig 16-2.
The simplest and one of the most The electric field (E) is parallel to
frequently encountered types of the wire and defines the antenna's
antenna is called a half-wave dipole polarization. The magnetic field (H)
Dipole Elements Radiate Perpendicular
and is shown in Fig 16-1. It is merely is perpendicular to the wire axis. It's to Direction of Current
a length of wire or rod approximately easy to tell the polarization of a
an electrical half-wavelength long, dipole: If the wire is horizontal, the Fig 16-2-Direction of radiation
generally split in the center and polarization is horizontal. Note, from a dipole antenna.
connected to a transmitter sending however, that horizontal and vertical
signals on a frequency corresponding have no particular meaning in space,
to the half wavelength. In many except with reference to the Earth or usually only important for line-of-
cases it is desirable to have the some other planetary body! site or ground-wave signals, not
transmitter and antenna located in The polarization is important since signals that travel by means of the
different places. In this case they are a horizontally polarized antenna will ionosphere.
connected by a transmission line, launch a horizontally polarized wave In some point-to-point microwave
which I will discuss in a subsequent and vice versa. The reason it is systems scarce frequency resources
chapter. important is that a horizontal antenna are reused by transmitting two
The length and the conditions at will also receive a horizontally signals on the same frequency, one
the ends (boundaries) of the antenna polarized wave. Signals that travel with horizontal polarization, and the
determine the current and voltage via the ionosphere tend to have other with vertical polarization. Very
along the antenna wire. Because the elements of both polarizations, due to careful physical alignment of the
ends are not connected to anything, random changes in the ionosphere. antenna is required in order to keep
the current there is at a minimum So having the same polarization is the two signals separated.
16-2
It is possible to construct antenna
systems using more than a simple
dipole. Earlier we discussed how a
reflector behind a light bulb makes No Radiation to Rear
the light appear stronger in some
directions and weaker in others.
Antennas work the same way and
the energy leaving an antenna can be
focused through an appropriate
"lens" or reflector. A reflector, very
much like that of a flashlight, can be
effectively used at UHF and higher
frequencies, where it can be of a
manageable size. At lower frequen-
cies it is more common to use less
complex reflectors, as in Fig 16-3, or
multiple-dipole elements I to focus
the signals.
An important concept associated
with radio waves is phase. This is
simply a definition of the relative
starting time of two waveforms of UBR1-1603
the same frequency. An electromag-

netic wave will have a phase as well Fig 16-3-An o""':Ol"lfllniO of a directional antenna-the billboard array.
as an amplitude, and we can use both
phase and amplitude to advantage. If
two signals arrive at a receiving
UBR1-1604
location in the same phase and at the It is also possible to form beams
same they add together, with dipoles not directly connected
resulting in twice as strong a signal. to a transmitter. These are called
If the two equal-amplitude signals parasitic arrays. In a parasitic array,
are 180 0 out-of-phase they will the unconnected but nearby, dipole
cancel. See Fig 16-4. picks up a portion of the signal from
(A)
careful placement of multiple the directly connected antenna
antenna elements, along with the
control of the phase of the signals in
each, we can achieve many different
forms of focused beams of electro-
magnetic energy. A simple example
element and reradiates it to combine
with the original signal in a way that
meets the needs of the array .
It is important (and convenient)
that all the properties of transmitting
+1tf\
~~
.
f\ f\
is shown in Fig 16-5, the broadside antennas extend to receiving anten-
(8)
array. In this case two elements are nas too. In other words, an antenna
although more can be combined that transmits only in a particular
to achieve a sharper focus. The array direction will also receive solely
of Fig 16-5 can be placed in front of from that direction. This makes
a ret1ector to result in a more sharply unidirectional communications
focused unidirectional feasible with a single antenna.
..""',,,,""''''''.,H,, ...... Antennas 16=3

Max
Radiation
UBR1-1605
Fig 1S-5-Energy focused through multiple dipole elements.
16-4 Chapter 16
It is possible to consider (but sounds like a lOW transmitter In some services, transmitter power
difficult to construct) an antenna that (20 dB below the peak gain), so is expressed in ERP and the operator
radiates effectively in all directions. whenever we discuss directive can decide if it is better to have a
This is called an isotropic radiator. antennas, it is important to specify larger transmitter and radiate in all
From the perspective of a receiving the direction toward which the gain directions, or have a lower-powered
station, the signal from an isotropic applies. transmitter and focus the energy in
radiator connected to a 1000 W In the direction of the beam, we particular directions. ERP can be
transmitter appears the same strength can say that our 500 W transmitter expressed related to different
as one from a 500 W transmitter results in 1000 W of effective reference power levels. For the case
connected to an antenna with 3 dB radiated power or ERP. This is the of comparison to an isotropic source,
gain in the direction of the receiving called effective power because the it is generally called EIRP with the I
station. A receiving station in receiving station receives a signal as in this acronym indicating an
another location, out of the focus of strong as if it were a 1000 W isotropic reference.
the transmitted beam may hear what transmitter radiating in all directions.
Antennas 16-5
The increase in effective radiated will be in the advertising brochure? antennas here using the antenna
power from a transmitting antenna analysis tool EZNEC. 2 This will
can be considered a gain, if you are a demonstrate some of the results we
in the right direction! I have placed have been discussing. The first
gain in quotes in the heading antenna is a dipole in free space as a
In Chapter 18 we will discuss
because, unlike amplifier gain, you reference. I picked a frequency of
antenna simulation in more detail, but
don't really have more power-you 30 MHz for no particular reason. The
as a preview, I will simulate two
just have moved it around! A
stronger signal in one direction
occurs only because we have a
weaker signal somewhere else. In
many cases, this is exactly what you
want, since you can avoid interfering
with other users of the spectrum, and
even may be able to avoid eaves-
droppers.
The gain of an antenna in decibels
(generally meaning the maximum
gain in a particular direction) relative
to an isotropic source is indicated as
dBi, with the "i" referring to "isotro-
pic." The dipole of Fig 16-1 in free
space (with no ground reflections)
can be shown to have a gain of about 30 MHz
2 dB relative to an isotropic source, CureorElev
Gain
or a gain of 2 dBi in the direction

perpendicular to its axis. This is
because there is no radiation in the
direction of its ends and thus there is
more radiation in the directions of the radiation antenna.
perpendicular to the dipole element.
a * Total Field
The dipole is also often used as a

reference for comparison, since it is
a well-defined configuration. It also
can actually be built and is often
used, although "free is a bit
hard to find near the Earth's surface.
Antenna referenced to a dipole
in free space is indicated as and
is always 2 dB less than dBi. This is
important to in mind, since
antenna literature quoting gain
figures often doesn't make the 30 MHz
distinction clear, and the result is a
potential 2 dB confusion. The
reflector antenna in Fig 16-3 might
have a gain of 3 dB over a dipole in
free space, but also a gain of 5 dB
over an isotropic antenna in free
space. Which number do you think
16=6 16
Did you hear about the Table 16-1
two antennas that Typical gains of various antenna configurations.
got married (Your mileage may varyl)
-the ceremony wasn't Antenna Type Gain over Gain over
dipole (dBd) Isotropic (dBi)
great but the reception
was wonderful! Isotropic -2 o
Dipole (free space) o 2
Dipole over ground 6 8
radiation pattern in Fig 16-6 would Full-wave loop 2 4

be the same for any frequency if I Plane reflector 4 6
adjusted the antenna to be a half Corner reflector 8 10
wavelength long. As shown in
Two-element dipole array 4 6
Fig 16-6 the maximum radiation is
perpendicular to the dipole, with Three-element dipole array 6 8
nulls at the ends. To make a simula- Six-foot Parabolic dish antenna at 432 MHz 14 16
tion of a gain antenna, I used two
Six-foot Parabolic dish antenna at 1296 MHz 23 25
identical dipoles spaced 1/4 A apart
and applied half the power to each.
In order to make a unidirectional
antenna, I adjusted the phase of the more than 30 dB compared to the Notes
rear dipole so it would be 90° behind forward going power. This is a
1Wolfgang, L, Understanding Basic
the front one. When the signal reduction of a factor of 1000-very Electronics, ARRL, Chapter 9.
travels the 1/ 4 A from the rear dipole handy if you want to keep your signal Available from the ARRL Bookstore.
towards the front one it is in-phase away from some areas. Order number 3983. Telephone toll-
and adds to the energy going Table 16-1 provides a listing of free in the US 888-277-5289, or
forward. Similarly when the signal some expected gains of typical 860-594-0355; www.arrl.orq/shop/
from the front dipole reaches the rear pu bsales es arrl.orq.
antennas, assuming that they are
dipole it will be 90° later and the properly designed and adjusted. 2Basic and professional versions of
signals will be 180° out of phase EZNEC are available from Roy
Again, the gains apply to both
Lewallen, W7EL, at
cancel in the rear direction. The transmitting and receiving antennas. www.eznec.com, A scaled down
resulting radiation pattern is shown The figures shown are representative version is supplied with The ARRL
in Fig 16~7. of well-designed and constructed Antenna Book, 20th Edition,
Notice that the forward gain is antennas. Don't assume that any available from the ARRL Bookstore
indicated as 5.2 dBi, or almost given model that seems to fit will at www.arrt.orq/cataloq/ order
exactly 3 dB greater than the indi- number 9043.
have exactly the figures shown, but if
cated gain of the dipole in Fig 16-6. they don't you may want to check
Note that the predicted signal to the into what the designer might have
rear is shown as being reduced by done better.
1. Compute the approximate length of a "half-wave dipole" antenna

designed for the AM broadcast band, say 1.0 MHz; the 31-meter international
broadcast band at 9.5 MHz; TV channel 2 at 58 MHz; and a satellite earth
station downlink at 3000 MHz. What do you notice about the size of these
antennas?
2. Under what conditions does a 500 W transmitter with an EIRP of
1000 W not appear the same as a 1000 W transmitter with an isotropic
antenna?
Homemade 70-em panel reflector.
Receive Antennas 17-2

Antenna Modeling 17-6
In Chapter 16, I stated that the referenced to "isotropic." The dipole have directivity without gain, and
directional properties of a transmit- of Fig 17-2 in free space (and thus some may even have less gain than
ting antenna also applied when it is with no ground reflections) has a an isotropic antenna. This can
used as a receiving antenna. Other gain of about 2 dB relative to an happen in two ways:
parameters are applicable for both isotropic source, which is also a gain An antenna can achieve directivity
<I>
receiving and transmitting; however, of 2 dBi. This gain is in the direction by having the energy that would be
there are some properties that are perpendicular to the dipole's axis. transmitted in undesired directions
applied in a different way. You will This gain occurs because there is no dissipated in a resistive load, rather
need to understand the differences to radiation in the directions from its than being redirected toward
be ready to deal with the system ends and thus there is more signal in desired directions. Such antennas
calculations later in this book. the directions perpendicular to the tend to be able to operate over a
dipole. wide frequency range compared to
....""'....""',,,..... Anenna gain antennas with frequency
Chapter 16 discussed focusing the Antenna dependent elements.
energy leaving an antenna by using a Antenna directivity is a term that is e Some antennas, particularly those
reflector, or by using combinations of sometimes used in place of antenna used only for receiving, can be
elements driven with the appropriate gain, since any antenna with gain has very inefficient collectors of
phases. As noted then, a receiving directivity-the focusing of radiation energy. This can be an acceptable
station in the beam of such an in particular directions. The term compromise if they also only
antenna will receive a stronger signal antenna directivity should be used receive from a particular direction,
than if the transmitting antenna carefully, however. Some antennas and if the operating frequency is
worked equally well in all directions.
The difference is called the gain of
the antenna, and works for reception
as well as transmission. A stronger
signal from one direction results \ /
because weaker signals are received \ /
from other directions. For a transmit- \ /
ting antenna, you can use the \ /
directional properties to foil eaves- \ /
droppers, or to avoid causing \ /
interference to users in other direc- \ /
tions. With a receiving antenna you »: ------ ------
---....
<; \ /
can eliminate some interference if it <;
---.... \ / ------
<; »< ------
is coming from a different direction ---.... ------
<; \ / ------
than your desired station. <;
------
------
Let's review some antenna <;
<;
parameters. Fig 17 ~ 1 shows a ------ ---....
------ ---....
------ <;
uniformly radiating source, repre- ------ / \ <;
------ <;
---....
sented by a sphere. The radiation »>
------
------ / \ ---....
moves away from the source equally ---....
------ / \
in all directions. This is known as an ------ \
/ Candle
isotropic source and is often used as / \
a reference. In practice, it is almost / \
impossible to build one, so the / \
isotropic source is a theoretical \
/
antenna. \
/
The gain of an antenna in decibels
(generally meaning the maximum UBR1-1701
gain in a particular direction) relative
to an isotropic source is indicated in nnn,ifnlrrn!iu in all directions is said to be
terms of dEi, with the "i" meaning
17-2
such that all noise is heavily
dominated by external sources.
Zone of Lower
This is often the case at lower HF
Radiation--Gain and below. A good example is the
Less Than 1
internal loop antenna in an AM
/'
-: broadcast band radio. It picks up
/' much less signal than a full-sized
/'
/' dipole, but also picks up atmo-
/'
/' spheric noise reduced by the same
/' amount. The radio just has to have
additional gain to make up for the
lower signal levels.
Zone of Maximum Zone of Maximum
Radiation--Gain
Greater Than 1
Radiation--Gain
Greater Than 1
Antenna Aperture
While antenna gain applies
equally well to transmitting and
/' receiving antennas, a related term,
/' antenna aperture, shows up for
/'
/' receive only. In Chapter 15, I
/'
/' discussed a radiated field in terms of
/' the power density, expressed in
/'
Zone of Lower
W1m2 • I then described the energy
Radiation--Gain received in terms of the area of a
Less Than 1
receiving antenna. The area could be
the size of an eye's pupil for light, or
UBR1-i702
it could be the size of a receiving
antenna for radio. If you know the
Fig 17-2-A dipole radiates primarily in the direction perpendicular to the
wire making up the antenna. It has progressively less gain as the field strength in W/m 2 and you know
receiver moves in the direction of the ends. Note that the response in the effective area of the receiving
effect circles the antenna. structure in nr', you can easily
compute the received energy. The
received power density times the
receiving area equals the received
power, as in W/m 2 x m? = W.
\ Zone of Lower
\ Radiation--Gain So What's the Deal With

Less Than 1
\ Gain?
/'
\ /'
/' Well, this is where it may get
Reflector \ /' confusing. You will notice that there
/'
/' were no gain factors in the above
/' expression, although they're really
/'
buried in there. That is to say, the
transmit power density will depend
Zone of Minimum
on distance, as well as transmitted
Zone of Maximum
Radiation--Gain Radiation--Gain power and antenna gain. The trick is
Much Less Than 1 Greater Than 1 to determine how to relate what we
have been talking about to the
receiving area.
Again, in radio terms, the receiv-
ing area is called the antenna
aperture. This is the effective size of
the receiving antenna. For some
kinds of antennas, the effective size
Zone of Lower is related to the physical size in a
Radiation--Gain
Less Than 1
clearly defined way. For example, in
Table 17-1, a "six-foot diameter"
UBR1-1703
parabolic reflector antenna is listed.
If the six-foot diameter captures all
Fig 17-3-A dipole with reflector. the energy that comes its way, it
Receiving Signals, the Other Side of the Coin 17 63

Table 17-1
Typical gains of various antenna configurations. Your mileage may vary.
Antenna Type Gain over dipole Gain over Isotropic
(dBd) (dBi)
Isotropic -1.8 o
Dipole (free space) o 1.8
Dipole over ground 6 7.8
Full-wave loop 2 3.8
Plane reflector 4 5.8
Corner reflector 8.2 10
Two-element dipole array 4 5.8
Three-element dipole array 6 7.8
Six-foot Parabolic dish antenna at 432 MHz 14 15.8
Six-foot Parabolic dish antenna at 1296 MHz 23.2 25
would have an aperture of 1C x (6/2)2 aperture, it must have higher gain. It of ways theoretically, 1 or perhaps
or about 28 square feet, which is also follows that it will receive over most easily this can be shown by
2.6 m", The effective aperture will a narrower angular range than at a comparing the dipole's gain to that of
always be somewhat less due to feed lower frequency. Sometimes that's a an efficient dish antenna of a given
design and losses, surface irregulari- benefit-sometimes not. size. By whatever method you use,
ties and other factors, but the usual While it's easy to visualize the the effective area of a half-wave
antenna will gather up much of the receive aperture of a parabolic dish- dipole-to a radiated signal coming
energy that crosses its physical type microwave antenna, it is not so towards it perpendicular to the wire-
aperture. Now it's important to obvious that a very thin dipole can be shown to be an equivalent
recognize that an antenna of constant antenna has any significant aperture rectangle 1[: wavelength long along
physical size has increasing gain as at all. In fact, a dipole can be consid- the wire by 1/4 wavelength perpen-
the frequency increases. ered to respond to energy surrounding dicular to the approaching wave front.
Thus, the power density on the it for a particular distance around it. Note that while the rectangular-
transmit side is a function only of This can be determined in a number shaped figure is easy to calculate,
antenna gain, while on the receive
side the received energy is a function
of antenna size. In terms of gain in a
well-designed antenna system, a
UBR1-1704
physically larger antenna will
generally have more gain, and hence
1.
more aperture in receive. The
concepts of gain and aperture are
thus compatible, but these terms can
cause some confusion in how we
~
proceed to system analysis.
It is important to emphasize the
relationship to frequency. If we have
)
>
the same received power density
(let's say, the same transmit power
and antenna gain, at some fixed
distance from the source), and we
A/2
have the same effective receive
antenna aperture-equally effi-
cient-we will receive the same
signal power no matter what the (A) Rectangular Equivalent (B) Elliptical Equivalent
frequency. The difference is that as

the frequency goes up, and a half- Fig 17-4-The effective aperture of a dipole antenna. At A, the
wave dipole gets physically smaller, rectangular equivalent. At B, another area, perhaps more accurately
for an antenna to have the same showing the importance of different parts of the antenna.
17-4 Chapter 17
other shapes with an area of ),};8 may The standard reference isotropic where Gd is the power gain
really be more accurate representa- antenna can be shown to have an compared to a dipole antenna.
tions of the importance of different effective aperture of ),,2/4 n. Note that
parts of the antenna. if you take the aperture ratio of the What this all means is that to get
Two possibilities are illustrated in isotropic to the dipole, you get CA}; the same received signal level at two
Fig 17-4. 2 8)fO}f4 n) or 4 ref8. This equals a frequencies, the receive antenna
A way to experimentally verify power ratio of 1.57, which is needs to be about the same "size," all
that this is a real effect is to have two 1.96 dB. This is what you would other things being equal. If you
dipoles in the field of, and broadside expect for the gain of a dipole over calculate received power based on
to, an incoming wave. If they are a an isotropic source. You can general- antenna gain, it will appear that
few wavelengths apart, they should ize by saying that if you know the lower frequencies have an advantage
each receive the same signal gain of an antenna, you can deter- and that there is a kind of loss
strength, as if the other dipole didn't mine the effective aperture as associated with higher frequencies.
exist. As they get within their follows: While this representation is inter-
effective aperture of each other, the nally consistent and can be used, it is
signal energy starts to become shared (Eq 17-1) important to remember that higher
between them, and the signal where G j is the power gain frequencies don't really have more
received by each is reduced. At some compared to an isotropic antenna. loss, just smaller antennas for the
.point each will receive half the This is also: same gain. I hope that makes sense .
power that they received when I'll take another stab at this when I
separated from each other. (Eq 17-2) discuss path loss in the next chapter!
Receiving Signals, the Other Side of the Coin 17-5

You may well wonder how it is the antenna being "tested." The That's all it takes to model an
that you can determine just how well signals induced in these other nearby antenna. To determine the results,
and in which directions an antenna conductors will be part of the final you may select the SWR tab and give
will radiate. This has been an age-old calculation. the program a range of frequencies
problem and traditionally was best The result can be an effective tool over which to determine the
settled on an antenna range. This is a to predict how a particular antenna antenna's impedance and SWR
large open space with appropriate will function, without having to (default is 50 Q, but you can select
towers and measuring equipment so actually construct and measure the other impedances). If you want a plot
that the actual directivity and gain of way it really works. As with any of the antenna pattern, you can select
an antenna can be measured. Of simulation, your mileage may vary, azimuth, elevation or even 3-D plots
course, there have always been but under most circumstances on the PLOT TYPE tab and then hit
theoretical methods to determine modeling provides at least a good the FF PLOT (far-field plot) to see
antenna performance, but they have starting point. the results. It takes less time to do it
often suffered from a lack of inclu- than talk about it!
sion of all of the important factors. EZNEC If you want to find out the effect
Key elements excluded have often One popular antenna-modeling of changing the length, you can
been the effects of ground reflections program is named EZNEC (pro- adjust the dimensions in the WIRES
and antenna interaction with other nounced easy-neck). The "NEC" part tab and run it again. Interested in
nearby objects, such as support of the name comes from the core finding out how it works at another
structures, or vehicle structure for calculation engine, Numerical frequency? Just enter another
mobile, airborne or shipboard Electromagnetics Code, a powerful frequency in the FREQUENCY tab
antennas. Fortunately, in our twenty- antenna analysis tool that forms the and hit FF PLOT again.
first century computer-oriented basis of a number of antenna analysis Of course, there are some refine-
society, we have software tools that programs. The "EZ" part of the name ments and details that make EZNEC
help avoid the need to climb towers! comes from the fact that this Win- even more useful, but I expect you
The performance of an antenna dows implementation is easy to use. will find out about them as you need
can be computed by dividing up a To use EZNEC, you start with an them. We will go through some
model of an antenna into a number antenna definition file (some sample examples in the next chapter.
of wire segments, and adding up the antenna models are supplied with the
radiation coming from each of the program). You enter in the physical Notes
segments, considering both magni- dimensions of your antenna in X, Y 1J. Kraus, W8JK (silent key), Anten-
tude and phase and the mutual and Z coordinates, specifying wire nas, First Edition, 1950, McGraw-
interaction with other segments. The size or diameter and picking a Hill Book Company, NY, 1950, pp
idea behind segmentation into small segment quantity (the basic version 50-54.
increments is that each is small has a limit of 500 segments) on the 2lbid, Figure 3-7, p 52.
enough so that the current leaving WIRES tab. On the SOURCES tab 3Basic and professional versions of
that segment is the same as the EZNEC are available from Roy
you indicate which wires will be
Lewallen, W7EL, at
current entering it. The program thus connected to sources, and the www.eznec.ccrn. A scaled down
determines the effects of each "mini location where the source connection version is supplied with The ARRL
antenna" at a distant location. Other will go in terms of percentage Antenna Book, 20th Edition,
structures can be modeled also, such distance from one end of the wire. available from the ARRL Bookstore
as metal towers, guy wires and other Pick the type of ground you want at order
antennas not actually connected to from the GROUND tab choices. number 9043.
17=6
1. Discuss an application in which a transmitting antenna with isotropic
directivity might be beneficial. Repeat for a highly directive antenna.
2. What is the maximum expected aperture of a dish antenna with a 10-
foot diameter? Repeat for a half-wave resonant dipole antenna at 5.34 MHz.
Discuss the results.
3. Discuss precautions needed to make sure a modeled antenna will have
results that will predict real-world antenna performance.
HP-CP-IV!Il'1lrJI Signals, the Other Side of the Coin 17-7

nfenn [5'
It's Field Day 2004 and some hams are testing their satellite antennas!
Dipole In Space 18-2

Down to The Dipole Model Over Real Ground 18-5
Transmission Lines 18-9
I have put together some EZNEC
models of some simple antennas to
serve two purposes. First, to show
how easy it is to use, and second to
illustrate some antenna principles that
I discussed in an abstract way earlier.
The first antenna I will model is a

horizontal half-wave dipole in free
space. I picked a frequency of
10.0 MHz (30 meters) for no particu-
lar reason. Fig 18-1 is the Wires
entry table that I made. Note that I
have picked this length so that the
antenna is resonant at 10.0 MHz. Dl.oads
While resonance isn't mandatory in DLines
an antenna, this truly represents a Free Space
"half-wave resonant dipole."
I selected a height (the Z coordi- Wire loss Copper
Units Feet
nate) of half a wavelength above Plot Type Elevetion
ground, which is 49.2 feet at Azimuth Angle ~3D Deg,
10.0 MHz. Note that in "free space" a Step Size 1 Deg,
ground height doesn't matter. But you Ref level DdBi
must ten EZNEC something-I could An SWR ZO 73 ohms
Desc 0 ptions
just as well have chosen zero feet for Gnd Wave Dist
free space, but I knew that later in the
modeling session I would change the
ground type to "real ground."
Next, I specified AWG #14 wire Fig 18~2-Main EZNEC screen for a so-meter dipole model.
for the diameter. I could have
specified this as a wire size (using the
# symbol) or entered the diameter in
inches, or mm, since you can set the
table up in metric or English units.
I selected a number of segments Source ~ 10
(51) rather arbitrarily. The program
5
SWR
2
[._-----~--~
~_._-----------
--~--~---- l._-·---·-----
1.5 -. _.~-~-
1.1
1
9.8 Freq MHz 10.2
lj~;.c!-lEntrv window for SWR 18-4-SWR measurement results for with cursor at
measurements. MHz.
18-2
will give a warning message if you
select a number of segments that
result in too small or too large a
segment length. Keeping in mind the
500 segment limit in EZNEC, one 10
way to gauge whether the segment
size is appropriate is to temporarily
5
double the number and see if the
SWR
result changes very much. If it
doesn't, then your original segment 3
number is likely to provide valid
results.
2
Now we've got a model, and the
EZNEC main screen should look like '--
1.5
~
Fig 18-2. By clicking the SWR ~~
button, you bring up the screen in ~ -------
1.1
~ .>:
Fig 18-3 on which you can specify the ~~ .i->
1
range and resolution you would like 9.8 Freq MHz 10.2
for an SWR plot. Fig 18-4 shows the Source s
ZO
1
73 ohms
plot examining the SWR around the U8RI·IS05

resonant frequency. Note that by
clicking the cursor on the frequency Fig 18-5-SWR measurement results using alternate Zo of 73 Q.
axis it shows the numerical data, here,
for 10 MHz. You could also select any
other frequency in the range. Note also
that I used this screen to "trim" the
antenna to be resonant (reactance close
to zero ohms). I made the dimensions : ..
~"..
longer if the reactance at 10.0 MHz v
\ V
were negative, and shorter for a Sourcetl 10
:/
I
positive reactance, until I got quite \
if
close to zero. Note also that my final !
5
length, 29.8929 feet on each side, is a il \ I
level of precision that works in the SWR
model, but is not realistic for a ruler 3

and wire cutters. A tenth of an inch is :\/
asking a lot in the real world! The
2
message is, the model is fine as far as
it goes, but don't let it result in
1.5
unrealizable situations.
If I were actually making an
antenna like this (and I have many 1.1
1
times!), I would use the model as a 9.5 Freq MHz 35
guide and start with perhaps an extra Source# 1
20 50 ohms
six inches of antenna length on each
side, raise the antenna to its operating
height temporarily, measure the SWR Fig 18-6-Wide range SWR measurements, with cursor at 30.5 MHz.
over the desired frequency range, and
then lower the antenna and shorten
the ends a little at a time until I had
the results I wanted.
Using EZNEC to Model Real Antennas 18-3

If you wanted to adjust the model
to indicate the SWR at a different Zo'
you merely change the AU SWR Zo
on the main EZNEC screen, for
example to the nominal 73 Q that the
antenna shows at resonance. See
Fig 18-5. You could also use the
model to calculate the SWR over a
wider frequency range. Just make
another pass and change the SWR
entry frequency limits. The results
are shown in Fig 18-6. This high-
lights the fact that most antenna
types have multiple resonances, as
seen at slightly above the third
harmonic of the 10 MHz 312-wave, 10 MHz
cursornz
"third harmonic" resonance at Gain
30.5 MHz. Some antennas take

advantage of this effect. For example,
hams often use a 40-meter dipole on USHHSD7
its third harmonic resonance at

15 meters. Fig 18-7-Azimuth pattern of dipole model in free space.
The antenna patterns of the free-
space dipole are shown in Fig 18-7
(azimuth) and Fig 18-8 (elevation).
The length of a radial line drawn
from the center of the plot to the
pattern at a particular angle deter-
mines the signal strength at that
angle, relative to the peak level of the
pattern. In the case of a dipole in free
space, the elevation pattern shown in
Fig 18-8 is constant all the way
around the antenna.
The elevation pattern shown for
the free-space dipole in Fig 18-7 is
typical of what we would expect of a
horizontal dipole in free space-the
typical "figure-S" pattern with 10 MHz
maximum radiation broadside to the CursorElev
Gain
antenna and no radiation from the

ends. As expected, the maximum
broadside radiation is about 2 dBi. UBRHIlOS
Fig is-S-Elevation pattern of dipole model in free space.
18-4 Chapter 18
The previous section dealt with an azimuth pattern at a 28° elevation may have interest in the signal at
ideal dipole in free space. While angle. Note that EZNEC allows you other angles. In this plot, EZNEC has
space is still pretty cheap, free space to specify any elevation angle for the selected the azimuth with the
is still really hard to find. Most azimuth plot. I selected the elevation strongest signal to show the detailed
dipoles are fabricated closer to the with the maximum signal, but you data at the bottom of the plot. As
earth! A feature of EZNEC is the
ability to easily move between
theoretical free space, theoretically
perfect ground (maybe an infinite
sheet of perfectly conducting gold)
and real ground. By just clicking on SourceIt 10
the Ground Type button on the main
EZNEC screen, you are offered a
choice. I have chosen "Real/High 5
Accuracy" in Fig 18-9. You can SWR

accept the EZNEC default ground 3
parameters of "Medium (0.005, 13)"
or insert actual parameters depending
on your soil conditions. 2 i------ ---.
In Fig 18-10, you see the resulting ~-
1.5 ~
SWR plot for this dipole over real
ground. While it has the same shape ----- ------- ----------
as the free space plot, notice that the 1.1
resonant frequency has shifted 1
9.8 Freq MHz 10.2
higher. This is a typical result Source e 1
zo
following the change of most 50 ohms
UBRH810
anything about an antenna and it's
one reason why many antennas have Fig 18-9-SWR of antenna. over real ground. Note shift in resonant
adjustable element lengths-to frequency compared to Fig 18-5.
compensate for real-world condi-
tions.
The elevation plot in Fig 18-11 is
very different from the same plot for
the free-space antenna. While Fig 18-
8 was uniform all around the an-
tenna, Fig 18-11 dramatically shows
Source" 10
the result of a reflected signal from
the earth below. For a horizontal
antenna, the reflection is out-of- 5
phase with the incident wave. At the SWR
half wave height specified, the 3
radiation reflected from the ground
reinforces the direct wave going
upward from the antenna at an 2 ~.. ----...
----....---------~
elevation angle of 28° with respect to
1.5
~ ~
the flat ground. Similarly the direct .---
wave and the out-of-phase reflected ------
wave cancel at the horizon (0° 1.1
elevation). In general, as the antenna 1
9.8 Freq MHz 10.2
is raised higher above the earth, the Soorce s 1
main radiation lobe is lowered, but it 10 50 ohms
UBR1·1810
never quite reaches the horizon.
Fig 18-12 provides a plot of the Fig 18-10-Free-space model changed to be over "real ground."

Fig 18-11-Elevation plot of -
antenna over real ground. * Total Field
o dB
Compare to free-space elevation
plot in Fig 18-8. At 28° elevation,
the gain is 5.4 dB higher than the
free-space antenna, due to the
ground-reflection effect.
10 MHz
Fig 18-12-Azimuth plot of dipole

antenna 112 A. over real ground.
10 MHz
oneorAz
Gain
Fig 18-13-Azimuth plot of

antenna 11z A. over real ground. In * Total Field
this view the cursor was moved to
45° off the main beam, to show the
gain at that point.
10 MHz
18-6 Chapter 18
18~14-Wires table for simulated screen-reflector antenna.
with all EZNEC plots, merely

clicking on another point in the plot
shows detailed numeric data for that
File 30 M .25.. ...,.1 ht refl.EZ
point. In I have selected
Frequency 10 MHz.
the data for 45° off axis, just by \·'·/avelength ~38.3571 ft
clicking on that point of the curve. Wires E; 'Ii/ire;;:, 500 seoments
This is a very powerful tool! Sources 1 Source
Loads al.oeds
Trans lines aLines
Ground Type RealiHigh,b,ccur acy
It is easy to add in other conduct- Grm.md Descrip 1 Medium [0.005, 13)
ing objects, such as electrical wiring, Wire Loss Copper
Units Feet
pipes or other antennas. Usually the Plot Type .6.zimuth
segment limit of 500 in the basic Elevation Angle 28 Deg.
version determines how much you Step Size 1 Deg.
can actually insert into your model. Ref Level adBi
AU SWR ZO T3 ohms
The EZNEC pro version can handle
Dese Options
up to 20,000 segments, but it costs Gnd Wave Dist
significantly more than basic version.
As an example, I have attempted
to model the "billboard antenna"
shown in Fig 11-13 in Chapter 11 by 18-15-Main EZNEC screen for screen-reflector antenna. Note that
maximum of 500 segments is now in use.
using a number of rods in place of
the solid screen shown. This is a
fairly common implementation at
INF
lower frequencies, where a solid
reflecting plate would be impractical.
Fig 18-14 is the Wires table of a 10
five-wire implementation of such a
screen reflector array. I have made
5
each wire 50% longer than the
antenna element and spaced them SVVR
vertically above and below the 3

antenna center at a spacing of 1/ 4 A
from the antenna. --
18-15 shows the new EZNEC
2
-------- :------------ ~---
----------
main screen. In case you didn't count
1.5
them up, it shows that I have just hit
the 500 segment limit, and I used
1.1
fewer segments on the most distant 1
rods. As you might expect by now, 9.8 Freq IVlHz 10.2
the SWR plot in Fig 18-16 for this 1
50 ohms
dipole plus reflector array is different

than it is for the dipole without a of screen-reflector antenna. The 11"IJ"l1"llOl''!I!ll!1lil''''O is
reflector. The resonant frequency has most antenna changes.
EZNEC to Model Real Antennas 18-7

shifted back down and the imped-
ance at resonance is higher.
Fig 18-17 shows the elevation
pattern. Note that unlike the dipole,
which had a symmetrical pattern
between front to back, this antenna
has a definite front that's different
from the back. In fact there is about
2 dB more signal going towards the
front than from the dipole by itself,
and a lot less going to the back.
Fig 18-18 shows the azimuth pattern
and indicates on the left side of the
data that we do indeed have a "front-
to-back ratio" of 7.44 dB. This is just
what we would like from such an 10 MHz
antenna-with more of the signal CursorElev
Gain
going where we want it, and less

going where we don't. I didn't spend
any time trying to optimize this !JERi·iS17
antenna; however, I would expect a
real billboard antenna to have a front Fig 18-17-Elevation plot of screen-reflector antenna. Note that the front
to back ratio closer to 30 dB and a lobe is more than 2 dB stronger than that from the dipole in Fig 18-11.
gain of at least 3 dB, so that if I
could have modeled more wires it
would be closer to a real solid
reflector.
It's also important to note that a
single wire about 5% longer than the
antenna element and spaced about
0.15 A behind it would result in far
better forward gain and front-to-back
ratio than our simulated billboard at
the design frequency. I'll leave that
as an exercise for the student. The
billboard, on the other hand, will
work well over a wide range of
frequencies, through and including
the second resonance, while the
resonant parasitic reflector formed 10 MHz
cursor Az
by the single wire will provide Gain
directivity only over a relatively

narrow frequency range. Each type
of antenna has its own most appro-
priate applications.
Fig 18-18-Azimuth plot of reflector antenna. The front-to-back ratio is
7.32 dB.
18-8 Chapter 18
'1 ~ _ ( " r.;o ~- - ~;
&&JWil!\ifHM Ii#8JI> , ~, >' •••• " , ' , / . ,'" .'
; C 0 ~~ " ~~~h=~_r ~~,"~~"_~- l ~ _ - :_-;: __ ~~:c~_i>(;r::""~~~;;p~r~- -~-_ =- ~:~-,
As I mentioned previously, usually

11
the antenna and radio are not in y !OO
exactly the same place. There are

some notable exceptions, particularly
in portable hand-held systems and
various microwave communications
x 12
and radar systems. But in most other
cases, optimum performance requires (A)
the transmitter and receiver to be
located some distance from the
antenna.
The component that makes the
connection between the transmitter
or receiver and its antenna is called a (B)
transmission line. Transmission lines UBR1-1819
are used in places besides radio
systems-for example, power Fig 18-19-Parallel wire (A) and coaxial transmission lines (8).
distribution lines are a kind of
transmission line, as are telephone
wires and cable TV connections.
In addition to just transporting A B c
signals, transmission lines have some
important properties that we will
need to understand to allow us to
make proper use of them. This
section will briefly discuss the key
parameters.
Characteristic Impedance
UBR1-1820
A transmission line generally is
composed of two conductors, either
parallel wires such as we see on Fig 18-20-Lumped constant equivalent of an ideal transmission line.
power transmission poles, or one
wire surrounding the other, as in
coaxial cable TV wire. The two whose value is equal to the square 600 Q. What this means to us as
configurations are shown in root of LIe. radio people, is that if we have an
Fig 18-19. Either type has a certain If the far end of the line is termi- antenna that has an impedance of
inductance and capacitance per unit nated in a resistive load of the same 50 .0 and a radio transmitter de-
length and can be modeled as shown value as the resistor above, all the signed to drive a 50 Q load, we can
in Fig 18-20, with the values power sent down the line will be connect the two with any length of
determined by the physical dimen- delivered to the load. This is called a 50 Q coaxial cable, and the transmit-
sions and properties of the insulating matched condition. The value of the ter will think it is right next to the
material between the conductors. resistor in this scenario is called the antenna. The antenna will receive
If a voltage or signal is applied to characteristic impedance of the most (see next section) of the
such a network, there will be an transmission line, and is perhaps the transmitted power and all is well with
initial current flow independent of most important parameter associated the world!
what's on the far end of the line, but a transmission line. Common coaxial
based only on the Land C values. transmission lines have characteristic
The initial current will be the result impedances (referred to as Zo) The ideal transmission line model
of the source charging the shunt between 50 and 100 .0, while shown in Fig 18-20 passes all input
capacitors through the series induc- balanced, two-wire transmission power to a matched load at the
tors and will be the same as if the lines are found with characteristic output. A real transmission line also
source were connected to a resistor impedances in the range of 70 to has loss resistance associated with

the wire conductors and some loss of line is not matched. Velocity of Propagation
signal due to the nature of the The "open-wire" line shown in Signals in air-dielectric transmis-
insulating material. As transmission Fig 18-19A consists of two parallel sion lines propagate at almost the
lines are made larger, the resistance wires with air dielectric and infre- speed of light. Other dielectric
is reduced, and as the dielectric quent spacers. Such a line typically materials cause the signals traveling
material gets closer to low-loss air, has a characteristic impedance of in transmission lines to slow down,
the dielectric losses are reduced. The 600 Q. While the losses of such a just as we observe with light rays
skin effect causes currents to travel line are low, they only work well if traveling through water. In many
nearer to the surface of the conduc- spaced away from metal objects and cases, this is not a matter of concern,
tors at higher frequencies, and the if they are not coiled up. While since we often only care that the
effective loss thus increases as the coaxial cables have higher inherent signals get out the other end.
frequency is increased. losses, all the signal is kept within However, there are some exceptions.
Fig 18-21 provides some real the outer shield conductor. Coax The velocity can be shown to be
world examples of the losses as a cables can be run in conduit, coiled reduced by a factor of one over the
function of frequency for the most up, placed next to other wires and so square root of the dielectric constant
common types of transmission line. are much more convenient to work relative to air. Some cable specifica-
Note that the loss increases linearly with. Sometimes a long straight run tions provide the relative velocity as
with length and the values are for a of low-loss open-wire line will be a fraction of the speed of light. Most
length of 100 feet. The losses transformed to 50 Q at the each end, engineering handbooks include
shown are for transmission lines with coaxial cable connected to the tables of properties of materials. For
feeding loads matched to their ZOo antenna end and to the radio end to example, polyethylene is a common
As will be discussed shortly, losses take advantage of the benefits of both cable insulating material and has a
can increase significantly if the types of transmission lines. relative dielectric constant of 2.26.
Cable Attenuation, dB per Hundred Feet
5 6 7 8 910 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 7080 100 150 200 250 300 400 500 600 800 1000
Frequency (MHz)
18-21-Loss of some typical transmission lines, in dB per 100 feet, as a functi0 ~f fre~ue~cy. The RG-58
transmission lines are 50 n polyethylene insulated coaxial cable sligh~ly I.ess ~han 1nI~ inch ~n diameter. The RG-
8 through RG-216 lines are 50 and 70 n polyethylene insulated transmission lines With a diameter. somewhat
less than 112 inch. The "hardllne'' types have a foam dielectric that has properties close to that of air.
18-10
The square root of 2.26 is 1.5, so the
10
propagation velocity in polyethylene
insulated coaxial cable is 3/1.5 x 108 8
= 2 x l O'm/sec. 6
Some applications actually use 5
coaxial cables to provide delayed lfJ
Q.l 4
>
signals in pulse applications, and S
ro
3
having a way to accurately predict OJ
c
is
the delay just by knowing the cable c
.;g 2
characteristics and measuring the (f)
'>,
.0
length of the cable can save a lot of ""(J
Q.l
u:
lab time. In the radio world, I have m
:::J
U
discussed previously about driving co
1.0
""(J
antenna elements in a particular E 0.8
lfJ
phase relationship to obtain a desired u:
o
-l 0.6
antenna pattern. If a transmission coC 0.5
line is used to provide the two o
:E
""(J 0.4
signals of different phase, we need to ""(J
«
know how fast the signal propagates 0.3
in order to determine the effective
line length. 0.2
As we will discuss in the next
section, transmission lines of
particular electrical lengths can be 0.1
used as impedance transformers. 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 8 10
However, unless we know the
propagation velocity we can't Line Loss in dB When Matched
UBR1-1822
determine the proper length.
Fig 18-22-Additional loss of a transmission line when mismatched. This
lines loss needs to be added to the matched-line loss in 18-21 for
mismatched lines.
So far I have discussed transmis-
sion lines feeding terminations
matched to their characteristic of complex impedances that will also additional loss for a mismatched line
impedance. If that is not the case- have a 2:1 SWR, by the way, but the that needs to be added to the
that is, there is a mismatch between computation is easier with resistive matched loss in Fig 18-21. As is
the characteristic impedance of the loads. evident, the combination of matched
transmission line and the load at its There are some interesting special loss and high SWR can result in
end- the voltage-current relationship cases with a mismatched line. For dramatic increases in overall loss.
at the load will reflect the impedance example, the load impedance, This is why antenna designs that
of the load-not the characteristic resistive or complex, repeats every don't use matched transmission lines
impedance of the line. Further, along lh A along the line. The impedance often use air-dielectric lines that
the line the voltage and current will goes to the opposite extreme at odd have inherently low matched-line
vary with distance from the load. multiples of a 1/ 4 A. For example, a losses.
Thus the impedance presented to the 25-Q load would get transformed to
transmitter end will be neither that of 100 Q in a 1/4 or a 3/4 Alength of
the far end ZL' nor the Zo of the 50-Q transmission line. This effect 1J. Kraus, W8JK (silent key), Anten-
transmission line itself. The imped- can be used to our advantage if we nas, First Edition, 1950, McGraw-
ance at the transmitter end of the line wish to transform impedances at a Hill Book Company, NY, 1950, pp
can be knowing the ZL' the specific frequency. 50-54.
2lbid, Figure 3-7, p 52.
Zo and the electrical characteristics of A generally less desirable effect of 3Basic and professional versions of
the its length. mismatched lines, however, is that EZNEC are available from Roy
The ratio of maximum on the losses increase. This is easy to Lewallen, W7EL, at
the line to minimum on the understand. If the voltages and www.eznec.com. A scaled down
line is called the standing wave ratio currents along the line are higher version is supplied with The ARRL
or SWR. A matched line has an because of a mismatch between the Antenna Book, 20th Edition,
SWR of 1:1. A 50-Q line terminated load and the line's characteristic available from the ARRL Bookstore
at order
with a 25 or 100-Q load will have an impedance, you can expect losses to number 9043.
SWR of 2: 1. There is a whole family increase as well. Fig 18-22 shows the
EZNEC to Model Real Antennas 18-11

1. Discuss the difference in the behavior of antennas near the ground and
those in free space. Why must we understand about the ground conditions to
make a usable model?
2. If you want to make a 1/4 A section of RG-213 at 10 MHz how long
would you make it, assuming that it has a velocity of propagation of 66% of
that in air?
3. A 1000 W transmitter at 15 MHz is feeding a matched load through
200 feet of 50-0 RG-8 transmission line. How much power reaches the
antenna? Repeat if the frequency is 150 MHz. Repeat both cases if the
antenna has an SWR of 3:1. [Hint: Look at Figs 18-21 and 18-22.]
18-12 Chapter 18
r'lriOTF1DF ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 19=2
......................................................................... 19=5
All This 19=6
,..... '.'r;,.-'''"' ~a •••••••••• " a ••••••• 19-7
In the previous chapters, we have power delivered to the receiver and in refraction that is more significant
been talking about the various pieces then comparing it to the combination the closer we are to the earth. This
and processes of radio systems. A of the received noise power and the results in a bending of the path to
good understanding of each element internal receiver noise power. The extend it beyond the geometric
is important to make proper use of result is a signal-to-noise ratio, horizon, one of those times that
them. The next step is to put them usually abbreviated SNR. Each type nature helps us! The additional
together into a system that will meet of service has an SNR requirement distance in most parts of the world is
a set of user requirements. As an for satisfactory operation, although it about the same as if the earth were
individual who has spent decades as is often possible to use degraded 413 the size of the actual earth.
a telecommunications and radar operational capability at a lower 19-1 shows the geometry and
systems engineer, I have to believe SNR, especially during emergency defines the relationships.
that this is "where the rubber meets situations. of If we don't have a smooth surface
the road," to quote an old advertising SNR requirements are shown in to deal with, either due to natural
line. Table 19-1. surface irregularities or other objects,
The good news is that we don't we must clear those obstacles as well
have to be systems engineers to if as the natural horizon. In most areas
understand the issues, but with the of the world, there are topological
knowledge we've gathered in the The analysis of LOS maps indicating ground contours.
preceding chapters, we will be able implies that there is a clear path They may need to be appended with
to understand how the pieces fit between the two end points. Some- building construction details. It also
together in order to accomplish the times, it can be obvious-you go to should be kept in mind that if you
job we need. In this chapter, we will one end-point and look towards the don't own the land, or at least the air
cover line-of-sight communications other end-point. If you can see it, it's rights, you may want to keep your
systems. In the next, we will extend a LOS path! In other cases, there eye on construction activity after the
the discussion to longer distance may be a need for a way to predict link goes in!
communication systems. the distance without being there, or It's not enough that the signal just
because of visual obstacles. The clears the surface, or the obstruction.
most straightforward case is the one If it just cleared, the signal would
restricted by the curvature of the refract or reflect in strange ways
A very frequently encountered and earth. This would apply to an over- resulting in potentially destructive
important radio system configuration water path or a path over flat land interference and not as much signal
is that making use of a line-of-sight without obstructions. would reach the receiver, as we
(LOS) radio link. What we generally The radio horizon and even the would expect. To have enough space
mean by a LOS link is a straight-line visual horizon are actually farther so that the signal is not impacted, we
optical path (you could hit the than we would think. Wave propaga- should design to leave a vertical
destination with a searchlight, for tion through the atmosphere results distance above the obstruction at
example). This kind of path is not
influenced ionospheric propaga-
tion effects, except when operating Table 19-1
earth-to-space communications. And
even then, this must be at frequencies
above the critical frequency, dis- Signal type Typical Minimum SNR
cussed in Chapter 15, to get through Relatively snow-free analog television signal 50 dB
the ionosphere. Once we complete
Toll quality voice telephone service 30 dB
our discussion of LOS links, we will
move to longer distance All Tactical voice communication 12 dB
the elements of LOS systems apply Non-error corrected data system 30 dB
to the other types; they just add in
Data system including strong error correction 10 dB
additional complications.
The analysis of an LOS system Morse telegraphy with highly trained operator 0 dB
involves adding up all the gains and "These are not hard and fast rules, but are based on the author's experience.
losses, determining the resultant Each individual system should document its specific operational requirements.
19-2
least equal to ~Adld2 / d , where d j is generate the needed ERP. attenuation factors include rainfall,
the distance from end one to the .. Path loss-The signal loss birds and aircraft flying through
obstruction, d2 is the distance from between transmitter and receiver the path. Sometimes wind deflec-
end two and d is the total path can include a number of factors. tion of antennas and other mecha-
length, all in the same units as the First, for a LOS system, is the nisms result in signal fluctuation or
wavelength. Fig 19-2 shows the reduction in signal per unit area fade. Note that some of the factors
geometry involved when there is an based on path distance, as will be come into play at different fre-
obstruction to the line of sight path described later. In addition, there quencies. For example, rainwater
between two stations. may be other factors that tend to absorbs a significant amount of
reduce the signal, some constant radiation in the 12 GHz band, and
and some variable. Constant almost none at HE
Fig 19-3 shows a block diagram of attenuation factors inc!ude .. Antenna aperture-The signal that
the elements in a radio communica- obstacles in the path such as is intercepted by the receive
tions system, while Fig 19-4 shows buildings, other structures and antenna aperture is converted from
key parameters in the relationships vegetation as well as the effect of a wave front to an electrical signal
between the elements in a communi- reflections that can add or subtract on the feed line. As noted previ-
cation system. The key parameters from the direct signal. Variable ously, the effective aperture can be
are described below:
e Transmitter power output-this is
the average or peak power - -E. '=: Distan

(depending on system type) - _ceroR
d - _adioH .
leaving the transmitter. - or/zan
.. Feed line loss-In general the

transmitter is located some
distance from the antenna. The
transmission system has finite loss
and this will reduce the power
delivered to or from the antenna.
.. Antenna gain-The antenna design
may focus the energy in the
direction of the receiver. If so, the r' =4/3 R
effect is to increase the signal R = 6.371 x 106 Meters
launched towards the receiver. In d =-J( h+r' )2- ( r' )2
addition, ground reflection may Center of Earth
add or subtract from the signal UBR1-1901
leaving at the desired take-off

angle . 19-1-Distance to the horizon for a 4h-Earth radius line-of-sight path.
.. Effective radiated power (ERP)-
This is a parameter that combines
the previous three. As noted in the
previous chapter, a receiving
system can't tell the difference
-- --
d, , . . - - - - - - Required Clearance
between a 100 W signal from an

isotropic source and a 50 W signal
transmitted from a system with a
3 dB gain antenna pointed at the
receiver. Thus from the point of
view of the system design, it is all
the same to the far end, whichever
is deployed. In other the / r' =4/3R
r-:--.,..-,-,...,..
signal that enters the path towards c =
the receiver can be generated by d = d,+d 2
d, =-J"""(h'-",-+r"""--(o+-cl-"'?:---('-"r"""")2:4
high power and a low gain antenna
d2 =-J( h 2+r'-(o+cl? - ( r' )2
or low power and a high gain
antenna and have the same effect if Center of Earth
the antenna is accurately pointed. UBR1-1902
Thus the design can specify
a required ERP and let the trans- 19-2-Distance to the horizon for a 4h-Earth radius line-of-sight path,
mitter site decide how to but this time with an obstruction in the way.
Communications "'U'~T8:U"il"l~ 19-3

r ))))))*l~fff( (((((l'
determined both for antenna
systems with an evident aperture,
such as a parabolic dish antenna, or
a less obvious antenna type such as
a thin dipole.
Transmit Antenna Receive Antenna e Feed-line loss-The same type of
transmission line loss encountered

Antenna Feed Antenna Feed at the transmitter also happens at
System System the receiver. In the case of the
receiver, in addition to the loss of
t ~ signal, there is an amount of noise
generated by the equivalent
Radio Transmitter Radio Receiver resistance of the loss.
.. Signal and noise power into the
t t receiver-There are a number of

noise sources picked up by the
Information Source Information receive antenna along with the
Encoder Decoder/User signal. Different sources dominate
at different frequencies, but they all
UBR1-1903
contribute. The ratio of signal
Fig 19-3-Block diagram showing elements of a radio communications power to noise power into the
system. receiver consists of the received
signal power divided by the
received noise power. It is referred
Effective Radiated
to as the input SNR.
e Signal and noise power out of the
Power ~
receiver-All stages of the receiver
r))))*h±tLU~
contribute noise to the output as
the signal passes through. This
noise is in addition to the noise
Received Noise
entering the receiver with the
signal. The ratio of signal power to
Transmit Antenna Receive Antenna noise power leaving the receiver
Gain Gain/Effective Aperture
consists of the received signal
Antenna Feed ~eed-Line Feed-Lin~ Antenna Feed power times the receiver gain
System Loss Loss System divided by the received noise
~ Transmitter Receiver ~ Receiver power times the receiver gain plus
Input Signal ...o:::~-- ...o:z:--Input Noise
I ~ Output Power the internal receiver noise. This is
...--_1.......-........ Power Power
Receiver referred to as the output SNR and
Radio Transmitter Radio Receiver ...o:z:--Generated Noise is always lower than the input
Power
Receiver ~ Receiver SNR. At frequencies below the
Output Signal ~ ...o:z:--OutputNoise middle of the HF range, for most
Power Power
receivers, the input and output
Information Source Information SNRs are almost the same,
Encoder Decoder/User
however as frequencies increase
UBR1-1904 the internal noise generally
becomes more significant.
Fig 19-4-Key parameters of a radio communications system.
19-4 Chapter 19
Yet another topic heading with f/278 MHz, and conversely. In milliwatts, you get milliwatts.
quotes! Path loss refers to the addition, any antenna gain above an To determine the value in decibels,
reduction in signal strength as a isotropic will increase the received we compute
signal travels from one location to power by the amount of the gain.
another. A real loss, as I see it, is a Thus we could restate the received (278/fi
Path factor (dB) = 10l0g 2
reduction in signal level due to power as a frequency function as 4rcR
power being dissipated in a resis- follows: (Eq 19-3)
tance or equivalent lossy medium.
That can be part of path loss, as in a . (278/£)2
Received Power = PERP G 2 Remembering the rules for
signal with a path through the 4rcR logarithms and squared values, we
ionosphere, or through a building, or (Eq 19-1) get:
over lossy ground. On the other
hand, a big part of what is considered We can define the path factor as Path factor (dB) = 20 log 278 - 20
path loss is the signal reduction the fraction to be applied to the log f - (10 log 4n + 20 log R).
resulting from the larger surface area transmitted ERP to determine the
of the sphere surrounding the source. received signal power by dividing Solving for constants, we have
This was shown first in general terms both sides by the transmitted PERP and 48.9 - 20 log f -10.99 - 20 log R,
in Fig 15-1, and with the detail of leaving the antenna gain to be treated which is
power relationships now shown in as a separate factor: Path factor (dB) =
Fig 19-5. This type of loss is often 37.89 - 20 log f - 20 log R
called "spreading loss" because as (278/fi (Eq 19-4)
the signal spreads out as it travels Path Factor
2 To find path loss, we change the
4rcR
away from the source there is less of signs to get a term to subtract from
(Eq 19-2)
it in any receiver's area of reception. the transmitted power:
Path loss is often shown in 4'
where f is the frequency in MHz and
graphical form as a function of Path loss (dB) = -37.89 + 20 log f
R is the range in meters. Note that
frequency. This is a convenient way + 20 log R (Eq 19-5)
the power units are no longer
of expressing it to allow subsequent
calculations to be made based on specified, if you use watts for PERP'
you get watts received. If you use with f in MHz and R in meters.
antenna gain (rather than the antenna
size), especially when the same
antenna is used for both transmission
and reception, as is usually the case Sphere with
in two-way radio and radar systems. Radius R Meters to
Recieve Antenna
Just keep in mind that lower frequen-
cies don't have an advantage here if
v:
the physical size of the receive Effective Antenna
antenna (and hence its aperture)
remains the same. Transmitter
In Chapter 17, we noted that the
effective aperture of an isotropic
radiator, or receptor was 0.86 'A,2
square meters. At a particular
Effective Radiated
frequency, 0.86 'A,2 will equal Power in Direction
1 square meter and at that frequency, of Reciever: ERP =
the received power AP/(4nR2 ) to an PWatts
Power Received at Range R
isotropic antenna will just equal By Antenna with Aperture A =
P/(4nR 2 ) W (for R also in meters). (A P)/(4TTR 2)W
Since 'A, = clf, that frequency can be
found by solving 0.86 (c/f)? = 1 for f.
This magic frequency is about UBR1-1905
278 MHz. Any change to a higher
frequency will result in a received Fig 19-5-Geometric reduction in received signal resulting from receiver
power reduced by the square of being at a distance R from the source.
19-5
It's possible to perform the system line needs to be: 150 dBW + 50 dB trum. While each type of noise
calculations using the various factors =-100 dBW. The signal at the top of changes level and relative impor-
and conversions between units as the transmission line must be 2 dB tance depending on the frequency
you go, but the use of decibels is a stronger or -98 dBW, and the signal range (as discussed previously in
real natural here. If you haven't at the antenna can be 12 dB weaker Chapter 11) within the bandwidth of
become comfortable with decibels because of the antenna gain, or a particular receiver it can be
yet it's worth the trouble to do so -110 dBW. considered relatively constant with
before we go further. This is because Looking at the transmitter end of change in frequency. What this
all the gains and losses are generally the link, the ERP of the transmitter means is that the wider the band-
expressed in dB and it becomes just a station must be 108.1 dB stronger width of a receiver, the higher the
matter of adding them up. It also due to the path factor to have the received noise power. Noise level can
avoids working with very large or required signal at the receive be expressed in such terms as
very small numbers, a common antenna. That means that the ERP microvolts per Hz or picowatts per
source of mistakes. must be -110 + 108.1 or -2 dBW. Hz of receiver bandwidth. By
Since we have the same 12 dB multiplying this value times the
Example-a 1-GHz antenna gain and 2 dB feed line loss, receiver's noise bandwidth (usually
Microwave link the transmitter must put out the 6 dB bandwidth), the total noise
Let's go through an example of a -16 dBW. Now we can convert back power can be determined.
LOS (line-of-sight) I-GHz micro- to power and find that the required In this design example, we could
wave link connecting two buildings transmitter power is just 5.5 mW. have expressed the internal noise
20 km apart. The owners of the In a real system design problem, level in terms of pW1Hz, and
business were fortunate that their the parameters would not be all knowing the bandwidth of the
offices were on the ends of a line-of- specified so neatly. Some would have receiver (hopefully equal to that
sight path. This happens more often to be converted from other units, required to carry the signal informa-
in some places than others. The link however, the principles remain the tion), we could solve the problem.
problem can be stated in a number of same. In addition, while we have The number I picked in the earlier
different ways, but let's assume some allowed for fading, we have not example might correspond to the
specifications, and assume that the provided any allowance for equip- noise power in a not-too-fancy
receiver's internal noise is what ment aging or degradation. A typical receiver designed for a 48-kHz FDM
dominates at this frequency: private microwave system might multiplex group as described in
1. Equipment parameters have a transmitter with a power Chapter 10. If we wanted to upgrade
@ Receiver internal noise power: output of 1 W. The problem can be to carry a digital 1.5 Mbps data
-150 dBW recast into, "how much extra margin stream (a common digital multiplex-
@ Antenna Gain (T and R): 12 dBi do I have if I buy that kind of ing standard from your phone
@ Feed line loss: 2 dB equipment?" or "do I need to pay company, designed for 24 channel
* Transmitter power: TBD extra for a fancy, high-gain operation and called a Tl), to carry
2. Operational Parameters antenna?" both voice and data instead of the
,,20 km path factor @ 1 GHz: 12 analog channels in the FDM
108.1 dB (from Eq 19-4) More group, we might need a bandwidth of
"Required SNR:30 dB Our example above assumed a 4 MHz instead of 48 kHz.
@ Required fade margin: 20 dB specific power level for internal Since the bandwidth would
noise in the receiver. While noise can increase by 4000/48, or by a factor of
Assuming the same antenna and easily be expressed in that form, it 83.3, the noise power would increase
feed system at each end, what is the will have a value only for a specified by the same amount, or a bit less
required transmitter power to meet bandwidth. It is important to under- than 20 dB. We would now need to
the design requirements? Let's start stand this relationship because it is increase our transmit power require-
at the receiver. We will need to one of the fundamental aspects of ments from 5.5 mW to 458 mW. Our
design for a SNR of 50 dB to have system design. margin for birds nesting in the dish
our required SNR in the presence of Whether the dominant noise has been reduced significantly. Note
a 20 dB fade from migrating birds. source is internal or external, most that for this to happen, we would
That means that the received signal noise sources are distributed across a have to change a filter in the receiver
at the bottom end of the transmission wide range of the frequency spec- to establish the bandwidth. We get no
19-6 Chapter 19
advantage with our nan-ow band
system if we buy "upgradeable"
radios with the 4 MHz filter already
1. What is the minimum clearance of a 30-mile I-GHz link with the
in place and just use 48 kHz of
obstruction 1 mile from terminal one? (Hint, watch your unitsl)
bandwidth. The noise we receive is
dependent on the receiver design, not 2. Compute the maximum LOS path length for two stations with 100-meter
the bandwidth we choose to use. By high towers over a seawater path (at high tide). Assume an operating fre-
matching the receiver bandwidth to quency of 1 GHz. (Hint 1: solve first with a guess at required clearance then
the spectrum of the transmitted redo based on the distances found. Hint 2: the distance in Fig 19-1 is for one
signal we will optimize the SNR, all tower to the horizon, the other distance to the horizon from the other side is
other things staying the same. the same.)
3. Redo the I-GHz example if the fade margin needs to be 40 dB.
1n~::l)=iLii=~~I(mt Communications ..,;..... '1".", ......... 1

.-
o
A line-of-sight radio link is limited lengthen the path is to interconnect In many cases A, Band C are all
in distance by the geometry of the multiple point-to-point LOS links to cities with telephone users. In such a
configuration. Each fixed link must make a that extends between case, the configuration is modified to
be analyzed to determine if natural or the desired end-points. 20-1 that shown in 20-2. This is called
man-made obstructions in the path shows such a with one an add-drop relay and adds a pair of
will limit communications. An intermediate location. In this case multiplexers, one on each side of the
assessment of the sort described in cities A and C have a need for station. This configuration adds the
the last chapter is used to establish telephone connections between them, capability to provide telephone lines
the radio parameters needed to but don't have a LOS path that will between cities A and B and between
determine if the path is useable with reach all the way. Because each cities Band C in addition to those
reasonably tall towers. Then the have a LOS path to the same moun- going between A and C. All three
analysis is completed to determine tain between a station stations are now terminal stations.
the ERP required to provide the can be installed there to receive Until fiber optic links became
desired signal to noise ratio. Unfortu- signals from A and retransmit them dominant in the 1990s, the US was
nately, it is often necessary to to city C, and vice versa. Note that connected by multiple strings of
communicate further than the LOS while the terminal stations at A and microwave links to provide telephone
path distance and other techniques C need multiplex equipment as well service from coast to coast. Major
must be used to enable communica- as radio gear, the station just cities would have at least two such
tion over that longer range. needs to have two sets of radio links to the next typically 20 to
equipment and a connection between 30 miles distant in opposite direc-
them at baseband. This reduces tions, with some major hubs having
capital expense and maintenance both north-south and east-west
The most straightforward way to complexity and cost. connectivity, tying together the many
UBR1-2001
City A CityC
Remote Mountain Top B
20-1-Two LOS fixed links interconnected a baseband station.
20-2
UBR1-2002
LOS A-B
CityC
LOS B-C
Fig 20-2-Two LOS fixed links interconnected through a drop-insert relay station.
paths that covered the country. the type of signaling employed. A digitally encoded voice system, there
In addition to AT&T, the predomi- system of the type shown in Fig 20-1 is an equivalent "noise" introduced
nant US long distance carrier, at least, has a certain output SNR as the into the system as each voice sample
until deregulation in 1984, other baseband signal leaves the first is encoded into a digital word. This
carriers such as Mel (Microwave receiver. If it is an analog multiplex is due to the fact that, however small
Communication Incorporated) had system, that SNR becomes the input the size of the least significant bit,
large domestic microwave networks. SNR to the next link, which adds its the sample must be encoded exactly
Fiber has largely replaced such own noise. As a consequence, if both as a 0 or 1, but is actually somewhere
microwave radio connections in the paths have similar SNR, the output in between. This is similar to
US, although in areas where terrain is of the second link will have twice the "rounding error" in decimal systems.
hostile, it still is an attractive choice. noise power, or a SNR degraded by The difference between the actual
The military and emergency manage- 3 dB. The noise of each link adds as value and the value of the number
ment teams are equipped to roll in such a signal goes across the country, representing it acts just like noise
truck-mounted shelters containing and thus to achieve a defined SNR, and has the name-quantizing error
microwave, multiplex and portable the SNR of each individual link or quantizing noise.
antennas to establish multi-channel needs to be much higher than the A benefit of this type of digital
voice and data system connectivity in final desired result, so that the encoding is that as long as a received
short order anywhere in the world combined SNR will meet that signal is sufficiently above the noise
when they are needed. Your author specification. In the days in which to allow a determination of whether
spent a few years, many years ago, as this was the most common type of each bit is a zero or a one, the only
a soldier serving as a shift leader at long-haul telephone system, a noise will be the quantizing noise
US Army microwave stations in listener could immediately tell if she introduced in the encoding process at
Germany. were receiving a local or long- the first terminal. This continues
distance call based on the back- through any number of relays, as long
What Happens to ground noise level. as we can detect the correct bit value
Performance in a Relayed Today it's different, largely and regenerate a new pulse train. If
System? because most signaling and multi- we decode the audio and then re-
Good question! Unfortunately, it plexing is performed by digital, encode it, we will introduce addi-
has a multipart answer depending on rather than analog, systems. With a tional quantizing error at each step.
Communications Systems-Going the Extra Mile 20-3

A system with a similar looking the repeater receiver is fed to the these concepts is to use point-to-
diagram, but with different sets of microphone input of the repeater point links to extend the range of
applications, is a repeater used to transmitter. Most repeaters are mobile stations. Picture a microwave
extend the reach of vehicle-to- designed not to transmit unless the LOS link located on the same
vehicle communications systems. receiver is receiving an input signal. mountaintop as the repeater station,
Such systems, whether public A carrier operated relay (COR) just discussed. When the repeater
service, utility vehicles or Amateur monitors the receiver AGC voltage receiver receives a signal, it not only
Radio operations, tend to be single- and turns on the transmitter when a turns on the local repeater transmit-
channel, push-to-talk (PTT), half- signal comes in that is strong enough ter, but also passes an audio signal
duplex, FM radio systems operated to relay. down one channel of the microwave
in the various VHF and UHF bands In some systems special tones are multiplexer to the next mountain.
allocated to their service. used to restrict repeater operation Along with the audio is a signal
A key difference between a only to stations sending the special indicating that the COR line of the
repeater system and the previous tone signal, which is typically much repeater has been activated. At the
relay network is that the latter needs lower in frequency than voice next mountain, the microwave
to support wideband multi-channel communications audio. receiver's remote keyed channel is
communications in both directions tied to a repeater at that mountain
simultaneously. On the other hand, Trunked Systems and operates the COR of that
the repeater receives signals from A kind of combined application of repeater. Thus, a car within range of
either, but not both, vehicle stations
and retransmits to the whole region
on a different frequency, as shown in
Fig 20-3. If both stations choose to
transmit (or receive) at the same
time, neither will hear the other.
Another difference is that while
the relay system needs to communi-
cate with a particular fixed destina-
tion and can take advantage of an
antenna beamed in that direction, the
repeater must receive from both sides
of the obstruction and transmit to
both sides also. Note that while the
mobile stations can use push-to-talk
(PTT) to change between receiving
and transmitting, the repeater must
simultaneously receive and transmit
(on different frequencies, of course)
to achieve its function. This is
generally accomplished by having FI
and F2 far enough apart so that the
repeater transmitter does not over-
load the repeater receiver. This is
accomplished by using appropriate
filtering. Sometimes the same
antenna is used for both transmit and
receive, requiring particularly
effective filtering to keep the, say,
100-W transmitter signal from
interfering with the sub-microvolt
receiver!
In addition to the antenna connec-
tions, the audio from the output of Fig 20-3-Repeater system to extend car-to-car range.
20-4 Chapter 20
the repeater at the first mountain can whole distance of an interstate the highway department radios, etc.
communicate with other cars and highway. Additional channels can be used to
offices there, or equally as well with The microwave system can support communications services
vehicles or offices at the second. support multiple mobile channels by between fixed locations such as state
Depending on terrain, the stations having a multiplex channel assigned offices along the route. Next time
can be located so that the vehicle to each, For example, there may be you drive down a major highway,
always has contact through one one or two channels assigned to note the microwave towers often
repeater or the next, perhaps the different repeater stations for the located near state police barracks or
state police, another one or two for maintenance depots.

Another category included in the
Analog Cellular
group of repeater communications
Telephone
systems is the now ubiquitous
cellular telephone system. Cellular
networks have a lot in common with
the remote-keyed repeaters of the
previous section, except that cellular
systems are provided by telephone
companies and are shared among
large numbers of users through the
reuse of channels in nearby areas.
Cellular systems were developed lOCeff
824-849MHz
to replace the Mobile Telephone
System offered by the telephone
companies. These used a limited
number of VHF channels. Each
channel would cover a substantial
832 Channels, Each 30 kHz Wide
range, typically a metropolitan area, 45 MHz Between Transmit and Receive
served by a high-powered base
station with a high antenna. The
VHF system worked reasonably
well, however, the limited number of
channels and wide coverage made it Frequency Range
825-849 MHz and 869-894 MHz
impossible to meet demand in most
major markets. The cellular tele-
phone system took a different Fig 20-4-Analog cellular mobile system.
approach by using low powered
transmitters, low antennas and the
ability to reuse channels across an
area. there is no interference at cell initiates any calls to the mobile
The modern cellular telephone has boundaries. However, the next cell phone. The mobile phone continues
amazing capability built into a very out can reuse the same frequencies as to monitor the service channel and is
small enclosure. We will concentrate the first cell, as shown in Fig 20-5. notified of an incoming call. If it
on the radio side of cell phones here, This allows much more efficient use responds, the mobile phone is
and leave the cameras, video, text of the radio spectrum. Of course, this assigned one of the typically 56
messaging and hi-fi subsystems to is not without some cost. Many more channels assigned to that cell and the
others. There is plenty to talk about base systems and towers are call is completed there. This ap-
for just the radio! required, as well as control logic to proach is called frequency division
keep track of each mobile station's multiple access or FDMA. This
Analog Cellular Systems location while they're using the cell means that multiple users can be
In the beginning there was analog. system. served simultaneously by assigning
The first US cellular systems made In operation, a cell phone starts them to different frequency channels.
use of a range of frequencies out listening and transmitting on one In an effort to minimize interfer-
removed from the upper channels of of the 42 shared service channels, ence' power management is used. If
the UHF TV band. These ranged typically 6 per cell. The cell phone the cell receives a strong signal from
from 825 to 894 MHz. They were set transmits a notification signal the mobile, the mobile is directed to
up in two bands of 832 30-kHz wide periodically that is received by all reduce power. As the mobile unit
channels, one going from the cell cell towers within range, typically approaches a cell boundary, the
phone to the cell site, the other from only a few at one time. The cell adjacent cell notes that the signal is
the cell site to the user. See Fig 20-4. towers communicate among them- increasing, while the first cell notes a
Each cell tower is designed to serve a selves, often by a wire link, to decide decrease. As the boundary is
relatively small area. Adjacent cells which cell has the best reception. reached, based on signal strength, the
all operate on different channels so The tower that has the best reception call is handed off to the adjacent cell.
20-6 Chapter 20
The mobile is assigned a new than 100 times the data rate required
operating frequency by the cell tower to support the encoded voice traffic,
in the second zone and the mobile so each transmitted bit is converted
unit switches to one of the 56 into a, let's say, a 100-bit code word.
channels assigned to that zone. Each station is assigned a code word,
Simultaneously, the cell switching much in the way that they are
equipment changes from routing the assigned a frequency in FDMA, or a
call via the first cell tower to the time slot in TDMA. At the receiving
second. The amazing thing is that end of the channel, the receiver
this all works most of the time and multiplies the incoming data stream
the user is completely unaware that it by the bits of the code. At the end of
is happening! Obviously, the cellular the code word the results are added
system is made possible by having and if the same code word was sent
compact, high-speed processing the result should be 100 times as
hardware in the cell phone. There is strong as any of the received bits.
really more "processing" than Fig 20-S-Analog cellular system- To send a value of a binary "one"
"radioing" going on in such systems. illustration of possible frequency the code word is sent and 100 is
reuse scheme. decoded. To send a "zero" each bit is
Digital Cellular Systems inverted and a -100 is decoded. A
The analog cellular systems were station assigned a different code
very successful, and they worked word will decode a much lower
well wherever there were cell towers Digital data could be sent with the value, hopefully zero instead of 100,
to support them. There were a few higher throughput of the digitally if the codes are properly selected.
limitations, however. A big concern encoded channel once appropriate Multiple conversations can occur
was privacy-regular telephone users interface standards were established. simultaneously using a set of
had come to expect a certain freedom An added benefit is that three times appropriately related code words.
from eavesdroppers, and there was as many channels can be established There have been many discussions
essentially none provided in an with efficient coding. about whether CDMA or TDMA is
analog cell system. Anyone with a The first digital systems used time the better approach, and proponents
scanner receiver, or an old television division multiple access (TDMA), of each can construct examples
set that picked up all the original dividing up a bit stream that used the where one or the other has the
UHF channels using an analog tuner, full bandwidth of the channels advantage.
could (and still can) listen to cell assigned into time slots sufficient to The above systems are all used in
calls in their neighborhood. US carry a coded sample of voice the US. The rest of the world has
regulatory bodies made rules information. As in the case of adopted the Global System for
prohibiting scanners that covered the FDMA, a number of service time Mobile (communications) or GSM.
cellular frequencies from being slots are reserved for control pur- GSM is a digital service that uses a
imported or sold, but there were a lot poses, including the ability to direct TDMA access method similar to that
of them out there. a mobile phone to switch to a used in the US but different in
Another limitation was found particular time slot in order to specifics. GSM service is available in
when trying to use analog cellular complete a call. more than 100 countries, including
phones to carry data using modems. Initially, digital systems shared the most of Europe and Asia. It is
The data rates were not very high same 800-MHz frequency range possible to purchase cellular phones
and channel switching between channels that were used by analog that support both US and GSM
service and operating channels systems. Later a range of frequencies offering, essentially multiple phones
introduced errors. around 1900 MHz was allocated for in the same case. Service usually
The use of digital encoding in cell digital mobile telephone service. must arranged for each separately,
systems solved these problems, at Another access technology used often with multiple providers.
least to a certain extent. The encoded for digital mobile service is called However, dual USIGSM capability is
voice was still not encrypted, so code division multiple access or a major convenience for those who
anyone with the appropriate equip- CDMA. In this arrangement, each engage in international travel.
ment could still eavesdrop. However, station transmits a pulse train at the The space age began in 1957 with
at least the casual listener could not full data capacity of the assigned the surprise launch of the USSR
overhear personal conversations. band. This will typically be more

(now CIS) experimental satellite
Sputnik 1. This satellite transmitted a
signal at 20.05 MHz that could be
monitored worldwide as it went
around and around the Earth. Years
before, a number of scientists
recognized the potential of having
not just a transmitter, but a wideband Coverage Cone
relay in space that could allow the
transmission of first voice, and then
other types of signals between
distant spots on the Earth. Early ,~---.,L- Subsatellite Point
experiments with passive satellites,
such as metalized balloons, provided
interesting results but did not turn
into commercial successes.
Fig 20-6-lIIustration of
Geostationary Orbit geosynchronous satellite
coverage.
Satellites
While the launch rockets to get
there were yet to come, for many
years those involved with the study
of celestial mechanics recognized
that for an object to orbit the earth, it ground stations. By international to launch, and almost as much for
would need to attain a certain agreement the slice of space at launch insurance. It's good to plan
velocity. This would balance flying 22,300 miles above the equator is the satellite driving carefully!
0
off into outer space and falling back divided into orbital slots 1.5 apart,
into the earth's atmosphere because with reuse in different frequency Space Assets
of the pull of gravity. At low alti- bands. That allows for exactly 240 Satellites function a lot like a
tudes, the velocity would result in the spaces. Of course, not all orbital slots mountaintop repeater, but there are
satellite appearing to move rapidly are equally popular-there may be some significant differences. Like the
past objects on the Earth's surface. less demand for slots over the Pacific repeater, the satellite receives signals
At very high altitudes the Earth than over the Americas or Europe or on one frequency and retransmits on
would appear to move past the the Middle East, for example. The a different frequency. Unlike the
satellite. There is a special altitude- width of each space is around repeater, which does this for a single
22,300 miles above the Earth's 700 miles; however, satellite opera- channel, the satellite transponder
equator-at which a satellite will tors are required to station keep, receives a whole range of frequen-
appear to stand still above a point on which means that their satellites are cies, often consisting of multiple
the earth. This kind of orbit is known constrained to a much smaller signals. A typical transponder might
as a geosynchronous or geostation- volume of space, typically 50 miles have a bandwidth between 36 MHz
ary orbit and is perfect for some square by 75 miles in altitude. This (enough for 6 standard television
communications satellite purposes. allows receive antennas to focus on channels) up to 64 MHz. Usually
As shown in Fig 20-6, a satellite in one satellite without receiving there will be at least enough tran-
such an orbit is far enough away so interference from its neighbors. Such sponders to fill the 500 MHz of
that it can see almost half the Earth's flight operations, stationkeeping as bandwidth of frequency allocation.
surface and thus can relay signals well as antenna orientation, require Most early satellites operated in
between any two points within its fuel for small thruster engines and Cvband' with an uplink of 5.9 to
coverage shadow. when the fuel is gone the satellite 6.4 GHz and a downlink of 3.7 to
Although space is a pretty big will eventually drift off into space. 4.2 GHz.
place, there is only room for a finite It's been some years since I've been Later satellites, starting in the
number of such satellites so that they in the satellite business, but I early 1980s when equipment
can operate without interfering with remember that a satellite cost about technology caught up, also operated
either each other or with each other's $50,000,000 to buy, about the same on the Ku band, usually with an
20-8 Chapter 20
uplink of 14 to 14.5 GHz and a So What's the Problem? tion or to 1000 cable operators across
downlink of 11.7 to 12.2 GHz. K the country. That's why most TV
It sounds like satellites can
band ~as the unfortunate property provide great service for all kinds of
distribution is via satellite.
that ramfall results in significant There are many other services that
applications, so why don't we use
losses, since the resonance of water also can be efficiently carried by
them for everything? Good question!
molecules is in the same band. One satellite-for example, stock ticker
Satellites have two major problems
satellite system I worked on had a K information and other kinds of data
for use as transport for voice service.
band station in central Florida wher~ First there's delay. It takes almost a
distribution. Voice service is still
it rains every afternoon, and that viable in special cases, such as with
quarter second for a signal to get up
station required a much higher gain ships at sea or other spots where
to a geosynchronous satellite and
antenna. terrestrial service is not available.
back down. Now if you're talking to
A typical satellite includes someone and ask a question, that
multiple antennas. Antennas can split Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
means it takes almost half a second
power between the transponders, or to get the beginning of an answer. While geosynchronous satellites
can be used separately, providing Some answers are worth waiting for, are the 800-pound gorillas of satellite
beams to particular areas. For but most people would assume that services, there are other ways to
example, a satellite over the Pacific the other end was struggling with the make satellites work. Low Earth
might have a wide-area antenna a~swer and start to ask the question a
Orbit satellites or LEOs have a
covering the whole region, with different way, just as the answer number of advantages. Unlike
another antenna focused on Hawaii s~a~s to come in. It can be very
geostationary satellites, LEOs go
or New Zealand to provide improved difficult for those used to rapid-fire whipping by overhead quite rapidly.
performance in those regions. Some communication! For many kinds of services, this
transponders can be dedicated to The other problem has to do with requires ground stations that can
each type of service, or they can be cost. Terrestrial communication tends predict when a particular satellite
changed by control station com- to have a distance component to cost. will be in range, steering the ground
mand. A user can thus contract for Satellite communication has the station antenna towards it and then
service beamed to a particular same cost wherever the end points shifting quickly to the next satellite
region. are, if they're in the same footprint. when the first one leaves. Such LEO
Each satellite transponder is There is some break point at which satellites have much smaller foot-
usually a wideband analog system. satellite communication is cheaper prints. See Fig 20-7, for example. A
Transponders designed to support than terrestrial communication. Back smaller footprint means that addi-
analog service can also be used to when I was in the business, the break tional interconnectivity is usually
process digital signals. To support point was at 400 miles. If the two needed-either via terrestrial links or
analog systems, perhaps with six TV f~om satellite to satellite-if long
end points were more than 400 miles
signals in a 36-MHz transponder, the apart we could offer a less expensive distance coverage is required. On the
total power that a transponder must service. other hand, the problem of delay is
handle must be below the maximum Well, the cost of terrestrial significantly reduced because the
saturated power that the transponder service-based on the explosion of LEOs are closer to the ground
can transmit, perhaps with 6 dB of fiber based capacity-kept getting stations they service, and much less
additional "overhead." This will cheaper. Satellite service still costs power is required at both satellite
avoid intermodulation products the same; after all, we had already and ground station ends of the link.
interfering with other signals in the launched our satellites! The break- An interesting joint venture
band. even point moved farther and farther resulted in the design and deploy-
O.n the other hand, if the transpon- away until there was no place in the ment of a LEO system intended to
d~r IS used to support only a single provide voice service where there
US in which satellite service costs
high-speed digital pulse train less. Besides, fiber was quiet, reliable were no terrestrial facilities available.
intermodulation is not an issue and and had no delay. You don't see a lot The Iridium system was designed to
the transponder can be driven right of voice satellite services offered in provide voice services between users
up to saturation without causing any the US these days. of small hand-held cell-phone like
problems. This provides a significant On the other hand, satellites are terminals and other Iridium users or
SNR advantage to digital signaling very efficient in a situation in which with the rest of the world's wired'
through satellites. The satellite a single signal must be delivered to network. It did so with no on the
provider doesn't need to decide. If a multiple destinations-satellite TV is ground investment required, but the
u~e: wants to contract for high-speed usage costs were very high to pay for
just such a situation. With terrestrial
digital use, the same transponder will services, typically there must be a the expense of the many satellites
work just fine, and it will provide link to each destination. With required to deliver the service.
that 6-dB benefit without having to satellite, it costs the same whether Iridium was not a commercial
do anything special. that TV signal is sent to one destina- success, but it was such a useful
system for government users in

remote parts of the world that it is
still in service under different
ownership and will likely continue in
operation for some time.
Other users also make use of non-
geostationary satellites. We will
discuss the Global Positioning
System (GPS), a non-geostationary
system, in a later chapter. Amateur
Radio operators have had a succes-
sion of satellites available for their
use for many years. Typically
constructed by amateurs and
launched in "space available"
compartments of launch vehicles,
these have been put into orbit by
amateurs from many countries since
the early 1960s.
Notes
1 Letter designators were assigned to
microwave bands in the early days
of radar to aid in security. They are
still in use today, both in radar and
communications terminology.
Fig 20-7-lIIustration of low-earth-orbit satellite system coverage,
compared with geosynchronous satellite coverage.
1. Why do you think fiber has displaced radio communication in the US?
Under what circumstances might radio still be a viable alternative?
2. Repeater systems tend to be PTT (push-to-talk) from a vehicle's

perspective. What would be required to convert such a system into a full
duplex system, mobile station-to-mobile station, so that someone can interrupt
in mid-sentence?
3. Consider a trunked radio system running along a highway. Why might

there be a need to split the highway into multiple sectors?
20-10 Chapter 20
{Jrouncf-1Uave ani90no heric
ommumcaiions
Talk about a direct line-of-sight path: EI2AIR balloon mobile rises towards the sky!
ContenD'
Over The Hills and Far Away 21-2
If You Can't Figure It Out-Measure It! 21-3
Getting the Signal to the Right Spot 21-5
Fortunately, radio communication the upper regions going faster than While the concepts are straightfor-
is possible beyond purely line-of- the lower. As a consequence the ward, the application of them is
sight (LOS) distances. Some wave front continues along the local anything but! In Chapter 15, I made
methods to provide communication surface instead of shooting off note of the various frequency-
beyond these distances were dis- towards space. A comparison dependent operational parameters of
cussed in Chapter 20. They either between LOS and ground wave the ionosphere - the LUF (lowest
made use of multiple line-of-sight propagation is shown in Fig 21-1. usable frequency), MUF (maximum
"hops" or via LOS-reachable Ground wave efficiency is very usable frequency), FOT (frequency
repeaters, on the Earth or out in dependent on ground characteristics. of optimum transmission) and the
space. Such systems are really a If the conductivity is low, the critical frequency. Optimum use of
special case of LOS, although clearly resulting lossy earth quickly dissi- the ionosphere requires the knowl-
they are effective for long-distance pates the power at the surface and edge about all these frequencies, as
applications. A disadvantage of those less is left to propagate onward. In well as knowing whether the end
systems is that you need to control areas of higher conductivity, and points are in daylight or darkness.
some real estate (or space) in especially areas without interfering The frequencies that describe
between. In both cases, significant terrain features, propagation via ionospheric properties change
pre-arrangements are required. In ground wave can extend out more throughout the day, and they can be
this chapter we will be talking about than a hundred miles. very different from one day to the
getting beyond the LOS threshold in While ground wave propagation next. Ionospheric properties respond
radio hops, with only nature in works day or night, the LF and MF to solar activity that occurs over
between. frequencies used are subject to night- multi-year cycles, and they are at the
time ionospheric skip propagation, as same time influenced by dynamic
Ground Wave Propagation will be discussed later in this chapter. daily changes on the sun.
A commonplace communication A signal arriving from outside the Once you know the frequencies,
method on LF and MF is called region may be much stronger than it's pretty straightforward to predict
ground wave communication. This the ground wave signal and this can how to propagate a signal from one
works much like LOS communica- result in interference. In the US, point to another. The resulting signal
tion, except that it continues well certain AM broadcast stations are levels can be predicted based on a
past the visual horizon. The signal designated as clear channel stations variant of the analysis technique we
generally is launched by a vertically and other stations sharing the described for LOS propagation. The
polarized antenna, which has frequency during the daylight hours path loss will be at least as great as
significant energy focused towards are required to go off the air at dusk the LOS path loss over the total path
the horizon. This is the same place to avoid interfering with the clear distance, but generally a lot more,
we want it for LOS use: tangent to channel stations at night. since only a fraction of the signal
the Earth's surface. As the ground energy gets refracted through the
wave propagates, interaction with the Ionospheric ionosphere. Some paths follow a
ground results in a slowing of the Communications multi-hop route, and each encounter
propagation velocity in the region In Chapter 15, I described the with either earth or ionosphere
near the Earth's surface. The ionosphere, its virtual layers and results in additional loss. So what are
resulting wave takes on a tilt, with their effect on radio communications. we to do to make path predictions?
UBR1-2101 (A) (B)
Fig 21-1-A line-of-sight signal at A, compared to a ground-wave signal at B.
21-2 Chapter 21
In this chapter we will generally be systematic, based on prediction establish communication, sometimes
talking about long-haul HF, often on software or channel monitoring, or it a critical operational factor.
different continents. One way to can be totally random. When you hit
solve the problem about which one of the Wilmington channels that Predictions Based on
frequencies to use for ionospheric works, you can start communicat- Measured Data
communication is to use a different ing-it doesn't matter how you got A somewhat different approach
communication system to coordinate to that frequency. can make use of observed reception
trial frequencies and check out the data prior to initiation time for the
performance of different HF fre- Scheduled Trial and Error actual communications. In this case,
quency ranges. This is a variation of There are likely more HF opera- each station can listen to either
the cellular telephone TV ad, "Do tions in which operators are not cooperating stations (beacon trans-
you hear me now?" equipped to monitor multiple mitters established for the purpose),
While that might be effective, it channels 24 hours a day. For these or non-cooperating transmitters-
begs the question, if you have situations, the operators at each end perhaps well identified short wave
another way of getting there why can select the frequency to use based broadcast transmitters originating
would you worry about using HF in on a prearranged schedule. At the near the far-end station. Each can
the first place? A more useful way is desired time, station A will call then draw conclusions about which
to use common data. It is pretty station B on the highest assigned frequencies might be useful. This is
straightforward to determine if both frequency for, let's say, 30 seconds particularly useful if station B has
stations are in daylight or darkness, of each of five minutes. If no multiple receivers tuned to a number
then it's a matter of figuring out what response, station A will call station B of the likely frequencies and can
frequencies will support communica- on the next lower frequency for five determine what frequency station A
tion at that particular time. Because more minutes, and so on until they has selected. Otherwise it is quite
of the variations in HF performance, find a frequency that does work possible that each station will draw
each user typically has a number of satisfactorily. different conclusions and they will
assigned frequencies throughout the Note that they should probably never connect up together.
HF spectrum so that different times start at the highest frequencies, since Each station can also be equipped
and paths can be accommodated. The if they work at all, the losses are with ionospheric sounding equip-
following are techniques that are generally lower on higher frequen- ment. Such equipment is designed to
used to establish communication in cies. This method requires only send signals at progressively higher
such a variable environment. moderate clock synchronization to be frequencies straight up toward the
successful, although it may take half ionosphere. If the frequency is
Trial and Error an hour to establish communications. reflected the equipment will make
Some systems, for example shore This may be suitable for some note of the amplitude of the received
stations in the maritime HF service, applications, but probably not if signal and the propagation time from
monitor all their assigned frequencies you're taking incoming gunfire, such transmission to reflection return. The
all the time. If you're at sea, you look as a military vessel might! system can determine the LUF and
up the frequencies of the, let's say, As a variant of the above "brute MUF. By looking at the delay times,
Wilmington, North Carolina shore force" method, each operator can the actual layers resulting in reflec-
station, set your radio to one of the make use of a propagation-prediction tion can be determined for each
frequencies and call-"Wilmington program based on available sunspot frequency. This data can then be used
marine operator, this is the sloop and solar activity data. Such pro- as input to a propagation-prediction
Windfall, WRE3053, over." If the grams can provide a probabilistic program that can determine the most
operator hears you on that frequency prediction of MUF, LUF and FOT. It likely optimum frequency range to
they will respond on their associated is important that both stations have go to the far-end station.
transmit frequency. If you don't get a access to the same basic data so that The problem with this system is
response you try another frequency. the programs can predict the same that both ends may observe different
If the operator does answer and finds frequencies for each. Then the results, particularly in different
you weak, they may inquire about operators just use the information on regions of longitude. It is most
your location and suggest a different an agreed upon basis to allow the effective if one station makes the
frequency that has previously worked trial of a smaller set of frequencies. decision and the other can monitor
into your area. This process can be This can reduce the time it takes to all the assigned frequencies and then
Ground-Wave and Ionospheric Communications 21-3

respond on the best one where the technique that automatically tests based on commands from the
first station can be heard. each assigned frequency in synchro- processor. The radios take turns
nism with the far-end radio and sending a special coded message
Automatic Link determines the optimum frequency to including an identification tag. Each
Establishment use at that moment, for that path. radio measures the SNR at each
Modern tactical HF radio equip- This obviously requires special frequency and decides on the
ment is generally not equipped with radios with compatible processors optimum frequency for each direc-
sounding equipment or computa- and a high degree of clock synchro- tion (often, but not always, the same).
tional facilities and may be carried nization, or else the radios will not The operator only needs to know to
on a soldier's back or in a vehicle. be on the same frequency at the same hit the ALE button and stand back. In
Further, the soldier may need to time. seconds, if there's a path, the radios
communicate quickly, with minimum Also required are antennas that will find it and tune to the appropri-
operator decision-making. Automatic either cover the whole range of ate frequency.
link establishment (ALE) is a frequencies, or that can tune quickly
21-4 Chapter 21
I ~ I
,.-,. fIJI lilJ~lt~ fIJ~ lfIil.F~

1 I ~ "-'"" 0 ~
.
= "
In the last section, we discussed tions, so long as a LOS path can be establishment of intermediate
finding out what frequencies should established. US forces supporting repeater facilities. Military satellite
be used to get an HF signal to a operations in the Balkan region communications is one solution,
desired destination via the iono- found themselves in an area in which however, that generally requires
sphere. The next problem is finding the mountainous terrain would not rather careful antenna pointing, not
out how to make your signal go support LOS communications for always possible in tactical environ-
where you want it to go to communi- many desired tasks. The paths were ments.
cate with that distant station. not needed for a sufficient term or The solution was found on HF
with sufficient notice to allow using near vertical incidence sky
Pointing The Antenna
Not all HF antennas are intention-
ally directional, but as we noted
earlier, an isotropic antenna is hard to
actually make. Thus antennas will
almost always radiate in some
directions better than others, both in
azimuth and elevation. In order to
optimize antenna direction, you need
to know the desired path between the
two end points. We will consider two
general categories.
Near Vertical Incidence

Skywave (NVIS)
For many years, relatively short
range tactical military communica-
tions have relied on VHF LOS
systems. These are generally easy to
carry, require small and easily
deployable antennas and provide
reliable and predictable communica- Fig 21-2-Establishing a frequency for HF ionospheric communication.
90 90 90
A - Antenna 1/8 II high B - Antenna 1/4 II high C - Antenna 3/8 II high
90 90 90
0- Antenna 1/2 II high E - Antenna 5/8 II high F - Antenna 3/4 II high
Fig 21-3-Vertical radiation pattern for a horizontal dipole at various heights above ground. The solid lines
represent pattern over perfect ground, while the shaded patterns represent typical real ground.

wave or NVIS techniques. In this
approach, HF signals are transmitted
almost directly overhead, to be
reflected downward via the iono-
sphere to a location perhaps only 25
miles away. The technique can
provide reliable communications out
to 100 miles or more depending on
the elevation angles employed. A
nice feature of this methodology is
that no special equipment is required.
Existing radio systems, originally
designed for long-range communica-
tions, can be pressed into service.
The only modification required was
to lower horizontally polarized
antennas so that the radiation
reflected from the ground added in
the upward direction.
Notice in Fig 21-3 that the height
of a dipole, or any horizontally
polarized antenna, has a major
impact on the vertical radiation
angle. At a height of 1/ 8 A or less,
most of the radiation from a horizon-
tal dipole antenna goes skyward, not
towards the horizon. As we will
discuss later, this is exactly what we
don't want for long distance commu-
nication, but for NVIS it's just right.
It's almost always easier to install an
antenna at a lower height than at a
higher height, so this is an easy
modification to the usual HF opera-
tion.
long-Range Ionospheric
Communication
Fig 21-4-Antenna system at W1AW, the headquarters station of the
To make HF communications American Radio Relay league in Connecticut. In the foreground, the 120-
work over long distances, we need to foot tower has Vagi antennas pointed towards the Southwest and
get our signal pointed towards the Northwest to provide coverage across the US on all amateur bands from
right region of the ionosphere that 7 to 30 MHz.
results in radiation returning to the
Earth in the desired target area.
There are actually multiple places they are used to a Mercator map because, while the short path might
that can work between any two projection. For example, a Mercator seem like it would have less path
points on the globe, and it is impor- projection makes Rome in southern loss, solar conditions may result in a
tant to understand the implications of Europe look like it is due east (90° usable route via long path and none
this. azimuth) of Hartford, Connecticut. In on short path. Moral-always watch
A radio signal will generally truth, the great-circle bearing for this your back!
follow a great-circle path between path is S8°-not 90°. Many HF station have directional
any two points on the Earth. A great In addition to that issue, which antennas that focus their radiation
circle represents the shortest distance doesn't take long to recover from, towards the desired target. In some
between two points on the globe if there are two great circle paths cases they are fixed antennas,
you could stretch a string between between any two points on earth. For perhaps multiple dipoles phased
them. Often people are surprised to obvious reasons, one is generally together and in front of a screen
discover the direction of the shortest referred to as the short path, the reflector. This kind of curtain array
path between two points because other the long path. This is important (because it looks rather like a
21-6 Chapter 21
curtain) is popular among short-wave
broadcast stations. In other installa-
tions a station might use rotatable
arrays, able to point in a particular
direction as their traffic and destina-
tions dictate. The Yagi antenna
arrays at WIAW, the headquarters
station of the American Radio Relay
League, are shown in Fig 21-4.
These antennas are designed to
deliver signals on many frequency
ranges to receivers across the US.
Other HF users, such as International
broadcast stations with requirements
for long distance communications,
may use similar Yagi systems.
Fig 21-5 shows the transmitter
equipment at WlAW. Each rack
holds a transmitter and a 1500 W
power amplifier used on a single
amateur frequency band. The
multiple racks are generally used
together for simultaneous broadcast Fig 21-5-Transmitter equipment at Wi AW. Each rack contains a 1500 W
on all the major MF and HF amateur CW and SSB transmitter to broadcast on all amateur bands from 1.8 to
bands. At the left end of the complex 30 MHz for daily information bulletins and code practice.
is an antenna patch panel to maxi-
mize connection of any of the
transmitters to any of the antennas to common region. square of the distance from the
allow operational flexibility. Com- You can easily imagine a scatter- transmitter. Thus the re-radiated
mercial shortwave broadcast stations ing mechanism in which two stations power will be reduced by the
might have similar layouts, although are located on the opposite sides of fourth power of the distance. This
they are likely to transmit at higher the flight path into a busy airport. If results in a signal that drops off
powers, 10 kW to 1 MW, to there is sufficient traffic so that there quite rapidly with distance.
maximize worldwide reception by are always aircraft in view of both s In the case of our aircraft example,
listeners with rudimentary, low stations, some transmitted signal (for there will likely be a number of
performance receiving equipment. wavelengths smaller than the aircraft scattering surfaces in common
surface) will be reflected from the view and each results in signals
Propagation by Scatter underside of each plane. A portion of that combine at the receiver. Since
There are other mechanisms that the reflected energy will reach the both scattering objects are moving,
can sometimes provide com- distant receiving station. If the the changing phase will sometimes
munication beyond LOS distances. aircraft is an altitude of 2000 feet, result in periods during which the
One general category is called communication over distances of signals tend to add together.
scatter. This refers to waves entering about 200 miles is possible. Stronger signals are good. But
a region above the Earth where some Note that significantly more power scattered signals can also cancel,
sort of phenomena can cause random is required for scatter communica- which can result in severe fading.
reflections of the waves back to tions than would be predicted for a Fading is bad.
Earth. Different mechanisms can direct LOS path for the following
come into play, including the ionized reasons: Tropospheric Scatter
trails of meteors entering the Earth's s Only a small fraction of the power The troposphere is a region
atmosphere, or ionized areas created reaching the scattering surface is situated below the D-layer of the
by high-energy particles ejected by scattered in the desired direction. ionosphere. The transition of radio
the sun (that can also result in s Because the scattering surface acts waves from an electrically neutral
aurora), or even an aircraft within the like an antenna reradiating the region like the troposphere to an
view of each end point. The height of signal, the signal level will be ionized one like the D-layer acts a lot
the scattering region above the Earth reduced by the square of the like a conductive surface. This results
determines the possible range of distance to the receiver. The power in refraction and scattering of VHF
communication, since both ends of reaching the scattering surface will signals. Tropospheric scatter can
the path must be able to "see" the also have been reduced by the commonly support medium-range

communication- beyond LOS. The
geometry is shown in Fig 21-6. As
Common Scattering
with all scatter modes, high power is Volume
required to get signals reliably to the
distant end; however this is a usable
mechanism under most circum-
stances and is commonly employed
as a portable military system for
transmission up to around 800 miles.
Meteor-Trail Scatter
Working our way up to progres-
sively higher altitudes, we next come
to meteor trails. As the Earth races
around the sun and together they
pass throughout the Milky Way, the
Earth's atmosphere is constantly
encountering dust and fragments
from meteors, comets and other
space debris. In most cases, the
material is burned up in the atmo- Fig 21-6-Geometry of VHF tropospheric scatter communication.
sphere and never encounters the
surface (I'm glad to say!). The
process of burning up results in a
plasma like region in the atmosphere
that is sometimes visible. Even
though visible activity is infrequent,
there is almost always some of this
happening and the plasma regions
can scatter radio waves in the VHF
region. Because of the wide range in
scattering density, large amounts of
power are needed. The rapidly
changing phase shift also results in a
restricted bandwidth, typically about
one or two voice channels.
1. Under what conditions would NVIS HF communications be prefer-

able to VHF LOS communications? When would VHF be better?
2. You are the Circuit Chief of a HF radio circuit operating between
North America and Europe. You have been assigned frequencies of 4, 8,
12 and 18 MHz. Discuss which might be preferred, under various times
and solar conditions.
3. You set up a ground wave path at 2.1 MHz between two stations
100 miles apart during the day. At night you find that you are not hearing
the station. Instead, you hear someone 1200 miles away. What do you
think is happening and what should you have considered while the circuit
was in operation?
21-8 Chapter 21
ommumca ons ufationJ'
41 41
anI~errJiceJ'
ITU Headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.
Contents
Telecommunication Regulation 22-2
Services Delivered by Radio 22-8
Ill.P1llJ1J3JYtJJHlmi_lrJJlfJ, IlJJ~IIP1~
~ -
In this day and age, we are used to category of company that is allowed special agency of the UN and moved
developments in technology resulting to be a monopoly-a regulated from Paris to Geneva, where it
in dramatic advances in products and common carrier. In the case of remains today.
services. We observe the capabilities telephone companies the government A notable success of the ITU is the
of personal computers, entertainment realized that it didn't make sense for fact that today, if you are willing to
equipment, automobiles and medical a number of companies to each dial enough digits, you can automati-
devices increasing exponentially install poles down every street to cally have access to virtually any
each year. We expect to see new provide competitive telephone network connected telephone on the
products announced as fast as we get service. Instead, a single company planet from any other telephone!
comfortable with the existing ones would provide such service. But to
and it's a race to see if we can avoid being able to take advantage of What Does the ITU Do?
remove the packaging before an item their monopoly, this company would The ITU functions are distributed
becomes obsolete. agree to be a regulated carrier. A among three sectors:
Most such products are driven by a commission at the state or federal The ITU Telecommunication
combination of technology and level, depending on whether the Standardization Sector's mission is
market forces. Telecommunications service is interstate (between states) to ensure an efficient and on-time
shares those drivers but also has an or intrastate (within a state), analyzes production of high-quality stan-
additional major driver-regulations. costs and determines what rates dards (Recommendations) cover-
could be charged. This arrangement ing all fields of telecommunica-
Telecommunication has worked well for many years. tions. These Recommendations
Regulation While the two main categories of generally become standards
Telecommunications providers regulation occasionally overlap, in applied by national organizations
often attempt to make use of the this book we will focus on the radio such as the American National
latest advances in technology. But spectrum issues, recognizing that Standards Institute (ANSI) in the
they often find themselves limited in from time-to-time the common- US. Using common standards,
what they can offer as products due carrier issues will arise. equipment can work in different
to constraints imposed by govern- environments and signals can
ment regulation. They can only offer
A Short History of meaningfully cross national
the services that are allowed under International Regulation boundaries.
the terms of various regulations. This By 1855, wire-telegraph providers The ITU Telecommunication
regulation comes about in two forms: were offering commercial service Development Sector has well-
• Regulation of the radio spectrum. throughout much of the world. Lines established programs of activities
This one effects radio the most. did not cross borders because each to facilitate connectivity and
Early in the last century, govern- country operated using its own access, foster policy, regulatory
ments realized that radio, by its standards. Representatives from and network readiness, expand
nature, went across borders. Thus, twenty European countries signed human capacity through training
to avoid chaos, international the International Telegraph Conven- programs, formulate financing
agreements were required to avoid tion in Paris in 1865 to establish strategies and enable enterprises in
interference between users in common standards facilitating cross- developing countries. This sector
different countries even while border communication. They also tries to find ways to facilitate
complying with their own national established the International Tele- economical offerings in areas
regulations. graph Union (ITU) to serve as an without services, for example.
• Regulated Monopoly Providers. ongoing body to maintain common The ITU Radiocommunications
Most US companies are required to operation and to deal with the Sector's mission] is to "maintain
compete in an open market for standardization of newly developed and extend international coopera-
customers and business and their technology. tion among all the Member States
success is determined by their Emerging technologies, such as of the Union for the improvement
efficiency and by how well they the telephone and radio, expanded and rational use of telecommunica-
deliver their products and services. the breadth of the ITU and it tions of all kinds." In terms of
Violations of this principal can be changed its name to the International radio regulation and service
dealt with harshly by various Telecommunications Union. Follow- offerings, this sector has the most
federal anti-trust laws. ing the formation of the United impact and is the one we will find
In the US, there is a special Nations in 1948, the ITU became a most interesting. They define their
22-2 Chapter 22
ituregion
Fig 22-1-Map of the ITU Radlocommuntcatlons regions. [Courtesy International Telecommunications Union.]
primary focus as: and Africa; lTV Region 2 is North ranges are not the same in each
• To define the allocation of bands and South America; and lTV Region region. I have compiled a shortened
of the radio-frequency spectrum, 3 includes Asia and Australia. This is list of allocations for lTV
the allotment of radio frequencies shown in Fig 22-1. Frequency Radiocommunication Region 2,
and the registration of radio- allocations are generally aligned by based on various sources and have
frequency assignments and of any lTV region, although many are included it as Table 22-1. I have
associated orbital position in the common across multiple regions if covered the VLF, LF and MF ranges
geostationary satellite orbit in communication can propagate and portions of the ELF and HF
order to avoid harmful interference between regions. The agreements ranges in this table. I also grouped
between radio stations of different result in treaties agreed to and signed together some of the service types in
countries; by representatives of all the member Table 22-1 to make it reasonable in
To coordinate efforts to eliminate countries. size, but this should provide an idea
harmful interference between radio All radio frequencies are specified of the scope of international agree-
stations of different countries and as to the type of services they can be ments.
to improve the use made of radio used for, essentially "from de to For shortwave broadcasters the
frequencies and of the geostation- daylight." In reality, the frequencies lTV maintains the function of
ary-satellite orbit for radiocom- range from at least 9 kHz to coordinating frequencies and
munication services. By so acting, 275 GHz, as of the latest references. schedules between different users-
they intend to ensure rational, For services that are fairly general, often governments with competing
equitable, efficient and economical and fairly local, the agreements are interests in the use of the same
use of the radio-frequency spec- clearly specified, but are left to frequencies. The lTV also adminis-
trum by all radiocommunication national governments to administer ters orbital slots for geosynchronous
services, including those using within the regional boundaries. As an satellites.
satellite orbits, and to carry out example, the frequency range from
studies and adopt recommendations 315 to 325 kHz is assigned to Regulation and Services at
on radiocommunication matters. "aeronautical radiolocation" in the National Level
Region 1, "maritime radiolocation" Each lTV member nation has the
How Do They Do This? in Region 2 and "aeronautical responsibility to administer its treaty
The lTV has divided up the world radiolocation and maritime radiolo- obligations in its area of responsibil-
into three radiocommunications cation" in Region 3. That is a ity. In the VS, for example, the
regions, generally by North-South straightforward example. Federal Communications Commis-
slices. lTV Region 1 includes Europe In some cases, the frequency sion (FCC), an agency of the
Communications Regulations and Servies 22-3

Executive Branch of government,
has that responsibility. The FCC has
a number of responsibilities (see
Fig 22-2) related to the regulation of
radio-based and other services:
.. Determination of requirements for
operator licenses for different
services. For example, operator
licenses are required for those who
operate some types of shipboard
radio systems, aircraft radio
systems, Amateur Radio transmit-
ters' mobile transmitters and
broadcast transmitters. The FCC Fig 22-2-The many FCC functions are captured in this
either prepares and conducts the composite photo from their Web paqe."
Table 22-1
Major Telecommunications Services Delivered by Radio (ITU Region 2) up to 10 MHz.
Frequency Range Service Notes
9-19.95 kHz Radionavigation/Fixed/Maritime Often long-range military strategic communications.
19.95-20.05 kHz Standard Frequency and time signals National Institute of Standards and Technology (US).
20.05-415 kHz Mix of fixed, maritime and radionav
415-510 kHz Maritime mobile Generally ship-shore radiotelegraph. Includes
500 kHz distress freq.
510-535 kHz Aeronautical radionavigation
535-1705 kHz AM broadcasting
1.705-1.8 MHz Fixed/mobile/navigation Note transition from kHz to MHz.
1.8-2.0 MHz 160 meter amateur
2.0-2.3 MHz Mobile, mainly maritime
2.3-2.495 MHz Broadcasting 120-meter international shortwave broadcast band.
2.495-2.505 MHz Standard Frequency and time signals National Institute of Standards and Technology (US)
2.505-3.2 MHz Fixed mobile and aero mobile
3.4-3.5 MHz Aeronautical mobile
3.5-4.0 MHz 75/80 meter amateur
4.0-4.65 MHz Maritime mobile, fixed
4.75-4.995 MHz Fixed, mobile (not aero)
4.995-5.005 MHz Standard Frequency and time signals National Institute of Standards and Technology (US).
5.005-5.480 MHz Fixed, mobile (not aero) Includes five SSB channels for amateur use in US.
5.730-5.9 MHz Fixed, mobile (not aero)
6.200-6.525 MHz Maritime mobile
6.765 7.0 MHz Fixed
7.0-7.3 MHz 40 meter amateur
7.35-8.100 MHz Fixed, land mobile
8.100-8.815 MHz Fixed, maritime mobile
9.04-9.4 MHz Fixed
9.9-9.995MHz Fixed
9.995-10.005 MHz Standard Frequency and time signals National Institute of Standards and Technology (US).
22-4 Chapter 22
examinations themselves at field
offices, or delegates the responsi- Table 22-2
bility to others. Licensed volunteer A sample of HF Single Sideband Maritime Radiotelephone Channels.
radio amateur operators administer
exams for Amateur Radio licenses lTV Coast Ship lTV Coast Ship
Channel Transmit Transmit Channel Transmit Transmit
under the auspices of approved
No. (kHz) (kHz) No. (kHz) (kHz)
Volunteer Examination Coordina-
tor agencies (VEC), including the 4 MHz Duplex Channels. 8 MHz Duplex Channels.
ARRL.
401 4357 4065 801 8719 8195
• Operator licenses of appropriate 802 8722 8198
402 4360 4068
classification are required to adjust 403 803 8725 8201
4363 4071
or repair most types of radio 404 4366 4074 804 8728 8204
transmitting equipment. Many 405 4369 4077 805 8731 8207
categories of licenses are available
in different classes with progres- 406 4372 4080 806 8734 8210
407 4375 4083 807 8737 8213
sively more challenging questions 808 8740 8216
asked on the exam. Typically, the 408 4378 4086
409 4381 4089 809 8743 8219
lower class licenses are for 410 4384 4092 810 8746 8222
operators who only need to
understand the rules so they can 411 4387 4095 811 8749 8225
properly talk into a microphone 412 4390 4098 812 8752 8228
without breaking any rules. Higher 413 4393 4101 813 8755 8231
414 4396 4104 814 8758 8234
classes of licenses require testing 815 8761 8237
more on technological aspects of
415 4399 4107
the communication arts, some- 416 4402 4110 816 8764 8240
times with special test elements for 417 4405 4113 (USCG Calling)
equipment specific endorsements, 418 4408 4116 817 8767 8243
such as radar. These are required 419 4411 4119 818 8770 8246
420 4414 4122 819 8773 8249
for those who need to understand 8252
820 8776
what goes on within the equipment
421 4417 4125
so they can design systems around 821 8779 8255
(Calling, distress & safety,
it or repair it. working on 4125 kHz simplex) (Calling)
• The FCC makes channel assign- 422 4420 4128 822 8782 8258
ments within the ITU bands of 423 4423 4131 823 8785 8261
frequencies for particular services. 424 4426 4134 824 8788 8264
(USCG Calling) 825 8791 8267
For example, in VHF commercial
mobile services, public service 425 4429 4137
826 8794 8270
mobile service, broadcast radio 426 4432 4140 827 8797 8273
and television services, the 427 4435 4143 828 8800 8276
assignments are on an individual 428 4351 (varies) 829 8803 8279
user basis and include permits for 429 4354 (varies) 830 8806 8282
transmitting station construction to
6 MHz Duplex Channels. 831 8809 8285
specific standards of antenna 832 8812 8288
height and EIRP. In other cases, 601 6501 6200 833 8291 8291
the channels are assigned to a (USCG Calling) 834 8707 (varies)
general user community for 602 6504 6203 835 8710 (varies)
603 6507 6206
particular purposes. Table 22-2, 604 6510 6209
for example, shows a list of HF 836 8713 (varies)
605 6513 6212 837 8716 (varies)
marine channels for boat and shore
station use. Note that while the US 606 6516 6215
FCC assigns these individual (Calling, distress & safety, working
channels, they are in line with the on 6125 kHz simplex)
allocation of frequencies to this 607 6519 6218
608 6522 6221
service in Table 22-1. In a similar
manner, Table 22-3 lists VHF
marine channels for use in US
coastal waters. Each marine radio
generally comes equipped to

communicate on all of them and an for US operation. enforcement of its standards and
individual user selects a channel (I The FCC establishes the technical rules regarding radio operations.
for a particular purpose. Note that and operational standards for all To that end, it maintains a number
while these channels are assigned transmitting equipment and for of monitoring stations around the
by the US FCC, and are generally many categories of users. These country, these can observe trans-
in line with the assignments of cover the range from technical missions at most radio frequencies.
most other countries, there are issues (such as the level of In cooperation with other monitor-
exceptions. The channels with an spurious emissions allowed) to ing stations, they can triangulate to
"A" suffix, for example are only content issues-for example, determine the location of an
used in the US. Outside the US specifying what is an obscene offending station. The FCC also
these channels use separate ship word or image that is not allowed has the responsibility to note and
and shore frequencies, instead of to be broadcast! report on violations of treaty
the simplex arrangement defined The FCC is responsible for the obligations if they interfere with
US assignments.
22-6 Chapter 22
Table 22-3
US Marine VHF radiotelephone channels assignments.
Channel Ship Transmit Ship Receive Use
Number MHz MHz
01A 156.050 156.050 Port Operations and Commercial, VTS.
Available only in New Orleans / Lower Mississippi area.
05A 156.250 156.250 Port Operations or VTS
Houston, New Orleans and Seattle areas.
06 156.300 156.300 Intership Safety
07A 156.350 156.350 Commercial
08 156.400 156.400 Commercial (Intership only)
09 156.450 156.450 Boater Calling. Commercial and Non-Commercial.
10 156.500 156.500 Commercial
11 156.550 156.550 Commercial. VTS in selected areas.
12 156.600 156.600 Port Operations. VTS in selected areas.
13 156.650 156.650 Intership Navigation Safety (Bridge-to-bridge).
Ships> 20 m length maintain a listening watch on this channel in US waters.
14 156.700 156.700 Port Operations. VTS in selected areas.
15 156.750 Environmental (Receive only). Used by Class C EPIRBs.
16 156.800 156.800 International Distress, Safety and Calling.
Ships required to carry radio, USCG, and most coast stations maintain a listening watch on this channel.
17 156.850 156.850 State Control
18A 156.900 156.900 Commercial
19A 156.950 156.950 Commercial
20 157.000 161.600 Port Operations (duplex)
20A 157.000 157.000 Port Operations
21A 157.050 157.050 U.S. Coast Guard only
22A 157.100 157.100 Coast Guard Liaison and Maritime Safety Information Broadcasts.
Broadcasts announced on channel 16.
24 157.200 161.800 Public Correspondence (Marine Operator)
63A 156.175 156.175 Port Operations and Commercial, VTS.
Available only in New Orleans / Lower Mississippi area.
67 156.375 156.375 Commercial Intership
Used for Bridge-to-bridge communications in lower Mississippi River only.
68 156.425 156.425 Non-Commercial
69 156.475 156.475 Non-Commercial
70 156.525 156.525 Digital Selective Calling
(voice communications not allowed)
71 156.575 156.575 Non-Commercial
72 156.625 156.625 Non-Commercial (Intership only)
73 156.675 156.675 Port Operations
74 156.725 156.725 Port Operations
77 156.875 156.875 Port Operations (Intership only)
78A 156.925 156.925 Non-Com mercial
79A 156.975 156.975 Commercial. Non-Commercial in Great Lakes only
80A 157.025 157.025 Commercial. Non-Commercial in Great Lakes only
81A 157.075 157.075 U.S. Government only - Environmental protection operations.
82A 157.125 157.125 U.S. Government only
AIS 1 161.975 161.975 Automatic Identification System (AIS)
AIS 2 162.025 162.025 Automatic Identification System (AIS)
88A 157.425 157.425 Commercial, Intership only.
Communications Regulations and Servles 22-7

We all are familiar with some of frequencies are provided to help for long distance maritime com-
the services that come to us by radio. advance the radio arts through munications between ships and
Perhaps we are most directly affected non-commercial development and shore facilities. In addition,
by the broadcast services that experimentation. Amateur Radio maritime operators have radiotele-
entertain or inform us on a daily operators also provide communica- graph frequencies in the MF range.
basis. These services are but a small tions in emergencies when Large commercial vessels can use
fraction of all the communication commercial facilities are unavail- these, although radiotelegraph is
services that benefit the world's able or overcrowded. They also no longer required for ships of
people. Table 22-1 provides a simply enjoy making use of radio many nations. Maritime users on
summary list of the major services as a matter of personal interest. the high seas have access to
listed by frequency. I will briefly .. Broadcasting refers to informa- satellite communications using the
describe the key services so you tional or entertainment transmis- INMARSAT satellite system. A
know what the regulatory jargon sions intended for multiple special category of shore station is
refers to: unspecified listeners. Included are the public correspondence station.
.. Aeronautical mobile is a term voice broadcasts in the MF Public correspondence stations are
referring to radio stations aboard (typically national or regional) and licensed in both HF and VHF
aircraft. A number of frequency HF (typically international in ranges and allow fee-paid connec-
bands are provided. A VHF band nature) ranges, as well as VHF and tion between the radio link and
is allocated for AM communica- UHF television broadcasting. ground-based telephone services.
tions between aircraft and fixed .. Fixed station refers to a radio .. Radiolocation refers to determin-
base operations (FBO). This band communication station (which is ing the location of another station
is also used for announcing an not a broadcasting station) operat- or object. Included are radar
aircraft's position while at or ing from a fixed location. This systems and some transponder
flying near an airport, and on fixed station could be used to systems. These will be covered in
occasion between aircraft. In- communicate between multiple more detail in Chapter 23.
cluded in this band is 121.5 MHz, fixed locations, as between a .. Radionavigation refers to radio-
the emergency frequency on which offshore oil platforms and a based systems for position
any pilot can transmit. This headquarters location, or between location. While designed primarily
frequency is monitored by Air the fixed station and a service for aircraft and maritime users, the
Traffic Control, Flight Services aircraft or ship. In the US, most global positioning system (GPS), a
and by other pilots. In addition, the land-based, fixed communications satellite-based navigation system,
FAA's Federal Aviation Regula- can be carried out by terrestrial has become popular for land-based
tions require HF communication telephone. However, in other parts navigation as well. In addition to
capability once an aircraft is of the world the infrastructure may GPS, there are a number of other
30 minutes or 100 miles offshore, not be available and HF radio terrestrial-based systems providing
for instance, on transoceanic between fixed stations is often the similar service. These will be
flights. Other HF frequencies are best solution for distances beyond covered in more detail in
allocated for airline companies to line-of-sight. Chapter 24.
communicate scheduling informa- It Maritime mobile is a term referring .. Standard Frequency and Time
tion, maintenance issues or to radio stations aboard boats and Signals are transmitted by govern-
weather data. Ground facilities in ships. A number of frequency ment agencies to propagate
support of aircraft can be licensed bands are available. A VHF band standard information. In the US,
to use some frequencies within the is allocated for FM communica- the National Institute of Standards
aeronautical mobile allocations. tions between nearby craft, and and Technology transmits signals
Pilots with Amateur Radio licenses between craft and USCG or other at precise frequencies of 60 kHz
can communicate with other coastal or nearby emergency (WWVB) as well as 2.5, 5, 10, 15
amateurs over long distances services. In addition, drawbridge, and 20 MHz from station WWV in
because of their altitude.' canal lock operators, port opera- Fort Collins Colorado. The station
.. The Amateur Radio Service has tors, marinas and yacht clubs may radiates 10,000 W on 5, 10, and
frequencies in many bands have shore station licenses to use 15 MHz, and 2,500 Won 2.5 and
throughout the MF, HF, VHF, UHF specified marine VHF frequencies 20 MHz. Although each frequency
and microwave portions of the to communicate with boats and carries the same information,
spectrum for use by licensed ships. As with aeronautical mobile, multiple frequencies are used so
Amateur Radio operators. These there are HF channel assignments that propagation on at least one
22-8 Chapter 22
frequency is available at all times.
WWVH is a similar station located
in Hawaii that broadcasts on the 1. Why is it necessary to have an international body make and/or
same frequencies as WWV, except register assignments of frequencies for use by international shortwave
for 20 MHz. In addition to broadcast stations? What would happen if a central agency didn't do that?
standard radio frequencies, the 2. Repeat question 1 for satellite orbital assignments.
signal format provides accurate
audio frequencies, accurate time 3. What must the FCC do if it wishes to make an assignment contrary
indicators and information about to ITU allocations?
atmospheric conditions.'
For each category of service, there
are generally associated requirements
on modulation types, allowed
bandwidth, frequency accuracy and
stability, spurious emissions, etc.
Each service has equipment require-
ments that manufacturers must meet
and certify.
Notes
lITU Radio Sector mission state-
ment, www.itu.intlITU-R/
information/mission/lndex.html.
2S ee www.fcc.gov.
"Thanks to private communication
from Rosalie White, K1STO, an
FAA licensed general aviation
pilot and FCC licensed Amateur
Radio operator.
"See tf.nist.gov/tlmefreq/stations/
wwv.html.

~J'femJ'
Display screen of Raymarine E-80 Multifunction Network Display showing land contours and
selected targets. (Photo courtesy Raymarine Inc)
Contents
We're Talking RADAR Here! 23-2
How Do We Get the Signal Out There and Then Back 23-5
That's Great-What Do We Do Now? 23-8
Beacon Systems-The Other Side of Radiolocation 23-11
By radiolocation we generally Adapted to Indicate or Give Warning Nothing hard about this, is there?
mean a system for the determination of the Presence of a Metallic Body Well, as with all great ideas, the
of the location of another object. This Such as a Ship or Train in the Line of devil is in the details. I will go into
is in contrast to a radionavigation Projection of Such Waves." This some of these details to give you an
system, where users determine their sounds a lot like radar, but unfortu- idea about how radar works. But
own location. We will discuss nately, the early radio art had not beware, there's a lot more. Many
radionavigation in the next chapter. progressed enough to support the very talented people have spent a
An important radiolocation system requirements of a serious radar great deal of time and effort develop-
is radar, short for RAdio Detection system. ing some very sophisticated radar
And Ranging, both of which can be The approach of World War II was concepts that won't fit into this small
determined by radar. Modern ground the impetus for a number of national chapter! I will try to describe some
radar systems can also determine a defense establishments to develop a of the choices an expert radar
target's altitude, velocity, direction of workable radar design. The British engineer might have to make. This
travel and possibly provide some idea "Chain Home" radar system, a will give you an idea why not all
of size. Radar is also used aboard rudimentary HF system in today's radars are the same.
aircraft for multiple purposes, terms, was remarkably successful at The statement above "If you know
including terrain avoidance, weather determining when enemy bombers where your antenna was pointing,
mapping and avoidance, fire control were crossing the English Channel. It you know the direction of the target"
and surveillance. Shipboard radar is was a key element in the British should raise a question about
similar in many ways, but tends to be success in the "Battle of Britain" that antenna beam width. If your antenna
used for collision avoidance and set the stage for the allies winning has a beamwidth of 50°, you may
navigation, as well as for fire control World War II. have a problem deciding in which
for military vessels. Other radar systems evolved direction your target really is
In addition to radar, radiolocation during that war, including a long- located.
includes various transponder systems, range search radar successful at If you have several targets in the
in which a station transmits an detecting the attack on Pearl Harbor same direction, one behind the other,
interrogation signal to a target and that brought the US into World War the width of the radar pulse you send
the target returns a signal with II. Unfortunately, the detections were out will determine whether or not
identification and other codes. In the misidentified as friendly forces by you can tell that they are both there.
military, such transponder systems the Sunday morning staff-otherwise A long pulse width will blur signals
are called Identification Friend or many events might have turned out together as though they were only
Foe (IFF), while in the civilian differently. Another key development one target.
aircraft environment they are referred was the coupling of radar target You must be able to detect
to as secondary radar systems. The definition with naval gun systems, whatever signal is reflected from the
key distinction, in my mind, is that allowing automatic aiming of target. This ability is related to
radar does not depend on cooperation weapons. In addition, special transmitter power, antenna gain and
from the target, while transponder vacuum tubes able to generate receiver performance. I will discuss
systems do. microwave signals enhanced the each of these concepts in more detail
capability of radar systems for all in the sections that follow. Again, we
Where Did Radar Start? applications. will be discussing basic concepts
What we know today as radar was here. Recent advances in computa-
envisaged by radio pioneers in the How Does Radar Work? tion and signal processing have
early days of radio. They apparently The conceptual design of radar is pushed modern radar performance
noticed that signals were reflected pretty straightforward. You send a and features well beyond the simple
from large metallic objects, and they signal towards a target and some of models I will discuss here.' .
proposed ship collision-avoidance- the signal gets reflected back. If you
systems based on these observations. know where your antenna is point- Heading Determination
In 1904, a German engineer named ing, you know the direction of the Determining the direction of a
Hulsmeyer obtained a patent for a target. If you measure how long it target is largely a function of the
radio-based "obstacle detector." His takes for the signal to get there and beamwidth of the antenna. A narrow
patent' was entitled "Hertzian-Wave back, you can compute the distance antenna beam will illuminate a small
Projecting and Receiving Apparatus to the target. angular sector and targets that are
23-2 Chapter 23
returned must therefore be located Range Resolution range (see Fig 23-1) we would set T
within that sector. Of course, no to at least 2 x 3001186,000 =
A typical radar sends out a short
antenna will have a beamwidth that 0.003225 seconds, or 3.23 msec. This
pulse of RF energy, followed by a
immediately terminates at a particu- is the minimum pulse repetition
longer period during which it listens
lar angle; instead, the return from a interval (PRI) for that range. If we
for reflected pulses. In a typical
target will be reduced as the beam set the PRI to a smaller value, we
system, the time between pulses is
moves off the target. would have multiple returns from a
based on the maximum range. The
The beamwidth of an antenna is a target within our range and there
time it takes a pulse to get from the
function of the antenna design. For a would be ambiguity in the distance
transmitting antenna to the target and
parabolic antenna, the beamwidth from the antenna. This would appear
back to the receive antenna at the
becomes narrower as the parabola's in the form of multiple targets.
speed of light is just e = 2R1c, where
diameter increases, for a given Once we have the PRI set, we can
R is the range and c is the speed of
wavelength, or conversely as the focus on the pulse width. For a
light. For example, if we want to
wavelength gets smaller. Thus early rectangular pulse, the signal will start
have a radar with a 300-statute-mile
lower-frequency radars were limited
in angular resolution, for reasonably
sized antennas. The advent of
microwave transmission was a boon
to radar from an angular-determina-
tion perspective. The half-power Table 23-1
beamwidth, e, of an optimally Parabolic antenna beamwidth (degrees) as function of
designed parabolic antenna can be frequency and diameter.
e
approximated as: = 70A/D,
Diameter (m)
where A is the wavelength and D is
Freq (MHz) A (m) 0.5 1 10 30 100
the parabola diameter, both in the
same units.' Note that for the 100 3 21 7 2.1
parabola to be effective, D must be 500 0.6 42 4.2 1.4 0.42
greater than A. 1000 0.3 42 21 2.1 0.7 0.21
I have calculated the beamwidth 5000 0.06 8.4 4.2 0.42 0.14 0.042
for a number of frequencies and 10000 0.03 4.2 2.1 0.21 0.07 0.021
parabolic antenna diameters and
presented them in Table 23-1. The
antenna diameters range from one
small enough to be in the nose of an
aircraft to one of the very largest, Table 23-2
perhaps appropriate for a long-range Target resolution (feet, miles) as a function of beamwidth
radar searching for warheads in (e) and range.
space. That information can be used
with Table 23-2 to determine how
e (deg) 10 50 100 200 500 5000 Miles
0.01 9 46 92 184 461 4,605
wide a field that beam width trans-
0.1 92 461 921 1,842 4,605 9
lates to as a function of range. This
0.5 461 2,303 4,605 9,211 4 44
will give a sense of how finely you
can discern targets in azimuth. In 1 921 4,606 9,212 3 9 87
some cases, such as missile warning, 5 4,617 4 9 17 44 437
it may be enough just to know 10 9,305 9 18 35 88 881
whether or not there's one (or more)
coming your way. It is a much more
difficult problem to determine where UBR1-2301
Aircraft, Typically Less
each of those 1000 warheads is Than 10 Miles Altitude
heading.
As with most aspects of radar
engineering there are techniques that
allow a better determination of
angular position than just that
defined by the antenna's inherent
beamwidth, but that was the funda-
mental constraint facing the early
radar designers. Fig 23-1-0perating environment for typical ground-based search radar.
Radiolocation Systems 23-3

to return from the target as soon as
the leading edge hits the target, and Incident Pulse /
continue until the pulse is past the T1
target. Note that the receiver's
Reflected Pulse
internal filters can stretch the pulse
up to twice its original length. If a
~A
second target's return overlaps the
end of the first target's return, as
Incident Pulse
/ -----A
;;;
T2 ~ .;;;-
shown in Fig 23-2, the result will be
a single, wide pulse. The fact that
Reflected Pulse ::::
/
I
I
/
j
-,
there are actually two targets will not
'"
be apparent from the display. This is Incident Pulse ]:;a
shown in a simulated oscilloscope .-=--yr!1 //- A

13 j
"'"-,
/
"
display in Fig 23-3. In the absence of ::r /
I
special waveforms and associated Reflected Pulse
signal processing (called pulse UBR1-2302
compression) the range resolution is

just equal to the pulse width divided Fig 23-2-lIIustration of range resolution issue with closely spaced
by the speed of light. targets. Dashed line is reflection from second target.
UBR1-2303
~-------- 3.23 msec =300 Miles - - - - - - - - - - - ' ; ; ; " . ,
Transit time Transit Time
Figure 23-3-A search radar signal with two closely spaced targets 1
msec out.
23-4 Chapter 23
The short answer is "send plenty have calculated for communications back towards the radar. The power
and listen carefully"! The maximum systems, in which the problem is density of the signal received then is
range calculation is a function of all usually solved at this point. The just the reflected signal ERP/4nR2 ,
the radio parameters we've talked in radar energy illuminates the target, where R is now the distance from the
earlier chapters: transmit power, but then most of it continues on. target back to the receive antenna.
transmit antenna gain, receive Compare the size of the beamwidths, For the remainder of this discussion,
antenna aperture, receive sensitivity for example, from Table 23-2 to the we will assume the usual monostatic
and the local noise level at the size of typical airborne objects and it case, that is the receiver and trans-
receiver. In addition, we have a new will be clear that most of this energy mitter are in the same place and
concept to deal with for radar- is destined for travel through outer share the same antenna. The alterna-
equivalent reflecting area, also space! tive bistatic configuration, with
known as radar cross section. We separate transmitter and receiver
will use a ground-based, long-range, Step 2-Send Some Back locations and antennas, is occasion-
aircraft search radar as an example in Fortunately, some of the radar ally encountered, generally for
the following discussion. This is a energy doesn't go past the target. special purposes.
type of radar suited for Federal Instead, it is reflected back. While In the mono static configuration
Aviation Administration air-route some is reflected back towards the we note that the distance from
surveillance or air-defense use. Note radar, most of the radar's energy transmitter to target is the same as
that the same basic principles apply goes every which way. The subject from the target to the receiver, and
to other applications. Some radars of radiation scattering from objects thus the "R" distance in both the
will be designed for shorter ranges, has been of interest to radar engi- transmit and receive power density
or they will be designed to look for neers since the beginning, and equations is the same. Knowing a bit
smaller targets with narrower hopefully it will be enough for us to about the receiver performance
resolution. Each will result in recognize that it is a complex would now allow us to determine the
different parameter selections. problem. Whatever the object is that answer to the important questions:
we are illuminating, there will be "Can we detect the target?" or more
Step 1-Get the Signal to the some energy headed back towards helpfully: "How small a target can
Target the transmitter, so that there is a we detect?" Then there's: "How
We transmit a pulse of RF towards signal strong enough to detect. much power do I need to transmit to
the target once in each PRI. Typi- For the purposes of calculation, detect the size target I'm interested
cally the pulse is a very strong signal we can represent the surface as an in at the maximum range?" Note that
and is transmitted through a very equivalent area, as if that area had these are almost the same question,
high gain antenna. The effective helpfully sent all the energy back but with emphasis on solving for
radiated power (ERP) of such a towards us in the proper phase. This different parameters.
system is often many orders of mythical radar cross section repre-
magnitude higher than for a commu- sents the sector of space that would Put it All Together and What
nications system, but the same rules reflect back the same signal as the do you Get?
still apply. The transmitted signal can combination of all the small pieces For the mono static configuration
be expressed as the product of the of the usually much larger aircraft we have noted that the range from
peak power output during the pulse we're looking for. So that equivalent radar transmitter to target is the same
times the gain of the antenna (we area accepts the radiation heading its as from the target to the receiver. In
will assume any transmission line way and sends it all back towards the addition, the receive antenna
losses are incorporated into the radar. Some folks commit their aperture is related to the transmitter
antenna gain to simplify the rest of careers to minimizing the cross antenna gain, since the same antenna
this). In decibels, that is section, as in stealth aircraft design- is generally used for both transmit-
P dBm + GdB = ERP dBm . The power ers, while others try to find ways to ting and receiving. There are perhaps
density of the signal reaching the overcome such minimizations. other obvious common elements,
target is reduced by the distance, as since the transmitter and receiver
we have observed and is just Step 3-Listen Carefully came from the same system de-
ERP dBm/4nR2 , where R is the range to The effective area sends us back a signer. It's fair to assume that they
the target. The result is expressed in signal, what happens next? That both operate on the same frequency
whatever units of distance we choose signal propagates outward from the and that the receiver bandwidth is
to use. This is just the same as we area in many directions, including optimized to receive the pulse sent
Hadlolocation Systems 23-5

from the transmitter. We have can determine how much signal we receiver is proportional to the
defined the power density illuminat- actually receive at the receiver as: bandwidth of the receiver, and that is
ing the target as: a key parameter here. We haven't
(Eq 6) talked about pulse width since our
(Eq 1) discussion of range resolution, but
Received signal power at antenna this is where it shows up again. The
where PT is the transmitted power terminals is: narrower the pulse width, the wider
and GA is the antenna gain. The the bandwidth required to properly
power density of the reflected signal receive it. At a first approximation,
at the receiver is: we can say that the optimum band-
Note that, not surprisingly, the width is just equal to 1/1', where r is
P R = ERP 14 rc R 2 (Eq 2) antenna gain shows up twice. the pulse width. Thus, assuming
Rearranging, and converting from optimum system design, we can
where ERP is the effective wavelength to frequency, we have: express the bandwidth in terms of the
radiated power of the reflected primary radar parameter-that is,
signal. But ERP is just the effective (Eq 8) pulse width.
cross section, A, times the power The receiver's internal noise is a
density received at the target, or: Thus we neatly have the received function of the bandwidth and a
signal power in terms of the effective parameter that we haven't discussed
(Eq 3) target size, transmitted power, previously, the effective system
antenna gain, frequency and dis- temperature. By multiplying the
Substituting the above expression tance. Note that while we can easily effective absolute (degrees Kelvin)
for ERP into the formula for P R' we calculate this result in terms of a system temperature times Boltzman's
get: fixed target size, in real life with a constant (1.38 x 10-23 ) times band-
moving target we get a somewhat width, we get the noise power from
P R =APT GA /(4 rc R2)2= different effective size with each the receiver. By the way, this can
APT G A 1(4 rc)l R 4 (Eq 4) return, depending on the way the work for both internal and external
phase from each individual piece of noise sources, with external sources
This is significant. Note that the target adds up. This it's common being evaluated as to effective
unlike radio, where the signal falls to talk in terms of a range of values, temperature. This topic could
off with the square of the distance; in usually expressing them as a prob- generate a book of its own, so for the
radar the signal drops off at the ability function with an average and moment we'll leave it in general
fourth power of distance. This is why other statistical parameters. terms. The average (again we're
so much power and antenna gain are talking statistics here) output noise
needed to detect distant radar targets. So How Much Signal is power of the receiver in watts would
If we incorporate the receive Enough? thus be:
antenna aperture, the receiver The last step in this development
sensitivity and the required SNR into is to determine the signal to noise (Eq 9)
Eq 4 above for received power ratio (SNR) at the output of the radar
density, we will have the famous receiver so we can tell whether or not where K is Boltzman's constant, Tis
radar range equation, a major aid in we can detect a target of a certain the system absolute temperature and
determining long-range radar effective cross section A. In previous B is the bandwidth in Hz (typically,
performance. Let's take a quick pass chapters, we discussed the sources of 1/1', with l' the pulse width in
at doing just that. You may need to receiver noise and how they effect seconds). Substituting 1/1' for the
develop this on a blackboard during sensitivity. With a radar system, we bandwidth, we have:
a job interview someday. I did once! can assume that the internal receiver
noise will dominate. This will not PN = (K T)/'T (Eq 10)
Receive Antenna Aperture
always be the case; for example, the
In Chapter 17, we defined the antenna may swing past the direction Notice that we have calculated
relationship between antenna gain of the sun or other strong noise both the received signal power and
and effective aperture as: source. But at other times the radar the receiver noise power. If we divide
will be looking at a quiet sky, so the signal power by the noise power,
(Eq 5) we'll have to use that as our design we get the SNR:
point. If a large noise source is in the
where G i is the power gain compared direction of the target, we will either SNR = [A PT G i 2 (C/f)2 1(4 rc)3 R 4] 1
to an isotropic antenna, the same as risk not detecting a target or we will [(K T)/'T] (Eq 11)
the transmit power gain. Now that we have to increase power.
know the aperture, if we multiply it I mentioned in the discussion of This is just what we were looking
by the received power density, we receivers that the noise output of a for. It's rather long, but we should be
23-6 Chapter 23
able to make sense of all the terms.
Table 23-3 presents two examples of Table 23-3
the calculated single-pulse SNR in
Received signal-to-noise ratio of a single pulse as a function of
dB as a function of the parameters
peak transmitter power and distance.
above. In most applications, we will
have more than a single pulse to use, Case 1, Frequency 1 GHz, receive temperature 293 0 C, Pulse width to us,
but this is where to start. I have antenna gain 1000, cross section 10 tW.
chosen a frequency typical of long- PeakDistance (miles)
range search radars (1 GHz) with a Power (W) 1 10 50 100 200
10 us pulse width and another, 100 72.2 32.2 4.3 -7.8 -19.8
perhaps appropriate for shorter- 1000 82.2 42.2 14.3 2.2 -9.8
range, higher-resolution shipboard 10000 92.2 52.2 24.3 12.2 0.2
use at a higher frequency (10 GHz) 100000 102.2 62.2 34.3 22.2 10.2
with a 2 us pulse width. Note that 1.00E+06 112.2 72.2 44.3 32.2 20.2
while both sets of calculations
assume an antenna gain of 1000 Case 2, Frequency 10 GHz, receive temperature 293 0 C, Pulse width 2/-Ls,
(30 dB), the I-GHz antenna will be antenna gain 1000, cross section 10 ttr.
about 10 times the size of the PeakDistance (miles)
10-GHz antenna. Power (W) 1 10 50 100 200
100 45.2 5.2 -22.7 -34.8 -46.8
1000 55.2 15.2 -12.7 -24.8 -36.8
10000 65.2 25.2 -2.7 -14.8 -26.8
100000 75.2 35.2 7.3 -4.8 -16.8
1.00E+06 85.2 45.2 17.3 5.2 -6.8

So what do we do with this digital system generally requires a minute. A sketch of a PPI is shown
returned signal? Early radar displays fairly high detection threshold, in Fig 23-4. PPIs were known as "B-
used a typical oscilloscope display perhaps 10 dB, to minimize the scopes" to early radar operators.
with a fixed antenna to indicate the likelihood of false alarms.
range to a target within the beam. A Few Challenges Remained
The horizontal sweep would be set to Adding Another Dimension The development of radar during
synchronize with the PRI so that It didn't take folks long to figure WWII was a major effort that took
each sweep would show the full out that a radar that only showed place on both sides of the Atlantic
range of the radar and a target's targets in one particular direction and by both sides in the conflict.
progress up or down the beam could was not all that helpful, at least for That the collaborative work of large
be observed, as shown in Fig 23-3. many requirements. The great leap UK and US teams was much more
Radar folk would call that an "A- forward was the plan position successful may be one of the reasons
scope." indicator (PPI). The PPI is arranged for the ultimate outcome of that
Let's look at some numbers. like a plotting board on a large conflict. Many technological
Assume we have a 3-msec PRI, circular screen. The outside edge of challenges were overcome in the
meaning that about 330 pulses will the circle represents the maximum process, and they were resolved
strike the target every second. An radar range, the center of the circle much more quickly than would have
aircraft moving at say 300 miles per the radar location, and the display been the case had not this been a
hour will have moved 400 feet rotates around the circle in synchro- high priority in both nations. Of
during that second, still within the nism with the rotating antenna. As particular note was the development
typical range resolution (0.93 miles the antenna beam moves past a of the magnetron, a special type of
in this case). Thus the intensity of the target, its illumination would vacuum tube able to generate
display will be enhanced as the diminish, except that the display microwave energy and that could be
signals from multiple pulses tend to tube's persistence keeps the display easily produced in large quantities.
add together on the display, which intact until the next revolution of the
uses a long-persistence phosphor in antenna. A typical search radar What About Bumblebees?
its CRT. This increases the apparent system might rotate at a scan rate of One interesting problem had to do
SNR by combining the display from 1 revolution per minute, or 360 in a
0
with the nature of the fourth power
one PRI with the next, as long as
they are within the same effective
blip on the screen. In other words,
the scope's persistence displays the Rotating Beam
UBR1-2304 N
sum of all the returns as one slightly Synchronized to Antenna
Rotation
larger, but quite a bit brighter target.
Since signals from each return are
not actually in phase, rather than
adding linearly the successive returns
add as about the square root of the
sum of the individual pulses. If we
add that up over that second, we get
an integration gain of (400Y/2 or 20, W 1--+----1----+--te:--+--l--+---l E
an additional 13 dB of SNR. This
value can be added to the SNR of a
single pulse shown in Table 23-3. On
the other hand, a subtraction must be
made for any additional losses in the
system to determine the net SNR. Range Marks at 50,100,
150 and 200 Miles
The SNR required for detection
depends on the ability of the operator
S
to find and declare a return on an
analog PPI screen. An experienced Figure 23-4-A Plan Position Indicator (PPI) display of a search radar
and alert operator can observe a output. Two targets are shown, one to the NE at about 120 miles and one
target with a very low SNR, while a to the NW at 170 miles.
23-8 Chapter 23
relationship between range and reflections from waves. Such sea Airborne Radar
received signal strength. As previ- clutter was reduced significantly by Most larger aircraft include
ously noted, this resulted in the need changing to horizontally polarized forward-facing radar located behind a
for very high transmitted power antennas that had a null at zero radome in the nose of the aircraft. For
levels to obtain the desired range. degrees of elevation. civilian aircraft, the system's primary
The other side of that coin is that function is weather avoidance. In
signals returned from nearby targets Radar Applications
military aircraft, they also provide
are very strong, so that close-in small In addition to the search radars data to weapon-control systems.
objects have the effect of saturating used as examples above, radar
the receiver and blinding it from systems have a number of other Terrain Mapping Radar
seeing larger targets. It may be applications. Aircraft radar that is pointed
interesting to see a nearby swarm of
forward and downward can be used
bumblebees on the radar screen, but Height-Finder Radar
to map terrain features. By making
if it keeps you from seeing an The PPI display presents a two- parallel multiple runs at the same
aircraft at the same heading, it's not dimensional view of the universe. altitude and recording and digitizing
too helpful! The solution is to reduce Aircraft targets are presented in the data, an effective radar map can
the sensitivity of the receiver during terms of the place on the ground that be generated. This can be used as
the early portion of each PRI. In fact, they are above, but no information is data for a radar-based navigation
if it is reduced by the same fourth provided (by the radar) about their system that can match observed radar
power relationship, the intensity of a altitude. As we will discuss later, data with the stored map to deter-
particular target display can be cooperating aircraft provide this mine aircraft location and track.
constant throughout the radar range. information in a different way,
This improvement is known as however, if we are tracking hostile
sensitivity time control or STC. aircraft they cannot be expected to be
so accommodating as to tell us their
Moving Versus Fixed Targets altitude!
A major limitation of early A height finder is just a search
aircraft-detection radar was ground radar laid on its side so the antenna
clutter. Reflected signals from goes up and down instead of back
structures and terrain features tended and forth or around. The operator
to mask returns from desired targets. can align the height finder to the Fig 23-5-Four foot open array
The solution was to use a moving radar antenna rated at 4 kW, a part
azimuth of the desired target and
of the Raymarine E-80 Multifunction
target indicator (MTI) processing determine the elevation angle by Radar System (Photo courtesy,
system. The first MTI processors noting the maximum response from Raymarine Inc)
were composed of delay lines, equal the antenna pattern. By knowing the
in delay to the PRI. The returns from angle and the hypotenuse of the
one sweep would be subtracted from triangle (from the search radar) we Ship Navigation Radar
the same signal delayed by exactly can compute the horizontal distance Shipboard radar can be used to
one PRI. In theory, anything that (very analogous to the search radar's allow operators to see through fog as
hadn't moved would be subtracted range for distant targets) and the well as operate safely at night. The
out and the remainder would be height above ground. ship's position can be determined by
targets that had moved during the
Fire Control the reflections from navigational
PRI.
buoys, most of which include a
A more successful system was One of the major WWII applica- special corner-reflector on the top to
deployed later using high-resolution tions of radar was as part of gun- maximize radar returns. In addition to
analog-to-digital conversion tech- pointing fire-control systems for buoys, ship radar can detect other
niques made possible with integrated naval guns. The radar provides target vessels and surface structures. A
circuits. The digitized signal would location data to the system that then modern shipboard antenna is shown in
then be processed using multiple incorporate inputs for the ship's Fig 23-5. Note that the PPI configura-
shift registers to provide the delay. speed, pitch and roll. These systems tion display shown in the photo at the
The process could be repeated then compute the gun firing solution, front of this chapter shows both ship
multiple times. In order to be including timing the firing to returns as well as coastal features,
successful, all aspects of the radar coincide with the appropriate roll both of critical interest to those on
signal had to remain constant from position. Modern radars are also used duty on the ship's bridge.
pulse to pulse, or any change would in air, sea and ground systems to
look like a moving target. acquire targets and provide coordi- Weather Radar
A variation of this problem was nates to systems that direct defensive While weather cells can interfere
apparent to users of shipboard missiles on an intercepting course. with search radar operation, the
radars, except it was caused by

reflections are just what's called for Modern Radar Systems companies in the 1960s. In place of
to locate and track rain or thunder- moving antennas, they built radar
Modern radars operate on the
storm activity. The US National system designs using a large nU~ber
same principles as the early ones
Weather Service uses a network of of relatively low-powered transmit-
from WWII; however, in all aspects
interconnected computers and radar ter/receiver (transceiver) combina-
radar has taken advantage of the
systems to track weather systems and tions, each with an antenna directly
advances, in electronic and computa-
provide input to forecasting comput- attached to it. The transceiver/
tional technology.
ers designed to provide warning of antenna modules were then com-
serious weather conditions. Solid-State Integrated bined into one large flat surface. The
Displays key ingredients that made this into a
Speed-Control Radar remarkable system were high-speed
Speed control radar is a somewhat Perhaps the most striking chan~e
computational capabilities and .
different application of reflected is in display technology. The rotatmg
electronically controlled phase-shift
beam of a cathode-ray tube based
radio waves. A speed-control radar networks. By rapidly shifting the
PPI screen has been almost entirely
emits a continuous signal at a fixed relative phase of the signals from
replaced by modern display technol-
frequency. The frequency reflected each of the transmitters, the direction
ogy. The flat panel display of ~
by a moving object will be ch.ang~d of the wavefront leaving and being
current marine radar is shown m the
by the Doppler effect, increasmg ~f received from the combined antenna
the target is approaching, decreasmg photo at the front of this chapter. In
system could be shifted almost
addition to the radar return data,
if moving away. By heterodyning the instantaneously.
received signal with the transmitted other information is also presented,
A normal scanning mode could be
providing a single integrated display
signal, the resulting difference synthesized during periods of se~~h,
with all key information on the
frequency will be the Doppler.. T?e or a selected target could be specifi-
Doppler difference frequency IS Just single display screen. .
cally tracked, while simultaneously
In addition to displays, micro-
equal to 2v/A where A is the signal scanning the full range of the radar
miniature solid-state digital electron-
wavelength and v is the object's for additional targets. Both azimuth
velocity (towards or away from the ics have replaced many of the
and elevation information could be
observer). Both velocities are cumbersome electromechanical
obtained from the same system. The
expressed in the same units. If the systems of early radars. Digital .
lack of moving parts provided for
velocity is towards the observer, the electronics have also made possible
improved reliability, and the inherent
the sharing of data between centers
difference adds to the frequency; if redundancy of the design allowed for
and coordination of radar-based
away it subtracts. Thus the velocity minimally degraded operation if
information to an extent far beyond
of the object can be determined by a some of the individual elements
that provided by early manual
simple calculation and displaye~. failed. The only major limitation was
systems.
The same technique can be applied an inability to scan very far off axis.
to other radar systems, such as Phased-Array Radar However, in some cases this limita-
aircraft search radar to determine tion was overcome using multiple
Systems
target velocity. systems. This system has b~en used
A major change in radar technol- in major air defense and shipboard
ogy was developed by a number of missile control systems.
23-10 Chapter 23
Radar systems are critical for a beacon transmit antenna mounted Marine EPIRBs are usually acti-
many applications, especially those on it so that it points in the same vated manually, although some will
in which the target cannot be counted direction as the radar. The beacon activate automatically when immersed
on to cooperate. This includes not receiver data is presented on the in water. They obviously must survive
only hostile aircraft, but weather same integrated display screen with in the water. Both types of emergency
systems and landmasses as well! the radar data and instead of a radar beacons transmit simultaneously on
The second kind of radiolocation blip the beacon target is shown with the international distress frequencies
system involves a beaconing func- altitude and type code. A look at an of 121.5 and 243.0 MHz. These
tion. This was a system developed ATC display will show very few frequencies are monitored by satellite
during WWII because radar got too "skin" (radar) prints but mostly systems that can relay received beacon
good at finding aircraft and many beacon tracks. signals to ground stations. Search
friendly aircraft were erroneously Note that the beacon does not aircraft can also use the beacon signals
engaged and shot down, since their suffer the range-to-the-fourth-power to locate targets, once they are within
radar blips looked the same as the problem that requires such a high range.
enemy's radar blips. The first ERP from a radar transmitter. A A newer system operates on 406
systems were called identification- beacon signal falls off with the MHz and includes a registration
friend-or-foe or IFF. An aircraft or square of the distance, as does any number allowing responders to
ship observing a radar return would other radio signal. Modern beacons identify the type and user of the
send an interrogation signal, around operate in the GHz range. beacon to ensure appropriate response.
460 MHz, to the target. The friendly Some EPIRBs include a GPS receiver
target's IFF system would respond Emergency locating and can automatically send their
with a "squawk" signal including a Beacons position, while others may be con-
highly guarded code word. If it were A completely different type of nected to external navigation systems.
the "code word of the day," the radiolocation system is that known as
interrogator would conclude the emergency locating transmitter Notes
target was "friendly." (ELT). There are two similar sys- 'British patent 13,170.
Modern beacon systems form a tems: ELT designed to locate aircraft 2Thanks to retired MITre Corporation
major part of the worldwide air that have crashed, and Emergency Consulting Engineer, former
traffic control (ATC) system. In place Position Indicating Rescue Beacons Raytheon radar system engineer
of the IFF code word, modern (EPIRBS) for boaters. The aircraft extraordinaire, my mentor and long
beacons transmit a code indicating ELT uses automatic switches time friend, George W. Randig,
the category of aircraft and the designed to activate when the aircraft WIWO, for reviewing this chapter.
altitude measured by that aircraft. hits the ground harder than usual, 3TheARRL Antenna Book, 20th
The ATC radar antenna typically has much like the switch in automobile Edition, ARRL, 2003, P 18-18.
airbag system.
1. Describe how radar might have made a big difference to the outcome of
WWII. For example, what would be the impact on the number of interceptor
aircraft required by Britain to oppose German bombing if they did not have
warning radar?
2. Calculate the average SNR of a search radar operating at 2 GHz with a
receive temperature of 2930 C, a pulse width of 6 ms, an antenna gain of
2000 and a radar cross section of 5 m-.
3. What frequency would be output from a Doppler radar at 10 GHz if
you were approaching it at 75 mph (watch your units!)?

cfio~ cation ~J'temJ'
Leroy Chiao, KE5BRW, set a record in space by making

23 ARISS contacts with Earthbound school students
while heading the Expedition 9 crew aboard the
International Space Station.
Contents
Medium-Frequency Direction-Finding Beacons 24-2
Hyperbolic Navigation Systems 24-4
The Next Generation-Global Positioning System 24-7
Where Are We? Medium-Frequency the top of the aircraft with a receiver
Direction-Finding Beacons remotely located at the navigator's
By radionavigation we generally
station. For aircraft and for metal-
mean a system for the determination The most straightforward
hulled ships, the remote antenna
of the location of the user. This is in radionavigation system is probably
typically had a calibrated control at
contrast to a radiolocation system of the MF radio beacon. This is a radio
the navigation station labeled RADIO
the last chapter, where we try to find transmitter whose primary function is
COMPASS that the navigator could
the location of someone else. The providing a stable signal from a
use to rotate the antenna and observe
two overlap to a certain extent. One known location and with just enough
the signal strength.
reason for having a radar on a boat or identification information so that a
The small loop has a directional
ship is to be able to find navigation user can determine which one of the
pattern very much like the dipole
buoys or land masses at night or many beacons it is. MF beacons have
discussed earlier, although it has a
while in the fog to determine your been deployed since the' early days of
much smaller effective aperture. See
position. In this chapter, I will radio for both ship and aircraft use.
Fig 24-1 for the pattern of a small
concentrate on systems specifically They typically operate in the range of
loop. In typical use, the navigator on
designed for the purpose of 200 to 400 kHz and emit a constant
a boat would turn the antenna to
radionavigation. carrier modulated by low-speed
maximize the signal level and tune
There are many radionavigation Morse-code identifiers.
the radio for optimum reception. He
systems that are now in use or that
Manually Operated Direction would then verify the station's
have been used over the years. This
Finders identity and take a bearing using the
chapter is not intended to be a
sharp null of the antenna pattern. By
comprehensive examination of In both ships and aircraft, the using the sharp null, rather than the
radionavigation systems, but rather a navigator can use a receiver with a wide peak, a more precise reading
summary of some of the most moveable directional antenna could be taken. Under good condi-
important types, with applications of coupled to a direction scale. A typical tions, the accuracy was comparable
such systems. We will look at some antenna is a small bidirectional loop to taking a bearing with a hand
of the key types in the historical coupled with a sense antenna. compass, or even the ship's steering
order in which they came into use. Aircraft, because of their metallic compass under visual conditions,
skin, typically had a loop antenna on usually within a few degrees.
90 90
180L-l-------J--I--+-+-----I-+++-++-+----+---+-+--+---i---l 0 180 I----+--+-I---+-+-i--=~H-+-_j__+_-t-j--tl___'l 0
UBR1-2401 270 UBR1-2402 270
Fig 24-1-Azimuth response of small loop antenna at Fig 24-2-Unidirectional pattern typical of a small
300 kHz. loop with a sense antenna.
24-2 Chapter 24
A dipole or small loop has not one,
0
but two nulls, 180 apart. Sometimes
the correct direction is obvious. For
example with a water edge beacon,
one direction would be in the water,
one on land. Sometimes the determina-
tion of which bearing is correct is not
obvious, particularly in aircraft, and
the sense antenna provides a way to
determine the correct direction. The
sense antenna is usually a small
"whip" on a portable DF. An aircraft
might use a wire from the fuselage to
the top of the vertical stabilizer. The
sense antenna's output can be adjusted
in phase and amplitude and combined
with the loop's output to form a
unidirectional pattern, as shown in
Fig 24-2. Fig 24-3 and Fig 24-4 show
a military and a civilian version of
manual direction finders.
Automatic Direction Finders

Instead of mechanically turning the
loop antenna to determine the bearing,
modern DF systems make use of a pair
of perpendicular loops. By taking the
outputs from each and combining them
with variable phase, the pattern can be
rotated without actually turning the
antennas physically. Early systems used
this technique with remote, trans-
former-coupled outputs in which the
amount and phase of the coupling from
each antenna could be manually Fig 24-3-Military (WWII) manual radio direction finder. This version
adjusted to allow the navigator to uses two loops to resolve the 180 ambiguity.
0
remotely turn the antenna beam.

It wasn't long before modern
electronics jumped in and used the two
loop antenna outputs to provide
signals to processors that could
automatically compute the bearing to a
beacon station. In the aircraft naviga-
tion environment, the beacons are
called non-directional beacons (NDB),
as contrasted to other systems de-
scribed below that have signal coding
that defines the direction.
Systems described below have
largely superceded RDF systems, at
least in the US. In both marine and
aircraft environments, the US govern-
ment is migrating from RDF. While
some beacons have been decommis-
sioned, the principles are still sound
and the receivers can generally operate
with AM broadcast signals as well as
dedicated beacons, so the technology
will remain useful for some time. Fig 24-4-A commercial manual radio direction finder from the 1960s.
Radlonavlqation Systems 24-3

~ -,
'1IJIlll"J6lfD: fI~.FfjI»l!rA 'jIM' . .

A hyperbola is a UBR1-Z405 second pair of trans-
geometric figure with mitters having hyper-
the property that any ....... bolas that cross the
point on it is related to ....... first one, and we can
.......
two points called foci d determine which
(the plural of focus) so hyperbola we're on for
that the difference in
distance between any
"'"
___
"5
1 """-,
the second set of
hyperbolas, we have
point on the curve and
- - _
---
lz
_
<:":
Trnasmitter 2
two intersecting lines
two foci is the same. --..:::- of position. We are
The idea is shown in located at the point
Fig 24-5. The straight where they two lines
line midway between ------ intersect.
the foci is a special
case in which the Enter the LORAN
= 12
difference in distance 11
14=d+1 3
system
is zero for any point 16=d+1 5 LORAN is an
on the line. There are acronym for LOng
an infinite number of RAnge Navigation.
hyperbolic curves Fig 24-5-mustrating geometry of a hyperbolic navigation
The concept was
between the foci, and system.
developed and was
each will have a fairly successfully
different distance. implemented during
Imagine that we WWII. Instead of
have a radio transmit- having a pair of
ter at each of the two transmitters synchro-
foci and that they both nized together, a chain
transmit a pulse at of typically five
exactly the same time. transmitters would be
If we have a receiver set up in a region, with
that can measure the one as the master. The
difference in the master would send its
arrival time of the coded pulse train and
pulses, and we know each slave station
where the transmitters would send a pulse
are, we can calculate train as soon as the
the hyperbola that we master's signal arrived
are on. Knowing that at the slave station.
we are on a particular The time differences
hyperbola doesn't tell (TDs) between each
us where we are, but pair of stations would
does put us on that be different and they
curve. If we avoid the were spaced so that
region between the almost anywhere in the
two transmitters, the coverage region
hyperbola appears (typically greater than
fairly straight and can 1000 miles) there
act as what a navigator would be a pair of
would call a line of stations that would
position that can be have almost perpen-
drawn on a plotting Fig 24-6-l0RAN C receiver aboard sloop Windfall showing dicular lines of
chart. Now if we hyperbolic delay intervals from two stations compared to the position.
happen to have a master. The early systems
24-4 Chapter 24
used frequencies around 1.8 MHz,
just above the AM broadcast band
and shared with the amateur 160- '
meter Amateur Radio band. This
worked well in daylight, but night-
time ionospheric propagation could
cause changes in the delay that
would make for inaccuracies. Early
receive equipment was quite large
and power hungry. The navigator
would look at an oscilloscope and
watch the pulses from the two
selected stations on the same display.
He would "crank in" delay with a
calibrated adjustable delay network
until the pulses lined up and would
then read the delay difference from
the delay network dial. Special
navigation charts with lines of
constant delay would be used to plot Fig 2~-7-LORAN C receiver of Figure 24-4 in navigation computer mode
the ships position. showmg (bottom row) the course to steer and distance to waypoint
number 1.
In the 1960s, the LORAN C
system was deployed with transmit-
ters operating at 100 kHz, a fre-
accurate than just finding your VOR uses frequencies from 108 to
quency that avoided ionospheric
position on a chart, since any system- 117.9 MHz, just below the aircraft
propagation difficulties. In addition,
atic errors (such as propagation delay communication range, making it
electronics were advancing to the
over land versus water) would cancel possible for common antennas and
point that circuitry could automati-
out or be the same each time you radio equipment to support both
cally perform the delay determina-
were at that particular location. In functions. Channel spacing is
tion and the delay could be directly
other words, repeatability was better 100 kHz. Aero navigation charts
viewed on a digital display. By the
using the LORAN-C system than indicate the position and frequency
early 1980s, LORAN receivers had
absolute accuracy. Using waypoints of VOR transmitting stations.
become affordable for very small
usually got me within about five to The transmitting station broadcasts
boats. In 1984, I purchased a
ten yards of any particular waypoint. I a signal with unidirectional pattern
LORAN receiver that weighed about
had to be careful to not memorize the like that of Fig 24-2. The signal
two pounds and was the size of a
exact location of a buoy as a rotates through 360° at 30 revolu-
small radio receiver. Fig 24-6 is a
waypoint, so that later I didn't hit it in tions per second. While this could be
photo of my receiver aboard the
the fog! generated via two antennas out of
sloop Windfall, showing the delay
phase by 90° with one rotating
differences, in msec from two VHF Omnidirectional Range around the other, a more reliable
transmitters. It not only could tell me
(VOR) system works in a manner similar to
the delays between transmitters, but
The VHF Omnidirectional Range the ADF, without moving parts. A
also could convert directly to latitude
or VOR system has been in place central monopole serves like the
and longitude if I needed to tell
since around WWII, making obsolete RDF sense antenna in combination
someone my position. Many nautical
a less-useful LF range system. VOR with two pairs of phased bidirec-
charts then included LORAN lines of
has been supported by the US tional antennas positioned to result in
position, and it was quite easy to
Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) as a a unidirectional pattern. The antenna
determine position to within about
primary tool for aircraft navigation. elements are shown in Fig 24-8C.
50 yards in my area.
There are a few different flavors- In operation, the VOR drops its
Another feature was the ability to
Terminal VOR, or TVOR, is a short- carrier momentarily when the peak
store waypoints. A waypoint is a set
range system deployed around of the beam is at magnetic north to
of LORAN coordinates for a place
airports. The FAA supports longer- allow synchronization between the
you had been. These could be entered
range systems for those below an transmitter and receivers. A measure-
by just hitting a button to memorize
altitude of 18,000 feet: Victor ment of the phase of the resultant 30-
the location. The receiver could then
Airways or L(ow)VOR. Above Hz amplitude modulation of the
compute the bearing and distance to a
18,000 feet, Jet Airways or signal compared to the received
waypoint, as shown in the lower row
H(igh)VOR is part of the FAA air- phase at dropout provides a measure-
of numbers in Fig 24-7. Returning to
route system. ment of the direction from (or
the waypoint was much more
Radionaviqation Systems 24-5

towards) the VOR transmitter. The away) from the transmitter. sectors that aircraft are in. These
aircraft can "dial in" a bearing and There are a number of other provide for instrument landing
the aircraft instruments will indicate aircraft navigation systems using system (lLS) course determination
the direction the aircraft needs to multiple beams with different and glide-slope indication.
turn to stay on the vector towards (or modulating frequencies to indicate
o o
270 1---+----+----+--+--+---+----+-+-+-++--+--+---+-+-+--+--1 90 2701---+--1--1--+--+-1--+++++--+-+---+--+--+---+----1 90
180 180
(A) (B)
270 1--+--I--I--1--i!'...........J...~++--+-+---+-+-+---+---II 90
UBR1-2408 (C) 180
Fig 24-8 At A, omnidirectional VOR center antenna element with azimuth pattern. At B, a pair of bidirectional
antenna elements with azimuth pattern. At C, combined VOR pattern at intermediate phase.
24-6 Chapter 24
The Global Positioning System the time that the satellite says it sent keeps the satellites in precise orbits,
(GPS) is the most recent entrant to out the message, the receiver can we can make use of satellite data to
the "where are we" sweepstakes. GPS determine the distance it is from the correct our own receiver's clock. All
was put in place by the US Depart- satellite. Because the satellite sends it takes is two or more satellites. If
ment of Defense as the NAVSTAR information on its exact position our clock is exactly right, the
system in the late 1970s to provide when the signal was sent, that means distance from the next satellite to our
position data to US military systems. that the receiver is located on a computed position will confirm that
In the 1980s, the US Government sphere with the satellite at its center. position. If it doesn't, then our
decided to use GPS as a replacement A sphere 12,000 miles in radius receiver clock must be off. The
for the multitude of civilian naviga- doesn't make for a good position receiver then applies clock correc-
tion systems supported by the estimate, which is why signals from tions until the calculation of our
Department of Transportation. Most multiple GPS satellites are required position from each satellite lines up
systems have phase-out plans in to determine an accurate position. to the same place. A side benefit is
place, although there are so many The signal from a second satellite that we now have a clock in our GPS
users of RDF and LORAN systems, it defines a second sphere. The receiver that is about as accurate as
has not proved to be an easy job to intersection of the two spheres places an expensive atomic clock.
tum off these older systems. GPS is us on a circle. A third sphere, based Fig 24-9 shows an inexpensive
now fully available for civilian, as on reading a signal from a third handheld GPS receiver installed in
well as military use, and provides a satellite will intersect the circle at my boat Windfall. In addition to
level of accuracy beyond earlier two points. In many
systems. The combination of the cases, one of the
world-wide availability of GPS with points is clearly not
modem electronics technology has our location-it could
made GPS an essential element of be 24,000 miles from
many integrated telecommunications Earth, for example. In
and navigation systems. the worst case, a
Like LORAN, GPS is a system fourth satellite signal
based on time-difference measure- can get us to a single
ments. GPS is a satellite-based point in the universe,
system and depends upon a constel- with latitude, longi-
lation of 24 low earth orbiting tude and altitude
satellites operating at about half of within about
the geosynchronous altitude. The 50 meters. Auxiliary
satellites travel in six orbits with ground systems can
each satellite making two orbits per eliminate additional
day around the Earth. errors and result in
Each solar powered (with battery accuracy in the 5 to
backup) satellite transmits a 50-W 10-meter range.
signal on a frequency of The trick is to
1575.42 MHz containing a coded know what time it is
identification number, as well as at the receiver,
information about its position (called without having to buy
almanac data) and information about a $50,000 atomic
the time of transmission and status clock for every $99
(called ephemeris data) based on a GPS receiver!
very accurate on-board atomic clock. Obviously any
Corrections to the data in each inaccuracy in our
satellite are provided by ground- time keeping will
control stations that send correction cause us to make
information to the satellites as errors in our distance
needed. calculations. Since
If a ground station knows what the government put
time it is, by comparing current real an atomic clock in Fig 24-9-GPS receiver on Windfall, in navigation
time when receiving the message to each satellite and computer mode.
Hedlonavlqatlon Systems 24-7

position data, it provides a naviga-
tion computer function as described
for the LORAN receiver. Fig 24-9
shows this mode, providing informa-
tion on how to get to the next
waypoint, which is 0.27 nautical
miles away, on a heading of 219 0
relative to True North. More ad-
vanced (and more expensive than
$99) GPS receivers provide radar-
like displays indicating the user's
position on a map, for automobile
use, or a chart for aviation or marine
use. Manufacturers have digitized
nautical and aeronautical charts so
that they can be loaded into the
receiver and provide a combined
map and position display. See
Fig 24-10.
As mentioned earlier, far more
accurate readings can be obtained
through auxiliary systems, such as
Differential GPS, a system that
requires a cooperating fixed ground
station. If the ground station knows
exactly where it is, and is relatively
close to the mobile station, it can
compare its known location with that
predicted by GPS reception. Any Fig 24-10-Display screen of The Garmin GPSMAP 172, a GPS receiver
difference must be due to the various with integrated chart display and maritime navigation computer. (Photo
courtesy of Germln International)
(small) errors in satellite timekeeping
or position recording since the
signals pass through almost the same
piece of space. The ground station
can determine a correction for each
received satellite at that moment and
send it (on another frequency) to a
DGPS receiver. The mobile GPS can
apply the same corrections, with the
resulting position determination
accurate to within a few feet. The
USCG has DGPS stations at critical
locations, and private companies also
provide such stations with a sub- 1. To determine position using an RDF system, the navigator takes
scription fee, or for their own use as bearing measurements from his location to two known radio stations using
part of surveying or oil field explora- the RDE If those bearings are plotted on a chart, each line is a line of
tion activities, for example. position (LOP) on which the navigator is located. The point at which the two
GPS has found applications in LOPs cross then must be the location of the boat or aircraft-but is it?
many areas. Many long-haul truckers Suppose the navigator takes a third bearing to another transmitter. If every-
have GPS receivers connected to thing works perfectly, it should cross at the same point, but it likely won't.
radio transmitters, so their progress Why?
and current position is instantly
2. What information can we infer from the difference in predicted
available to the company dispatcher.
positions of the third bearing with each of the other two in Question 1.
An Amateur Radio application,
above?
Amateur Position Reporting System
(APRS) performs a similar function, 3. Besides VOR and ADF, another approach to air navigation is to have
with the results loaded onto the position and track determined by ground-based radar and communicated by
Internet, allowing anyone to keep radio from ground to the aircraft. Discuss the relative advantages and
track of an amateur's travel progress. disadvantages of each approach.
24-8 Chapter 24
How electronics have changed over time! At left, state-of-
the-art, luggable handheld transceiver from the 1940s. At
right, a 2005 bicycle equipped with several mobile VHF and
UHF transceivers, a scanner, a timer/watch, digital compass,
a portable weather station and an AM/FM entertainment
console! Just in case, a Geiger counter is also available.
ContenD'
What Can We Learn From the Past 25-2
Is My Guess Better Than Processor Speed is Memory size has not been as
Yours? Increasing fundamental a quantity as clock
speed, since you can usually upgrade
That's a good question, and some Computers are playing more and
the amount of memory without
of your guesses may be a lot better more significant roles in all electron-
changing the rest of the computer.
than mine] I guess I've had the ics, including radio and other
The key ingredients here is the
opportunity to watch the evolution of telecommunications systems. We
computer architecture, especially as
a few generations of radio and other have watched computers move from
it deals with memory:
telecommunications systems, being extremely expensive, room-
" How much memory can be
perhaps even to participate in the sized and unreliable monsters in the
addressed by a particular processor
shaping of some directions. So I will 1940s to inexpensive integrated
design?
pass along my thoughts and perhaps electronic devices appearing in
" Memory packaging-how much
they will trigger different or better everything from toasters to palm-size
memory can you fit on a reason-
thoughts on your part. general-purpose computers. It is
ably sized chip and what is the cost
interesting to observe the change in
What Can We learn From for such a chip?
the processor clock frequency in
" How much money does it make
The Past? typical home computers since they
sense to put into memory? In other
It has been said that "The Past is became widely available in the early
words would it be smarter to
Prologue," implying that whatever 1980s.
upgrade the memory or the whole
has happened sets the stage for the Fig 25-1 shows how the clock
computer?
future. That is certainly true, how- speed has risen for the PCs (personal
So memory size is an interesting
ever, many read too much into trend computers) over the past 25 years. Of
parameter to observe as a measure of
data. The fact that a stock has gone course, my wife will point out that
computer "horsepower" and I've
up every Friday for the past five many of these computers are still in
provided a chart in Fig 25-2.
years doesn't mean anything-after my basement, made obsolete by the
all, your favorite football team has next round of technology! The trend Equipment Can be Made
always beaten the point spread when is clear-PCs no longer can limit Smaller and lighter
playing at home, so surely they'll do your typing speed.
Each new generation results in
so this next Friday... I have had
friends lose lots of money on both
Storage and Processing equipment that is shrinking in size.
Capability of Personal This is a result of a couple of
kinds of bets!
Computers technological trends-the ability to
What then are the trends that we
make smaller and smaller, or
can observe to see if they will have Computer RAM memory provides increasingly complex, integrated
an impact on radios in the future? an general indication of how much circuits, and the higher processing
There are several that I think are key. data can be manipulated quickly. speed of processors. The net result is
PC CPU Clock Speed Growth Over Time

3500
PC RAM Growth over Time

3000 1200.00 . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
2500 1000.00
2000 800.00
"'
Co
..c
:;;
.
~ 600.00 1 - ---------- -- - - - -
1500
:;;
1000 400.00
500 200.00
0.00
1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005
Year Year
Fig 25-1-Processor clock speed of typical home Fig 25-2-Random access memory (RAM) in typical
PCs over the past few decades. home PCs over the past few decades.
25-2 Chapter 25
that equipment is able to handle tasks display and a battery why not make more functions in a box that you have
once assigned to multiple pieces of them a useable size for a person and to carry anyway. Since the box itself,
gear with specialized functions. design around the resulting box? advertising and distribution tend to
What this means is that as technology cost more than the electronics inside
So Where Does This lead gets smaller there will be more and the box, the competitive marketplace
us?
How Small can you go?
While some parameters lead us to
expect growth to double every few
years, there are some fundamental
size limits we come up against. It
seems to me that the key "human
factors" issues are:
.. How small a display screen can
you actually get useful information
from?
.. How many buttons do you need to
send information, or to request
different screens?
The above seem to me to set the
limit on how small you can get based
on current "man-machine-interface"
(MMI) concepts. While a telecom- FSK Converter
0.5 cu ft, 10 Ibs
munications device could conceiv-
ably be made to fit on a penny
sometime in the near future, the risks
of accidentally swallowing it while
speaking into the microphone
integrated into such a device might
outweigh any benefits coming from a
small size!
Someone might point out that a
miniature communications device
could become part of something else,
perhaps a computer or a telephone,
but in my opinion that just moves the
problem around-it's now bigger
because of what it's part of!
So What is likely to Happen

Next?
I think we're starting to see what Radio Transceiver
Switch Mode
the future holds as I write this. In Power Supply
0.15 cu ft, 31bs
Laptop PC with Soundcard
2005, manufacturers are faced with 0.25 cu ft, 8 Ibs 0.25 cu ft, 4 Ibs
the dilemma of technology allowing
devices to get smaller than can be
gainfully employed and are respond-
ing with more functions in each
device instead of making devices too Handheld
Cellular Phone
small to be useful. 0.004 cu ft, 0.2 Ibs
The Cell Phone as a Case

Study
The result-cell phones that also UBR1-2503
serve as cameras and text messaging

devices. The logical common Fig 25-3-Evolution of radio-based text messaging systems as an
denominator seems to be that since example of the trend toward miniaturization. A-1940s, 8-1970s, C-1990s,
your cell phone needs a touch pad, a D-2005.
Where is Technology Taking Us Next? 25-3

will tend to keep the price constant
while the features expand.
So what might you expect to see
included in the Nextgen cell phone?
How about the following features all
hanging from your belt?
.. A GPS receiver, so your cell phone
and your callers will know where
you are, hopefully with an on/off
switch if you want your location to
be private.
.. A navigation system like those in
Fig 25-4 ICOM IC-7800 HFNHF transceiver. The multifunction display can
modern automobiles that use GPS serve as a spectrum analyzer as shown here, along with the display of
and stored maps to get you where basic operational information, or can be set to decode radioteletype text.
you want to go.
.. A broadcast and satellite TV
receiver. While stereo or five-
channel reception might be larger radios, more and more operate at IF frequencies in the tens
possible, it would probably work functions that used to be outside the of kHz, generally requiring an extra
better with headphones than with a basic radio are being included as part conversion stage to get the IF down
bunch of little speakers in a small of the package. In some new radios, to the operating frequency of the
cell phone! not only is the FSK-to-data converter DSP. As the speed of DSPs increase,
.. A radio receiver capable of built in the radio, but also the data is they will be able to operate at IF
receiving frequencies almost from decoded and displayed on a built-in frequencies in the MHz range,
"de to daylight." general-purpose display. A good perhaps eliminating an extra conver-
.. A full-function palm-top computer example of this trend is shown in the sion stage and all the distortion
with the ability to infrared updates ICOM IC-7800 transceiver shown in products that can occur there.
to and from your desktop or laptop Fig 25-4. The trend is clear-as the speeds
computer. of DSPs increase, functions can
.. A dictation machine to allow you What Else is Happening? move right up to the antenna termi-
to record memos and letters while Technology is moving forward on nals. This implies a complete
you're stuck in traffic. a number of fronts. One result of multimode, all-frequency receiver on
.. And, of course, a full-featured higher processor speed is the a single chip. Of course, we are faced
telephone responding to audio capability of digital signal processing with the question of where to put all
commands. (DSP) working at progressively the control knobs-one option is a
.. Add your guesses here. higher speeds. The first DSP proces- large, mostly empty box with good
sors operated at audio frequencies. controls and displays on the front
What About "Serious" Radio panel-the other is a virtual receiver
They did a great job of shaping audio
Equipment? bandwidth filters with very steep with controls and displays all on the
While the cell phone is a great skirts that far surpassed the capabili- screen of a personal computer. Both
example of emerging technology, ties of analog filters. These filters options are available as I write this
with any luck there still will be other could do a great job, provided that and they will just continue to get
future devices larger and heavier earlier stages of a receiver weren't smaller and work better.
than cell phones. Cell-phone technol- overloaded or driven into distortion.
ogy makes good use of many In the last few years, the higher And on the Transmit Side?
repeater stations with power control speeds possible in CPU chips have All of the benefits that DSPs bring
that limits the output power of most resulted in special-purpose DSP to receivers are available in transmit-
phones to less than I W; there will chips able to move "closer to the ters as well. DSPs can be used as
always be a need for higher-powered antenna" of a receiver. This has audio processors to shape and
radios capable of direct long-haul meant that rather than just being able optimize microphone and other input
communication. to shape the frequency response of signal response, generate SSB
The current generation of HF the receiver audio stages, the current signals, limit bandwidth, etc. As the
transceivers is showing signs of generation of DSP chips can move processing speed increases, the
following the same trend as the cell into the IF region of a receiver and functions again can move closer and
phones noted above. While some eliminate out of band signals. This closer to the antenna, or at least
product lines are trending towards results in an architecture that can closer to the output power amplifier,
miniaturization, others seem to be offer better overall receiver perfor- which will likely not be on the same
going in the other direction. With mance. The current crop of DSPs chip for some time-at least not for
25-4 Chapter 25
power outputs above a few watts. is "thinking outside of the box"! I means that all control operations,
will go a bit out on a limb here, and input and output signals and
How About the Far Side?1 it will be interesting to see if this is displays occur directly inside the
Twenty some years ago, Swiss "old hat" by the time you read this! user's brain.
watchmakers made the classic Imagine: o Eventually, we could become part
mistake of trend watchers every- 1. Phase I-Devices are too small of how we communicate. We use
where-they assumed that the trend for useful input/output controls: our voice to talk to someone
lines would continue forever. Based o Because devices are becoming too standing next to US-OUf internal
on historical evidence (over 500 small for their controls, buttons communicator to talk to anyone
years of data), they concluded that will be replaced by an audio else-without even thinking about
they would continue to dominate the command interface; eg, "Tele- it.
wristwatch business. They only had phone, connect to Molly at the o With the processing built-in, we
to make their finely crafted watches office." won't have to worry about direc-
operate more accurately, be quieter .. Displays will suffer from the same tions. We just wonder about how
and fit into progressively slimmer constraint. Rather than force users to get somewhere and the built-in
cases. It worked until someone to wear magnifying lenses to read GPS and mapping functionality
(interestingly, also from Switzerland) the display, the display will appear translate into directions just as we
developed the electronic watch. All in the lenses of the user much as need them.
of a sudden it no longer mattered that aircraft "heads-up" displays seem .. We will be able to watch television
their watches were slim and quiet, to appear on the aircraft just by thinking about the pro-
the electronic watches could beat windscreen. gram-wherever we are. No more
them on every parameter and sell for 2. Phase 2-Bioengineering fighting over the remote-we all
a small percentage of the price of a development continues at its current have one built in.
finely handcrafted Swiss watch. pace and the Man-Machine-Interface Well, that's my vision for what
The lesson is clear. Trend watch- (MMI) moves from the edge of the might be possible in the future.
ing is useful, but you must also keep machine to the edge of the user: What's yours?
your eyes on the horizon. The catch o Telecommunications devices
phrase is "paradigm shift"-meaning become so small that they can be Notes

looking at things in a completely implanted into each user. 'With apologies to Gary Larson.
different way. Another word for this • The MMI moves into the user. This
Where is Technology Taking Us Next? 25-5

onJ'frucfi n
Conten is
Introduction A-2
Project 1 A-4
Project 2 A-7
Project 3 A-8
Project 4 A-i0
Project 5 A-i2
Project 6 A-i4
Project 7 A-i9
Project 8 A-20
One way to get a good feel for the the simple transmitter. If the exact should operate in place of the device
principles outlined in this book is to values for inductor and variable specified. If you have a PNP transis-
build some of the circuits I described capacitor are not available, the tuning tor, the same circuit can work-just
in the text. In this Appendix, I range for parts you do have may be turn the battery connections around.
describe circuits that can be built different. The tuning range can be If you wish to use a different audio
successfully by those just learning calculated from Eq 2-1 in Chapter 2. integrated circuit for the audio stage,
about radio. By building the various If you are in a part of the world look for application notes on the
circuit blocks in this section, you that has strong shortwave broadcast Internet and compare the wiring and
should be able to imagine more stations, you may even choose to components with the one I used. If
complex systems that are made up of redesign the tuned circuit to cover the performance is similar, it should
combinations of these blocks. their frequencies. Feel free to work as well.
Most of the circuits described here experiment with different values of A good source of parts can be
are not terribly fussy about construc- resistors and capacitors as well. Just found in discarded electronic
tion techniques, or even the exact be careful that you don't change the equipment. Careful use of wire
parts used. They can be built in a values of resistors setting the de cutters can yield a large number of
number of different ways, which I currents of the transistors by more potentially useful parts, especially if
will describe. If there are any areas than a factor of two to avoid transis- you have a meter that can read the
that heed particular caution, I will tor damage. For the transistor, almost resistance and capacitance of the
point them out. any small-signal NPN transistor
If you are not inclined to actually
build these circuits, there is still
something to be gained through a
careful examination of the schemat-
ics and photos to visualize the
transition from a paper design to an
actual physical working model.
Hook
Getting the Parts
One of the major challenges of
E
this kind of effort is finding the
parts. There was a time when an
electronic retailer seemed to be right
on every street corner, providing all 90 0
-9V
the electronic parts you could (GND)
Bend
imagine. Those days are gone; (A)

(8)
however, there are still a number of
dealers who can provide the parts
you need by mail or through the
C2
Internet. It is likely that the availabil- C4 100 pF
ity of some parts might change over 100 pF ".,.............;;...-----+----1 t---o OUTPUT
the life of this book, so be prepared INPUT o---1l-~f---rp----+-I
to search on your own.
In general, I have tried to avoid
specifying expensive parts. I don't
recommend that you spend a lot of ~01~F
money to get the exact part that I
may have identified. In many cases a
slightly different value or a part with
a different rating may be available at
lower cost. Consider the resonant UBR1-A101 (C)
+
9V
0=h
circuit designed to select the receiv-
ing frequency of the simple crystal Fig A1-1-A sketch of a circuit and the corresponding layout using the
set, or the transmitting frequency of ground-plane construction technique.
A-2 Appendix
often obscurely marked parts. Just be
sure that the equipment from which
you harvest your parts will never
need to be used again, because it
certainly won't operate after this
activity!
Construction Techniques
There are many ways that simple
circuits can be constructed. I have
chosen to use manufactured perfo-
rated board for my examples because
it was available at the retailers I
purchased the parts from. Perforated
board is handy because the perfora-
tions can be used to easily locate the
parts on one side and the wiring can
be on the other. Depending on the
materials available, you may wish to
use other techniques.
• Breadboard construction-this Fig A1-2-A sketch of a workstation designed for low risk of ESD
may be the easiest to find, just a damage. At (1) is a grounded dissipative mat, at (2) a grounded wrist
strap connection and (3) a cable to the wrist strap.
piece of wood and some nails will
do the trick. Pick a dry piece of
wood, draw your circuit on the
board, put nails at the junction wired into the circuit, any such grounded ac outlet box. Repeat
points and wrap the wires around charge will be dissipated by the every time you move your feet,
the nails. Don't count on the nail surrounding passive components and and before you touch a sensitive
for connection though, just for there will be less of a threat. Germa- device.
mechanical support. Solder the nium devices, such as the IN34A • Don't move your feet, so you don't
wires together at each junction. diode, are particularly susceptible. create static charges.
While this won't work well for However, even modern silicon • Pick up sensitive devices by one
some circuitry, it should work fine devices can be damaged. lead, using insulated tools if
for these projects, and is perhaps The best way to avoid ESD possible.
the oldest construction technique. component damage is to do all your • Quickly wire into the circuit, one
• Ground plane construction- work at work station that is espe- lead at a time.
makes use of often readily avail- cially set up to avoid ESD problems. Another concern about active
able surplus unused printed circuit Such a work station is shown in devices is thermal stress. Too much
board material with a copper Fig AI-2. The key features are a soldering heat can also damage
conductor on one or both sides. grounded work surface, such as the sensitive solid-state devices. As with
Use the copper foil as the common special mat shown and the grounded ESD, there are a few simple rules
ground connection for the circuit wrist strap that keeps the technician's that should help eliminate this
by soldering the ground side of any hands at the same ground potential as problem:
grounded components to it. The the bench. Any soldering equipment e Place a heat sink-it can be as
other end of the components, plus should also have the heated tip simple as an alligator clip-on
any ungrounded ones, are elevated grounded to the same grounded work each wire between the solder joint
above the board by the height of surface. and the device before applying
the grounded components. While such a work station is likely heat.
Fig AI-I shows an example of a good investment for people who • If there are multiple connections to
how this technique is employed. are in the electronics business, the a solid state device, solder the
required investment is certainly not device in place after all other
Component Handling warranted (in my opinion) by connections are soldered together
Some solid-state components are concern over a $1.50 diode! Some first.
susceptible to damage from static reasonably easy and almost as safe e Use enough heat so that solder will
electricity, also known as electro- methods can be employed, if flow quickly and remove the heat
static discharge (ESD). A large static appropriate care is taken. as soon as the solder flows.
charge can punch through a semicon- • As you sit down to work, touch Taking such precautions should
ductor junction, rendering the part your hand to a grounded fixture, or eliminate most device failures from
useless. Generally, once the part is even the outlet cover screw on a either ESD or too much heat.
Radio Construction Projects A-3

A Simple Crystal Set that were popular when crystal sets galena crystals and buy a very
Yes, you can actually build our were "high tech" back in the 1920s. inexpensive modern semiconductor
own crystal radio receiver. As noted The values for the other parts are not diode. It will work better and needs
in Fig 2-5 in Chapter 2, there aren't too critical, but should be fairly close no adjustments. Almost any diode
many parts required for a simple to the values shown. will work, but your radio will be
receiver. It may, however, be hard to For the crystal we can avoid the more sensitive with a germanium
find the high-impedance headphones difficulty of finding old-fashioned diode, such as a 1N34A, than with a
UBR1-a103
01
1N34A
Ear
3J
50 turns Plug
L1
wound on C1 Output
230 IJH R1
end of L1 See Below
38-365 pF 82 kQ
(A) (B) Output Option 1

High-Z Crystal Earplug
High-Z
Headphones Low-Z
Headphones
(C) Output Option 2 (0) Output Option 3

High-Z Magnetic Headphones Low-Z Headphones with
Matching Transformer
Fig A1-3-Circuit diagram (schematic) of a simple crystal set. Parts list for simple crystal receiver.
Part Number Value Type Dealer Dealer Part Number
C1 38-365 pF variable capacitor Antique ES1 C-V365
20-2202 pF variable capacitor Phllrnore" 86-1450
(less tuning range)
C2 0.01 ~F ceramic capacitor Moueer' 539-CK05103K
D1 1N34A germanium diode Antique ES PQ972
L1 230 ~H ferrite rod antenna coil Antique ES P-C73
Phones high-Z crystal earphone Antique ES P-A480
R1 82 kil, 1hW resistor" Antique ES R-1820k
Mouser 660-CF1I2L823J
One of the following is needed if using low-Z headphone with this receiver. See also Project 2.
T1 25006 : 8 n output transformer Antique ES P-T983
T1 1000: 8 n output transformer Radio Shack? 273-1380
(less expensive)
Mechanical and miscellaneous parts suggested for this and subsequent projects
Type Dealer Dealer Part Number
Hook-up wire 90 feet # 22 AWG solid copper Radio Shack 278-1221
Heavy duty 9 V battery snap connector Radio Shack 270-324
A-4 Appendix
more common silicon diode, such as circuit taking into account the detector. Rather this is a Rochelle
a IN914. cautions noted in the introduction salt crystal piezoelectric device
above. Otherwise there should be that converts electrical signals into
Will it Actually Work? few restrictions on technique. The vibrations. It does not have de
How well you can receive stations hook-up wire I specified in the parts continuity, so the resistor shown in
with this simple receiver will depend list comes in three rolls, one each Fig AI-3 is needed to complete the
on how close you are to an AM red, black and green. While it isn't circuit for de. Note that many such
transmitter, the power of that necessary to use colored wire, I earplugs are low-impedance
transmitter and the length and the propose that if you do you use the devices and will not work with this
effectiveness of your antenna and following coding: receiver. So be sure of what you
ground connections. • Red-Use for positive power are getting!
The most effective antenna you supply connections. • Use low-impedance earphones
can probably manage for this simple e Black-Use only for connections with a matching transformer-an
radio is a piece of wire as long and at ground potential. audio matching transformer can be
as high as practical. In theory a • Green-Reserve all other connec- used to transform the low imped-
vertical wire that 1/4 wavelength long tions. ance of modem stereo or other
would be optimal. This makes up headphones to a higher impedance
half of a dipole antenna and requires Options to use with the crystal set. If you
a good ground for the other side of Note that there are a few options are using stereo headphones, you
the connection. Look at your answers for connection of headphones for can either use one channel or tie
to Review Question 2 in Chapter 1 this receiver. In the days of crystal the two in parallel. Note that the
and divide by two to compute the sets, headphones were designed for resistor in Fig AI-3B is not needed
length of a 1/4-wave antenna. optimum performance when used in this configuration, since a de
But this is probably still longer with such a receiver. They were path is provided through the
than you can deal with! So your constructed with many turns of transformer primary.
antenna will be shorter than opti- magnet wire to provide a high • Waitfor Project 2-0ne option in
mum, and will therefore pick up less impedance load, to avoid loading Project 2 will provide a low-
signal. As a young lad, I had good down the circuit. Impedances of impedance output. If it works off
results with about 30 feet of wire run 2000 Q and higher were common. the bat you will be fine. If not, by
to a tree outside my second floor If you can find such headphones, combining Projects 1 and 2
bedroom window, perhaps 10 to by all means connect them directly to without testing Project 1 first, it
15 feet above ground. I was able to the output. You will have the best may become more difficult to
hear strong broadcast stations from results that can be obtained. If you troubleshoot a problem, if you
about 25 miles away. can't, all is not lost. There are three have one.
For a ground connection, the other possibilities, described below: The basic crystal set can work
classic connection point in a house is • Use a high-impedance crystal successfully with strong signals if a
a cold-water pipe. This works earplug-note that this is not the germanium IN34A diode is used.
because pipes are often copper and same kind of crystal as our The more common silicon diodes
they end up underground outside the
house. Make sure there's no PVC
(plastic) pipe in the path, especially
if your house was built fairly
recently. Plastic pipes do not conduct
electricity! Another ground possibil-
ity is to connect to the screw on the
outside of a power outlet plate. If
proper grounding has been employed
in your house's wiring, this should
connect all the way back to the ac
mains service-entrance ground.
Putting it Together
The schematic of the crystal
receiver is shown in Fig Al-3. I
placed the parts for this project on
one end of the perforated board to
leave room for the RF amplifier Fig A.1-4-Photo of top of completed crystal receiver using perforated
circuit coming in Project 4. Build the board construction.

will work, but require a very strong
signal to be detected due to the knee
of their operating curve starting at
about 0.6 V, compared to around
0.1 V for a germanium diode.
Fig Al-4 and Fig Al-5 are
photographs of the receiver built by
author WlZR.
Notes
'Antique Electronic Supply (Antique
ES) can be found at
www.tubesandmore.com or
480.820.5411
2This part will work, but will have a
limited tuning range.
3Philmore products are available at
some electronic retailers.
4Mouser Electronics can be found at
www.mouser.com.
'Not needed if using high-Z magnetic
(not crystal) headphone. Fig A1-5-Photo of bottom of completed crystal receiver.
6A higher value primary impedance
would provide increased sensitivity.
Values as high as 10 kW were
common in vacuum tube radios
and are sometimes found as
discards.
"Radlo Shack can be found at
www.radioshack.com.
A-6 Appendix
Adding an Audio Amplifier to the Simple Crystal Set
As we noted in Chapter 3, 9-12Vdc 9-12Vdc
+ +
a major improvement in the
usefulness of a crystal set
came with the addition of a
vacuum-tube audio ampli-
fier, a technology that was
from
developed during WW 1. For Crystal R1 >--H--9---I--l
this project, I will skip over Receiver
vacuum-tube technology and

add a simple single-stage
transistor amplifier to the
simple crystal set. This
amplifier, shown schemati-
UBR1-A106 (A) (B)
cally in Fig Al-6, will
amplify all the signals that Fig A1-6-Circuit diagram of the transistor audio amplifier for the simple crystal set.
come from the crystal set- Parts list for transistor audio amplifier add-on to crystal receiver.
whether you want to hear Part # Value Type Dealer Dealer Part Number
them or not, of course! C1,2,3 10 JlF, 25 V electrolytic capacitor Mouser 140-HTRL25V10
While this amplifier C4 100 JlF, 25 V electrolytic capacitor Mouser 140-HTRL25V100
Q1 2N2222 silicon NPN transistor Mouser 610-2N2222A
could easily be built on the R1 10 kn, 112 W potentiometer Antique ES R-VA10KL
same board as the crystal R2 100 kn, 112 W resistor Mouser 660-CF1/2L104J
receiver, I chose to build it R3 10 kn, 112 W resistor Mouser 660-CF1I2L103J
on a separate board that will R4 4.7 kn, 112 W resistor Mouser 660-CF1/2L472J
later be paired with the R5 470 n, 112 W resistor Mouser 660-CF1/2L471J
integrated circuit power
amplifier in Project 4. That
combination can be used for other provides a voltage gain. The high-Z- nected to the top end. Just be ready to
audio projects. in to low-Z-out configuration is called pull the phones off if you encounter a
As shown in Fig Al-6, the transistor a common collector amplifier and very loud station!
amplifier can be configured to drive provides a power or current gain, but The supply voltage shown is 12 V;
either a high- or a low-impedance load. no voltage gain. That sounds a lot like however, if a bench type supply is not
If you don't have high-impedance a combined power amplifier and available the amplifier can be powered
earphones, it may be less expensive to impedance transformer-just what by a 9-V "transistor-radio" battery in
build this simple amplifier rather than we want if we have low-Z phones! the holder listed previously. If desired,
trying to locate a transformer or The VOLUME control at the input a small switch can be inserted in the
another set of headphones. may reflect a bit of optimism on my line from the battery, or you can
The high-Z-in to high-Z-out part. If the potentiometer is not remove the battery when it is not being
transistor amplifier is called a available, a resistor of 10 to 100 kQ used. See Fig lA-7 and Fig lA-8 for
common emitter amplifier and it could be substituted with C1 con- photos of my completed amplifier.
Fig A1-7-Photo of top of completed transistor audio Fig A1-8-Photo of bottom of completed transistor
amplifier. audio amplifier.

Adding an RF Amplifier Ahead of the Simple Crystal Set
The preceding audio
amplifier increases the level of
signals, interference and noise R4 10 Q
coming from our crystal set.
This makes it easier to hear a
station we are tuned to, but
also amplifies all the other to
limitations of our simple AF
Amplifier
receiver. As noted in Chapter
3, another way to improve the
performance is to add a
single-stage transistor RF
amplifier ahead of the simple
crystal set.
The RF amplifier in Fig +
UBR1-A109 9 - 12 V de
Al-9 increases the level of
signals reaching the detector,
rather than the audio signals
leaving it. This increases Fig A1-9-Circuit diagram of the transistor RF amplifier for the simple crystal set.
Parts list for transistor RF amplifier add-on to crystal receiver.
signals reaching the detector Part # Value Type Dealer Dealer Part #
so that it operates in the more C1 38-365 pF variable capacitor Antique ES C-V365
linear portion of its response 20-2201 pF variable capacitor Philmore 86-1450
curve. Perhaps more impor- C2,3 .01 IlF, 25 V ceramic capacitor Mouser 539-CK05103K
tantly, you have added an C4 10 IlF, 25 V electrolytic capacitor Mouser 140HTRl25V10
additional tuned circuit to 01 2N2222 silicon NPN transistor Mouser 610-2N2222A
R1 10 kn, 112 W resistor Mouser 660-CF1I2l103J
improve the receiver's
R2 3.3 kn, 112 W resistor Mouser 660-CF1/2l332J
selectivity, the ability to R3 1.2 kn, 112 W resistor Mouser 660-CF1I2l122J
separate stations. This second R4 to n, 112 W resistor Mouser 660-CF1I2l103J
tuned circuit is likely to make R5 100 o, 112 W resistor Mouser 660-CF1/2l1 01J
much more of an improve- T1 230 JlH antenna coil Antique ES P-C70
ment than the first since the
selectivity of the first tuned
Fig A1-10-Photo of top of crystal receiver with RF Fig Ai-ii-Photo of bottom of crystal receiver with
and AF amplifiers. RF and AF amplifiers.
A-a Appendix
circuit was limited by the unavoid- stages, the more we must worry addition, the larger size of that
able loading of the connected about inadvertent feedback and receiver resulted in the inductors
antenna. having the RF amplifier tum into an being far apart.
With the combination of a tuned oscillator. We intend to investigate In this design, I have intentionally
RF amplifier ahead of the detector oscillators later, so a single stage that reduced the gain somewhat to
and an AF amplifier following it, we doesn't oscillate inadvertently may improve the likelihood of success;
have the modem solid-state equiva- be a more satisfying exercise. however, if there are any problems
lent of the Atwater-Kent TRF (tuned To minimize feedback, the RF with oscillation as the two tuned
radio frequency) receiver as shown in amplifier inductor should be installed circuits are tuned to the same
Chapter 3. The Atwater-Kent had in a shielded enclosure. This should frequency, reorienting the inductors
three tuned circuits, and associated be tied to the common ground may help minimize the problem. If
variable capacitors, while ours has through as short a lead as possible, there is no sign of instability, the
two, but the operation is similar. If and all other leads should as short value of R3 can be reduced to an ion
desired, a second tuned RF amplifier and direct as possible. In the as 100 W to increase the gain. The
could be inserted between the first Atwater-Kent design, the RF photos in Fig IA-IO and Fig lA-II
RF and the detector and ours would inductors were oriented so that they show the completed RF and AF
become a true "Three-dial TRF!" were mutually perpendicular to amplifiers with the crystal receiver.
The more gain we insert with tuned minimize magnetic coupling. In

Adding an AF Power Amplifier to Drive a Loudspeaker
So far, your efforts have

R1
been oriented towards ....---fll--.---'\N\,---_------I+
improving the crystal 9 -12 V de
receiver to optimize ~-
performance for a single
listener using earphones.
Since you now have a
Input
receiver "ready for prime
Low-Z
time," you may want to add Loudspeaker
more AF amplification to or
Headphones
drive a loudspeaker so that
others can hear what
you've made. To add some
UBR1-A112
variety to these projects,
instead of discrete transis-
tors and associated Fig A1-12-Circuit diagram of the IC AF speaker amplifier with preamplifier.
components, I have elected Additional parts list for integrated circuit audio amplifier add-on to crystal receiver.
Part # Value Type Dealer Dealer Part #
to use an integrated circuit C1 10 J.lF, 25 V electrolytic capacitor Mouser 140-HTRl25V10
(IC) in this stage, as shown C2,5 100 IlF, 25 V electrolytic capacitor Mouser 140-HTRl25V100
in Fig Al-12. C3,4 .01 IlF, 25 V ceramic capacitor Mouser 539-CK05103K
I have shown the new IC1 lM386N integrated audio amplifier Mouser 513-NJM386D
power amplifier stage IC socket (a-pin dual in-line) Mouser 517-ICA-083-WBTG30
together with the earlier Grid type IC spaced PC board 23/4" by 6" Radio Shack 276-1395
R1 100 n, 112 W resistor Mouser 660-CF1/2l101J
AF amplifier. The earlier
amplifier now becomes a
preamplifier for the output
Ie amplifier. While each
stage could be built
separately and powered
from individual batteries, I
will use a common power
source here. Good practice
requires that the power
feeds to the stages be
decoupled so that signals
will not inadvertently
couple between the stages,
causing instability. The
added decoupling is shown
in Fig Al-12.
Note that by going to an
IC amplifier, you have
eliminated the need for
bias setting resistors, as
well as some other compo-
nents. You also gain some
design flexibility that I
have elected not to take
advantage of in the
interests of simplicity and Fig A1-13-Photo of top of AF preamplifier with IC power amplifier.
A-10 Appendix
to maintain focus on the radio
aspects of this project. If you are
interested in finding out more, you
can find a data sheet for the output
IC on the Internet.
One downside of working with
ICs is that the connections are quite
close together, making interconnec-
tions a bit trickier. I have specified an
IC socket on the parts list to provide
a bit more space for connections.
Fig Al-13 and Fig Al-14 are photos
of the completed IC output amplifier
with AF preamplifier. Fig A1-14-Photo of bottom of AF preamplifier with Ie power amplifier.
While the power amplifier and
preamps are shown powered by a 9V
transistor battery, the drain is much
higher than for either of the earlier
projects resulting in a short battery
life. This would be a good project to
run from a 12 V power supply.
Fig A1-15-Photo the complete TRF receiving system. On the left is the RF amplifier and crystal detector; on
the right is the AF preamplifier and power amplifier. In the rear is a small loudspeaker.

A Simple AM Broadcast Band Radiotelegraph "Transmitter"
Before you proceed with this
project, it's important to note that
anytime you get into the realm of
UBR1-A116
C4
.. )
Key-----I( +
"radio transmitters" you need to 9 Vdc
be sure of local regulations. In
the US, equipment of this sort
10.01 1J F
~-
01
can only be used if it does not 2N2222
cause harmful interference to R2
others. Since a broadcast band 15 k o
transmitter, by definition, has the RFC
potential to interfere with those
making lawful use of licensed
R3
services, it is the responsibility of Iil--------l 1000 pF 1kO
users to avoid such interference.
A key piece of the FCC rules is
provided below:
Fig A 1-~ 6-Circuit diagram of the simple AM broadcast-band radiotelegraph
transmitter.
Title 47-Telecommunication Parts list for simple AM broadcast band radiotelegraph "transmitter."
Chapter I-Federal Communica- Part # Value Type Dealer Dealer Part #
tions Commission; Part 15- C1 38-365 pF variable capacitor Antique ES1 C-V365
Radio Frequency Devices; Sec. 20-2202 pF variable capacitor Philmore 3 86-1450
15.5 General Conditions of C2,3 .001 J1.F, 25 V ceramic capacitor Mouser4 539-CK051 01K
Operation: C4 .01 J1.F, 25 V ceramic capacitor Mouser 539-CK05103K
l1 230 J1.H ferrite rod antenna coil Antique ES P-C73
a. Persons operating inten- 01 2N2222 silicon NPN transistor Mouser 610-2N2222A
tional or unintentional Ri 27 kQ, 112 W resistor Antique ES 660-CF1/2l273J
radiators shall not be R2 15 kQ, 112 W resistor Mouser 660-CF1I2l153J
deemed to have any vested R3 1 kQ, 112 W resistor Mouser 660-CF1/2l102J
or recognizable right to RFC 1.2 mH RF choke Antique ES P-C206
continued use of any given
frequency by virtue ofprior
registration or certification
of equipment, or, for power line required to cease operating the support the Amateur Radio Ser-
carrier systems, on the basis of device upon notification by a vice-a service designed for exactly
prior notification of use Commission representative that such experimentation. See Project 6
pursuant to Sec. 90.63(g) of the device is causing harmful for a small, but serious, HF Amateur-
this chapter. interference. Operation shall Radio transmitter capable of world-
b. Operation of an intentional, not resume until the condition wide communications under opti-
unintentional, or incidental causing the harmful interfer- mum conditions.
radiator is subject to the ence has been corrected. Those in jurisdictions outside the
conditions that no harmful US should check with appropriate
interference is caused and that What this means is that any regulatory agencies to make sure
interference must be accepted experimentation with a transmitter such devices are legal, or find out if
that may be caused by the such as is described below should any specific restrictions on operation
operation of an authorized take place with no antenna, or the apply.
radio station, by another minimum antenna necessary to
transmit usable signals within your The Simplest of Transmitters
intentional or unintentional
radiator, by industrial, scien- residence. Connecting to an outside For the example of a transmitter I
tific and medical (ISM) antenna could place you in serious have selected a single-transistor
equipment, or by an incidental jeopardy of violating federal law. oscillator circuit (Fig Al-16) that is
radiator. Fortunately, if you wish to pursue easy to build. In a real-world
c. The operator of a radio such activity, the FCC, and regula- transmitter, such an oscillator would
frequency device shall be tory agencies of almost all countries, be followed by multiple RF amplifier
A-12 Appendix
stages. This is not too different from
that of Project 3, raising the transmit-
ter output power level to that needed
to get the signal to your desired
audience. In this project, the audi-
ence is minimal, perhaps just across
the room!
To receive radiotelegraph signals
in a receiver, you need a beat
oscillator, as described in Chapter 9.
Such a beat oscillator for our crystal
receiver could actually be another
transmitter adjusted in frequency to
be about 700 Hz above or below the
main transmitter frequency. An even
simpler approach is to use a "non-
cooperating" transmitter-a station
that you can hear with a crystal set.
By tuning your transmitter to a Fig A1-17-Photo of top of simple AM broadcast band radiotelegraph
slightly different frequency above or transmitter.
below the radio station's frequency,
you should hear an audible beat note
between the two signals in your
receiver. If you key the transmitter
on and off, the beat note will go on
and off and you can hear a simulated
radiotelegraph signal.
I have not specified an actual
telegraph key in the parts list since
not everyone is sufficiently interested
in Morse Code to want to buy one.
You can just touch the battery supply
wire on and off to give you the idea.
Anyone who does want to pursue
code practice could use such an
oscillator as a starting point and
borrow a key from almost any
licensed Amateur Radio operator.
Telegraph keys can be purchased
from most Amateur Radio dealers, or
a wide variety is available on the
Internet, for example at Morse
Express, www.morsex.com, starting
as low as $11 (in 2005) for a useable
beginner's practice key. I won't
mention how pricey the hand-made Fig A1-18-Photo of bottom of simple AM broadcast band radiotelegraph
versions can get! transmitter.

A Serious Low-Power Amateur Radiotelegraph Transmitter
Readers with an Amateur Radio

operator's license-or those who
intend to obtain one-may wish to
construct an actual low power (QRP)
transmitter for use on the 40-meter
amateur band. "QRP" operation
(generally considered transmitting at
levels below 5 W output-this
transmitter puts out only about
0.5 W) is a popular sub hobby in
Amateur Radio.
A warning: It can be frustrating
trying to be heard through noise and
interference on 40 meters when
you're using a "pip-squeak" trans-
mitter. I don't recommend that a
newcomer to Amateur Radio start
out with really low power for his/her
first transmitter. Most commercial
transmitters are 100-W units, for
example and you have a lot more
chance to be heard at this level than
you do at Ih W!
Still, this little "Tuna Tin 2"
transmitter is a fun and easy-to-build
project that can work well, especially
if used with a good antenna system.
The following is a reprint of an
article in the March 2000 issue of
QST, the official journal of the
American Radio Relay League.
If you want a serious operational
challenge, the preceding audio
amplifier, or a similar one, could be
inserted at measurement point 2 in
the diagram. The amplifier becomes
an AM modulator. Change the
crystal to 7290 or 7295, the usual
AM operating frequencies and see if
you reach anyone. However, radio-
telegraph operation is more success-
ful at these low power levels than
AM operation.
A-14 Appendix
Ham radio lost its kick? Go ORP with this weekend
project! Worked All States with a 40-meter half-watter?
You betcha!
Workshop weekenders, take heart. Not all radio. While the l-kW rigs keep the watt-hour was about-creativity and learning!
building projects are complex, time con- meters recording at high speed, the soldering
suming and costly. The TunaTin 2 is meant irons grow colder and more corroded. Parts Rundown
as a short-term, gotogether-easy assembly for A tuna fish can for a chassis? Why not? Of course, a tunafish can is not essential
the ham with a yen to tinker. Inspiration for After a few hours of construction, 350 as a foundation unit for this QRP rig. Any
this item came during a food shopping milliwatts ofRF were being directed toward 6 1h-ounce food container will be okay. For
assignment. While staring at all of the metal the antenna, and QSOs were taking place. that matter, a sardine can may be used by
food containers, recollections of those days 11aybe you've developed a jaded those who prefer a rectangular format.
when amateurs prided themselves for appetite for operating (but not for tuna). The Anyone for a Sardine-Z? Or, how about a
utilizing cake and bread tins as chassis came workshop offers a trail to adventure and "Pineapple Pair?" 110st 6 1h-ounce cans
to the fore. Lots of good equipment was built achievement, and perhaps that's the elixir measure 3 1/ 4 inches in Ol), so that's the mark
on make-do foundations, and it didn't look you've been needing. Well, Merlin the to shoot for. Be sure to eat, or at least remove
ugly. But during recent years a trend has Magician and Charlie the Tuna would the contents before starting your project!
developed toward commercial gear with its probably commend you if they could, for Although the original project used all
status appeal, and the workshop activities of they'd know you were back to the part of RadioShack parts, some of the parts are no
many have become the lesser part of amateur amateur radio that once this whole game longer stocked. The 2N2222A transistor is
Radio Construction Projects

widely available. The original coils have
Kits and Boards been replaced with inductors wound on
While the original Tuna Tin 2 can be built from scratch, surprisingly, printed-circuit boards toroidal cores. Printed circuit boards are
and kits are still available.
available from several sources and the NJ
The September 16, 1999 QRP with W6TOY column in the ARRLWeb Extra featured a
QRP Club is offering a complete kit of
modern version of the Tuna Tin 21 • FAR Circuits
can supply the printed circuit for parts. (See the sidebar "Kits and Boards".)
W6TOY's version (not built on a tuna The tiny send-receive toggle switch is a
tin) as well as the original design mite expensive. The builder may want to
PC board." substitute a low-cost miniature slide switch
Those who want to buy in its place. A small bag of phono jacks was
everything all in one place can purchased also, as those connectors are
buy a complete kit, including PC entirely adequate for low-power RF work.
board from the NJ-ORP Club". Finding a crystal socket may be a minor
Send a check for $12 postpaid to
problem, although many of the companies
George Heron, N2APB, New
that sell crystals can also supply sockets (you
Jersey ORP Club, 2419 Feather
Mae Ct, Forest Hill, MD 21050. can locate a number of crystal manufactur-
Doug Hendricks, KI6DS also JOE BOTTIGLIERI, AAIGW ers and distributors on the ARRL TISFIND
designed a version of the Tuna Tin W6TOY's version of the Tuna Tin 2 design- database at http://www.arrl.org/tis/
2, for the Northern California ORP without the tuna can. tisfind.html). Fundamental crystals are used
Club (Norcal)" in the transmitter, cut for a 30-pF load ca-
'See: http://www.arrl.org/members-only/extra/features/1999/09/16/1/. pacitance. Surplus FT -243 crystals will work
2 FAR Circuits, 18N640 Field Ct, Dundee, IL 60118-9269, tel 847-836-9148; http:// fine, too, provided the appropriate socket is
www.cl.ais.net/farcir/ used. If only one operating frequency will
3NJ-ORP Club, contact: George Heron, N2APB, 2419 Feather Mae Ct, Forest Hill, MD
be used, the crystal can be soldered to the
21050; [email protected]; http://www.njqrp.org/. NJ-ORP has a section of their Web
site devoted to the Tuna Tin 2 revival. See http://www.njqrp.org/tuna/tuna.html. circuit board permanently. Estimated maxi-
"Northern California-ORP Club (NorCal), 3241 Eastwood Rd, Sacramento, CA 95821; tel mum cost for this project, exclusive of the
916-487-3580; [email protected]; http://www.fix.netlNorCal.html. Like the NJ-ORP crystal, power supply and tunafish, is under
Club, NorCal also has a Tuna Tin 2 revival page at: http://www.fix.netl-jparker/norcal/
tunatin2/tunatin.htm. $20. The cost estimate is based on brand new
components throughout, inclusive of the
The Tuna Tin 2 on the Road antenna tuner, and gave the band a fast listen. Signals were booming
Those who've read our on-line publication, the ARRLWeb Extra, in. On June 19, I worked my first contact with the Tuna Tin 2 from the
probably saw the article that appeared in the June 15th edition titled West Coast, W6PRL/ORP. Every evening, after a day of offshore
"The Tuna Tin 2 Revival." This article told an incredible tale of how the fishing, Bev and I expected to find that the antenna police had
original Tuna Tin 2 was lost from the ARRL Lab and was found years confiscated the wire, but somehow, it stayed up the whole week. By
later in a box of junk under a flea market table in Boxboro, the end of the week, 45 new stations were in the Tuna Tin 2 log!
Massachusetts. The Tuna Tin 2 was refurbished by Bruce Muscolino,
W6TOY, and put back on the air by me on June 4, 1999. Since that Among the Monsoons and ScORPions
time, over 400 hams have had the pleasure of working the original I was then asked if I would be willing to attend the ARRL Arizona
Tuna Tin 2, some using their own Tuna Tin 2 rigs built in the 70s (or built State Convention at Ft Tuthill. That is an annual pilgrimage for many
anew from the available kits). a OR Per; how lucky could I get? I agreed, but warned the ARRL
Division Director that I might spend a bit more time away from the
California Dreamin' ARRL booth than usual. In the meantime, I casually asked Joe
After making about a hundred contacts from home, I was asked to Carcia, NJ10, the W1AW station manager, if he could arrange for
attend an IEEE meeting in Long Beach, California. My sister, Bev, lives W1 AW/7/0RP to be used atthe convention. After some consultation
in the area, so I planned a week-long visit. I tossed the Tuna Tin 2 and with Dave Sumner, a new ORP "first" was in the works. In the
a G5RV into my suitcase, hoping to give a few West Coast hams a meantime, the Arizona ScORPions 1 , an Arizona ORP club, asked me
chance to make a contact with the original. if I would give a presentation at the ORP forum they sponsor at Ft
After all the hugs and kisses, I explained to my sister what I was up Tuthill every year. I agreed, but with one condition-they had to be
to. She grinned, remembering the wild days of my youth, climbing willing to host W1 AW/7/0RP at their booth. I would have loved to be
trees to string wires all over our property, back when I was WN1CYF. a fly on the wall as that e-mail was read!
As I looked over the site, though, I was not too hopeful; about the best A greattime was had by all, but W1AW/7/0RP did not go off without
I thought I could do would be to try a random wire around the balcony, a hitch. An operator error (mine) damaged the receiver (the binaural
maybe risking a run over to a small tree or two. I looked roofward and receiver, designed by Rick Campbell). The local ORPers came
sighed, "Gee, it would be nice to get an antenna up on the root." She through, though, and several receivers were made available to the
made a quick call to Debbie, the building manager and close friend, operation to finish the day. Even worse, later in the day, it looked like
who winced painfully and said, "Don't fall off!" and, in a classic Schultz all was lost! During a quick test of the Tuna Tin 2, one of the resistors
accent, "I know nothing!" emitted a puff of smoke, and the power went to 0 W. I had just blown
We took the G5RV up to the emergency roof access, walked boldly up the original Tuna Tin 2!
out, and I proceeded to string the antenna up while Bev stood guard. I did a quick troubleshooting job and identified that the output
I got the antenna up, dropped the feedline past the upstairs apartment transistor had short-circuited. Special thanks go to Niel Skousen,
balcony and hoped for the best. WA7SSA, who dug into his portable junkbox. (Niel is a real ham's ham!
Sure enough, the "antenna police" were on alert-the tenant right How many hams do you know who bring their junkbox to a hamfest?)
below us heard the noise and wondered what was going on. Just as we He quickly located a 2N2222A. I handed him the Tuna Tin 2 and asked
got back to the apartment, the phone rang; it was Debbie. She told us him if he would mind installing it. Afterthat W1AW/7/0RP was back on
of the complaint, told us the excuse she gave and wished us luck. the air.
With Bev watching with great interest, I hooked up the Heath HW- After the convention, using a borrowed receiver, I took the Tuna Tin
8 I used as a receiver, hooked up the Tuna Tin 2, the code key and 2 on a whirlwind tour of Arizona, although I only got to operate two
A-16 Appendix
Oscillator
51 J2
IRe~
L.£<350mW 500 Ant.
I
~toRCVR.
rf-, -J3
I Key
CJ = de Volts
Current
CD = 22mA C (+
J4
o = RMS RF Volts @= 35mA +1 25 f1. F

~_13V
I
;h25"V
Except as indicated, decimal
L3 L4
values of capacitance are
~
in microfarads ( ,uF); others
are in picofarads (pF); 01,02
resistances are in ohms;
k=1,OOO, M=1,OOO,OOO
(Bottom)
~
Bandpass Filter (See Text)
Figure 1-Schematic of the Tuna Tin 2 QRP rig. Note that the polarized capacitor shown in the schematic is an electrolytic.
J1-Single-hole-mount phono jack. Must L3, L4-21 turns of #24 wire on a T-37-6 T1-4:1 broadband transformer. 16 turns
be insulated from ground. Mounts on toroidal core of #26 wire on the primary, 8 turns of
printed circuit board. Q1, Q2-2N2222A or equivalent NPN #26 wire on the secondary, on an FT-37-
J2, J3, J4-Single-hole-mount phono transistor. 43 toroidal core.
jack. Mount on tuna tin chassis. S1-Antenna changeover switch. Y1-Fundamental crystal, 7 MHz.
L1-22 IlH molded inductor Miniature SPDT toggle (see text).
L2-19 turns of #26 wire on a T-37-2
toroidal core
nightsfroma campsite in Williams. I hadbroughtalongmy DK9S02 33- know it when you hear it. And when you do, you will know that the
foot portablefiberglassmast,so myantennawentup anddownquickly. magic is still alive.
(Let metell you, this is one greatproduct. I literally put up my 40 meter I hope that lots of hams build some of the various Tuna Tin 2
inverted V in 5 minutes, 33 feet in the air. Taking it down was even replicas, and that they get a chanceto work the original. I will do my
faster.) It was monsoon season in Arizona and it rained each night. bestto keepiton theair. I amsurethat Doug DeMaw wouldapprove.-
Despite the downpours, I doggedly squeezed in operating time in W1RFI
between thunderstorms, and added a few new ones to the log.
'see the Arizona ScORPions site on the Web at: http://www.
Hanging Out in the Park extremezone.com/- ki7mn/sqrppage.htm.
Just two weekslater, I wasoff to Golden,Colorado for the Colorado 2The DK9S0mast is available for $99plus $5shipping andhandling from
State Convention (duringwhich I got to show off the Tuna Tin 2 to the Kanga US, 3521 Spring Lake Dr,Findlay, OH 45840; tel419-423-4604;
[email protected]; http://www.bright.netl-kanga/kanga/.
Colorado ORPClub3) andthetrustyTunaTin 2 andportablemastcame
3Colorado ORP Club, PO Box 371883, Denver CO 80237-1883;
along with me. I scoped out the hotel area-no good. The noise level [email protected]; http://www.cqc.org/.
from the high-tension lineswasjust too high.The convention was held
in a small park, so after the confab ended I walked a mile back to the
hotel, loadedup the TunaTin 2, batteries, key, antennaand mast, and
trekked backto the park. Fifteen minutes later,theantenna wasstanding Ed Hare, W1RFI, operating the TT2 from his sister's
proudandtall, andI mademyfirst CO. A securityguardstopped by, and apartment in Los Angeles.
fearing the worst, I explained what I was doing. "Okay,"she said, and
drove away.A few minutes later I had a nice surprise-Rod Cerkoney,
N0RC, showed up to operate with me!
The Tuna Tin 2 came back home, and I got it ready for the ORP
Extravaganza Weekend (my namefor it) on Halloween, with the ORP-
ARCI/ARRL "BlackCat"partyandthe NorCal Zombie Shuffleoperating
event. You can read that tale in Rich Arland's "ORP Power" column in
this issue.
Are We Having Fun Yet?
Did I havefun? Do you needto ask? I guess I was just in the right
place at the right time, and have been privilegedto be the center of all
this Tuna Tin 2 activity. What is important to me, though, is that the
magicthat DeMawcreated in the ARRL Lab still lives. It has, in fact, it
has taken on a life of its own.
The Tuna Tin 2 will be on the air on 40 metersa lot over the rest of
the winter,spring andsummer. You'll hear it from W1 RFI,from W1AW,
and possiblysomeotherstationlocations. I do haveone more"special
event"in the works, but I amswornto secrecy. The TunaTin 2 will play
a part in it. I won't tell you whatcall it will use, but I will say that you will

designed to transform 60 to 50 Q.
TT2 Performance
Ll is a 22-~H molded inductor. L2 is
Keyingqualitywith this rig was goodwith severalkindsof crystalstried.Therewas no sign
made with 19 turns of #26 wire on a T-37-
of chirp. Withoutshaping, the keyingis fairly hard (goodfor weak-signal work), but there were
no objectionable clicks heardin the station receiver. Thereis a temptation among someORP
2 core. Final adjustment of this coil (L2) is
experimenters to settlefor a one-transistoroscillatortype of rig. For academic purposes, that done with the transmitter operating into a
kind of circuit is great. But, for on-the-air use, it's better to have at least two transistors. This 50-0. load. The coil turns are moved closer
isolates the oscillator from the antenna, thereby reducing harmonic radiation. Furthermore, together or farther apart until maximum
the efficiencyof oscillatorsis considerably lowerthanthat of an amplifier.Manyof the "yoopy" output is noted. The wire is then cemented
ORPCWsignalson our bandsare productsof one-transistorcrystaloscillators. Signalquality in place by means of hobby glue or Q dope
should be good, regardless of the power level used. T1 is made with 16 turns of #26 wire on
The voltages shown in Figure 1 will be helpful in troubleshooting this rig. All dc the primary, 8 turns of #26 wire on the
measurements were madewith a VTVM. The RF voltages were measured with an RF probe secondary, on an FT-37-43 ferrite core. This
and a VTVM, The values mayvary somewhat, depending on the exact characteristics of the
is good material for making broadband trans-
transistors chosen. The points marked 1 and 2 (in circles) can be opened to permit insertion
of a dc milliammeter. This will be useful in determining the dc input powerlevelfor eachstage. formers, as very few wire turns are required
Power output can be checked by means of an RF probe from J2 to ground. Measurements for a specified amount of inductance, and the
should be made with a 51- or 56-0 resistor as a dummy load. For 350 mW of output, there Q of the winding will be low (desirable).
should be 4.4 Vrms acrossthe 56-0 resistor. Increased power can be had by making the
Operatingvoltagefor the transmittercan be obtainedfrom nine Penlitecells connected in emitter resistor of Q2 smaller in value.
series (13.5 volts). For greater power reserveone can use size C or D cells wired in series. However, the collector current will rise if the
A small ac-operated 12- or 13-V regulated dc supply is suitable also, especially for resistor is decreased in value, and the
home-station work.- W1 FB transistor just might "go out for lunch,"
[Although this rig metall the Part97 surious emission requirements when builtin 1976, additional permanently, if too much collector current is
filtering is needed to meet today's rules. A bandpass filter for 40 meters is shown as an insetin
Figure 1. It can be installed between 81 andthe antenna jack.-W1 RFI] allowed to flow. The current can be increased
to 50 rnA without need to worry, and this will
elevate the power output to roughly 400 mW.
left-over parts from the assortments. De- choke, and the 100-pF capacitor from the Construction Notes
pending on how shrewd he is at the bargain- collector to ground is for feedback purposes
The PC board can be cut to circular
ing game, a flea-market denizen can prob- only. Resonance is actually just below the
form by means of a nibbling tool or coping
ably put this unit together for a few bucks. 80-meter band. The choke value is not critical
saw. It should be made so it just clears the
and could be as high in inductance as 1 mH,
Circuit Details inner diameter of the lip that crowns the
although the lower values will aid stability.
container. The can is prepared by cutting the
A look at Figure 1 will indicate that The collector impedance of Q2 is
closed end so that I/ S inch of metal remains
there's nobody at home, so to speak, in the approximately 250 0. at the power level
all the way around the rim. This will provide
two-stage circuit. A Pierce type of crystal specified. Therefore, T1 is used to step the
a shelf for the circuit board to rest on. After
oscillator is used at Q1. Its output tickles value down to around 60 0. (4:1
checkout is completed, the board can be
the base of Q2 (lightly) with a few mW of transformation) so that the pi network will
soldered to the shelf at four points to hold it
drive power, causing Q2 to develop contain practical values of Land C. The pi
in place. The opposite end of the can is open.
approximately 450 mW of dc input power network is designed for low Q (loaded Q
as it is driven into the Class C mode. Power of 1) to assure ample bandwidth on 40 Summary Comments
output was measured as 350 mW Ch W), meters. This will eliminate the need for
Skeptics may chortle with scorn and
indicating an amplifier efficiency of 70%. tuning controls. Since a pi network is a
amusement at the pioneer outlook of QRP
The collector circuit of Q1 is not tuned to low-pass filter, harmonic energy is low at
enthusiasts. Their lack of familiarity with
resonance at 40 meters. L1 acts as an RF the transmitter output. The pi network is
low-power operating may be the basis for
their disdain. Those who have worked at
micropower levels know that Worked All
Fishy Excitement at the Meriden ARC States is possible on 40 meters with less than
Renewed interestin theTunaTin2 transceiver prompted the Meriden (Connecticut) Amateur a watt of RF energy. From the writer's
Radio Clubto buildtheseclassics as a club project. Bob Stephens, KB1 CIWandJamieToole, location in Connecticut, all call areas of the
N1 RUsecured components for 20 kits.Tim Mik,WY1 U, supplied 20 cat foodcans, cleaned and USA have been worked at the 1/ 4- W power
stripped of labels. (Wehadto assume that eachcan had,in fact, contained tunaflavorcat food. plateau. It was done with only a 40-meter
Wedidn'twantto straytoofarfromthe original design!) Timalsobrought along hisoriginal Tuna coax-fed dipole, sloping to ground at
Tin 2, which he had built as a newlylicensed teenager over 20 years ago. approximately 45° from a steel tower. Signal
Several of the more experienced members were quite helpful in assisting those less reports ranged from RST 449 to RST 589,
knowledgeable in the arcane arts of schematic reading and toroid winding. Counting the depending on conditions. Of course, there
numberofturns, especiallyonthetransformer,is notquitethe simpletask that it seemsatfirst. were many RST 599 reports too, but they
Other tips on soldering and building in general were freely passed on from the veterans.
Honors for the first contact went to MARC president Bill Wawrzeniak, W1 KKF. After
were the exception rather than the rule. The
finishing his rig, he brought it home, connected an antenna and almost immediately made first QSO with this rig came when AI,
contact with a California ham. With his new Tuna Tin 2, WY1 U worked Ed Hare, W1 RFI, K4DAS, of Miami answered the writer's
operating the W1AW special event at ARRL HO on Halloween. Most of the other kits were "CQ" at 2320 UTC on 7014 kHz. An RST
completed and put on the air over the next several weeks. 569 was received, and a 20-minute ragchew
Buildingthe Tuna Tin 2 is a terrific activity for any club. It can be completed in one or two ensued. The copy at K4DAS was "solid."
evenings. The circuit is simple enough to provide an excellent springboard for education in If you've never tried QRP before, the first
electronic and RF theory without getting bogged down in too many esoteric topics. Building step is easy. Just contact the QRP Amateur
the kit is a great way to learn or sharpen construction skills. And, of course, there's no Radio Club International (QRP-ARCI), 848
substitutefor the pride and satisfactionof telling the station at the other end of the OSO,"RIG
Valbrook Court, Lilburn, GA 30047-4280;
HR IS HMBRW TT2".-John Bee, N1GNV, OST Advertising Manager CATS BY GIL, WICJD
http://www.qrparci.org/.
A-18 Appendix
-
~'VJYJ(g'~ I .'. ,.' . . ..'. . .

" '..: ':: ..:- ~ ';i - I 'I '" I ' ~ ,
Receivers to Use With the QRP Transmitter
Perhaps you would like to build a range of interest. C1 is the Tin 2, set C1 to the middle of its
more capable receiver than a crystal bandspread capacitor, used to range and tune C2 until you find the
radio to go with the preceding provide fine tuning within a small transmitter signal. Then use C2 to
transmitter. Or you might like a radio segment of the tuning range. For tune on either side of your transmit
for general Amateur Radio reception. successful operation both C I and C2 signal until you find someone to
I will share several previously should be solidly mounted so that communicate with.
published receiver designs that have they can't move. In addition, it will
served their users well. be best if each has a large knob with Even Better-a Direct-
a mechanical reduction drive of Conversion Amateur-Band
Simplest May be Best-an some sort . The capacitors should Receiver
Amateur-Band Regenerative mounted on a grounded metal panel A direct-conversion (D-C) receiver
Receiver so that the capacitance of the is nothing more than a crystal set
The first receiver makes use of a operator's hand doesn't change the with its own beat oscillator tuned to
regenerative detector. The regenera- frequency-these simple receivers the receive frequency. This receiver
tive detector is a kind of combination can be touchy. design, from the 2005 ARRL Hand-
amplifying detector and beat oscilla- To receive radiotelegraph signals, book for Radio Communication',
tor, all in one. It can work well, but is the regeneration control, Rl, is makes use of a crystal-controlled beat
a bit touchy to adjust. The following advanced until the detector just starts oscillator and a commercial balanced
circuit-from WIFB's QRP Note- oscillating-you'll hear a difference mixer. The mixer is followed by a
book-2nd Edition, I an ARRL in the sound at that point. At the high-gain audio system that includes
publication by the late Doug DeMaw, point of oscillation, you will hear a band-limiting active filtering. By
probably represents the simplest nice beat note as you tune through a using a crystal oscillator, made
receiver that could actually be used telegraph signal and the detector will somewhat variable by C7 in the
for amateur operation. See Fig Al- be at its most sensitive and selective. diagram, and selecting the same
19. It is also possible to hear AM signals frequency as your transmitter's
Note that there are two tuning (in the 41-meter shortwave broadcast crystal, you are sure to have the
capacitors-C2 is the bandset band) by reducing the regeneration receiver tuner to the proper frequency
capacitor, used to set the tuning to the point at which the oscillation and to have a stable arrangement.
range of the receiver to the frequency just stops. To operate with the Tuna
10
ANT AUDIO AMP U1 01
1IJF 470 k 8
+ 4 5
R
GSD
R2
Band
f':
10 k
Set
AF Gain
C2 0.01 Phones
100 1k
L1
I R1
10 k
+
122 IJF
47 k
100k
3
Regen UBR1-A119
Fig A1-19-Schematic diagram of W1FB's simple regenerative 40-meter receiver that can be used with the "Tuna
Tin 2" transmitter in Project 6. Polarized capacitors are 16-V or greater tantalum or electrolytic. Resistors are
1/4-W carbon composition, except for R1 and R2, which are carbon composition controls (panel mounted). L2 is a
6-JlH toroidal inductor. Use 35 turns of #28 enameled wire on an Amidon T50-2 toroid. Tap L2 at 8 turns above the
grounded end. L1 has 3 turns of #28 enameled wire. Other VHF JFETs may be used at 01, such as the 2N4416.

A Rock-Bending Receiver for 7 MHz
This simple receiver by Randy crystal frequency control have been provide a resistive termination at RF
Henderson, WI5W, originally said to be rockbound. Widening this without disturbing U2A's gain or
published in Aug 1995 QST, is a rockbound receiver's tuning range noise figure.
direct-conversion type that converts with crystal pulling made rock
RF directly to audio. Building a bending seem just as appropriate! Audio Amplifier and Filter
stable oscillator is often the most L2's value determines the degree U2A amplifies the audio signal
challenging part of a simple receiver. of pulling available. Using FT-243- from U1. U2B serves as an active
This one uses a tunable crystal- style crystals and larger L2 values, low-pass filter. The values of C12,
controlled oscillator that is both the oscillator reliably tunes from the C13 and C14 are appropriate for
stable and easy to reproduce. All of frequency marked on the holder to listening to CW signals. If you want
its parts are readily available from about 50 kHz below that point with SSB stations to sound better, make
multiple sources and the fixed-value larger L2 values. (In the author's the changes shown in the caption for
capacitors and resistors are common receiver a 25-kHz tuning range was Fig 14.61.
components available from many achieved.) The oscillator's frequency U3, an LM386 audio power
electronics parts suppliers. stability is very good. amplifier IC, serves as the receiver's
Inductor L2 and the crystal, Yl, audio output stage. The audio signal
The Circuit have more effect on the oscillator at U3' s output is more than a billion
This receiver works by mixing two than any other components. Breaking times more powerful than a weak
radio-frequency signals together. up L2 into two or three series- signal at the receiver's input, so don't
One of them is the signal you want to connected components often works run the speaker/earphone leads near
hear, and the other is generated by an better than using one RF choke. (The the circuit board. Doing so may
oscillator circuit (Ql and associated author used three molded RF chokes cause a squealy audio oscillation at
components) in the receiver. In in series-two 1O-~H chokes and high volume settings.
Fig 14.61, mixer Ul puts out sums one 2.7-~H unit.) Making L2's value
and differences of these signals and too large makes the oscillator stop. Construction
their harmonics. We don't use the The author tested several crystals If you're already an accomplished
sum of the original frequencies, at Y1. Those in FT-243 and HC-6- builder, you know that this project
which comes out of the mixer in the style holders seemed more than can be built using a number of
vicinity of 14 MHz. Instead, we use happy to react to adjustment of C7 construction techniques, so have at
the frequency difference between the (TUNING). Crystals in the smaller it! If you're new to building, you
incoming signal and the receiver's HC-18 metal holders need more should consider building
oscillator-a signal in the inductance at L2 to obtain the same the Rock-Bending Receiver on a
audio range if the incoming signal tuning range. One tiny HC-45 unit printed circuit (PC) board. (The parts
and oscillator frequencies are close from International Crystals needed list tells where you can buy one
enough to each other. This signal is 59 ~H to eke out a mere 15 kHz of ready-made.) See Fig 14.62 for
filtered in U2, and amplified in U2 tuning range. details on the physical layout of
and U3. An audio transducer (a several important components used
speaker or headphones) converts Input Filter and Mixer in the receiver. Fig 14.63 shows
U3's electrical output to audio. Cl, Ll, and C2 form the receiver's photos of two different receivers
input filter. They act as a peaked low- using two different approaches to
How the Rock Bender Bends pass network to keep the mixer, UI, construction-one using a PC board
Rocks from responding to signals higher in and the other using "ugly" tech-
The oscillator is a tunable crystal frequency than the 40-meter band. niques.
oscillator-a variable crystal (This is a good idea because it keeps If you use a homemade double-
oscillator, or v.xQ. Moving the us from hearing video buzz from sided circuit board based on the PC
oscillation frequency of a crystal like local television transmitters, and pattern on the accompanying CD,
this is often called pulling. Because signals that might mix with harmon- you'll notice that it has more holes
crystals consist of precisely sized ics of the receiver's VXO.) Ul, a than it needs to. The extra holes
pieces of quartz, crystals have long Mini-Circuits SBL-l, is a passive (indicated in the part-placement
been called rocks in ham slang-and diode-ring mixer. Diode-ring mixers diagram with square pads) allow you
receivers, transmitters and transceiv- usually perform better if the output is to connect its ground plane to the
ers that can't be tuned around due to terminated properly. Rll and C8 ground traces on its foil side. (Doing
A-20 Appendix
R147
0.1
L1
0.4451JH
rF;1 Oscillator
R2
C Y1
10 k
U1 "'7 MHz
0 ~
SBL 1
Mixer
;h 3,4 2,5,6 L2
C2 22.71JH
2200 pF (see text)
to
R11 U1, Pin8
47 R6
C8
;};0.1 + C16 12 Vdc
T
ri?~
100IJF
+
rT-7 16V
~C10 U2A
1/2 TL072
+ H Output
1.0 IJF
>--41"--~ Audio
16V
C17
100 IJF
U3 16V
LM386N
1M Audio Power Amp
Except as indicated, decimal values of

capacitance are in microfarads (IJF);
others are in picofarads (pF);
HBK05_14-061 resistances are in ohms; k = 1,000, M = 1,000,000.
Fig 14.61-An SBL-1 mixer (U1, which contains two small RF transformers and a Schottky-diode quad), a
TL072 dual op-arnp IC (U2) and an LM386 low-voltage audio power amplifier IC (U3) do much of the Rock-
Bending Receiver's magic. Q1, a variable crystal oscillator (VXO), generates a low-power radio signal that
shifts incoming signals down to the audio range for amplification in U2 and U3. All of the circuit's resistors
are 1/4-W, 5%-tolerance types; the circuit's polarized capacitors are 16-V electrolytlcs, except C10, which can
be rated as low as 10 V.The 0.1-J.lF capacitors are monolithic or disc ceramics rated at 16 V or higher.
C1, C2-Ceramic or mica, 10% L1-4 turns of AWG #18 wire on [Mouser #43HH105 suitable] and
tolerance. 3/4 -inch PVC pipe form. Actual one 2.7-JlH choke [Mouser
C4, C5, and C6-Polystyrene, pipe OD is 0.85 inch. The coil's #43HH276 suitable] used by
dipped silver mica, or COG length is about 0.65 inch; adjust author). See text
(formerly NPO) ceramic, 10% turns spacing for maximum L3-1-mH RF choke. As a
tolerance. signal strength. Tack the turns in substitute, wind 34 turns of #30
C7-Dual-gang polyethylene-film place with cyanoacrylic adhesive, enameled wire around an FT-37-72
variable (266 pF per section) coil dope or Duco cement. (As a ferrite core.
available as #24TR218 from substitute, wind 8 turns of #18 Q1-2N2222, PN2222 or similar
Mouser Electronics (800-346-6873, wire around 75% of the small-signal, silicon NPN
817-483-4422). Screws for circumference of a T-50-2 transistor.
mounting C7 are Mouser powdered-iron core. Once you've R10-5 or 10-kO audio-taper
#4855003. A rubber equipment soldered the coil in place and control (RadioShack No. 271-215
foot serves as a knob. (Any have the receiver working, or 271-1721 suitable).
variable capacitor with a maximum expand and compress the coil's U1-Mini-Circuits SBL-1 mixer.
capacitance of 350 to 600 pF can turns to peak incoming signals, Y1-7-MHz fundamental-mode
be substituted; the wider the and then cement the winding in quartz crystal. Ocean State
capacitance range, the better.) place.) Electronics carries 7030, 7035,
C12, C13, C14-10% tolerance. For L2-Approximately 22.7 JlH; 7040,7045,7110 and 7125-kHz
SSB, change C12, C13 and C14 to consists of one or more units.
0.001 JlF. encapsulated RF chokes in PC boards for this project are
U2-TL072CN or TL082CN dual series (two 10-JlH chokes available from FAR Circuits.
JFET op amp.

so reduces the inductance of some of
the board's ground paths.) Pass a
short length of bare wire (a clipped- R10
off component lead is fine) into each
of these holes and solder on both
sides. Some of the circuit's compo-
nents (Cl, C2 and others) have
grounded leads accessible on both Ground
sides of the board. Solder these
leads on both sides of the board.
Another important thing to do if
you use a homemade double-sided
~
Q1
PC board is to countersink the
ground plane to clear all ungrounded
holes. (Countersinking clears copper
away from the holes so components
B E
won't short-circuit to the ground E c
plane.) A 1/4 -inch-diameter drill bit 7 C
Blue B U2,U3
5
works. well for this. Attach a control Ring 3
knob to the bit's shank and you can
safely use the bit as a manual
countersinking tool. If you counter-
sink your board in a drill press, set it
to about 300 rpm or less, and use
very light pressure on the feed
handle.
Mounting the receiver in a metal 8
4
box or cabinet is a good idea. Plastic U1 2
3
enclosures can't shield the TUNING HBK05_14-062
capacitor from the presence of your

hand, which may slightly affect the
receiver tuning. You don't have to Fig 14.62-The Mouser Electronics part suggested for C7 has terminal
completely enclose the receiver-a connections as shown here. (You can use any variable capacitor with a
maximum capacitance of 350 to 600 pF for C7, but its terminal
flat aluminum panel screwed to a configuration may differ from that shown here.) Two Q1-case styles are
wooden base is an acceptable shown because plastic or metal transistors will work equally well for
alternative. The panel supports the 01. If you build your Rock-Bending Receiver using a prefab PC board,
tuning capacitor, GAIN control and you should mount the ICs in 8-pin mini-DIP sockets rather than just
your choice of audio connector. The soldering the les to the board.
Fig 14.63-Ground-plane construction, PC-board construction-both of these approaches can produce the
same good Rock Bending Receiver performance. (WI5W built the one that looks nice, and ex-W9VES-who
wrote this caption-built the one that doesn't.)
A-22 Appendix
base can support the circuit board between 150 and 200 rnA) or put a oscillator is probably not working.
and antenna connector. ISO-rnA fuse in the connection You can check for oscillator activity
between the receiver and its power by putting the receiver near a friend's
Checkout source. Once you're sure that transceiver (both must be in the same
Before connecting the receiver to everything is working as it should, room) and listening for the VXO. Be
a power source, thoroughly inspect you can remove the fuse or tum off sure to adjust the TUNING control
your work to spot obvious problems the current limiting. through its range when checking the
like solder bridges, incorrectly If you don't hear any signals with oscillator.
inserted components or incorrectly the antenna connected, you may have The de voltage at Ql's base
wired connections. Using the to do some troubleshooting. Don't (measured without the RF probe)
schematic (and PC-board layout if worry; you can do it with very little should be about half the supply
you built your receiver on a PC equipment. voltage. If Ql 's collector voltage is
board), recheck every component about equal to the supply voltage,
and connection one at a time. If you Trouble? and Ql's base voltage is about half
have a digital voltmeter (DVM), use The first clue to look for is noise. that value, Q1 is probably okay.
it to measure the resistance between With the GAIN control set to maxi- Reducing the value of L2 may be
ground and everything that should be mum, you should hear a faint rushing necessary to make some crystals
grounded. This includes things like sound in the speaker or headphones. oscillate.
pin 4 of U2 and U3, pins 2, 5, 6 of If not, you can use a small metallic
UI, and the rotor of C7. tool and your body as a sort of test- Operation
If the grounded connections seem signal generator. (If you have any Although the Rock-Bending
all right, check some supply-side doubt about the safety of your power Receiver uses only a handful of parts
connections with the meter. The supply, power the Rock-Bending and its features are limited, it
connection between pin 6 of U3 and Receiver from a battery during this performs surprisingly well. Based on
the positive power-supply lead test.) Tum the GAIN control to tests done with a Hewlett-Packard
should show less than 1 W of maximum. Grasp the metallic part of HP 606A signal generator, the
resistance. The resistance between a screwdriver, needle or whatever in receiver's minimum discernible
the supply lead and pin 8 of UI your fingers, and use the tool to signal (by ear) appears to be 0.3 ~v.
should be about 47 W because of R1. touch pin 3 of U3. If you hear a loud The author could easily copy 1-~V
If everything seems okay, you can scratchy popping sound, that stage is signals with his version of the Rock-
apply power to the receiver. The working. If not, then something Bending Receiver.
receiver will work with supply directly related to U3 is the problem. Although most HF-active hams
voltages as low as 6 V and as high as You can use this technique at U2 use transceivers, there are advantages
13.5 V, but it's best to stay within the (pin 3, then pin 5) and all the way to in using separate receivers and
9 to 12-V range. When first testing the antenna. If you hear loud pops transmitters. This is especially true if
your receiver, use a current-limited when touching either end of L3 but you are trying to assemble a simple
power supply (set its limiting not the antenna connector, the home-built station.

A-scope-A radar indicator showing range and target Amateur Service-A radio communication service for
return amplitude. the purpose of self training, intercommunication and
Access code-one or more numbers and/or symbols technical investigations carried out by amateurs, that is,
that are keyed into the repeater with a DTMF tone pad duly authorized persons interested in radio technique
to activate a repeater function, such as an autopatch. solely with a personal aim and without pecuniary interest.
Access Point (AP)-A wireless bridging device that Ampere-A measure of flow of charged particles per unit
connects 802.11 stations to shared resources and a time. One ampere represents one coulomb of charge
wired network such as the Internet. flowing past a point in one second.
ACK-Acknowledgment, the control signal sent to AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service)-First
indicate the correct receipt of a transmission block. standardized cellular service in the world, released in
Active Region-The region in the characteristic curve 1983. Uses the 800-900 MHz frequency band.
of an analog device in which the signal is amplified AMRAD-Amateur Radio Research and Development
linearly. Corporation, a nonprofit organization involved in packet-
Address-A character or group of characters that radio development.
identifies a source or destination. AMSAT (Radio Amateur Satellite Corporation)-An
international membership organization that designs, builds
Ad Hoc-In wireless LAN (WLAN) networks this is a
and promotes the use of Amateur Radio satellites.
direct wireless connection between two laptop
computers without the use of an AP. AMTOR-Amateur teleprinting over radio, an amateur
radioteletype transmission technique employing error
Admittance (Y)-The reciprocal of impedance,
correction as specified in several CCIR documents 476-2
measured in siemens (S).
through 476-4 and 625. CCIR Rec. 476-3 is reprinted in
ADV (Amateur digital video)-A mode of operation the Proceedings of the Third ARRL Amateur Radio
in which Amateur Radio operators exchange video Computer Networking Conference, available from ARRL
motion images using their personal computers. Hq.
AGC-Automatic gain control. AGC adjusts the gain Analog-A signal that can vary continuously between a
of a receiver to compensate for received signal maximum and minimum value. For example, the voice
strength. voltage waveform from the output of a microphone is
AFSK-Audio frequency-shift keying. analog. RF voltage waveforms (as those from AM, PM
Alternating current-A flow of charged particles and SSB transmitters) are also analog.
through a conductor, first in one direction, then in the Angle Modulation-A term referring to frequency or
other direction. phase modulation.
ALE-Automatic link establishment. A system that Anode-The element of an analog device that accepts
automatically sets the frequency of HF radios to the electrons.
optimum of available channels. ANSI-American National Standards Institute
AM (Amplitude modulation)-The oldest voice Answer-The station intended to receive a call. In
operating mode still found on the amateur bands. The modem usage, the called station or modem tones
more common voice mode, SSB, is actually a associated therewith.
narrower-bandwidth variation of AM.
AP-Access point.
Amateur Radio-A radiocommunication service for
ARES®-An ARRL program specializing in emergency
the purpose of self training, intercommunication and
technical investigations carried out by amateurs, that is, communication.
duly authorized persons interested in radio technique ARISS-An acronym for Amateur Radio on the
solely with a personal aim and without pecuniary International Space Station.
interest. (Pecuniary means payment of any type, ARQ-Automatic repeat request, an error-sending
whether money or goods.) Also called ham radio. station, after transmitting a data block, awaits a reply
Amateur Radio operator-A person holding a license (ACK or NAK) to determine whether to repeat the last
to operate a ham radio station. block or proceed to the next.
Amateur Radio station-A station licensed in the Array-An antenna consisting of multiple elements
amateur service, including necessary equipment. designed to operate together to result in a particular
direction of radiation.
Glossary 1
ARRL-The membership organization for Amateur Radio BER-Bit error rate.
operators in the US. BERT-Bit-en"or-rate test.
ASCII-American National Standard Code for Information Biasing-The addition of a de voltage or current to a signal at
Interchange, a code consisting of seven information bits. the input of an analog device, which changes the signal's
Atom-The smallest particle of matter that makes up an position on the characteristic curve.
element. Consists of protons and neutrons in the central area Bipolar Transistor-An analog device made by sandwiching
called the nucleus, with electrons surrounding this central a layer of doped semiconductor between two layers of the
region. opposite type: PNP or NPN.
ATV (Amateur television)-A mode of operation that Bistatic-A radar system in which transmitting and receiving
amateur radio operators use to exchange pictures from their locations are in different locations.
ham stations. Bit stuffing-Insertion and deletion of Os in a frame to
Aurora-Related to the northern lights or aurora borealis preclude accidental OCCUlTences of flags other than at the
phenomenon. The aurora results in localized ionization that beginning and end of frames.
allows over the horizon radio propagation, particularly in the Bit-Binary digit, a single symbol, in binary terms either a
VHF region. one or zero.
Autopatch-a device that interfaces a repeater to the Bleeder-A resistive load across the output or filter of a
telephone system to permit repeater users to make telephone power supply, intended to quickly discharge stored energy
calls. Often just called a "patch."
once the supply is turned off.
Auxiliary station-An amateur station, other than in a Break-the word used to interrupt a conversation on a
message-forwarding system, transmitting communication repeater only to indicate that there is an emergency.
point-to-point within a system of cooperating amateur
stations. Break-in-The ability to hear between elements or words of
a keyed signal.
AX.25-Amateur packet-radio link-layer protocol. Copies of
protocol specification are available from ARRL HQ. Broadcasting-Transmissions intended for reception by the
general public, either direct or relayed.
B-scope-A radar indicator showing azimuth, range and
target return amplitude. See PPI. Buffer-An analog stage that prevents loading of one analog
stage by another.
Back porch-The blank part of a scan line immediately
following the horizontal sync pulse. Bypass capacitor-a capacitor used to provide a low-
impedance radio-frequency path around a circuit element.
Backwave-An unwanted signal emitted between the pulses
of an on/off-keyed signal. Byte-A group of bits, usually eight.
Balanced-A relationship in which two stations Call sign-A series of unique letters and numbers assigned to
communicate with one another as equals; that is, neither is a a person who has earned an Amateur Radio license.
primary (master) or secondary (slave). Capacitance (C)-The ability to store electrical energy in an
Band-A range of frequencies. Hams are authorized to electrostatic field, measured in farads (F). A device with
transmit on many different bands. capacitance is a capacitor.
Bandwidth-The width of a frequency band outside of which Carrier-operated relay (COR)-a device that causes a
the mean power of the transmitted signal is attenuated at least repeater to transmit in response to a received signal.
26 dB below the mean power of the transmitted signal within Carrier Sense Multiple Access I Collision Avoidance
the band. (CSMA/CA)-The wireless method that tries to avoid
Base-The middle layer of a bipolar transistor, often the simultaneous access or collisions by not transmitting, if
input. another signal is detected on the same frequency channel.
Baseband-An information signal, often made up of Carrier power-The average power supplied to the antenna
multiple combined signals (see "multiplex"), that is used to transmission line by a transmitter during one RF cycle taken
modulate a radio system for transmission. under the condition of no modulation.
Baud-A unit of signaling speed equal to the number of Cascade-Placing one analog stage after another to combine
discrete conditions or events per second. (If the duration of a their effects on the signal.
pulse is 20 ms, the signaling rate is 50 bauds or the reciprocal Cathode-The element of an analog device that emits
of 0.02, abbreviated Bd). electrons.
Baudot code-A coded character set in which five bits CCIR-International Radio Consultative Committee, an
represent one character. Used in the US to refer to ITA2. International Telecommunication Union (ITU) agency.
Beacon-An amateur station transmitting communication CCITT-International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative
for the purposes of observation of propagation and reception Committee, an ITU agency. CCIR and CCITT
or other related experimental activities. recommendations are available from the UN Bookstore.
Beam antenna-A type of radio antenna that can be pointed CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)-A digital radio
in any direction. system that separates users by digital codes.
Beat frequency oscillator (BFO)-An oscillator in a
receiver designed to allow detection of suppressed carrier or
radiotelegraph signals.
2 Glossary
Cellular-Characteristic of or pertaining to a system of Conducted signals-signals that travel by electron flow in a
wireless communication made up of many individual cell wire or other conductor.
units. The term itself is derived from the typical geographic Constellation-A set of points in the complex plane which
honeycomb shape of the areas into which a coverage region is represent the various combinations of phase and amplitude in
divided. a QAM or other complex modulation scheme.
Certification-An equipment authorization granted by the Contact-A two-way communication between Amateur
FCC. It is used to ensure that equipment will function Radio operators.
properly in the service for which it has been accepted. Most Contention-A condition on a communications channel that
amateur equipment does not require FCC Certification, occurs when two or more stations try to transmit at the same
although HF power amplifiers and amplifier kits do. Part 15 time.
Rules require FCC Certification for all receivers operating
Contest-An Amateur Radio activity in which hams and their
anywhere between 30 and 960 MHz. Amateur transmitters
stations compete to contact the most stations within a
may not be legally used in any other service that requires
designated time period.
FCC equipment authorization. For example, it is illegal to use
a modified amateur transmitter in the police, fire or business Control operator-An amateur operator designated by the
radio services. licensee of a station to be responsible for the transmissions
from that station to assure compliance with the FCC Rules.
Channel-the pair of frequencies (input and output) used by
a repeater. Control point-The location at which the control operator
function is performed.
Characteristic Curve-A plot of the relative responses of
two or three analog-device parameters, usually output with Core Saturation (Magnetic)-That condition whereby the
respect to input. magnetic flux in a transformer or inductor core is more than
the core can handle. If the flux is forced beyond this point, the
Chirp-Incidental frequency modulation of a carrier as a
permeability of the core will decrease, and it will approach the
result of oscillator instability during keying.
permeability of air.
Chrominance-The color component of a video signal.
Coulomb-A unit of measure of a quantity of electrically
NTSC and PAL transmit color images as a black-and-white
charged particles. One coulomb is equal to 6.25 x 1018
compatible luminance signal along with a color subcarrier.
electrons.
The subcarrier phase represents the hue and the subcarrier's
amplitude is the saturation. Robot color modes transmit pixel Courage Handi-Ham System-Membership organization for
values as luminance (Y) and chrominance (R-Y [red minus ham radio enthusiasts with various physical disabilities and
luminance] and B-Y [blue minus luminance]) rather than RGB abilities.
(red, green, blue). Courtesy beep-an audible indication that a repeater user
Circular Mils-A convenient way of expressing the cross- may go ahead and transmit.
sectional area of a round conductor. The area of the Coverage-the geographic area within which the repeater
conductor in circular mils is found by squaring its diameter in provides communications.
mils (thousandths of an inch), rather than squaring its radius C-Rate-The charging rate for a battery, expressed as a ratio
and multiplying by pi. For example, the diameter of lO-gauge of the battery's ampere-hour rating.
wire is 101.9 mils (0.1019 inch). Its cross-sectional area is CRC-Cyclic redundancy check, a mathematical operation.
10380 CM, or 0.008155 square inches. The result of the CRC is sent with a transmission block. The
Clamping-A nonlinearity in amplification where the signal receiving station uses the received eRC to check transmitted
can be made no larger. data integrity.
Closed repeater-a repeater whose access is limited to a Crowbar-A last-ditch protection circuit included in many
select group (see open repeater). power supplies to protect the load equipment against failure of
COFDM-Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex, the regulator in the supply. The crowbar senses an overvoltage
OFDM plus coding to provide error correction and noise condition on the supply's output and fires a shorting device
immunity. (usually an SCR) to directly short-circuit the supply's output
Collector-One of the outer layers of a bipolar transistor, and protect the load. This causes very high currents in the
often the output. power supply, which blow the supply's input-line fuse.
Collision-s-A condition that occurs when two or more CSMA-Carrier sense multiple access, a channel access
transmissions occur at the same time and cause interference arbitration scheme in which packet-radio stations listen on a
to the intended receivers. channel for the presence of a carrier before transmitting a
frame.
Common-mode signals-signals that are in phase on both
(or several) conductors in a system. CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access I Collision
Detection)-A set of rules that determine how network
Compensation-The process of counteracting the effects of
devices respond when two devices attempt to use a data
signals that are inadvertently fed back from the output to the
channel simultaneously (called a collision). After detecting a
input of an analog system. The process increases stability and
collision, a device waits a random delay time and then
prevents oscillation.
attempts to re-transmit the message. If the device detects a
Conductance (G )- The reciprocal of resistance, measured collision again, it now waits twice as long to try to re-transmit
in siemens (S). the message.
Glossary 3
CTCSS-abbreviation for continuous tone-controlled Digital communication-Computer-based communication
squelch system, a series of subaudible tones that some modes such as PSK31, packet radio and HSMM.
repeaters use to restrict access. (see dosed repeater). Diode-A two-element vacuum tube or semiconductor with
Current (I)-The rate of electron flow through a conductor, only a cathode and an anode (or plate).
measured in amperes (A). Dipole antenna-A wire antenna often used on the high-
Cutoff Region-The region in the characteristic curve of an frequency amateur bands.
analog device in which there is no current through the Direct current-A flow of charged particles through a
device. Also called the OFF region. conductor in one direction only.
CW-Abbreviation for continuous wave; another name for Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)-The type of
Morse code telegraphy by radio. Also, International Morse modulation used in 802.11b that is capable of maximum half-
code telegraphy emissions having designators with A, C, H, J duplex data speeds of 11 Mbps.
or R as the first symbol; 1 as the second symbol; A or B as Discriminator-A circuit used to convert an FM signal to
the third symbol; and emissions J2A and J2B. baseband or audio.
Darlington Transistor-A package of two transistors in one Drain-The connection at one end of a field-effect-transistor
case, with the collectors tied together, and the emitter of one channel, often the output.
transistor connected to the base of the other. The effective
current gain of the pair is approximately the product of the DRM-Digital Radio Mondiale. A consortium of
broadcasters, manufacturers, research and governmental
individual gains of the two devices.
organizations who are developing a system for digital
DARPA-Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency; broadcasting in the AM bands between 100 kHz and 30 MHz.
formerly ARPA, sponsors of ARPANET. The term is also used to refer to the broadcasts themselves.
Data-Telemetry, telecommand and computer DSP (Digital signal processing)-A newer technology that
communication emissions having designators with A, C, D, allows software to replace electronic circuitry.
F, G, H, J or R as the first symbol; 1 as the second symbol; D
as the third symbol; and emission J2D. Only a digital code of DTMF-abbreviation for dual-tone multifrequency, the series
a type specifically authorized in this Part may be transmitted. of tones generated from a keypad on a ham radio transceiver
(or a regular telephone).
Data set-Modem.
Duplex or full duplex-a mode of communication in which a
dBd-Decibels with a reference to a dipole antenna. A way user transmits on one frequency and receives on another
of indicating antenna gain in comparison to a dipole antenna. frequency simultaneously (see half duplex).
Typically 2 dB less than dBi.
Duplexer-s-a device that allows the repeater transmitter and
dBi-Decibels with a reference to an ideal isotropic antenna. receiver to use the same antenna simultaneously.
A way of indicating antenna gain in comparison to an
antenna with uniform radiation in all directions. DX-A ham radio abbreviation for distance or foreign
countries.
DC-DC Converter-A circuit for changing the voltage of a
de source to ac, transforming it to another level, and then DXCC-A popular ARRL award earned for contacting
rectifying the output to produce direct current. Amateur Radio operators in 100 different countries.
DCE-Data circuit-terminating equipment. The equipment DX PacketCluster-A method of informing hams, via their
(for example, a modem) that provides communication computers, about the activities of stations operating from
between the DTE and the line radio equipment. unusual locations.
DDS-Direct digital synthesis. The generation of a DXpedition-A trip to an unusual location, such as an
sinusoidal signal via a computer simulation of the waveform. uninhabited island or other geographical or political entity
which has few, if any, Amateur Radio operators, where hams
Decibel (dB)-a logarithmic unit of relative power operate while visiting. DXpeditions provide sought after
measurement that expresses the ratio of two power levels. contacts for hams who are anxious to have a radio contact
Demodulator-A device that extracts the information with someone in a rare location.
waveform or baseband data from an radio signal. Dynamic range-The difference between the largest and the
Deviation-The maximum change of a carrier frequency smallest signal a system can process. A measure of receiver
under frequency or phase modulation. performance-how well it responds to weak signals in the
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)-An presence of strong signals on adjacent channels.
external assignment mechanism that provides a "care-of EIA-Electronic Industries Alliance.
address" to a mobile client (see also Foreign Agent). EIA-232-C-An EIA standard physical level interface
Differential-mode signals-Signals that arrive on two or between DTE (terminal) and DCE (modem), using 25-pin
more conductors such that there is a 1800 phase difference connectors.
between the signals on some of the conductors. Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)-the ability of
Digipeater-s-a packet radio (digital) repeater. electronic equipment to be operated in its intended
Digital-A signal that has only discrete values, usually two electromagnetic environment without either causing
(logic 1 and logic 0), that changes at predetermined intervals. interference to other equipment or systems, or suffering
The value (e.g., voltage) present in a single time period is interference from other equipment or systems.
called a bit. The number of bits transferred per second is
called the bit rate that has units of bits per second (bit/s), or
kilobits per second (kbit/s), etc.
4 Glossary
Electromagnetic interference (EMI)-any electrical FCC (Federal Communications Commission)-The
disturbance that interferes with the normal operation of government agency that regulates Amateur Radio in the US.
electronic equipment. FCS-Frame check sequence. (See CRe.)
Electron-A subatomic particle that has a negative charge FDM (Frequency Division Multiplex)-A system that
and is the basis of electrical current. combines multiple voice or data streams into a single
Elmer-A traditional term for someone who enjoys helping baseband signal for transmission.
newcomers get started in ham radio. A mentor. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)-A radio
E-mail-Electronic mail sent and received via computers system that separates user channels by frequency. Amateur
with modems. Transmission media can be existing telephone Radio equipment presently uses FDMA.
or other communication lines, wireless, or not FEC-Forward error correction, an error control technique
uncommonly-both. in which the transmitted data is sufficiently redundant to
Emergency communication-Amateur Radio permit the receiving station to correct some errors.
communication that take place during a situation where there Field-Collection of top to bottom scan lines. When
is danger to lives or property. interlaced, a field does not contain adjacent scan lines and
EMF-Electromotive Force is the term used to define the there is more than one field per frame.
force of attraction between two points of different charge Field & Educational Services (F &ES)-Staff at ARRL
potential. Also called voltage. Headquarters that helps newcomers get started in ham radio
Emission-Electromagnetic energy propagated from a and supports hams who help newcomers.
source by radiation. Field Day-A popular Amateur Radio activity during which
Emitter-One of the outer layers of a bipolar transistor, hams set up radio stations outdoors and away from electrical
often the reference. service to simulate emergencies.
Encode-The process whereby a transmission contains Field-Effect Transistor (FET)-An analog device with a
additional data or code added to facilitate proper routing of semiconductor channel whose width can be modified by an
the transmission to the desired point or points. electric field. Also called a unipolar transistor.
Encryption-Technology used to form a secure channel Field Organization-A cadre of ARRL volunteers who
between a wireless client and the server to support user perform various services for the Amateur Radio community
authentication, data integrity, and data privacy. at the local and state level.
Energy-Capability of doing work. It is usually measured in Filter-a network of resistors, inductors and/or capacitors
electrical terms as the number of watts of power consumed that offer little resistance to certain frequencies while
during a specific period of time, such as watt-seconds or blocking or attenuating other frequencies.
kilowatt-hours. Flux density (B)-The number of magnetic-force lines per
Envelope-delay distortion-In a complex waveform, unit area, measured in gauss.
unequal propagation delay for different frequency Foldback Current Limiting-A special type of current
components. limiting used in linear power supplies, which reduces the
Equalization-Correction for amplitude-frequency and/or current through the supply's regulator to a low value under
phase-frequency distortion. short circuited load conditions in order to protect the series
ERP-Effective radiated power. The power radiated by an pass transistor from excessive power dissipation and possible
antenna in a particular direction compared to a reference destruction.
omnidirectional antenna. Footprint-The coverage area of an individual cell.
ESN (Electronic Serial Number)-A manufacturer- Foreign Agent-A special "node" that is present on a
assigned identity contained in a data transmission from a call foreign network and provides mobility services to visiting
p1ace-d-to verify that the hardware used belongs to a valid mobile nodes.
cellular account. FOT-Frequency of optimum transmission. This is a
External RF power amplifier-A device capable of frequency, between the lowest useable frequency (LUF) and
increasing power output when used in conjunction with, but maximum useable frequency (MUF), that will likely provide
not an integral part of, a transmitter. the best signal to noise ratio for a particular HF radio circuit.
External RF power amplifier kit-A number of electronic FM (Frequency modulation)-An operating mode
parts, which, when assembled, is an external RF power commonly used on ham radio repeaters.
amplifier, even if additional parts are required to complete Fox hunt-A competitive Amateur Radio activity in which
assembly. hams track down a transmitted signal.
Eye pattern-An oscilloscope display in the shape of one or Frequency (f)-The rate of change of an ac voltage or
more eyes for observing the shape of a serial digital stream current, measured in cycles per second, or hertz (Hz).
and any impairments. Frequency coordinator-An entity, recognized in a local or
EZNEC-One of a number of antenna performance regional area by amateur operators whose stations are
prediction programs. eligible to be auxiliary or repeater stations, that recommends
Fast Recovery Rectifier-A specially doped rectifier diode transmit/receive channels and associated operating and
designed to minimize the time necessary to halt conduction technical parameters for such stations in order to avoid or
when the diode is switched from a forward-biased state to a minimize potential interference.
reverse-biased state.
Glossary 5
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSP)-A type of Heterodyne-A system in which a locally generated signal is
modulation used in early 802.11 devices that uses a time- used to process a signal to result in a translation of the
varied narrow signal to spread the signal over a wide band. information content to a different frequency.
Maximum half-duplex data rate is 2 Mbps. High-pass filter-a filter designed to pass all frequencies
Front porch-The blank part of a television scan line just above a cutoff frequency, while rejecting frequencies below
before the horizontal sync. the cutoff frequency.
FSK-Frequency-shift keying. HF (High frequency)-The radio frequencies from 3 to 30
FSTV (Fast-scan televisionj-s-A mode of operation that MHz.
Amateur Radio operators can use to exchange live TV Hole-A positively charged "particle" that results when an
images from their stations. Same as common, full-color, electron is removed from an atom in a semiconductor crystal
motion commercial broadcast TV. structure.
Full quieting-a received signal that contains no noise. Host-As used in packet radio, a computer with applications
Fundamental overload-interference resulting from the programs accessible by remote stations.
fundamental signal of a radio transmitter. HSMM (High Speed Multimedia)-A digital radio
Gain-see Amplification. communication technique using spread spectrum modes
primarily on UHF to simultaneously send and receive video,
Gain-Bandwidth Product-The interrelationship between
voice, text, and data.
amplification and frequency that defines the limits of the
ability of a device to act as a linear amplifier. In many lAS-International Alphabet No.5, a 7-bit coded character
amplifiers, gain times bandwidth is approximately constant. set, CCITT version of ASCII.
Gate-The connection at the control point of a field-effect IARU (International Amateur Radio Union)-The
transistor, often the input. international organization made up of national Amateur Radio
organizations such as the ARRL.
Grid-The vacuum-tube element that controls the electron
flow from cathode to plate. Additional grids in some tubes IBOC-In Band On Channel. A method of using the same
perform other control functions to improve performance. channel on the AM or FM broadcast bands to transmit
simultaneous digital and analog modulation.
GPS (Global Positioning System)-A Department of
Defense-developed, worldwide, satellite-based radio IF-Intermediate frequency. A frequency used to process
navigation system. signals within a receiver or transmitter following heterodyning
from the carrier frequency.
Ground-a low-impedance electrical connection to the earth.
Also, a common reference point in electronic circuits. IFF-Identification friend or foe. A system developed during
WWII to allow radio identification of distant aircraft to
Ground Fault (Circuit) Interrupter (GFI or GFCI)-A
determine military aircraft identity. This system has been
safety device installed between the household power mains
expanded to provide identification and altitude data about
and equipment where there is a danger of personnel touching
civilian aircraft to air traffic control systems.
an earth ground while operating the equipment. The GFI
senses any current flowing directly to ground and Image-A signal observed in a receiver as a result of
immediately switches off all power to the equipment to undesired products from a heterodyne mixer.
minimize electrical shock. GFIs are now standard equipment Immunity-the ability of electronic equipment to reject
in bathroom and outdoor receptacles. interference from external sources of electromagnetic energy.
Group-The multiplexed combination of 12 voice channels This is the conjugate of the term "susceptibility" and is the
into a baseband signal of 48 kHz bandwidth. term typically used in the commercial world.
GSM-A cellular mobile telephone system used in many Impedance (Z)-The complex combination of resistance and
non-US countries. reactance, measured in ohms (Q).
Half duplex-a mode of communication in which a user Induction-the transfer of electrical signals via magnetic coupling.
transmits at one time and receives at another time. Inductance (L)-The ability to store electrical energy in a
Ham band-A range of frequencies on which ham magnetic field, measured in henrys (H). A device, such as a
communication are authorized. coil with inductance, is an inductor.
Ham radio-Another name for Amateur Radio. Information bulletin-s-A message directed only to amateur
operators consisting solely of subject matter of direct interest
Handoff-Process whereby a mobile telephone network
to the amateur service.
automatically transfers a call from cell to cell-possibly to
another channel-as a mobile crosses adjacent cells. Information field-Any sequence of bits containing the
intelligence to be conveyed.
Harmful interference-Interference which endangers the
functioning of a radionavigation service or of other safety Input-Output Differential-The voltage drop appearing
services or seriously degrades, obstructs or repeatedly across the series pass transistor in a linear voltage regulator.
interrupts a radiocommunication service-including ham This term is usually stated as a minimum value, which is that
radio-operating in accordance with the international Radio voltage necessary to allow the regulator to function and
Regulations. conduct current. A typical figure for this drop in most three-
terminal regulator ICs is about 2.5 V. In other words, a
Harmonics-signals at exact integral multiples of the
regulator that is to provide 12.5 V de will need a source
operating (or fundamental) frequency.
voltage of at least 15.0 V at all times to maintain regulation.
6 Glossary
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers LAPB-Link access procedure, balanced, CCITT X.25
(IEEE)-The professional standards setting organization for balanced-mode communications.
data networking devices. LEO-Low earth orbit. A term referring to satellites that are
Integrated Circuit (IC)-A semiconductor device in which in orbits well below the 22,400 mile geostationary orbital
many components, such as diodes, bipolar transistors, field- position.
effect transistors, resistors and capacitors are fabricated to Line Sequential-A method of color SSTV transmission
make an entire circuit. that sends red, green, and blue information for each
Interference-the unwanted interaction between electronic sequential scan line. This approach allows full-color images
systems. to be viewed during reception.
Interlace-Scan line ordering other than the usual sequential Linearity-The property found in nature and most analog
top to bottom. For example, NTSC sends a field with just the electrical circuits that governs the processing and
even lines in 1160 second, then a field with just the odd lines combination of signals by treating all signal levels the same
in 1160 second. This results in a complete frame 30 times a way.
second. AVT "QRM" mode is the only SSTV mode that uses Load Line-A line drawn through a family of characteristic
interlacing. curves that shows the operating points of an analog device for
Intermodulation-c-the undesired mixing of two or more a given output load impedance.
frequencies in a nonlinear device, which produces additional Loading-The condition that occurs when a cascaded analog
frequencies. stage modifies the operation of the previous stage.
Ionosphere-A region extending above the earth's surface Loopback-A test performed by connecting the output of a
from a distance of about 30 to 250 miles. This region is modulator to the input of a demodulator.
ionized by solar radiation can refract radio waves depending LORAN-Long RAnge Navigation. A hyperbolic navigation
on frequency and ionospheric conditions. system for ships and aircraft using multiple transmitters with
Inverter-A circuit for producing ac power from a de fixed delays between pulse transmissions. LORAN-C is a
source. more recent version using a frequency of 100 kHz.
Iridium-A commercial low earth orbiting communications LOS-Line of sight.
satellite system. Low-pass filter-a filter designed to pass all frequencies
ISB-A system in which the channel bandwidth allocated to below a cutoff frequency, while rejecting frequencies above
a double sideband AM signal is used to carry two the cutoff frequency.
independent signals, one on each sideband. LSB-Least-significant bit.
ISI-Intersymbol interference; slurring of one symbol into LUF-Lowest useable frequency (LUF). This is the lowest
the next as a result of multipath propagation. frequency that is likely to propagate via ionospheric
ISO-International Organization for Standardization. refraction between a particular pair of end point.
International Morse code-A dot-dash code as defined in Luminance-The brightness component of a video signal.
International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Usually computed as Y (the luminance signal) = 0.59 G
Committee (CCITT) Recommendation F1 (1984), Division (green) + 0.30 R (red) + 0.11 B (blue).
B, 1. Morse Code. Mag-mount - antenna with a magnetic base that permits
Isotropic-An antenna that radiates equally in all directions. quick installation and removal from a motor vehicle or other
An idealized antenna used as a reference for real antenna that metal surface.
don't. Magnetron-A microwave oscillator tube developed during
ITA2-International Telegraph Alphabet No.2, a CCITT 5- WWII that enabled microwave radar.
bit coded character set commonly called the Baudot or Mark-A telegraph signal element in which current is
Murray code. flowing.
ITU (International Telecommunication Union)-An Mastergroup-i-A level in the analog multiplex hierarchy
agency of the United Nations that allocates the radio encompassing five supergroups and thus 300 voice channels
spectrum among the various radio services. or equivalent.
Jitter-Unwanted variations in amplitude or phase in a Mean power-The average power supplied to an antenna
digital signal. transmission line during an interval of time sufficiently long
Joule-Measure of a quantity of energy. One joule is defined compared with the lowest frequency encountered in the
as one Newton (a measure of force) acting over a distance of modulation taken under normal operating conditions.
one meter. Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (MOSFET) -A field-effect
Junction FET (JFET)-A field-effect transistor that forms transistor that forms its electric field through an insulating
its electric field across a PN junction. oxide layer.
Key clicks-Undesired switching transients beyond the Microwave-UHF and SHF radio signals with frequencies
necessary bandwidth of a Morse code transmission caused above 1000 MHz.
by improperly shaped modulation envelopes. Mobile Host-Also known as a "mobile node," this
LAP-Link access procedure, CCITT X.25 unbalanced- addressed entity in the Mobile IP protocol roams between its
mode communications. home network and foreign networks.
Glossary 7
Mobile IP-This mobile industry standard enhances the IP NTSC-National Television System Committee. Television
protocol to remedy problems associated with using the standard used in North America and Japan.
standard TCP/IP with a mobile entity. It allows for Octet-A group of eight bits.
transparent routing of IP data grams to mobile hosts (nodes) Ohm-Unit of resistance. One ohm is defined as the
on the Internet. resistance that will allow one ampere of current when one volt
Mode-A type of ham radio communication; examples are of EMF is impressed across the resistance.
frequency modulation (FM voice), slow-scan television Operational Amplifier (op amp)-An integrated circuit that
(SSTV) and SSB (single sideband voice). contains a symmetrical circuit of transistors and resistors with
Modem-Modulator-demodulator, a device that connects highly improved characteristics over other forms of analog
between a data terminal and communication line (or radio). amplifiers.
Also called data set. Open repeater-A repeater whose access is not limited.
Monostatic-A radar system in which transmitting and Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)-A
receiving locations are collocated. type of modulation that splits a wide frequency band into
Morse code-A popular communication mode transmitted many narrow frequency bands. Both 802.11a and 802.llg use
by on/off keying of a radio-frequency signal. Hams use the OFDM.
international Morse code. Originate-The station initiating a call. In modem usage, the
MSB-Most-significant bit. calling station or modem tones associated therewith.
MSK-Frequency-shift keying where the shift in Hz is equal Oscillator-An unstable analog system, which causes the
to half the signaling rate in bits per second. output signal to vary spontaneously. Also a device to produce
MUF-Maximum useable frequency (MUF). This is the controlled oscillations.
highest frequency that is likely to propagate via ionospheric OSI-RM-Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model
refraction between a particular pair of end point. specified in ISO 7498 and CCITT Rec X.200.
Multiplex-The combining of multiple signals, such as Out-of-band emission (splatter)-An emission on a
telephone trunk connections onto a single transmission frequency immediately outside the necessary bandwidth
system. caused by overmodulation on peaks (excluding spurious
NAK-Negative acknowledge (opposite of ACK). emissions).
NEe-Numerical Electromagnetics Code. The calculating Output frequency-the frequency of the repeater's
algorithms upon which many antenna modeling programs, transmitter (and your transceiver's receiver).
including EZNEC, are based. Over-a word used to indicate the end of a voice
Necessary bandwidth-The width of the transmitted transmission.
frequency band that is just sufficient to ensure the Packet radio-A computer-to-computer radio communication
transmission of information at the rate and with the quality mode in which information is broken into short bursts. The
required under specified conditions. bursts (packets) contain addressing and error-detection
Net-An on-the-air meeting of hams at a set time, day and information.
radio frequency. PAL-Phase alteration line. Television standard used in
Network-A system of interconnected radios to allow more Germany and many other parts of Europe.
than one station access to shared resources. Parity check-Addition of non-information bits to data,
NiCd-a nickel-cadmium battery that may be recharged making the number of ones in a group of bits always either
many times; often used to power portable transceivers. even or odd.
Pronounced "NYE-cad." Passband-the band of frequencies that a filter conducts with
Node-A unique host on a network such as a printer, essentially no attenuation.
computer device, handheld Personal Digital Assistant (PDA), PCM-Pulse code modulation. A system in which analog
or a mainframe. voice is sampled and digitized for transmission as a series of
Noise-Any signal that interferes with the desired signal in binary coded data words.
electronic communications or systems. Peak (voltage or current)-The maximum value relative to
Noise Figure (NF)-A measure of the noise added to a zero that an ac voltage or current attains during any cycle.
signal by an analog processing stage. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)-The highest voltage that can
Nonlinear-having an output that is not in linear proportion be tolerated by a reverse biased PN junction before current is
to the input. conducted.
Notch filter-A filter that rejects or suppresses a narrow Pentode-A five-element vacuum tube with a cathode, a
band of frequencies within a wider band of frequencies. control grid, a screen grid, a suppressor grid, and a plate.
NRZI-Nonreturn to zero. A binary baseband code in which PEP (peak envelope power)-The average power supplied
output transitions result from data Os but not from 1s. Formal to the antenna transmission line by a transmitter during one
designation is NRZ-S (nonreturn-to-zero-space). RF cycle at the crest of the modulation envelope taken under
N-Type Impurity-A doping atom with an excess of normal operating conditions.
electrons that is added to semiconductor material to give it a Period (T)-The duration of one ac voltage or current cycle,
net negative charge. measured in seconds (s).
8 Glossary
Permeability (~)-The ratio of the magnetic flux density of QRP-An abbreviation for low power.
an iron, ferrite, or similar core in an electromagnet compared QSL bureau-A system for sending QSL cards to and from
to the magnetic flux density of an air core, when the current ham radio operators.
through the electromagnet is held constant. QSL cards-Cards that serve to confirm communication
Phased Array Radar-A radar system in which an array of between two hams.
antenna elements is combined with dynamic phase shift QST-The premiere ham radio monthly magazine, published
elements to synthesize an electronically steered antenna by the ARRL. QST means "calling all radio amateurs."
pattern.
RACES (Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service)-A
Phone-Emissions carrying speech or other sound radio service that uses amateur stations for civil defense
information having designators with A, C, D, F, G, H, J or R communication during periods of local, regional or national
as the first symbol; 1, 2 or 3 as the second symbol; E as the civil emergencies.
third symbol. Also speech emissions having B as the first
Radiated emission-radio-frequency energy that is coupled
symbol; 7, 8 or 9 as the second symbol; E as the third
between two systems by electromagnetic fields.
symbol.
Radio (or Ham) shack-The room where Amateur Radio
PID-Protocol identifier. Used in AX.25 to specify the
operators keep their station.
network-layer protocol used.
Radio-frequency interference (RFI)-interference caused
Pixel-Picture element. The dots that make up images on a
by a source of radio-frequency signals. This is a subclass of
computer's monitor.
EM!.
Plate-See anode, usually used with vacuum tubes.
Radio Regulations-The latest ITU Radio Regulations.
PN Junction-The region that occurs when P-type
Radiotelegraphy-See Morse code.
semiconductor material is placed in contact with N-type
semiconductor material. RAM-Rand?m access memory.
POS (Point of Service)-A generation of narrowband Reactance (X)-Opposition to alternating current by storage
digital, two-way, low-powered wireless services in the 800- in an electrical field (by a capacitor) or in a magnetic field
900 MHz bands that will support confirmed delivery of (by an inductor), measured in ohms (n).
message, full two-way data transfer, voice messaging and Receiver-A device that converts radio signals into a form
connectivity via the Internet. that can be heard.
Power-Power is the rate at which work is done. One watt of Regulator-A device (such as a Zener diode) or circuitry in
power is equal to one volt of EMF, causing a current of one a power supply for maintaining a constant output voltage
ampere through a resistor. Power is expressed in three ways: over a range of load currents and input voltages.
(1) Peak envelope power (PEP); (2) Mean power; and (3) Remote control-The use of a control operator who
Carrier power. indirectly manipulates the operating adjustments in the
Power Conditioner-Another term for a power supply. station through a control link to achieve compliance with the
PPI-Plan position indicator. A radar indicator showing FCC Rules.
azimuth, range and target return amplitude. Remote Presence-The ability to establish remote network
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)-A method of connecting a connections and still appear to be connected to the home
computer to the Internet. PPP is more stable than the older network.
SLIP protocol and provides error-checking features. Repeater-An amateur station, usually located on a
Primary-The master station in a master slave relationship; mountaintop, hilltop or tall building, that receives and
the master maintains control and is able to perform actions simultaneously retransmits the signals of other stations on a
that the slave cannot. (Compare secondary.) different channel or channels for greater range.
Protocol-A formal set of rules and procedures for the Repeater Directory-an annual ARRL publication that lists
exchange of information within a network. repeaters in the US, Canada and other areas.
PSK-Phase-shift keying. Resistance (R)-Opposition to current by conversion into
othe~ forms of energy, such as heat, measured in ohms (n).
PTT-Push-to-talk. A transmit-receive switching system in
which a button or switch, typically located on a microphone, Resonance-Ordinarily, the condition in an ac circuit
is used to initiate transmission. containing both capacitive and reactance, where maximum
RF current flows.
P- Type Impurity-A doping atom with an excess of holes
that is added to semiconductor material to give it a net RF (Radio frequencies)-The range of frequencies that can
positive charge. travel through space in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
Public service-Activities involving Amateur Radio that RGB-Red, Green, Blue. One of the models used to
hams perform to benefit their communities. represent colors. Due to the characteristics of the human eye,
most colors can be simulated by various blends of red, green,
Q (quality factor)-The ratio of energy stored in a reactive
and blue light.
component (capacitor or inductor) to the energy dissipated,
equal to the reactance divided by the resistance. RIC (Radio interface card)-A PCMCIA device with an
antenna port used in HSMM radio to allow a personal
QAM-Quadrature Amplitude Modulation. A method of
computer to control a radio transceiver.
simultaneous phase and amplitude modulation. The number
which precedes it, e.g., 64QAM, indicates the number of
discrete stages in each pulse.
Glossary 9
Ripple-The residual ac left after rectification, filtration and Series Pass Transistor, or Pass Transistor-The
regulation of the input power. transistor(s) that controls the passage of power between the
RMS (voltage or currentj-s-Literally, "root mean square," unregulated de source and the load in a regulator. In a linear
the square root of the average of the squares of the regulator, the series pass transistor acts as a controlled
instantaneous values for one cycle of a waveform. A dc resistor to drop the voltage to that needed by the load. In a
voltage or current that will produce the same heating effect switch-mode regulator, the series pass transistor switches
as the waveform. For a sine wave, the RMS value is equal to between its ON and OFF states.
0.707 times the peak value of ac voltage or current. Service Set Identity (SSID)-The identification for an AP.
Robot-(l) Abbreviation for Robot l200C scan converter; It is transmitted continuously in the form of a beacon.
(2) a family of SSTV transmission modes introduced with Signal-To-Noise Ratio (SNR)-The ratio of the strength of
the l200C. the desired signal to that of the unwanted signal (noise).
Router-A network packet switch. In packet radio, a Simplex-a mode of communication in which users transmit
network-level relay station capable of routing packets. and receive on the same frequency.
RS-232-C-See EIA-232-C. Slew Rate-The maximum rate at which a signal may
RTTY-Narrow-band direct-printing telegraphy emissions change levels and still be accurately amplified in a particular
having designators with A, C, D, F, G, H, J or R as the first device.
symbol; 1 as the second symbol; B as the third symbol; and SOAR (Safe Operating ARea)-The range of permissible
emission J2B. collector current and collector-emitter voltage combinations
RTS-Request to send, physical-level signal used to control where a transistor may be safely operated without danger of
the direction of data transmission of the local DCE. device failure.
RTTY-Radioteletype. Source-The connection at one end of the channel of a field-
Rill-Received data, physical-level signals generated by effect transistor, often the reference. In packet radio, the
the DCE are sent to the DTE on this circuit. station transmitting the frame over a direct radio link or via a
repeater.
SAREX (Space Amateur Radio Experiment)-Amateur
Radio equipment flown in space and operated by astronauts Space-A telegraph signal element in which current is not
who are licensed Amateur Radio operators. flowing.
Saturation Region-The region in the characteristic curve Space station-An amateur station located more than 50 km
of an analog device in which the output signal can be made above the Earth's surface.
no larger. See Clamping. Spike-An extremely short perturbation on a power line,
Scan converter-A device that converts one TV standard to usually lasting less than a few microseconds.
another. For example, the Robot l200C converts SSTV to and Splatter-See Out-of-band emission.
from FSTY. Spread Spectrum-A technology, originated during World
Scottie-A family of amateur SSTV transmission modes War II, which distributes or spreads a radio signal over a
developed by Eddie Murphy, GM3SBC, in Scotland. broad frequency range. This spreading prevents narrow band
Sea clutter-The undesired reflection from ocean waves signals and noise sources from interfering with the spread
that mask low altitude radar targets. spectrum signal. The spread spectrum signal is heard as noise
to the traditional narrow band receiver.
SECAM-Sequential color and memory. Television
standard used in France and the Commonwealth of Spurious emission-An emission, on frequencies outside the
Independent States. necessary bandwidth of a transmission, the level of which may
be reduced without affecting the information being transmitted.
Secondary-The slave in a master-slave relationship. They include harmonic emissions, intermodulation products
Compare primary.
and frequency conversion products, but exclude out-of-band
Secondary Breakdown-A runaway failure condition in a emissions.
transistor, occurring at higher collector-emitter voltages, SSB (Single sideband)-A common mode of voice
where hot spots occur due to (and promoting) localization of
operation on the amateur bands.
the collector current at that region of the chip.
SSID-Secondary station identifier. In AX.25 link-layer
Security-The ability to create secure channels for user
protocol, a multipurpose octet to identify several packet radio
authentication, data integrity, and data privacy. stations operating under the same call sign.
Semiconductor-An elemental material whose current
SSTV (Slow-scan television)-A mode of operation in
conductance can be controlled.
which ham radio operators exchange still pictures from their
Separation or split-the difference (in kHz) between a stations.
repeater's transmitter and receiver frequencies. Repeaters
Superhet-Superheterodyne. A radio receiver architecture in
that use unusual separations, such as 1 MHz on 2 m, are
which signals are mixed or heterodyned to a different
sometimes said to have "oddball splits."
frequency for processing.
Supergroup-A combination of five multiplexed voice
channel groups into a single higher bandwidth baseband
system carrying 60 voice channels or equivalent.
10 Glossary
Supermastergroup-s-A combination of three multiplexed Time constant-The time required for the voltage in an RC
voice channel supergroups into a single higher bandwidth circuit or the current in an RL circuit to rise from zero to
baseband analog system carrying 900 voice channels or approximately 63.2% of its maximum value or to fall from
equivalent. its maximum value 63.2% toward zero.
Superposition-The natural process of adding two or more Timer-a device that measures the length of each
signals together and having each signal retain its unique transmission and causes the repeater or a repeater function to
identity. turn off after a transmission has exceeded a certain length.
Surge-A moderate-duration perturbation on a power line, TIS (Technical Information Service)-A service of the
usually lasting for hundreds of milliseconds to several ARRL that helps hams solve technical problems.
seconds. TNC-Terminal node controller, a device that assembles and
Susceptance (B)-The reciprocal of reactance, measured in disassembles packets (frames); sometimes called a PAD.
siemens (S). Tone Pad-an array of 12 or 16 numbered keys that generate
Susceptibility-the characteristic of electronic equipment the standard telephone dual-tone multifrequency keypad. (see
that permits undesired responses when subjected to autopatch).
electromagnetic energy. (DTMF) dialing signals. Resembles a standard telephone
SWL (Shortwave listener)-A person who enjoys listening Toroid-Literally, any donut-shaped solid; most commonly
to shortwave radio broadcasts or Amateur Radio referring to ferrite or powdered-iron cores supporting
conversations. inductors and transformers.
SWR-Standing wave ratio. The ratio of maximum to Transceiver-A radio transmitter and receiver combined in
minimum voltage on a transmission line. A measure of how one unit.
well it is matched to the impedance of the load. Transient-A short perturbation on a power line, usually
Sync-That part of a TV signal that indicates the beginning lasting for microseconds to tens of milliseconds.
of a frame (vertical sync) or the beginning of a scan line Transducer-Any device that converts one form of energy
(horizontal sync). to another; for example an antenna, which converts electrical
TAPR-Tucson Amateur Packet Radio Corporation, a energy to electromagnetic energy or a speaker, which
nonprofit organization involved in packet-radio development. converts electrical energy to sonic energy.
TDM (Time Division Multiplex)-A system that combines Transformer-A device consisting of at least two coupled
multiple voice or data streams into a single time sequenced inductors capable of transferring energy through mutual
signal for transmission. inductance.
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)-A digital radio Transmitter-A device that produces radio-frequency
system that separates users by time. signals.
Telecommand-A one-way transmission to initiate, modify, Transponder-A system that transmits a signal in response
or terminate functions of a device at a distance. to the appropriate received signal.
'Ielecommand station-An amateur station that transmits Triode-A three-element vacuum tube with a cathode, a
communication to initiate, modify, or terminate functions of grid, and a plate.
a space station. TRF-A tuned radio frequency receiver. This technology
Telemetry-A one-way transmission of measurements at a used multiple tuned RF stages at the signal frequency ahead
distance from the measuring instrument. of a detector to provide gain and selectivity. This architecture
Teleport-A radio station that acts as a relay between preceded the superheterodyne receiver.
terrestrial radio stations and a communications satellite. TR switch-Transmit-receive switch to allow automatic
Test-Emissions containing no information having the selection between receive and transmitter for one antenna.
designators with N as the third symbol. Test does not include TTY-Teletypewriter.
pulse emissions with no information or modulation unless Turnaround time-The time required to reverse the
pulse emissions are also authorized in the frequency band. direction of a half-duplex circuit, required by propagation,
Tetrode-A four-element vacuum tube with a cathode, a modem reversal and transmit-receive switching time of
control grid, a screen grid, and a plate. transceiver.
Third Party Mobile IP-An Internet technology solution TVI-interference to television systems.
that provides both wireless and wire line IP network and TxD-Transmitted data, physical-level data signals
media roaming/communications to both Intranet and Internet transferred on a circuit from the DTE to the DCE.
services.
UHF (Ultra-high frequencies)-The radio frequencies from
Throughput-The amount of data processed, or transferred 300 to 3000 MHz.
from one place to another in a specified amount of time. Data
transfer rates for disk drives and networks are measured in UI-Unnumbered information frame.
terms of throughput. Typically, throughput is measured in Unipolar Transistor-see Field-Effect Transistor (FET).
kbit/s, Mbit/s, and Gbit/s. "\:24-A CCITT standard defining physical-level interface
TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association)- circuits between a DTE (terminal) and DCE (modem),
Telecommunications Industry Association, 2500 Wilson equivalent to EIA RS-232-C.
Blvd, Arlington, VA 22001. On the web: www.tiaonllne.org.
Glossary 11
~28-A CCITT standard defining electrical characteristics WAS (Worked All States)-An ARRL award that is
for Y.24 interface. earned when an Amateur Radio operator talks to and
Varistor-A surge suppression device used to absorb exchanges QSL cards with a ham in each of the 50 states in
transients and spikes occurring on the power lines, thereby the US.
protecting electronic equipment plugged into that line. WAVE (Worked All VE)-An award that is earned when a
Frequently, the term MOV (Metal Oxide Varistor) is used ham talks to and exchanges QSL cards with a ham in each
instead. Canadian province.
VCO-Voltage controlled oscillator. An oscillator in which Wavelength-The distance a readio wave travels during
the frequency can be varied by adjustment of the voltage one cycle. A means of designating a frequency band, such
applied to a control element in the oscillator circuit. as the 80-meter band.
VE (Volunteer Examiners)-Amateur Radio operators Window-In packet radio at the link layer, the range of
who give Amateur Radio licensing examinations. frame numbers within the control field used to set the
VHF (Very-high frequencies)-The radio frequencies from maximum number of frames that the sender may transmit
30 to 300 MHz. before it receives an acknowledgment from the receiver.
Virtual circuit-A mode of packet networking in which a Windows OS-Microsoft Windows Operating System.
logical connection that emulates a point-to-point circuit is Wireless Data-Information or "intelligence," sent or received
established (compare Datagram). by wireless transmission/reception without the direct aid of a
VIS-Vertical Interval Signaling. Digital encoding of the landline.
transmission mode in the vertical sync portion of an SSTV Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)-A standard for
image. This allows the receiver of a picture to automatically providing minimal privacy of wireless LAN communication
select the proper mode. This was introduced as part of the by encrypting individual data frames.
Robot modes and is now used by all SSTV software Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi)-The Wireless Ethernet
designers. Compatibility Alliance certification program to ensure that
Volt-A measure of electromotive force. equipment claiming to be in compliance with 802.11
Voltage (E)-Electromotive force or electrical pressure, standards is truly interoperable. The term Wi-Fi5 is
measured in volts (V). sometimes applied to 802.11a equipment that operates on
Volt-Amperes-The product obtained by multiplying the the 5-GHz band.
current times the voltage in an ac circuit without regard for WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)-A local-area
the phase angle between the two. This is also known as the network that uses high frequency radio waves rather than
apparent power delivered to the load as opposed to the wires to communicate between nodes.
actual or real power absorbed by the load, expressed in Work-To contact another ham.
watts. Wraase-A family of amateur SSTV transmission modes
Voltage Multiplier-A type of rectifier circuit that is first introduced with the Wraase SC-1 scan converter
arranged so as to charge a capacitor or capacitors on one developed by Volker Wraase, DL2RZ, of Wraase
half-cycle of the ac input voltage waveform, and then to Electronik, Germany.
connect these capacitors in series with the rectified line or X.25-CCITT packet-switching protocol.
other charged capacitors on the alternate half-cycle. The Zener Diode-A PN-junction diode with a controlled peak
voltage doubler and tripler are commonly used forms of the inverse voltage so that it will start conducting current at a
voltage multiplier. preset reverse voltage.
VOR-VHF omnidirection range. A navigation system
designed for aircraft use. Appropriate receivers provide
bearings to VOR locations, located at major airports.
12 Glossary
A Audio amplifier 3-2
A-scope 10-6 Aurora 21-7
Absorption 1-5, 15-4 Automatic
Accuracy 24-5 Direction finders 24-3ff
Active filtering 8-lff Exchange 1-3
Add-drop relay 20-2 Gain control (AGe) 11-4
Aeronautical mobile 22-8 Link establishment (ALE) 21-4
AGC 11-4 Volume control (AVe) 11-4
Delayed 11-5
Air traffic control (ATe) 23-11 B
Airborne radar 23-9 B-scope 23-8
ALE 21-4 Balanced
Allocation of bands 22-3 Mixer 6-4
Almanac data 24-7 Modulator 13-3
Amateur Band
Position Reporting System (APRS) 24-8 -pass filter 7-2, 7-4, 7-5ff
Radio Service 22-8 -reject filter 7-2
American Radio Relay League (ARRL) 21-7 Bandwidth 3-5, 9-3
Amplifier 2-5, 2-8 Receiver 23-6
Audio 3-2 Baseband 10-4
Feedback 4-2, 8-2 Battle of Britain 23-2
Gain 14-4 Baudot code 1-2, 9-6
Linear 6-2, 14-3 Beacon 11-2, 21-3
Non-linear 14-3 Emergency locating 23-11
Power 3-3, 14-1ff MF direction finding 24-2
RF 3-4 Non-directional 24-3
Voltage 3-3 Systems 23-11
Amplitude modulated 2-2 Beamwidth
Analog Multiplexing 10-4 23-2,23-3
Angle modulation 13-5 Beat frequency oscillator (BFa) 9-3
Antenna 1-9, 17-6, 18-10 Bell Labs 14-6
Aperture 17-3, 19-3 Bell, Alexander Graham 1-3
Beamwidth 23-2, 23-3 BFa 9-3
Directional 21-6 Bias
Directivity 17-2 Current 14-5
Gain 16-6, 19-3 Forward 3-6
Modeling............................................................ 17-6 Billboard array 16-3
Parabolic 23-3 Bishop, Emily (Chick) 6-1
Patch panel......................................................... 21-7 Blip 23-8
Pointing 21-5 Blocking capacitor 2-5
Range 17-6 Boltzman's constant 23-6
Receive aperture 23-6 Breadboard 2-5
Receiving 17-1 ff Breadboard construction A-3
Sense 24-2 Break in keying 12-6
Transmitting 16-1 ff Broadcasting 22-8
Aperture Broadside array 16-3
Antenna 17-3, 19-3 Butterworth 7-5
Effective............................................................. 17-4
Receive antenna 23-6 C
Area, receiving 17-3 Capacitor 2-8
ARISS 24-1 Carrier
Armstrong, Edwin 9-3 Operated relay (COR) 20-4
Array Wave 2-2
Billboard 16-3 Car's whisker 2-1, 2-6, 3-5
Broadside 16-3 Cathode-ray tube (CRT) 10-5
Curtain 21-6 Cell phone 25-3
Parasitic 16-3 Cellular
ARRL 21-7, 22-5 Analog 20-6
ASCII 2-2, 9-6 Digital 20-7
AT&T 8-3 System 20-6
Atmospheric noise 11-2 Centimeter 1-6
Attenuate 7-2, 18-9 Chain Home radar 23-2
Atwater- Kent 3-4
Index 1
Channel Diode 6-3
Assignment 22-5 -ring balanced mixer 6-4
Group 10-3 IN34 2-4
Characteristic impedance 18-9 IN916 2-4
Chebyshev 7-5 Germanium 3-6
Chiao, Leroy, KE5BRW Silicon 3-6
Chirp 12-3 Varactor 5-2
Class Dipole 1-9,2-4, 16-2, 16--4, 16-7,
A 14-2 18-2,18-5,19-4,21-5
AB 14-5 Direct digital synthesis (DDS) 5-4
ABI 14-5, 14-9 Directivity, antenna 17-2
AB2 14-5, 14-9 Discriminator 10-3
B 14-3 Dish antenna 17-4
D 14-9 Distortion
Clear channel 21-2 Crossover 14-5
Clock 5-4 Harmonic 14-4
Clutter Double
Ground 23-9 Conversion 11-7, 11-8
Sea 23-9 Sideband AM (DSB) 9-4
Coaxial 18-9 Drop-insert relay 20-3
Coherer detector 2-6 DSB AM 13-4
Coil 2-8 DSP 8-3
Collins Duplex 12-5
75A4 11-3 Duty cycle 10-6
Radio Co 7-7, 11-7 DXpedition 9-1
Collins, Arthur 11-7 Dynamic range 11-4
Colpitts 4-3,4-5, 5-2
Communications Regulations 22-Iff E
Component handling A-3 E layer , 15-6
Condenser 2-8 Eavesdropper 17-2
Cooling Echo 10-6
Forced air 14-6 Effective
Water 14-6 Aperture 17-4
COR 20-4 Radiated power (ERP) 16-5, 19-3,23-5
Counselman, Chuck, W1HIS 12-3 System temperature 23-6
CPU clock speed 25-2 Efficiency 14-2
Critical EI2AIR 21-1
Angle 15-7 Einstein, Albert 9-2
Frequency 15-7, 21-2 Electric
Crossover distortion 14-5 Field 1-5, 16-2
CRT 10-5 Mirror 1-7
Crystal 3-5, 4-1, 4-5 Electrically tuned oscillator 5-2
Lattice filter 11-7 Electromagnet 1-2
Set 2-8, 3-2 Electromagnetic wave 1-5
Synthesizer 5-3 Electrostatic discharge A-3
Curtain array 21-6 ELT 23-11
Emergency
D Locating beacons 23-11
D layer 15-6 Locating transmitter (ELT) 23-11
DAC 5-4, 8-3 Position indicating rescue beacons
Data communication 9-6 (EPIRBS) 23-11
dBd 16-6 Encoding 9-7
dBi 16-6, 17-2 Envelope 3-6
DDS 5-4 Ephemeris data 24-7
Decibel 19-6 EPIRBS 23-11
Decoherer 2-7 ERP 16-5,23-5
Deforest 2-8 External noise 3-5
Delayed AGC 11-5 EZNEC 16-6, 17-6, 18-Iff
DeMaw, Doug, WIFB A-15
Demodulator 6-2 F
Depletion region 5-2 F layer 15-6
Detection 2-2, 2-8, 6-3 Fading 19-3,21-7
Coherer 2-6 Fall time 12-2
Marconi magnetic 2-7 FCC 12-3, 22-3
Phase 5-3 FDM 10-3
Video 10-5 FDMA 20-6
Deviation 10-2 Federal Communications Commission
Difference equation 8-4 (FCC) 22-3
Differential GPS 24-8 Feed line loss 19-3, 19-4
Diffraction 1-5 Feedback 4-2
Digital 3-3, 5-2 Negative 4-2
-to-analog converter (DAC) 5-4, 8-3 Positive 4-2
Filtering 8-1ff FET 14-9
Signal processor (DSP) 8-3 Fiber optic 1-6, 20-2
Voice hierarchies 10-4
2 Index
Field Ground-plane construction A-3
-Effect Transistor (FET) 14-9 GSM 20-7
Electric 1-5, 16-2
Magnetic 1-5, 16-2 H
Figures character 9-6 Half
Filament 14-6, 14-8 -wave dipole 1-9, 16-2
Filter 1-5,3-7, 7-lff, 12-3 Duplex 12-5
Active and Digital 8-lff Hallas, Joel, W1ZR 7-1
Band pass 7-2, 7-4, 7-5ff Hand off 20-6
Band reject 7-2 Hare, Ed, W1P~I A-IS
High pass 7-2 Harmonic 12-3
Low pass 7-2 Distortion 14-4
Low-pass 7-4 Hartley 4-4
Mechanical 7-7 Heading 23-2
Piezoelectric crystal 7-6 I-Ieadphone 2-4, 3-2
Roll off 7-3 Height-finder radar 23-9
Skirt 7-3 Henderson, Dan, N1ND 1-3
Fire control radar 23-2, 23-9 Hertz, Heinrich 1-3
First detector 6-2 Heterodyne 9-2
Fixed station 22-8 Receiver 9-1ff
FM detector 10-2 HF (High Frequency) 1-6
Focal point 15-3 High
Focus 24-4 -level amplitude modulation 13-2
Forced air cooling 14-6 -pass filter 7-2
Forward bias 3-6 -Q tuned circuit 9-5
FOT 21-2 Hops 21-2
Fourth power 11-5,21-7 Horizon
Frame 10-4 Radio 19-2
Free space 16-6, 18-2, 18-5 Visual 19-2
Frequency 1-5, 2-2 Horizontally polarized 21-6
Band 6-3 Hu1smeyer 23-2
Deviation 10-2 Hunt 5-3
Division multiple access (FDMA) 20-6 Hutchinson, Chuck, K8CH 1-1
Division multiplex (FDM) 13-5 HVOR 24-5
Division Multiplexer 1-3 Hybrid synthesizer 5-4
Division multiplexer (FDM) 10-3 Hyperbolic 24-4
Domain 6-2 Navigation systems 24-4ff
Locked loop 5-3
Modulation 9-6 I
Modulation (FM) 9-6, 10-2 ICOM 25-4
Multiplication 13-6 Identification friend or foe (IFF) 23-11
Shift 9-6 IF 3-7,9-2
Shift keying (FSK) 9-6 IFF 23-11
Synthesizer 5-1ff Image 6-5, 11-7
Translation 6-3 Rejecting mixer 6-5
Front-to-back ratio 18-8 Impedance, characteristic 18-9
FSK 9-6 Independent sideband (ISB) 10-3, 13-4
Full duplex 12-5 Index 10-2
Full-wave loop 16-7 Inductor 2-8
Input SNR 19-4,20-3
G Integration gain 23-8
Gain 2-5, 16-6 Interference 17-2, 22-3
Integration 23-8 Intermediate frequency (IF) 3-7,9-2
Galactic noise 11-2 Intermodu1ation distortion 11-10
Galbraith, Chris, KA8WFC 11-3 Internal noise 3-5
Galena 2-1,2-4 International Telecommunications Union (lTU) 22-2
Ganging 3-5 Ionization 1-8, 15-4
Gate 14-9 Ionosphere 1-7, 15-1, 15-4
Geostationary orbit 20-8 Ionospheric
Geosynchronous 20-8 Communications 21-2
Germanium diode 3-6 Propagation 24-5
Getting parts A-2 Skip 21-2
Global Positioning System Sounding 21-3
(GPS) 20-10,24-7, 25-4 Iridium 20-9
Global System for Mobile (GSM) 20-7 ISB 10-3
GPS 20-10,24-7,25-4 Isotropic 16-5, 16-6, 17-2
Differential 24-7 ITU 22-1.22-2
Great-circle path 21-6 Regions 22-3
Grid 14-8 Standardization Sector 22-2
Ground Telecommunication Development Sector 22-2
Clutter 23-9
Perfect 18-5 J
Real 18-5 Jet Airways (HVOR) 24-5
Reflection 16-6, 18-6
Wave 1-7, 15-5
Index 3
K Modeling, antenna 17-6
Ka band 20-8 Modulation 2-2, 3-7
Kilohertz 1-6 Amplitude 12-2
Kodiak 10-1 Angle 13-5
Kraus, J., W8JK 17-6, 18-11 Frequency 12-2
High-level AM 13-2
L Index 10-2
Lattice 7-7 Phase 12-2, 13-6
Layer, Ionospheric 1-8, 15-4, 15-5 Modulator 6-2, 6-3, 13-2
LEO 20-9 Balanced 13-3
Letters character 9-6 Phase 13-6
Lewallen, Roy, W7EL 17-6 Monitoring stations 22-6
LF (Low Frequency) 1-6 Monostatic 23-5
Limiter 10-3 Morse, Samuel 1-2
Lindquist, Rick, N1RL 3-4 Moving target indicator (MTI) 23-9
Line of position 24-4 MUF 15-7,21-2
Line-of-sight 1-7, 15-2, 15-4, 19-1ff, 20-2 Multi
Linear -channel multiplex 10-3
Amplifier 6-2, 14-3 -hop 21-2
System 6-2 MUltiplexer 20-2
LM-386 3-3 Multiplication 6-2
Load 7-2, 17-2 Multiplier .; 6-2
Long path 21-6 Frequency 13-6
Loop 17-3
Full wave 16-7 N
Small 24-2 Narrowband 9-4
LORAN 24-4, 24-7 FM 10-2
LORAN C 24-5 NAVSTAR 24-7
LOS 2-18, 19-2,20-2,21-2, 21-5 Near Vertical Incidence Skywave (NVIS) 21-5
Loss NEC 17-6
Feed line 19-3, 19-4 Neutralization 3-5
Path 19-3, 19-5 Noise 19-6
Spreading 19-5 Atmospheric 11-2
Loudspeaker 2-8 External 3-5
Low Galactic 11-2
-Earth orbit (LEO) 20-9 Internal 3-5
-pass filter 7-2, 7-4 Man made 11-2
Lowest usable frequency (LUF) 15-6 Powerline 3-5
LUF 15-6, 21-2 Thermal 11-2, 11-3
LVOR 24-5 Non-directional beacons (NDB) 24-3
Non-linear amplifier 14-3
M Nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP) 14-6
Magnetic Numerical Electromagnetics Code (NEC) 17-6
Field 1-5, 16-2 Nyquist, Henry 8-3
North 24-5
Magnetron 23-8 o
Man-made noise 11-2 Obstruction 19-2, 19-3
Manually operated direction finders 24-2 Octave 7-3
Marconi, Guglielmo 1-4 Ohm's law 7-2
Marconi, magnetic detector 2-7 Op amp 4-2, 8-2
Maritime mobile 22-8 Open wire 18-10
Mark............... 1-2, 9-6 Operator license 22-4
Master Oscillator Power Amplifier (MOPA) 12-4 Orbital slot 20-8
Mastergroup 10-4 Oscillation 3-4, 4-2
Matched condition 18-9 Oscillator 3-7, 4-lff, 4-2
Maximum usable frequency (MUF) 15-7 Beat frequency 9-3
Maxwell, James Clerk 1-3 Colpitts 4-3
Mechanical filter 7-7 Crystal 4-5, 5-2
Megahertz 1-6 Crystal reference 5-3
Memory 25-2 Electrically tuned 5-2
Mercator 21-6 Hartley 4-4
Meteor scatter 21-7, 21-8 LC 4-3,5-2
Meter 1-6 Output SNR 19-4,20-3
MF (Medium Frequency) 1-6 Overhead 20-9
MF radio beacon 24-2
Microphone 4-6 p
Microwave 1-6 Panel reflector 17-1
Mirror, electric 1-7 Parabola 15-3
MITre Corp 23-11 Parabolic dish 16-7, 19-4
Mixer 3-7, 6-1ff Parallel wire 18-9
Amplifying 6-4 Parallel-resonant circuit 2-8, 10-2
Image rejecting 6-5, 11-9 Parasitic array 16-3
Image response 6-5 Passive element 8-2
Single-diode 6-4 Path loss 19-3, 19-5
Mobile Telephone System 20-6 PCM 9-7
4 Index
Perfect ground 18-5 Range equation, radar 23-6
Phase 2-2 Range resolution 10-6, 23-3
-locked loop 5-2ff Raytheon 23-11
Detector 5-3 Receiver 1-5ff, 3-1ff
Modulation 13-6 Bandwidth 23-6
Phased array radar 23-10 Direct-conversion A-19
Phasing method, SSB 13-4 Gain 11-2
Piezoelectric crystal 4-5 Heterodyne 9-1 ff
Pilot carrier 9-5 Noise bandwidth 19-6
Plan position indicator (PPI) 10-6, 23-8 Regenerative 9-2
Plasma 21-8 Rock bending A-20
Point-to-point relay 20-2 Sensitivity 11-2
Pony Express 1-3 Simplest crystal set 2-lff
Power Superhet design considerations ll-lff
Amplifier 3-2, 14-lff Receiving area, antenna 17-3
Density 15-2 Recombination 1-8, 15-4
Powerline noise 3-5 Reference crystal oscillator 5-3
PPI 23-8 Reflection 1-5
Pre-mixed 11-9 Reflector 1-9, 15-5, 16-3, 16-7, 17-3
Preamplifier 3-3 Panel 17-1
PRI 10-5, 23-3 Refraction 1-5, 15-4
Project 1: A Simple Crystal Set A-4ff Regenerative detector A-19
Project 2: Adding an Audio Amplifier A-7ff Regenerative receiver 9-2
Project 3: Adding an RF Amplifier A-8ff Region, ionospheric 1-8, 15-4
Project 4: Adding an AF Power Amplifier A-I0ff Regulation
Project 5: Simple AM Broadcast Transmitter A-12ff Monopoly providers 22-2
Project 6: Low-Power Transmitter.. A-14ff Radio spectrum 22-2
Project 7: Receivers Relay station 20-2
Project Echo 20-1 Repeatability 24-5
Propagation 15-lff Repeater 20-4
Scatter 21-7 RF amplifier 3-4
Skip 15-7 Rise time 12-2
PTT 20-4 Rochelle salt 4-6
Pulse 14-9 Roll off 7-3
Code modulation (PCM) 9-7 Roofing filter 11-9
Repetition interval (PRI) 10-5, 23-3 Rotary gap 9-2
Width................................................................... 10-6, 23-6
Push-to-talk (PTT) 20-4 S
Sampling 9-7
Q Satellite 20-8
Q (quality factor) 2-9 Communications 1-6,21-5
QEX 5-1 TV 20-9
Quantizing Scatter 21-7
Error 20-3 Meteor 21-8
Noise 20-3 Tropospheric 21-7
Quarter-wave monopole 1-9 Sea clutter 23-9
Quartz 4-1, 7-6 Segments 17-6, 18-2
Selectivity 2-5, 2-9, 3-3, 3-5
R Semaphore 1-2
Radar 10-5, 11-5, 14-9, 23-2ff Sense antenna 24-2
Airborne 23-9 Sensitivity 11-2
Airport search 11-4 Time control (STC) 11-6, 23-9
Cross section 23-5 Servomotor 5-2
Fire control 23-9 Shared service channels 20-6
Height finder 23-9 SHF (Super High Frequency) 1-6
Phased array 23-10 Ship navigation radar 23-9
Pulse 23-2 Short
Range equation 23-6 Path 21-6
Search 23-9 Wave broadcast 21-3,21-7
Ship navigation 23-9 Sideband 9-3
Speed control 23-10 Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) 9-7, 11-2, 19-2,23-6
Terrain mapping 23-9 Signals 2-2
Weather 23-9 Silicon diode 3-6
Radiator, isotropic 16-5 Simplex 12-5
Radio Single sideband 9-4, 13-3
Astronomy 11-2 Sinusoid 1-5, 2-2, 6-2
Compass 24-2 Skip zone 15-7
Horizon 19-2 Sky wave 1-7, 15-4
Radiocommunication regions 22-3 Smoke signals 1-2
Radiolocation 22-8, 23-1ff, 24-lff Smoothing filter 2-3
Radionavigation 22-8, 24-2 Snow 11-2
Radiotelegraph 9-5, 12-3 SNR 9-7, 11-2, 19-2
Railroad signaling 1-2 Input 19-4, 20-3
Rainfall 20-9 Output 19-4,20-3
Randig, George, WIWO 23-11 Solar, l l-year cycle 15-6
Index 5
Sound card 5-4 Transmitter 1-5ff, 12-1ff
Space 1-2, 9-6 Simplest 12-2
Spark gap 9-2 Transponder 20-8
Speed control radar 23-10 TRF 3-4
Speed of light 1-6 Trimming 3-6
Spreading loss 19-5 Triode 3-2
Squawk signal 23-11 Troposphere 21-7
SSB 11-5, 13-3 Trunking network 1-6, 20-4
Independent 13-4 Tube, vacuum 14-6
Phasing method 13-4 Tuna Tin 2 12-3, 14-2, A-15ff
Stagger tuning 7-6 Tuned circuit 7-6
Standard Frequency & Time signals 22-8 Tuned radio frequency (TRF) 3-4
Standards, technical & operational 22-6 TVOR 24-5
STC 11-6, 23-9
Stein, Bill, KC6T 12-1 U
Stowger, Almon 1-3 UA3DPX 11-1
Sun 15-6 UHF (Ultra High Frequency) 1-6
Sunspot 15-1, 15-6 Ultraviolet radiation (UV) 15-4
Supergroup 10-4 Understanding Basic Electronics 1-9, 2-9,3-7
Superhet 3-7, 9-2, 11-7 Unidirectional 16-6
Superheterodyne 3-7, 9-2 Unmatched termination 18-11
Modern........................................................................ 10-1 ff Upper sideband 9-4
Supermastergroup 10-4 UR3IQO 5-1
Support structure 1-9, 16-2 US Marine VHF channels 22-7
Surveillance 23-2
Switching mode amplifier 14-9 V
SWR 18-3, 18-5, 18-7 Vacuum tube 2-8, 14-6
Synchronization Varactor diode 5-2
Horizontal 10-5 Variable crystal oscillator (VXO) A-20
Vertical 10-5 VCO 5-2
Synthesizer VEC 22-5
Frequency 5-1ff Vertical radiation pattern 21-5
Hybrid 5-4 Vertically polarized 21-2
VHF (Very High Frequency) 1-6
T VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) 24-5
TDMA 20-7 Victor Airways (LVOR) 24-5
Telecommunications Video detector 10-5
Regulation 22-2 Visual horizon 19-2
System 1-2 Voice operated transmit (VOX) 12-6
Telephone 1-3 Voltage
Television (TV) 10-4ff Amplifier 3-3
Television, digital ; 10-5 Controlled oscillator (VCO) 5-2
Terminal station 20-2 Volume 11-4
Terminal VOR (TVOR) 24-5 Control 3-2
Terrain 21-2 Volunteer Examination Coordination (VEC) 22-5
Avoidance 23-2 VOR 24-5
Mapping radar 23-9 VOX 12-6
Text messaging 25-3 VXO A-20
The ARRL Antenna Book..................................... 18-10, 23-11
The ARRL Handbook 4-3 W
Thermal noise 11-2,11-3 W1AW 21-7
Thermal stress A-3 Water cooling 14-6
Third order intermodulation distortion (30IMD) 11-10 Wavelength 1-6
Thunderstorm 3-5 Waypoint 24-5
Time difference 24-4 Weather
Time division multiple access (TDMA) 20-7 Mapping 23-2
Toll quality 11-2 Radar 23-9
Topological map 19-2 Western Union Telegraph Company 1-3
Tower 17-6 Wide bandwidth modes 10-2
Track 3-6 Wideband FM 10-2
Transceiver 13-4 Wolfgang, Larry, WR1B 1-9,2-9,3-7
Transducer 7-7
Transfer function 6-2, 7-2 X
Transistor 14-6 X-ray 15-4
Amplifier 3-2
Translator 6-2 y
Transmission line 1-9, 16-2, 18-9 Yagi 12-1,21-7
Transmit-receive switching 12-5 Yoop 12-3
6 Index
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EDITOR, BASIC RADIO

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e key b i i

Joel Hallas, WIZR Michelle Bloom, WB lENT Sue Fagan

Copyright secured under the Pan-American

International Copyright secured

This work is Publication No. 313 of the Radio

Printed in the USA

Quedan reservados todos los derechos

David Sumner, KIZZ

• represents US radio amateurs in legislative matters, and

ARRL-The national association for Amateur Radio

Chuck Hutchinson, K8CH, works on the Vagi antennas on his tower.

Communicating Without Wires 1=3

Where do we start? It's a bit like

Communicating Without Wires 1-5

Communicating Without Wires 1-7

Communicating Without Wires 1-9

An early crystal radio using a "Oat's Whisker" galena detectorl

carry voices, music, pictures or Level

How Can We Apply

Fig 2-3-The simplest radio Antenna UBR1-0205

block of a simple receiver. If we

The sunptest Receiver-The Crystal Set 2-3

used to sell electronic parts in most / l'--

The Simplest Receiver-The Crystal Set 2-5

I~r/fli~ II rI(j{fiy 'I1m,IW'fi1 . '

The Coherer Detector

The Magnetic Detector

The Simplest Receiver-The Crystal Set 2-7

The Crystal Set

Enter the Vacuum Tube- A Step Towards Better

As a check we can plug the values

The Simplest Receiver-The Crystal Set 2-9

HS30 Headphones per set '1.00

An early Heathkit a-tube radio receiver kit.

, IJJr I~_"j I!I'~ ".,' .

radar. Nowadays, however, solid- popular with listeners

ways to increase the volume of a Make It Happen? EGR10 =_

received signal were to extend the While we can still 6V

medium for enter- amplifier stage for high-impedance

between the plate

UBR1-0304 Audio Amp

Fig 3-4-Crystal receiver with integrated-circuit audio output amplifier.

Enhancing the Simplest Receiver 3..3

I'WAIl~ 'Ii1/, • • rlllJlflJrS81lh -,prltlfJr;jfA Il.~i.~

500-1500 IJH 1N34

Fig 3-6-Crystal receiver with RF amplification stage.

Enhancing the Simplest Receiver 3-5

Fig 3-B-Signal envelope input to a detector.

Enhancing the Simplest Receiver 3-7

Input f----JV'V\r-~l---'\N'\r---. Input 1---'\Nv----1p--VVI\r---,

UBR1-0401 (A) (8)

Fig 4-1-Amplifiers with positive (A) and negative (8) feedback.

Chapter 3 (Fig 3-6). In that applica-

signals we want them to amplify.

Oscillators-s-The Beating Hearts of Modern Radios 4-3

Fig 4-4-The Colpitts oscillator. Fig 4-5-The Hartley oscillator.

+12 V .--------l.--------Gl~----__( +12 V

c:::J 3-15 MHz

Fig 4-7-Crystal-controlled Colpitts oscillators.

Oscillators-The Beating Hearts of Modern Radios 4-5