Physics

- Laws of Motion
Newton’s Law of Motion:
1. Law #1 - Inertia: An object at rest remains at rest, and an object in motion remains in motion at constant
speed and in a straight line unless acted on by an unbalanced force. Newton’s first law states that every object
will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled to change its state by the action of an
external force. This tendency to resist changes in a state of motion is inertia. If all the external forces cancel
each other out, then there is no net force acting on the object. If there is no net force acting on the object, then
the object will maintain a constant velocity. According to Physics Essentials for Dummies; what Newton’s first
law says is that the only way to get something to change its motion is to use force. In other words, force is the
cause of motion. It also says that an object in motion tends to stay in motion, which introduces the idea of
inertia. Inertia is the natural tendency of an object to stay at rest or in constant motion along a straight line.
Inertia is a quality of mass, and the mass of an object is just a measurement of its inertia. To get an object to
move — that is, to change its current state of motion — you have to apply a force to overcome its inertia.

Inertia, the tendency of mass to preserve its present state of motion, can be a problem at times.
Refrigerated meat trucks, for example, have large amounts of frozen meat hanging from their ceilings,
and when the drivers of the trucks begin turning corners, they create a pendulum motion they can’t stop
from the driver’s seat. Trucks with inexperienced drivers can tip over because of the inertia of the
swinging frozen load in the back. Because mass has inertia, it resists changing its motion, which is why
you have to start applying forces to get velocity and acceleration. Mass ties force and acceleration
together. Mass isn’t the same as weight. Mass is a measure of inertia; when you put that mass into a
gravitational field, you get weight.

Examples of the 1st Law of Motion (2-5 involves aerodynamics: the way objects move through the
air)
1. A ball rolling down a hill will continue to roll unless friction or another force stops it. If pulled
quickly, a tablecloth can be removed from underneath of dishes. The dishes tend to remain still
as long as the friction from the movement of the tablecloth is not too great.
2. The motion of an airplane when a pilot changes the throttle setting of an engine.
3. The motion of a ball falling down through the atmosphere.
4. A model rocket is being launched up into the atmosphere.
5. The motion of a kite when the wind changes.

2. Law # 2 - Force: Newton’s second law of motion, unlike the first law of motion, pertains to the behavior of
objects for which all existing forces are unbalanced. The second law of motion is more quantitative and is used
extensively to calculate what happens in situations involving a force. Newton’s second law states that the
acceleration of an object depends upon two variables – the net force acting on the object and the mass of the
object. The acceleration of the body is directly proportional (as one amount increases, another amount increases
at the same rate.) to the net force acting on the body and inversely proportional to the mass of the body. This
means that as the force acting upon an object is increased, the acceleration of the object is increased. Likewise,
as the mass of an object is increased, the acceleration of the object is decreased.
Example 1: If there is a block of mass 2kg, and a force of 20 N is acting on it in the positive x-direction, and a
force of 30 N in the negative x-direction, then what would be its acceleration?

We first have to calculate the net force acting on it to calculate its acceleration.
Fnet = 20N-30N= -10N
Mass = 2kg
Acceleration = -10N/2kg = 5 m/s²
The negative acceleration indicates that the block is slowing and its acceleration vector is moving in an opposite
direction directed opposite to the direction of motion.
Example 2: How much horizontal net force is required to accelerate a 1000 kg car at 4 m/s2?
Solution:
Newton’s 2nd Law relates an object’s mass, the net force on it, and its acceleration:
Therefore, we can find the force as follows:
Fnet = ma
Substituting the values, we get
1000 kg × 4 m/s2 = 4000 N
Therefore, the horizontal net force required to accelerate a 1000 kg car at 4 m/s-2 is 4000 N.
Examples of the 2nd Law of Motion in Life:
1. Try to move an object.
2. Pushing a car and a truck.
3. Racing Cars.
4. Rocket launch.
5. Kick the ball.
6. Car crash.
7. Two people walking.
8. The object is thrown from a height.

3. Law #3 - Action & Reaction: Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object
exerts an equal and opposite force on the first. His third law states that for every action (force) in nature, there
is an equal and opposite reaction. If object A exerts a force on object B, object B also exerts an equal and
opposite force on object A. In other words, forces result from interactions. Below are some examples:
 - Force

Aristotle famously represented a force as anything that causes an object to undergo “unnatural motion”. Sir
Isaac Newton was one of the first scientists to study gravity and force. Any kind of force is just a push or a pull.
It can be described as a push or pull on an object.

In physics, force is a fundamental concept that describes the interaction between objects or particles that can
cause a change in their motion. A force can cause an object to move, accelerate, decelerate, change direction, or
deform. It is typically described by its magnitude (how strong it is), its direction (in which it acts), and its point
of application (where it is applied to an object).

Force is often measured in units called newtons (N) in the International System of Units (SI). One newton is the
force required to accelerate a one-kilogram mass by one meter per second squared.

The push or pull of an object is considered a force. Push and pull come from the objects interacting with one
another. Terms like stretch and squeeze can also be used to denote force.
In Physics, force is defined as the push or pull on an object with mass that causes it to change its velocity.
Force is an external agent capable of changing a body’s state of rest or motion. It has a magnitude and a
direction. The direction towards which the force is applied is known as the direction of the force, and the
application of force is the point where force is applied.
The Force can be measured using a spring balance. The SI unit of force is Newton(N).

Common Symbols: F

SI unit: Newton

In SI Base units: kg·m/s2

Other units: dyne, poundal, pound-force, kip, kilo pond

Derivations from other quantities: F = (m)(a)

Dimension: LMT-2

What are the Effects of Force?

In physics, motion is defined as the change in position concerning time. In simpler words, motion refers to the
movement of a body. Typically, motion can either be described as
1. Change in speed
2. Change in direction

The Force has different effects, and here are some of them.
● Force can make a body that is at rest to move.
● It can stop a moving body or slow it down.
● It can accelerate the speed of a moving body.
● It can also change the direction of a moving body along with its shape and size.

Formula for Force

The quantity of force is expressed by the vector product of mass (m) and acceleration (a). The equation or the
formula for force can mathematically be expressed in the form of Where:
F = ma
● m = mass
● a = acceleration

Example 1.) How much net force is required to accelerate a 1000 kg car at 4.00 m/s2?

Solution:
Given,
● a = 4.00 m/s2
● m = 1000 kg

Therefore,
F = ma
= 1000 × 4
= 4000 N
It is articulated in Newton (N) or Kgm/s2.
Acceleration a is given by
a = v/t
Where
● v = velocity
● t = time taken

Example 2.) A hammer having a mass of 1 kg going with a speed of 6 m/s hits a wall and comes to rest in 0.1
sec. Compute the obstacle force that makes the hammer stop.

Solution:
Given,
● Mass of Hammer, m = 1 kg
● Initial Velocity, u = 6 m/s
● Final Velocity, v = 0 m/s
● Time Taken, t = 0.1 s

The acceleration is: a = (v – u)/t

Therefore, a = -60
m/s2

[negative sign indicates retardation]

Thus, the retarding Force, F = ma = 1 × 60 = 60 N

So Force can be articulated as:
F = mv/t
The inertia formula is termed as p = mv which can also be articulated as Momentum.
Therefore, Force can be articulated as the rate of change of momentum.
F = p/t = dp/dt
Force formulas are beneficial in finding out the force, mass, acceleration, momentum, and velocity in any given
problem.

Unit of Force
● In the centimeter gram second system of unit (CGS unit) force is expressed in dyne.
● In the standard international system of units (SI unit) it is expressed in Newton (N).

Types of Force
Force is a physical causes that can change an object’s state of motion or dimensions. There are two types of
forces based on their applications:
1. Contact Force - Forces that act on a body either directly or through a medium are called contact forces.
2. Non-Contact Force - Forces that act through spaces without making direct contact with the body are
called non-contact forces.

- Kinematics - Kinematics is specifically the study of an object’s motion in terms of its displacement
(position in space), velocity (how fast an object is changing position), and acceleration (how fast an
object is changing its
velocity). In this chapter, we will explicitly define these terms and investigate how they relate to one another.
Additionally, we will go beyond one-dimensional motion and delve into two-dimensional motion, that is, the
world of projectile motion. kinematics: The branch of mechanics concerned with motion without reference to
force or mass.

Reference Frames - The position of the object relative to the reference frame has to be described in order to
understand the motion of the object. Mathematically, the variable ‘x’ is used to represent the position of the
object. The position variable x can be described by making two choices. We can decide where x = 0 has to be
put and which direction has to be taken as the positive direction. This is known as choosing the frame of
reference or the coordinate system. Therefore, choosing the coordinate system or the set of axes within which
the position, orientation, and other properties of the object are being measured is called the frame of reference.

Displacement - The change in the position of the object with respect to the frame of reference is called
displacement. For example, if a person walks from his house to the market, the displacement is the relative
distance of the market from his house (frame of reference).

Velocity and Acceleration - The velocity of the object is defined as the displacement by the time taken. It is a
vector quantity and has both magnitude and direction. The rate of change of velocity is called acceleration.

Motion Graph - There are three types of motion graphs that are studied in kinematics.
1. Displacement-time graph
2. Velocity-time graph
3. Acceleration-time graph

Motion Diagram - The pictorial representation of the motion of the object is called the motion diagram. In the
same diagram, various positions of the object at equally spaced intervals are represented in a motion diagram.
From the diagram, we can see if the object has accelerated, retarded or is at rest. We can understand that the
object is getting accelerated if there is an increase in the space between the objects as time passes, and the
object is getting retarded if the space between the object decreases with time.

Kinematic Equations - There are four kinematic equations when the initial starting point is taken as the origin
and the acceleration of the object is constant.
1. v = v0 + at
2. d = (½) (v0 + v)t
3. d = v0t + (at2/2)
4. v2 = v02 + 2ad

v is the final velocity a is the constant acceleration

t is the time interval d is the displacement

v0 is the initial velocity a is the constant acceleration

t is the time interval d is the displacement

Each of the above equations has only four of the five variables. If we know the value of three variables in an
equation, the fourth variable can be determined.

- Laws of Thermodynamics
The Four Laws of Thermodynamics
- The Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium
with a third one, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. Systems that are in thermal equilibrium
exist at the same temperature. Zeroth law of thermodynamics takes into account that temperature is something
worth measuring because it predicts whether heat will transfer between objects or not. This is true regardless of
how the objects interact. Even if two objects are not in physical contact, heat can still flow between them by
means of the radiation mode of heat transfer. On the other hand, the Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if
the systems are in thermal equilibrium, no heat flow will take place.
- The first law of thermodynamics, also called conservation of energy. We can use this knowledge to determine
the amount of energy in a system, the amount lost as waste heat, and the efficiency of the system.
-The second law of thermodynamics states that the disorder in the universe always increases. As the disorder in
the universe increases, the energy is transformed into less usable forms. Thus, the efficiency of any process will
always be less than 100%.
- The third law of thermodynamics tells us that all molecular movement stops at a temperature we call absolute
zero, or 0 Kelvin (-273°C). Since temperature is a measure of molecular movement, there can be no temperature
lower than absolute zero. At this temperature, a perfect crystal has no disorder.

- Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces

Centripetal force is the component of force acting on an object in curvilinear motion which is directed towards
the axis of rotation or center of curvature. Centrifugal force is a pseudo force in a circular motion that acts along
the radius and is directed away from the center of the circle.
The main difference between centripetal and centrifugal forces is that the centripetal force is the force pointing
towards the center of a circle that keeps an object moving in a circular path, while the centrifugal force is the
sensation that an object feels when it moves in that circular path, with that sensation seeming to push it away
from the center of a circle.

People experience centrifugal force when they round a corner in a car or when an airplane banks into a turn. It
occurs in the spin cycle of a washing machine or when children ride on a merry-go-round. One day it may even
provide artificial gravity for spaceships and space stations - if we can get spacecraft to spin rapidly enough, the
centrifugal force can provide some semblance of the normal sensation of gravity.

But centrifugal force is often confused with its counterpart, centripetal force because they are so closely related
— essentially two sides of the same coin.

Centripetal force is the name given to any force that keeps an object moving in a circle — think of a rock tied to
the end of a string, with the other end tied to something or in your hand. When the string is swirled around, the
tension in that string keeps the rock from flying away in a straight line. That tension points inward, toward the
center of the circle. As another example, the sun’s gravity provides the centripetal force that keeps the planets
moving in their orbits.

The centripetal force always points perpendicular to the direction of an object’s motion. If you're riding in a car
and the road banks and curves to the left, the normal force from the banked road will push the car to the left. If
the centripetal force were to suddenly disappear, the car would continue moving in a straight line.