1

COURSE NUMNBER : MAT051

COURSE NAME : Calculus I

COURSE DESCRIPTION
This is a first course in calculus. It covers limits, continuity, derivatives
of algebraic and transcendental functions, applications of derivatives,
differentials, antiderivatives, definite integrals, Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus, and applications of definite integrals.

NUMBER OF UNITS : 5 units

Pre-requisite : Algebra, Trigonometry
Co-requisite : None

COURSE OUTLINE

I. REVIEW OF INEQUALITIES AND THE ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

II. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

1. Intuitive Idea of the Limit
2. Definition of the Limit
3. Limit Theorems
4. One-sided Limits
5. Infinite Limits
6. Continuity of a Function at a Number
7. Continuity of a Function at an Interval
8. The Intermediate Value Theorem
9. Limits and Continuity of Transcendental Functions

III. THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

1. Definition of the Derivative of a Function
2. Theorems on Differentiation
3. Differentiation of Transcendental Functions
4. Chain Rule, Implicit Differentiation, Higher Order Derivatives
5. Geometric Interpretation of the Derivative
6. Indeterminate Forms and L’Hopital’s Rules
 2

IV. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE

1. The Critical Number and the Critical Point of a Function
2. Maximum and Minimum Values of a Function
3. The Mean Value Theorem
4. The First Derivative Test
5. The Second Derivative Test
6. Applications to Graphs of Functions
7. Applications Involving Absolute Extrema
8. Related Rates

V. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION
1. Antiderivatives and Antidifferentiation Formulas
2. Chain Rule for Antidifferentiation
3. Antidifferentiation of Transcendental Functions

VI. THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL AND APPLICATIONS

1. The Definite Integral and Properties
2. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
3. Area of a Region Bounded by Curves
4. Arc Length of a Plane Region
5. Volumes of Solids by Disks, Washers, and Cylindrical Shells

COURSE EVALUATION

Quizzes ——— 100%

Passing ——— 50%

 CHAPTER 1

INEQUALITIES IN ONE VARIABLE

Learning Outcomes of the Chapter

At the end of the chapter, the student must be able to:
1. write sets of real numbers in interval notation and in set description, and
draw the graph.
2. apply the properties of inequalities to find the solution set of inequalities.
3. solve linear inequalities in one variable and define their solution sets.
4. solve quadratic inequalities in one variable and define their solution sets.
5. solve rational inequalities in one variable and define their solution sets.

1.1 Intervals and Interval Notations

Consider the number line below with the points a and b on it, where
a < b. The points a and b divide the number line into the so called intervals.

| |
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

a b

These intervals are classified as bounded intervals and unbounded intervals.

Their graphs are given as they are defined below.

1.1.1 Bounded Intervals

1. The open interval from a to b : (a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}.

(..............................................................................................................................................)..
| |
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

a b

2. The closed interval from a to b : [a, b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}.

 2

[...............................................................................................................................................].
| |
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

a b

3. The half-open interval on the right from a to b: [a, b) = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x < b}.

[..............................................................................................................................................)..
| |
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

a b

4. The half-open interval on the left from a to b : (a, b] = {x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b}.

(...............................................................................................................................................].
| |
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

a b

Example 1.1.1 Write the following sets of real numbers in interval notation
and in set description, and draw the graph.
1. The set of real numbers x greater than 1 and less than 6.
2. The set of real numbers x greater than or equal to -3 and less than or equal
to 4.
3. The set of real numbers x greater than or equal to 0 and less than 13 .
4. The set of real numbers x greater than -5 and less than or equal to -2.

Solution:
1. The set of real numbers x greater than 1 and less than 6.
(1, 6) = {x ∈ R : 1 < x < 6}.

(..............................................................................................................................................)..
| |
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

1 6

2. The set of real numbers x greater than or equal to -3 and less than or equal
to 4.
[−3, 4] = {x ∈ R : −3 ≤ x ≤ 4}.
 3

[...............................................................................................................................................].
| |
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

−3 4

3. The set of real numbers x greater than or equal to 0 and less than 31 .
[0, 13 ) = {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x < 13 }.

[..............................................................................................................................................)..
| |
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
1
0 3

4. The set of real numbers x greater than -5 and less than or equal to -2.
(−5, −2] = {x ∈ R : −5 < x ≤ −2}.

(...............................................................................................................................................].
| |
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

−5 −2

1.1.2 Unbounded Intervals

The symbol −∞ and +∞ are called negative infinity and positive infinity,
respectively.

1. The infinite open interval (a, +∞) = {x ∈ R : x > a}.

(............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

2. The infinite open interval (−∞, b) = {x ∈ R : x < b}.

)
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

|
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

3. The infinite half-closed interval [a, +∞) = {x ∈ R : x ≥ a}

 4

[............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

4. The infinite half-closed interval (−∞, b] = {x ∈ R : x ≤ b}.

...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
]
|
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

5. (−∞, +∞) = R.

Example 1.1.2 Write the following sets of real numbers in interval notation
and in set description, and draw the graph.
1. The set of real numbers x greater than 1.
2. The set of real numbers x less than 4.
3. The set of real numbers x greater than or equal to −3.
4. The set of real numbers x less than or equal to −2.

Solution:
1. The set of real numbers x greater than 1.
(1, +∞) = {x ∈ R : x > 1}.

(...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

2. The set of real numbers x less than 4.

(−∞, 4) = {x ∈ R : x < 4}.

)
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

|
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

3. The set of real numbers x greater than or equal to −3.

[−3, +∞) = {x ∈ R : x ≥ −3}.
 5

[............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

−3

4. The set of real numbers x less than or equal to −2.

(−∞, −2] = {x ∈ R : x ≤ −2}.

...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
]
|
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

−2

Sample Problems 1.1.3 Write the following sets of real numbers in interval
notation and in set description, and draw the graph.
1. The set of real numbers x greater than 2 and less than 9.
2. The set of real numbers x greater than or equal to -5 and less than or equal
to 1.
1
3. The set of real numbers x greater than or equal to 0 and less than 43 .
4. The set of real numbers x greater than -7 and less than or equal to -4. 5.
The set of real numbers x greater than -1.
6. The set of real numbers x less than 0.
7. The set of real numbers x greater than or equal to 25 .
8. The set of real numbers x less than or equal to − 23 .

1.2 Definition and Properties of Inequalities

Definition 1.2.1 A number a is said to be greater than b, written as a > b, if

a − b is positive. We say a is less than b, and write a < b, if a − b is negative.
We write a ≥ b to mean that either a > b or a = b. Similarly, we write a ≤ b
to mean that either a < b or a = b.

Theorem 1.2.2 (Properties of Inequalities) Let a, b, c ∈ R. Then the

following hold:
1. If a > b and b > c, then a > c.
2. If a > b, then a + c > b + c.
 6

3. If a > b and c > 0, then ac > bc.

4. If a > b and c < 0, then ac < bc.
1
5. If a > 0, then > 0.
a
1
6. If a < 0, then < 0.
a

Since a < b is equivalent to b > a, equivalent versions of properties (1)

to (4) for < (and for ≤ and ≥) also hold. Property (1) is referred to as the
transitive property of inequality.

1.3 Linear Inequalities in One Variable

Definition 1.3.1 Any inequality in variable x is called linear if it can be

reduced into any of the following forms:
ax + b > 0, ax + b < 0, ax + b ≥ 0, ax + b ≤ 0,
where a, b ∈ R and a 6= 0.

Procedure for Finding the Solution Set of a Linear Inequality

1. Reduce the inequality into one of the forms

ax + b > 0, ax + b < 0, ax + b ≥ 0, ax + b ≤ 0.
2. Separate the constant term from the nonconstant term.
3. If necessary, apply properties (3) and (5) or properties (4) and (6) simultaneously.
4. Define the solution set of the given linear inequality.

Example 1.3.2 Find the solution set of the inequality 3x + 10 > 4. Write
the solution set in interval notation.

Solution:
SS = {x ∈ R : 3x + 10 > 4}
= {x ∈ R : 3x > −6}
= {x ∈ R : x > −2}
= (−2, +∞). 
 7

Example 1.3.3 Find the solution set of the inequality 4(x + 1) + 2 ≤ 3x + 6.

Write the solution set in interval notation.

Solution:
SS = {x ∈ R : 4(x + 1) + 2 ≤ 3x + 6}
= {x ∈ R : 4x + 4 + 2 ≤ 3x + 6}
= {x ∈ R : 4x − 3x ≤ 6 − 6}
= {x ∈ R : x ≤ 0}
= (−∞, 0]. 

3x + 2 4x − 5 31
Example 1.3.4 Find the solution set of the inequality − ≥ .
3 2 6
Write the solution set in interval notation.

Solution:
 
3x + 2 4x − 5 31
SS = x ∈ R : − ≥
3 2 6
 
6x + 4 − 12x + 15 31
= x∈R: ≥
6 6
= {x ∈ R : −6x ≥ 12}
= {x ∈ R : 6x ≤ −12}
= {x ∈ R : x ≤ −2}
= (−∞, −2]. 

Sample Problems 1.3.5 Find the solution set of the following linear inequalities.
Write the solution set in interval notation.
1. 8x − 11 ≥ 3x − 13. 2. 2(x − 2) − 3x + 5 ≥ 0.
3. 5x + 6 − 4(x + 2) ≤ 0. 4. 4(3x + 2) − 3x > 3(3x + 1) − 7
3x 2x x x x
5. − > −1. 6. − + ≥ 1.
2 3 2 3 6
x−4 x−2 5 4x − 3 2x − 1
7. ≤ + . 8. ≥ − 2.
6 9 18 6 12
 8

1.4 Quadratic Inequalities in One Variable

Definition 1.4.1 Any inequality in variable x is considered quadratic if it can

be reduced into any of the following forms:

ax2 + bx + c > 0, ax2 + bx + c < 0, ax2 + bx + c ≥ 0, ax2 + bx + c ≤ 0,

where a, b, c ∈ R and a 6= 0.

Procedure for Finding the Solution Set of a Quadratic Inequality

1. Reduce the inequality into one of the forms

ax2 + bx + c > 0, ax2 + bx + c < 0, ax2 + bx + c ≥ 0, ax2 + bx + c ≤ 0,

where a, b, c ∈ R and a > 0.

2. If the left side of the inequality can be factored in the set of the real
numbers, then apply the appropriate proposition.
3. If the left side of the inequality cannot be factored in the set of the real
numbers, then apply Proposition 1.4.28.
4. Define the solution set of the quadratic inequality.

Proposition 1.4.2 Let r1 and r2 be real numbers such that r1 < r2 . If

(x − r1 )(x − r2 ) > 0, then the solution set is SS = (−∞, r1 ) ∪ (r2 , +∞).

Example 1.4.3 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 + 10 > 7x.

Solution:
SS = {x ∈ R : x2 + 10 > 7x}
= {x ∈ R : x2 − 7x + 10 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x − 2)(x − 5) > 0}; r1 = 2 and r2 = 5
= (−∞, 2) ∪ (5, +∞). 

Example 1.4.4 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 + x > 6.

 9

Solution:
SS = {x ∈ R : x2 + x > 6}
= {x ∈ R : x2 + x − 6 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 3)(x − 2) > 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x − [−3])(x − 2) > 0}; r1 = −3 and r2 = 2
= (−∞, −3) ∪ (2, +∞). 

Example 1.4.5 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 + 5x + 6 > 0.

Solution:
SS = {x ∈ R : x2 + 5x + 6 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 3)(x + 2) > 0}
= {x ∈ R : [x − (−3)][x − (−2)] > 0}; r1 = −3 and r2 = −2
= (−∞, −3) ∪ (−2, +∞). 

Proposition 1.4.6 Let r1 and r2 be real numbers such that r1 < r2 . If

(x − r1 )(x − r2 ) ≥ 0, then the solution set is SS = (−∞, r1 ] ∪ [r2 , +∞).

Example 1.4.7 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 ≥ 7x + 8.

Solution:
SS = {x ∈ R : x2 ≥ 7x + 8}
= {x ∈ R : x2 − 7x − 8 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 1)(x − 8) ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : [x − (−1)](x − 8) ≥ 0}; r1 = −1 and r2 = 8
= (−∞, −1] ∪ [8, +∞). 

Example 1.4.8 Find the solution set of the inequality 2x2 + x ≥ 3.

 10

Solution:
SS = {x ∈ R : 2x2 + x ≥ 3}
= {x ∈ R : 2x2 + x − 3 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : (2x + 3)(x − 1) ≥ 0}
   
3
= x∈R:2 x+ (x − 1) ≥ 0
2
   
3
= x∈R: x+ (x − 1) ≥ 0
2
    
3 3
= x∈R: x− − (x − 1) ≥ 0 ; r1 = − and r2 = 1
2 2
 
3
= −∞, − ∪ (1, +∞). 
2

Example 1.4.9 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 − 3 ≥ 0.

Solution:
SS = {x ∈ R : x2 − 3 ≥ 0}
n  √  √  o
= x∈R: x+ 3 x− 3 ≥0
n h  √ i  √  o √ √
= x∈R: x− − 3 x − 3 ≥ 0 ; r1 = − 3 and r2 = 3
 √ i h√ 
= −∞, − 3 ∪ 3, +∞ . 

Proposition 1.4.10 Let r1 and r2 be real numbers such that r1 < r2 . If

(x − r1 )(x − r2 ) < 0, then the solution set is SS = (r1 , r2 ).

Example 1.4.11 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 + 8 < 6x.
Solution:
SS = {x ∈ R : x2 + 8 < 6x}
= {x ∈ R : x2 − 6x + 8 < 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x − 2)(x − 4) < 0}; r1 = 2 and r2 = 4
= (2, 4). 
 11

Example 1.4.12 Find the solution set of the inequality 2x2 + 5x + 3 < 0.
Solution:
SS = {x ∈ R : 2x2 + 5x + 3 < 0}
= {x ∈ R : (2x + 3)(x + 1) < 0}
   
3
= x∈R:2 x+ (x + 1) < 0
2
   
3
= x∈R: x+ (x + 1) < 0
2
    
3 3
= x∈R: x− − [x − (−1)] < 0 ; r1 = − and r2 = −1
2 2
 
3
= − , −1 . 
2

Proposition 1.4.13 Let r1 and r2 be real numbers such that r1 < r2 . If

(x − r1 )(x − r2 ) ≤ 0, then the solution set is SS = [r1 , r2 ].

Example 1.4.14 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 − x − 6 ≤ 0.

Solution:
SS = {x ∈ R : x2 − x − 6 ≤ 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 2)(x − 3) ≤ 0}
= {x ∈ R : [x − (−2)](x − 3) ≤ 0}; r1 = −2 and r2 = 3
= [−2, 3]. 

Example 1.4.15 Find the solution set of the inequality 4x2 ≤ 1.

Solution:
SS = {x ∈ R : 4x2 ≤ 1}
= {x ∈ R : 4x2 − 1 ≤ 0}
= {x ∈ R : (2x + 1)(2x − 1) ≤ 0}
    
1 1
= x∈R: x+ x− ≤0
2 2
      
1 1 1 1
= x∈R: x− − x− ≤ 0 ; r1 = − and r2 =
2 2 2 2
 
1 1
= − , .
2 2
 12

Proposition 1.4.16 Let r be a real number. If (x − r)(x − r) > 0, then the

solution set is SS = (−∞, r) ∪ (r, +∞).

Example 1.4.17 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 + 4 > 4x.
Solution:
SS = {x ∈ R : x2 + 4 > 4x}
= {x ∈ R : x2 − 4x + 4 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x − 2)(x − 2) > 0}; r = 2
= (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, +∞). 

Example 1.4.18 Find the solution set of the inequality 4x2 + 12x + 9 > 0.
Solution:
SS = {x ∈ R : 4x2 + 12x + 9 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : (2x + 3)(2x + 3) > 0}
    
3 3
= x∈R: x+ x+ >0
2 2
       
3 3 3
= x∈R: x− − x− − >0 ; r=−
2 2 2
   
3 3
= −∞, − ∪ − , +∞ . 
2 2

Proposition 1.4.19 Let r be a real number. If (x − r)(x − r) ≥ 0, then the

solution set is SS = R.

Example 1.4.20 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 − 8x + 16 ≥ 0.

Solution:
SS = {x ∈ R : x2 − 8x + 16 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x − 4)(x − 4) ≥ 0}; r = 4
= R. 
 13

Example 1.4.21 Find the solution set of the inequality 9x2 + 6x + 1 ≥ 0.

Solution:
SS = {x ∈ R : 9x2 + 6x + 1 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : (3x + 1)(3x + 1) ≥ 0}
= R. 

Proposition 1.4.22 Let r be a real number. If (x − r)(x − r) < 0, then the

solution set is SS = { }.

Example 1.4.23 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 − 4x + 4 < 0.

Solution:
SS = {x ∈ R : x2 − 4x + 4 < 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x − 2)(x − 2) < 0}
= { }. 

Example 1.4.24 Find the solution set of the inequality 4x2 + 12x + 9 < 0.

Solution:
SS = {x ∈ R : 4x2 + 12x + 9 < 0}
= {x ∈ R : (2x + 3)(2x + 3) < 0}
= { }. 

Proposition 1.4.25 Let r be a real number. If (x − r)(x − r) ≤ 0, then the

solution set is SS = {r}.

Example 1.4.26 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 + 10x + 25 ≤ 0.

 14

Solution:
SS = {x ∈ R : x2 + 10x + 25 ≤ 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 5)(x + 5) ≤ 0}
= {x ∈ R : [x − (−5)][x − (−5)] ≤ 0}; r = −5
= {−5}. 

Example 1.4.27 Find the solution set of the inequality 4x2 + 1 ≤ 4x.

Solution:
SS = {x ∈ R : 4x2 + 1 ≤ 4x}
= {x ∈ R : 4x2 − 4x + 1 ≤ 0}
= {x ∈ R : (2x − 1)(2x − 1) ≤ 0}
    
1 1 1
= x∈R: x− x− ≤0 ; r=
2 2 2
 
1
= .
2

Proposition 1.4.28 Let ax2 +bx+c, where a > 0, be a quadratic polynomial.

If b2 − 4ac is a negative real number, then the following correspondence hold:
Inequality Solution Set
ax2 + bx + c > 0 R
ax2 + bx + c ≥ 0 R
ax2 + bx + c < 0 {}
ax2 + bx + c ≤ 0 {}

Example 1.4.29 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 + 2x + 2 > 0.

Solution:
b2 − 4ac = (2)2 − 4(1)(2) = 4 − 8 = −8.

Therefore, SS = {x ∈ R : x2 + 2x + 2 > 0} = R. 
 15

Example 1.4.30 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 − x + 4 ≤ 0.

Solution:
b2 − 4ac = (−1)2 − 4(1)(4) = 1 − 16 = −15.

Therefore, SS = {x ∈ R : x2 − x + 4 ≤ 0} = { }. 

Example 1.4.31 Find the solution set of the inequality 2x2 + x + 2 < 0.
Solution:
b2 − 4ac = (1)2 − 4(2)(2) = 1 − 16 = −15.

Therefore, SS = {x ∈ R : 2x2 + x + 2 > 0} = { }. 

Example 1.4.32 Find the solution set of the inequality 3x2 − x + 1 ≥ 0.

Solution:
b2 − 4ac = (−1)2 − 4(3)(1) = 1 − 12 = −11.

Therefore, SS = {x ∈ R : 3x2 − x + 1 ≤ 0} = R. 

Example 1.4.33 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 − 2x − 1 ≥ 0.

Solution:
b2 − 4ac = (−2)2 − 4(1)(−1) = 4 + 4 = 8.

The left side of the inequality can be factored in the set of the real numbers.

To factor the left side, we complete the square of x:

SS = {x ∈ R : x2 − 2x − 1 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : x2 − 2x + 1 − 1 − 1 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x2 − 2x + 1) − 2 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x − 1)2 − 2 ≥ 0}
n h √ ih √ i o
= x ∈ R : (x − 1) + 2 (x − 1) − 2 ≥ 0
n h √ ih √ i o √ √
= x ∈ R : x − (1 − 2) x − (1 + 2) ≥ 0 ; r1 = 1 − 2 and r2 = 1 + 2
 √ i h √ 
= −∞, 1 − 2 ∪ 1 + 2, +∞ . 
 16

Example 1.4.34 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 − 2x − 1 ≥ 0.

Solution:
b2 − 4ac = (−2)2 − 4(1)(−1) = 4 + 4 = 8.

The left side of the inequality can be factored in the set of the real numbers.

To factor the left side, we apply quadratic formula:

Consider the equation x2 − 2x − 1 = 0. Then the solution set is

S = {x ∈ R : x2 − 2x − 1 = 0}
 √ 
−b ± b2 − 4ac
= x∈R:x=
2a
( p )
−(−2) ± (−2)2 − 4(1)(−1)
= x∈R:x=
2(1)
( √ )
2± 8
= x∈R:x=
2
( √ )
2±2 2
= x∈R:x=
2
( √ )
2(1 ± 2)
= x∈R:x=
2
n √ o
= x∈R:x=1± 2
n √ √ o
= x ∈ R : x = 1 − 2 or x = 1 + 2
n  √   √  o
= x ∈ R : x − 1 − 2 = 0 or x − 1 + 2 = 0
n h √ ih √ i o
= x ∈ R : x − (1 − 2) x − (1 + 2) = 0 .
 √  √ 
Hence, x2 − 2x − 1 = x − (1 − 2) x − (1 + 2) .

Therefore,
SS = {x ∈ R : x2 − 2x − 1 ≥ 0}
n h √ ih √ i o √ √
= x ∈ R : x − (1 − 2) x − (1 + 2) ≥ 0 ; r1 = 1 − 2 and r2 = 1 + 2
 √ i h √ 
= −∞, 1 − 2 ∪ 1 + 2, +∞ . 
 17

Sample Problems 1.4.35 Find the solution set of the following inequalities.
1. x2 + 7 < 6x 2. x2 + 8 ≤ 6x 3. x2 ≥ 2x + 3
4. x2 − 2x − 8 > 0 5. 6 − x − x2 > 0 6. x2 − 3 < 0
2 2
7. 4x − 10x + 25 < 0 8. x − 4x + 4 ≥ 0 9. x2 + 14x + 49 ≤ 0
10. 4x2 − x + 1 < 0 11. x2 + 4 ≥ 3x 12. 3x2 + 3x + 1 ≤ 0
13. 3x2 − x + 1 > 0

1.5 Rational Inequalities in One Variable

Definition 1.5.1 A rational inequality is an inequality that can be expressed

in one of the forms
x−a x−a x−a x−a
> 0, < 0, ≥ 0, ≤ 0,
x−b x−b x−b x−b
where a and b are real numbers.

Example 1.5.2 The following are examples of rational inequalities.

x+2 1 x+2
1. >0 2. 1 < 3. ≥0
x−4 x−3 x−4
x 3x + 5 2x − 5
4. ≥2 5. ≤2 6. ≤1
x+2 x+2 x−2

Procedure for Finding the Solution Set of a Rational Inequality

1. Write the rational inequality into one of the forms

x−a x−a x−a x−a
> 0, < 0, ≥ 0, ≤ 0,
x−b x−b x−b x−b
where a and b are real numbers.
2. Make sure that the coefficient of x is positive 1.
3. Apply the appropriate proposition to find the solution set.
 18

Proposition 1.5.3 Let r1 and r2 be real numbers such that r1 < r2 . If

x − r1 x − r2
> 0 or > 0, then the solution set is SS = (−∞, r1 ) ∪ (r2 , +∞).
x − r2 x − r1

x+2
Example 1.5.4 Find the solution set of > 0.
x−4
Solution:
 
x+2
SS = x ∈ R : >0
x−4
 
x − (−2)
= x∈R: > 0 , r1 = −2 and r2 = 4
x−4
= (−∞, −2) ∪ (4, +∞). 

x−2
Example 1.5.5 Find the solution set of > 0.
2x − 5
Solution:
 
x−2
SS = x ∈ R : >0
2x − 5
( )
x−2
= x∈R:
>0
2 x − 52
 
x−2 5
= x∈R: 5 > 0 , r1 = 2 and r2 =
x− 2 2
 
5
= (−∞, 2) ∪ , +∞ . 
2

2x
Example 1.5.6 Find the solution set of > 1.
x+1
 19

Solution:
 
2x
SS = x ∈ R : >1
x+1
 
2x
= x∈R: −1>0
x+1
 
2x − x − 1
= x∈R: >0
x+1
 
x−1
= x∈R: >0
x+1
 
x−1
= x∈R: > 0 , r1 = −1 and r2 = 1
x − (−1)
= (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, +∞). 

Proposition 1.5.7 Let r1 and r2 be real numbers such that r1 < r2 . If

x − r1 x − r2
< 0 or < 0, then the solution set is SS = (r1 , r2 ).
x − r2 x − r1

x+4
Example 1.5.8 Find the solution set of < 0.
x−4
Solution:
 
x+4
SS = x ∈ R : <0
x−4
 
x − (−4)
= x∈R: < 0 , r1 = −4 and r2 = 4
x−4
= (−4, 4). 

1
Example 1.5.9 Find the solution set of 1 < .
x−3
 20

Solution:
 
1
SS = x ∈ R : 1 <
x−3
 
1
= x∈R:1− <0
x−3
 
x−3−1
= x∈R: <0
x−3
 
x−4
= x∈R: < 0 , r1 = 3 and r2 = 4
x−3
= (3, 4). 

x+1
Example 1.5.10 Find the solution set of > 0.
1−x
Solution:
 
x+1
SS = x ∈ R : >0
1−x
 
x+1
= x∈R: >0
−1(x − 1)
 
x+1
= x∈R:− >0
x−1
 
x+1
= x∈R: <0
x−1
 
x − (−1)
= x∈R: < 0 , r1 = −1 and r2 = 1
x−1
= (−1, 1). 

Proposition 1.5.11 Let r1 and r2 be real numbers such that r1 < r2 . If

x − r1
≥ 0, then the solution set is SS = (−∞, r1 ] ∪ (r2 , +∞).
x − r2

x+2
Example 1.5.12 Find the solution set of ≥ 0.
x−4
 21

Solution:
 
x+2
SS = x ∈ R : ≥0
x−4
 
x − (−2)
= x∈R: ≥ 0 , r1 = −2 and r2 = 4
x−4
= (−∞, −2] ∪ (4, +∞). 

x−1
Example 1.5.13 Find the solution set of ≥ 0.
3x − 4
Solution:
 
x−1
SS = x ∈ R : ≥0
3x − 4
( )
x−1
= x∈R:
≥0
3 x − 43
 
x−1 4
= x∈R: 4 ≥ 0 , r1 = 1 and r2 =
x− 3 3
 
4
= (−∞, 1] ∪ , +∞ . 
3

Proposition 1.5.14 Let r1 and r2 be real numbers such that r1 < r2 . If

x − r2
≥ 0, then the solution set is SS = (−∞, r1 ) ∪ [r2 , +∞).
x − r1

2x − 1
Example 1.5.15 Find the solution set of ≥ 1.
x+3
Solution:
 
2x − 1
SS = x ∈ R : ≥1
x+3
 
2x − 1
= x∈R: −1≥0
x+3
 
x−4
= x∈R: ≥0
x+3
 
x−4
= x∈R: ≥ 0 , r1 = −3 and r2 = 4
x − (−3)
= (−∞, −3) ∪ [4, +∞). 
 22

3x + 5
Example 1.5.16 Find the solution set of ≥ 2.
x+2
Solution:
 
3x + 5
SS = x ∈ R : ≥2
x+2
 
3x + 5
= x∈R: −2≥0
x+2
 
3x + 5 − 2x − 4
= x∈R: ≥0
x+2
 
x+1
= x∈R: ≥0
x+2
 
x − (−1)
= x∈R: ≥ 0 , r1 = −2 and r2 = −1
x − (−2)
= (−∞, −2) ∪ [−1, +∞). 

Proposition 1.5.17 Let r1 and r2 be real numbers such that r1 < r2 . If

x − r1
≤ 0, then the solution set is SS = [r1 , r2 ).
x − r2

3x
Example 1.5.18 Find the solution set of ≤ 2.
x−1
Solution:
 
3x
SS = x ∈ R : ≤2
x−1
 
3x
= x∈R: −2≤0
x−1
 
3x − 2x + 2
= x∈R: ≤0
x−1
 
x+2
= x∈R: ≤0
x−1
 
x − (−2)
= x∈R: ≤ 0 , r1 = −2 and r2 = 1
x−1
= [−2, 1). 
 23

x
Example 1.5.19 Find the solution set of ≥ 2.
x+2
Solution:
 
x
SS = x ∈ R : ≥2
x+2
 
x
= x∈R: −2≥0
x+2
 
x − 2x − 4
= x∈R: ≥0
x+2
 
−x − 4
= x∈R: ≥0
x+2
 
−(x + 4)
= x∈R: ≥0
x+2
 
x+4
= x∈R: ≤0
x+2
 
x − (−4)
= x∈R: ≤ 0 , r1 = −4 and r2 = −2
x − (−2)
= [−4, −2). 

Proposition 1.5.20 Let r1 and r2 be real numbers such that r1 < r2 . If

x − r2
≤ 0, then the solution set is SS = (r1 , r2 ].
x − r1

2x − 5
Example 1.5.21 Find the solution set of ≤ 1.
x−2
Solution:
 
2x − 5
SS = x ∈ R : ≤1
x−2
 
2x − 5
= x∈R: −1≤0
x−2
 
2x − 5 − x + 2
= x∈R: ≤0
x−2
 
x−3
= x∈R: ≤ 0 , r1 = 2 and r2 = 3
x−2
= (2, 3]. 
 24

3x + 5
Example 1.5.22 Find the solution set of ≤ 2.
x+2
Solution:
 
3x + 5
SS = x ∈ R : ≤2
x+2
 
3x + 5
= x∈R: −2≤0
x+2
 
x+1
= x∈R: ≤0
x+2
 
x − (−1)
= x∈R: ≤ 0 , r1 = −2 and r2 = −1
x − (−2)
= (−2, −1]. 

Sample Problems 1.5.23 Find the solution set of the following inequalities.
x−4 x+4 x+3
1. >0 2. <0 3. ≤0
x+3 2x − 1 x+4
x−2 3x 2x
4. 2 < 5. ≥2 6. <1
x+2 x+2 x+3
3x − 4 x+4 x−2
7. ≤0 8. ≥0 9. ≤2
x+3 2x − 1 x−1
3x − 4 x+4 x−2
10. ≥0 11. ≤0 12. ≥2
x+3 2x − 1 x−1
x+3 2x − 1 x−1
13. ≤0 14. ≥0 15. ≤2
4x − 3 x+4 x−2
 1

CHAPTER 2
FUNCTIONS

Learning Outcomes of the Chapter

At the end of the chapter, the student must be able to:
1. define function and find the value of a function at a real number.
2. define the sum, diference,product, and quotient and find their respective
domains.
3. define the composite of two functions.
4. solve problems involving a function as a mathematical model.
5. find the domain and range of algebraic functions.
6. define properties of algebraic functions.
6. sketch the graphs of some algebraic functions.

2.1 Definition and Examples

In this section, we limit our discussion to Cartesian product of real
numbers R × R = {(x, y) : x, y ∈ R}. We will define function as ordered pairs
of real numbers.

Definition 2.1.1 A function is a set f of ordered pairs in R × R = {(x, y) :

x, y ∈ R} such that no two distinct ordered pairs have the same first elements.

Example 2.1.2 The following sets are examples of functions in R × R.

1. f = {(1, 0), (2, 0), (3, 0), (4, 0)}.
2. f = {(1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25), (6, 36)}.
3. f = {(x, y) ∈ R × R : 2x − y = 4}.
4. f = {(x, y) ∈ R × R : x2 −√y = 1}.
5. f = {(x, y) ∈ R × R : y = x − 1}.
6. f = {(x, y) ∈ R × R : 2x −√xy + y = 0}.
7. f = {(x, y) ∈ R × R : y = 3 x − 1}.
8. f = {(x, y) ∈ R × R : y = x3 }.

In the above definition, a function f is defined as a set of ordered pairs

(x, y) of real numbers. The numbers x and y are called variables. Since the
value of y is dependent on the value of x, we call x the independent variable
and y the dependent variable.
 2

If (x, y) is an element of f , it is customary to write y = f (x) instead

of (x, y) ∈ f . We often refer to y as the value of f at the real number x, or
the image of the real number x under f .

Example 2.1.3 The functions in Example 2.1.2 can be written in the notation
y = f (x).
1. y = f (x) = 0, x ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}.
2. y = f (x) = x2 , x ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
3. y = f (x) = 2x − 4.
x2 + 1.
4. y = f (x) = √
5. y = f (x) = x − 1}.
2x
6. y = f (x) = x−1 .
√3
7. y = f (x) = x − 1}.
8. y = f (x) = x3 .

Example 2.1.4 Let f be a function in R × R defined by f (x) = x2 − 3x + 4.

Find: (a) f (−1); (b) f (0); (c) f (2); (d) f (3a); (e) f (2x − 1); (f) f (x + h)

Solution: (a) f (−1) = (−1)2 − 3(−1) + 4 = 1 + 3 + 4 = 8;

(b) f (0) = (0)2 − (0) + 4 = 4;
(c) f (2) = (2)2 − 3(2) + 4 = 4 − 6 + 4 = 2;
(d) f (3a) = (3a)2 − 3(3a) + 4 = 9a2 − 9a + 4;
(e) f (2x−1) = (2x−1)2 −3(2x−1)+4 = 4x2 −4x+1−6x+3+4 = 4x2 −10x+8;
(f) f (x + h) = (x + h)2 − 3(x + h) + 4 = x2 − 2xh + h2 − 3x − 3h + 4. 
√
Example 2.1.5 Let f be a function in R×R defined by f (x) = x − 1. Find:
(a) f (1); (b) f (5); (c) f (9); (d) f (3a + 5); (e) f (2x − 1); (f) f (x + h)
√ √
Solution: (a)
√ f (1) = √ 1 − 1 = 0 = 0;
(b) f (5) = √ 5 − 1 = √ 4 = p2; √ √ √
(c) f (9) = √ 9 − 1 = 8 = √4(2) = 4 2 = 2 2;
(d) f (3a) = 3a√+ 5 − 1 = 3a√+ 4;
(e) f (2x − 1) =√ 2x − 1 − 1 = 2x − 2;
(f) f (x + h) = x + h − 1. 
(
x + 4, if x ≤ −4
Example 2.1.6 Let f be a function in R×R defined by f (x) = ;
4 − x, if −4 < x
find (a) f (−6); (b) f (−4); (c) f (0); (d) f (4).
 3

Solution: (a) If x ≤ −4, then f (x) = x + 4. Thus, f (−6) = −6 + 4 = −2;

(b) If x ≤ −4, then f (x) = x + 4. Thus, f (−4) = −4 + 4 = 0;
(c) If −4 < x, then f (x) = 4 − x. Thus, f (0) = 4 − 0 = 4;
(d) If −4 < x, then f (x) = 4 − x. Thus, f (4) = 4 − 4 = 0.

x + 3, if x < 2

Example 2.1.7 Let f be a function in R×R defined by f (x) = 4, if x = 2 ;

2x − 1, if 2 < x

find (a) f (0); (b) f (2); (c) f (3); (d) f (−2).

Solution: (a) If x < 2, then f (x) = x + 3. Thus, f (0) = 0 + 3 = 3;

(b) If x = 2, then f (x) = 4. Thus, f (2) = 4;
(c) If 2 < x, then f (x) = 2x − 1. Thus, f (3) = 2(3) − 1 = 5;
(d) If x < 2, then f (x) = x + 3. Thus, f (−2) = −2 + 3 = 1.

Sample Problem 2.1.8

1. Given f (x) = 3x − 4, find (a) f (1); (b) f (−5); (c) f (9); (d) f (3a + 5);
(e) f (2x − 1); (f) f (x + h).
2. Given f (x) = 3x2 +2x−4, find (a) f (1); (b) f (−1); (c) f ( 21 ); (d) f (3a+5);
(e) f (2x − 1); (f) f (x + h).
x
3. Given f (x) = , find (a) f (−2); (b) f (−1); (c) f ( 21 ); (d) f (3a + 5);
x−1
(e) f (2x − 1); (f)
√f (x + h).
4. Given f (x) = 9 − x, find (a) f (−2); (b) f (9−x); (c) f ( 21 ); (d) f (3a+5);
(e) f (2x − 1); (f) f (x + h). (
x + 2, if x ≤ 0
5. Let f be a function defined by f (x) = ,
3x − 2, if 0 < x
find (a) f (−2); (b) f (−1); (c) f (0); (d) ( f (2).
x2 + 1, if x < 1
6. Let f be a function defined by f (x) = ,
3x − 1, if 1 ≥ x
find (a) f (−2); (b) f (−1); (c) f (0); (d)  f (2).
2
x ,
 if x < −1
7. Let f be a function defined by f (x) = 0, if x = −1 ,

2x − 1, if −1 < x

find (a) f (−2); (b) f (−1); (c) f (0); (d) f (2).
 4

2.2 Domain and Range of a Function

Definition 2.2.1 Let f be a function in R × R. Then the domain of f ,
denoted by D(f ), is the set of all real numbers x that occurs as first member
of the elements of f and the range of f , denoted by R(f ), is the set of all real
numbers y that ocuurs as second member of the elements of f .

To find the domain of a function y = f (x), solve D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}.

To find the range of a function y = f (x), solve R(f ) = {y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R},

where
y = f (x) ⇔ x = f −1 (y).

Example 2.2.2 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = x2 − 1. Find D(f ) and

R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
= x ∈ R : x2 − 1 ∈ R


= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R}
= R.

f (x) = x2 − 1 ⇒ y = x2 − 1
⇒ x2 = y + 1
p
⇒x=± y+1
p
⇒ f −1 (y) = ± y + 1.

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

n p o
= y ∈R:± y+1∈R
= {y ∈ R : y + 1 ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y ≥ −1}
= [−1, +∞). 

Example 2.2.3 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = 4 − x2 . Find D(f ) and

R(f ).
 5

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
= x ∈ R : 4 − x2 ∈ R


= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R}
= R.

f (x) = x2 + 4 ⇒ y = 4 − x2
⇒ x2 = 4 − y
p
⇒x=± 4−y
p
⇒ f −1 (y) = ± 4 − y.

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

n p o
= y ∈R:± 4−y ∈R
= {y ∈ R : 4 − y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : 4 ≥ y}
= {y ∈ R : y ≤ 4}
= (−∞, 4]. 

2x
Example 2.2.4 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f ) and
x−3
R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 
2x
= x∈R: ∈R
x−3
= {x ∈ R : x − 3 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 3}
= (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).
 6

2x 2x
f (x) = ⇒y=
x−3 x−3
⇒ xy − 3y = 2x
⇒ xy − 2x = 3y
⇒ x(y − 2) = 3y
3y
⇒x=
y−2
3y
⇒ f −1 (y) = .
y−2

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

 
3y
= y∈R: ∈R
y−2
= {y ∈ R : y − 2 6= 0}
= {y ∈ R : y 6= 2}
= (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, +∞). 

√
Example 2.2.5 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = x − 4. Find D(f )
and R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 √
= x∈R: x−4∈R
= {x ∈ R : x − 4 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : x ≥ 4}
= [4, +∞).

√ √
f (x) = x−4⇒y = x−4
⇒ y2 = x − 4
⇒ x = y2 + 4
⇒ f −1 (y) = y 2 + 4.
 7

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

√
= y ∈ R : y 2 + 4 ∈ R and y ≥ 0 , y = x − 4 ⇒ y ≥ 0


= {y ∈ R : y ∈ R and y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y ≥ 0}
= [0, +∞). 

Sample Problem 2.2.6 Find the domain and range of the following functions
in R × R.
3x
1. f (x) = x2 − 5 2. f (x) = 2 − x2 3. f (x) =
x−2
√ x+4 √
4. f (x) = x − 5 5. f (x) = 6. f (x) = 4 − x.
x−5

2.3 Operations on Functions

Definition 2.3.1 Let f and g be functions in R × R. Then
(i) their sum, denoted by f + g, is the function defined by

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x);

(ii) their difference, denoted by f − g, is the function defined by

(f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x);

(iii) their product, denoted by f · g, is the function defined by

(f · g)(x) = f (x) · g(x);

f
(iv) their quotient, denoted by , is the function defined by
g
 
f f (x)
(x) = .
g g(x)
The domain of the resulting function consists of all real numbers x common
to the domain of f and g, with the additional requirement in case (iv) where
g(x) 6= 0 for all x.
 8

Example 2.3.2 Let f and g be functions defined by f (x) = x2 − 1 and

g(x) = x − 1. Define the following functions and find their respective domains:
f
(a) f + g; (b) f − g; (c) f · g; and (d) .
g
Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
= x ∈ R : x2 − 1 ∈ R


= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R}
= R,

D(g) = {x ∈ R : g(x) ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : x − 1 ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R}
= R.
Hence,

D(f ) ∩ D(g) = R ∩ R = R.

(a) (f + g)(x) = x2 − 1 + x − 1 = x2 + x − 2 and

D(f + g) = D(f ) ∩ D(g) = R.

(b) (f − g)(x) = x2 − 1 − (x − 1) = x2 − x and

D(f − g) = D(f ) ∩ D(g) = R.

(c) (f · g)(x) = (x2 − 1)(x − 1) = x3 − x2 − x + 1 and

D(f · g) = D(f ) ∩ D(g) = R.

x2 − 1
 
f (x + 1)(x − 1)
(d) (x) = = = x + 1 and
g x−1 x−1
 
f
D = D(f ) ∩ D(g) ∩ {x ∈ R : g(x) 6= 0}
g
= R ∩ {x ∈ R : x − 1 6= 0}
= R ∩ {x ∈ R : x 6= 1}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 1}
= (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, +∞). 
 9

x+4
Example 2.3.3 Let f and g be functions defined by f (x) = and
√ x−3
g(x) = x − 1. Define the following functions: (a) f + g; (b) f − g; (c)
f
f · g; and (d) .
g
Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 
x+4
= x∈R: ∈R
x−3
= {x ∈ R : x − 3 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 3}
= (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, +∞),

D(g) = {x ∈ R : g(x) ∈ R}
 √
= x∈R: x−1∈R
= {x ∈ R : x − 1 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : x ≥ 1}
= [1, +∞),
and

D(f ) ∩ D(g) = [(−∞, 3) ∪ (3, +∞)] ∩ [1, +∞) = [1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).
√
(a) (f + g)(x) = x+4
x−3
+ x − 1 and

D(f + g) = D(f ) ∩ D(g) = [1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).

x+4 √
(b) (f − g)(x) = − x − 1 and
x−3
D(f − g) = D(f ) ∩ D(g) = [1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).
√
x + 4√ (x + 4) x − 1
(c) (f · g)(x) = x−1= and
x−3 x−3
D(f · g) = D(f ) ∩ D(g) = [1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).
 10

  x+4
f x+4
(d) (x) = x−3 =
√ √ and
g x−1 (x − 3) x − 1
 
f
D = [D(f ) ∩ D(g)] ∩ {x ∈ R : g(x) 6= 0}
g
√
= {[1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞)} ∩ {x ∈ R : x − 1 6= 0}
= {[1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞)} ∩ {x ∈ R : x − 1 6= 0}
= {[1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞)} ∩ {x ∈ R : x 6= 1}
= (1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞). 

Definition 2.3.4 Let f and g be functions in R × R. Then the the composite

function, denoted by f ◦ g, is the function defined by

(f ◦ g)(x) = f ((g(x)).

The domain of f ◦ g is the set of all real numbers x in the domain of g such
that g(x) is in the domain of f .

Example
√ 2.3.5 Let f and g be functions defined by f (x) = x + 4 and
g(x) = x − 1. Define the following functions: (a) f ◦ g and (b) g ◦ f .
√ √
Solution: (a) (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (√ x − 1) = x√− 1 + 4;
(b) (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(x + 4) = x + 4 − 1 = x + 3. 
2
Example√ 2.3.6 Let f and g be functions defined by f (x) = x + 4 and
g(x) = x − 2. Define the following functions: (a) f ◦ g; (b) g ◦ f ; (c) f ◦ f
and; (d) g ◦ g.
√ √
Solution: (a) (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f ( x − 2) = ( x − 2)2 + 4 = x − 2 + 4 =
x + 2; √ √
(b) (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(x2 + 4) = x2 + 4 − 2 = x2 + 2.
(c) (f ◦ f )(x) = f (f (x)) = f (x2 + 4) = (x 2 2 4 2
p√+ 4) + 4 = x + 8x + 20;
√
(b) (g ◦ g)(x) = g(g(x)) = g( x − 2) = x − 2 − 2. 

Sample Problem 2.3.5

1. Let f and g be functions defined by f (x) = x2 − 4 and g(x) = x + 2. Define
f
the following functions: (a) f + g; (b) f − g; (c) f · g; and (d) .
√ g
2
2. Let f and g be functions defined by f (x) = x + 1 and g(x) = 2x + 3.
 11

f
Define the following functions: (a) f + g; (b) f − g; (c) f · g; and (d) .
√ g
3. Let f and g be functions defined by f (x) = x+2
x−5
and g(x) = 3
x. Define the
f
following functions: (a) f + g; (b) f − g; (c) f · g; and (d) .
g √
4. Let f and g be functions defined by f (x) = x2 − 3 and g(x) = x + 2.
Define the following functions: (a) f ◦ g; (b) g ◦ f√; (c) f ◦ f and; (d) g ◦ g.
5. Let f and g be functions defined by f (x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = 3x − 4.
Define the following functions: (a) f ◦ g; (b) g ◦ f ; (c) f ◦ f and; (d) g ◦ g.

2.4 Functions as Mathematical Models

In this lesson ,we will express a real-world situations using functions,
which is called a mathematical model of the situation. This will give
practice in obtaining functions as mathematical models and as preparation to
some of the applications in calculus such as extremum and related problems.

Suggestions for Solving Problems Involving Function as a Mathematical

Model
1. Draw a fugure if possible.
2. Determine the known and unknown quantities. Assign a symbol, say x,
for the independent variable and a symbol, say f (x), for the function to be
obtained.
3. Write any numerical facts about the variable and the function value and
determine two algebaic expressions for the same number. From these two
expressions form an equation that defines a function, which is the mathematical
model of the problem.

Example 2.4.1 A rectangular garden is to be fenced off with 30 m of fencing

material.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the area of the garden as a
function of its length.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the area of the garden if the length is 12 m?

Solution: (a) Let x be the length of the garden, y be the width of the garden,
A be the area of the garden, and P = 30 be the perimeter of the garden. Then
A = xy and P = 2x + 2y.
 12

Since P = 30, we have 30 = 2x + 2y. Solving for y, we get

1
A = xy and y = (30 − 2x = 15 − x.
2
Thus,

A = x(15 − x) = 15x − x2 .

Therefore, A is a function of x:

A(x) = 15x − x2 .

(b)D(A) = x ∈ R : 15x − x2 ≥ 0


= {x ∈ R : x2 − 15x ≤ 0}
= {x ∈ R : x(x − 15) ≤ 0}
= {x ∈ R : x ≥ 0 and x − 15 ≤ 0} ∪ {x ∈ R : x ≤ 0 and x − 15 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : x ≥ 0 and x ≤ 15} ∪ {x ∈ R : x ≤ 0 and x ≥ 15}
= {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x ≤ 15} ∪ { }
= {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x ≤ 15}
= [0, 15].

(c) If x = 12 then A(12) = 15(12) − (12)2 = 180 − 144 = 36. Therefore,

if the length is 12 m, the area of the garden is 36 m2 . 

Example 2.4.2 A closed tin can of volume 16π in3 is to be made in the form
of a right circular cylinder.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the total surface area of the
can as a function of the radius.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the surface area of the can when the radius is 10 in?

Solution: (a) Let r be the radius of the can, h be the height of the can, A be
the surface area of the can, and V = 60 be the volume of the can. Then

A = 2πrh + πr2 h and V = πr2 .

Since V = 60, we have 60 = πr2 h. Solving for h, we get

60
A = 2πrh + πr2 and h= .
πr2
 13

Thus,
 
60 120π
A = 2πr + πr2 = + πr2 .
r2 r
Therefore, A is a function of r:
120π
A(r) = + πr2 .
r

 
120π 2
(b)D(A) = r ∈ R : + πr ∈ R and r > 0
r
= {r ∈ R : r 6= 0 and r > 0}
= {r ∈ R : r > 0}
= (0, +∞).

120π
(c) If r = 10 then A(10) = + π(10)r2 = 112π. Therefore, when
10r
the radius is 10 in., the surface area of the can is 112π in2 . 

Example 2.4.3 A sheet of cardboard 4 ft by 6 ft is to made into an open box

by cutting equal squares from each corner and turning up the sides.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the volume of the box as a
function of the length of the side of the square cut out.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the volume of the box if the length of the square cut out is
0.5 ft?

Solution: (a) Let x be the length of the square cut out (this becomes the height
of the box, y be the width of the box, z be the length of the box, and V be
the volume of the box. Then

V = xy, and y = 4 − 2x, z = 6 − 2x.

Thus,

V = x(4 − 2x)(6 − 2x).

Therefore, V is a function of x:

V (x) = x(4 − 2x)(6 − 2x).

 14

(b)D(A) = {x ∈ R : x(4 − 2x)(6 − 2x) ≥ 0}

= {x ∈ R : x ≥ 0 and 4 − 2x ≥ 0 and 6 − 2x ≥ 0}, since x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, z ≥ 0
= {x ∈ R : x ≥ 0 and x ≤ 2 and x ≤ 3}
= {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x ≤ 2}
= [0, 2].

(c) If x = 0.5 then V (0.5) = 0.5[4 − 2(0.5)][6 − 2(0.5)] = 0.5[3][5] = 7.5.

Therefore, if the length of the square cut out is 6 in, the volume of the box is
7.5 ft3 . 

Example 2.4.4 An online seller sells a certain product by the kg; If not more
than 20 kg are ordered, the online seller charges 4 pesos per kg and if more
than 20 kg are ordered, the online seller charges 3 pesos per kg.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the total cost of the order
as a function of the amount of the product ordered.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the total cost of an order of 16 kg?
(d) What is the total cost of an order of 25 kg?

Solution: (a) Let x be the number of kg of an order and C be the total cost
of an order. Then
(
4x, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 20
C= .
3x, if 20 < x
Therefore, C is a function of x given by
(
4x, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 20
C(x) = .
3x, if 20 < x

(b)D(C) = {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x ≤ 20} ∪ {x ∈ R : 20 < x}}

= [0, 20] ∪ (20, +∞)
= [0, +∞).

(c) If 0 ≤ x ≤ 20, then C(x) = 4x. Thus, if x = 16, then C(16) =

4(16) = 64. Therefore, the total cost of an oder of 16 kg is 64 pesos.

(d) If 20 < x, then C(x) = 3x. Thus, if x = 25, then C(25) = 3(25) =
75. Therefore, the total cost of an oder of 25 kg is 75 pesos. 
 15

Example 2.4.5 In each of the following problem, find a mathematical model

of a particular situation.
1. A rectangular field is to be enclosed with 200 m of fence.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the total area of the field as
a function of its length.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the area of the field if its length is 60 m?

2. A rectangular garden is to be fenced off with 100 m of fencing material.

(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the area of the garden as a
function of its length.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the area of the garden if the length is 40 m?

3. A piece of tin with dimensions 8 in by 15 in will be made into an open box

by cutting equal squares from four corners and turning up the sides.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the volume of the box as a
function of the length of the side of the square cut out.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the volume of the box if the length of the square cut out is
2 in?

4. A piece of cardboard with dimensions 40 cm by 60 cm will be made into an

open box by cutting equal squares from four corners and turning up the sides.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the volume of the box as a
function of the length of the side of the square cut out.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the volume of the box if the length of the square cut out is
5 cm?

5. A seller sells a product by the grams; If less than 10 g are ordered, the seller
charges 50 pesos per gram and if at least 10 g are ordered, the seller charges
45 pesos per gram.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the total cost of the order
as a function of the amount of the product ordered.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the total cost of an order of 9 g?
(d) What is the total cost of an order of 12 g?

6. The regular adult admission to an evening performance at a downtown

 16

theater is 120 pesos, while the price for persons under 18 years of age is 100
pesos.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the admission price as a
function of the person’s age.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the admission price if the person is 12 years old?
(d) What is the admission price if the person is 25 years old?

ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
2.5 Linear Functions
Definition 2.5.1 A function f in R × R defined by f (x) = ax + b, where
a, b ∈ R and a 6= 0, is called a linear function.

Theorem 2.5.2 Let f (x) = ax + b, where a, b ∈ R and a 6= 0. Then

(i) D(f ) = R and R(f ) = R;
(ii) the graph of f is a line which is increasing if a > 0 and is decreasing
if a < 0.

Example 2.5.3 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = 2x + 4. Find D(f )

and R(f ). Identify the graph of f and determine whether it is increasing or
decereasing. Sketch the graph of f .

Solution: D(f ) = R and R(f ) = R.

The graph of f is a line which is increasing since a = 2 > 0.
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Example 2.5.4 Let f (x) = −2x + 2. Find D(f ) and R(f ). Identify the graph
of f and determine whether it is increasing or decereasing. Sketch the graph
of f .
 17

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Sample Problem 2.5.4 Given the following linear functions, find D(f ) and
R(f ); and determine whether the graph of f is increasing or decereasing.
Sketch the graph of f .
1. f (x) = 3x + 6 2. f (x) = 3x − 6 3. f (x) = −2x + 10
4. f (x) = −4x + 6 5. f (x) = 2x − 5 6. f (x) = −5x − 10

2.6 Quadratic Functions

Definition 2.6.1 A function f in R × R defined by f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where
a, b, c ∈ R and a 6= 0 is called a quadratic function.

Theorem 2.6.2 Let f (x) =  ax2 + bx + c, where

 a, b, c ∈ R and a 6= 0. Then
b 4ac − b2
(i) the vertex is V = − , ;
2a 4a
(ii) D(f ) = R;
4ac − b2 4ac − b2
   
(iii) R(f ) = , +∞ , if a > 0 and R(f ) = −∞, ,
4a 4a
if a < 0.
(iv) the graph of f is a parabola opening upward if a > 0 and is a
parabola opening downward if a < 0.

Example 2.6.3 Let f (x) = x2 − 2x. Find the vertex, D(f ), and R(f ).
Determine whether the graph of f is opening upward or opening downward.
Skecth the graph of f .

Solution: Let a = 1, b = −2, and c = 0. Then

 18

b −2 4ac − b2 4(1)(0) − (−2)2

− =− = 1 and = = −1.
2a 2(1) 4a 4(1)
Hence,
V = (1, −1),D(f ) = R, andR(f ) = [−1, +∞).
Since a > 0, the graph is a parabola opening upward. We may construct a
table of values:
x 0 1 2
y = f (x) 0 -1 0
Using these three points, we sketch a graph of the parabola.
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Example 2.6.4 Let f (x) = −x2 + 2x + 2. Find the vertex, D(f ), and R(f ).
Determine whether the graph of f is opening upward or opening downward.
Sketch the graph of f .

Solution: Let a = −1, b = 2, and c = 2. Then

b 2 4ac − b2 4(−1)(2)
− =− = 1 and = = 3.
2a 2(−1) 4a 4(−1)
Hence,
V = (1, 3), D(f ) = R, and R(f ) = (−∞, 3].
Since a < 0, the graph is a parabola opening upward. Construct a table of
values.
 19

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x 0 1 2
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Using these three points, sketch a graph of the parabola.

Sample Problem 2.6.5 Let f be a quadratic function. Find the vertex,

D(f ), and R(f ). Determine whether the graph of f is opening upward or
opening downward. Sketch the graph of f .
1. f (x) = x2 −2x+3. 2. f (x) = x2 +4x+5. 3. f (x) = −x2 −2x−3.
4. f (x) = −2x2 +4x. 5. f (x) = x2 −4x+1. 6. f (x) = −x2 +3x−3.

2.7 Rational Functions

Definition 2.7.1 A function f in R × R defined by f (x) = p(x) q(x)

, where p(x)
and q(x) are polynomial functions and q(x) 6= 0, is called a rational function.

Theorem 2.7.2 Let f (x) = p(x)

q(x)
, where p(x) and q(x) are polynomial functions
and q(x) 6= 0. Then
(i) D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R} = {x ∈ R : q(x) 6= 0}.
(ii) R(f ) = {y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R}.
1
Example 2.7.3 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f ) and
x−2
R(f ).
 20

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 
1
= x∈R: ∈R
x−2
= {x ∈ R : x − 2 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 2}
= (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, +∞).

1 1
f (x) = ⇒y=
x−2 x−2
⇒ xy − 2y = 1
⇒ xy = 2y + 1
2y + 1
⇒x=
y
2y + 1
⇒ f −1 (y) = .
y

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

 
2y + 1
= y∈R: ∈R
y
= {y ∈ R : y 6= 0}
= (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞). 

x+1
Example 2.7.4 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f ) and
x+3
R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 
x+1
= x∈R: ∈R
x+3
= {x ∈ R : x + 3 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= −3}
= (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, +∞).
 21

x+1 x+1
f (x) = ⇒y=
x+3 x+3
⇒ xy + 3y = x + 1
⇒ xy − x = 1 − 3y
⇒ x(y − 1) = 1 − 3y
1 − 3y
⇒x=
y−1
1 − 3y
⇒ f −1 (y) = .
y−1

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

 
1 − 3y
= y∈R: ∈R
y−1
= {y ∈ R : y − 1 6= 0}
= {y ∈ R : y 6= 1}
= (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, +∞). 

x
Example 2.7.5 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f ) and
x−2
R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 
x
= x∈R: ∈R
x−2
= {x ∈ R : x − 2 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 2}
= (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, +∞).
 22

x x
f (x) = ⇒y=
x−2 x−2
⇒ xy − 2y = x
⇒ xy − x = 2y
⇒ x(y − 1) = 2y
2y
⇒x=
y−1
2y
⇒ f −1 (y) = .
y−1

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

 
2y
= y∈R: ∈R
y−1
= {y ∈ R : y − 1 6= 0}
= {y ∈ R : y 6= 1}
= (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, +∞). 

4 − 3x
Example 2.7.6 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f )
2x
and R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 
4 − 3x
= x∈R: ∈R
2x
= {x ∈ R : 2x 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 0}
= (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞).
 23

4−x 4−x
f (x) = ⇒y=
2x 2x
⇒ 2xy = 4 − x
⇒ 2xy + x = 4
⇒ x(2y + 1) = 4
4
⇒x=
2y + 1
4
⇒ f −1 (y) = .
2y + 1

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

 
4
= y∈R: ∈R
2y + 1
= {y ∈ R : 2y + 1 6= 0}
 
1
= y ∈ R : y 6= −
2
   
1 1
= −∞, − ∪ − , +∞ . 
2 2

2.8 Vertical and Horizontal Asymptotes

Definition 2.8.1 Let f be a function in R × R. Then the line x = a is a

vertical asymptote of the graph of f if f (x) increases or decreases without
bounds as x approaches a.

Theorem 2.8.2 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = p(x)

q(x)
, where p(x) and
q(x) have no common factors. If a is a zero of q(x), then x = a is a vertical
asymptote of the graph of f .
1
Example 2.8.3 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find the vertical
x2
asymptote/s, if any. Sketch the graph of f .

Solution: Set x2 = 0. Then x = 0.

Therefore, the vertical asymptote of the graph of f is x = 0, the y-axis.
 24

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.........
................
..............
.. ... . . ...
..
..
...............
..
..
..
x=0 .........
.................
..
...............

Below is the graph of f (x) = 1x2 with vertival asymptote x = 0.

1
Example 2.8.4 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find the
x−2
vertical asymptote/s, if any. Sketch the graph of f .

Solution: Set x − 2 = 0. Then x = 2.

Therefore, the vertical asymptote of the graph of f is x = 2.
1
Below is the graph of f (x) = with vertival asymptote x = 2.
x−2
.
..
...............

........
.................
...
...
..
...
............... .
...
..... .....
.. .. ......
.... .............
...
.
............... ...... ... ..
..... .....
.. .. ..
..... .....
.
. .. ...
.... ....
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... ...
.....
...
...
...
... ..
....
...
...
...
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....
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...
......
.. .....
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..........
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.............
................ . .....
.......... ................
.
............... . ..
. ..
. ..
. ..
. ...
. .
......................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................... ..
.
.
...
.
.
......................
............................................................
.................. ............. ..
............
... ......................................................................... .
.. ........
.......
..... ..
........

...............
..
.....................................................
.. .... x=2 .
.
.
...
....
.
...
...
..... .
.
.
... ...
... ....
.. ...
... ...

...
............... ... ....
... ...
... ...
.. ... ...
... ..

...
.. ....
.
............... ... ..... ........
.. ....... ...
......... ..

...
..... ...
. .
.. .....
...............
.. .

..
..
........ .
.
...
..

2x + 1
Example 2.8.5 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find the
x+3
vertical asymptote/s, if any.

Solution: Set x + 3 = 0. Then x = −3.

Therefore, the vertical asymptote of the graph of f is x = −3.

2x
Example 2.8.6 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find
(x + 1)(x − 2)
the vertical asymptote/s, if any.
 25

Solution: Set (x + 1)(x − 2) = 0. Then x + 1 = 0 or x − 2 = 0. Thus, x = −1

or x = 2.
Therefore, the vertical asymptotes of the graph of f are x = −1 and x = 2. 

Definition 2.8.7 Let f be a function in R × R. Then the line y = b is a

horizontal asymptote of the graph of f if f (x) approaches b as x increases or
decreases without bounds.

Theorem 2.8.8 Let f be a rational function given by

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a1 x + a0
f (x) = , where an 6= 0 and bm 6= 0.
bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + ... + b1 x + b0
(i) If n < m, then the line y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote of the
graph of f .
(ii) If n = m, then the line y = bamn is the horizontal asymptote of the
graph of f .
(iii) if n > m, then the graph of f has no horizontal asymptote.
1
Example 2.8.9 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find the
x−2
horizontal asymptote, if any. Sketch the graph of f .

Solution: n = 0 and m = 1. Then n < m.

Therefore, the horizontal asymptote of the graph of f is y = 0.
1
Below is the graph of f (x) = with vertival asymptote x = 2 and
x−2
horizontal asymptote y = 0, the x-axis.
.
..
...............

.........
.................
..
..
..
...
............... .
..... ...
.. .. ..
.... ..........
...
...............
... ..........
........ ..... ..
.. .. ..
.... .....
.
. ... ...
..... ....
............... ... .. .....
.... ...
... ...
.....
...
...
...
............... .. ..
.....
...
...
.....
... ..
....
.....
........
.........
..........
...........
. . .
...
.............
................ . .....
.......... ................
......................
................................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................... .............................................................
. .................. ............. ..
... . . . . . . .
.............
..
.........................................................................
.. ...............
.............

...............
..................................................
.. .........
... ...
...
...
x=2 .
...
.....
.
...
.
...
....
.. ...
...
.
.
...
...
... ....
............... ... ...
... ..
.. ... ...
... ...
...
... ...
.. ...
............... ... ..... ......
.. ....... ...

...
......... ..
..... ....
. .
.. ....
............... .. ..
..
..
..
........
..
..
 26

x−1
Example 2.8.10 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find the
x+3
horizontal asymptote, if any. Sketch the graph of f .

Solution: n = 1 and m = 1. Then n = m.

Therefore, the horizontal asymptote of the graph of f is y = 1.
x−1
Below is the graph of f (x) = with vertival asymptote x = −3 and
x+3
horizontal asymptote y = 1.
.. ..
.....
...............

... ...
........
.....
.
....
.........
...
.......
... .... .... ....
. ...............
...
. ....
...
.... ...
..
..
.. ...
..
....
...
...
... ...............
... ....
.. ...
...
..
..
....
...
..
... ....
.... ...............
.. ..
...
..
...
....
...
..
... ....
...
.. ..
...
...
...
....
...............

...
..
... ....
....
.. ..
...
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...
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..
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..
...
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...
..
....
...
... ... ...............
..... ....
.
....
....
... .. ..
....
...
.... ...
....... .... ...............
..................
.............. .
........................................................................
............................................................... ...............
..........
...........
............. .. ..
....
...
....... ...

y=1
.
....
.. .....
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
...............

.. ...
....
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................
.............................. .......... .
...........
............
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ............
..........
.............
................
..... .. ...
..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... ..... ..... ..... ...... ............
............
........... ... ... ..... .....
.. ... .........
........
..............
..........
.. ..... ........
.......
.........
..
x = −3 ......
..
..... ......
.. ..
.... ....
.....
...............
.. ... ....
....
.. ..... ...
...
.. ..
.... ...
...
...
...............
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...
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....
...
.....
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.....
...
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....
...
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...
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....
..
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..
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....
.
...
..
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........
... ..
..... .......
..
.. ..
..... ...
...............

2x2 + 3
Example 2.8.11 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find the
x+1
horizontal asymptote, if any.

Solution: n = 2 and m = 1. Then n > m.

Therefore, the graph of f has no horizontal asymptote. 
2x
Example 2.8.12 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f ),
x−1
R(f ), the vertical and horizontal asymptotes, if any.
 27

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 
2x
= x∈R: ∈R
x−1
= {x ∈ R : x − 1 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 1}
= (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, +∞).

2x 2x
f (x) = ⇒y=
x−1 x−1
⇒ xy − y = 2x
⇒ xy − 2x = y
⇒ x(y − 2) = y
y
⇒x=
y−2
y
⇒ f −1 (y) = .
y−2

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

 
y
= y∈R: ∈R
y−2
= {y ∈ R : y − 2 6= 0}
= {y ∈ R : y 6= 2}
= (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, +∞).

Set x − 1 = 0. Then x = 1. The vertical asymptote of the graph of f is x = 1.

We have n = 1 and m = 1. Then n = m. The horizontal asymptote of the

graph of f is y = 2.

x−2
Example 2.8.13 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f ),
x+3
R(f ), the vertical and horizontal asymptotes, if any. Sketch the graph of f .
 28

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 
x−2
= x∈R: ∈R
x+3
= {x ∈ R : x + 3 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= −3}
= (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, +∞) .

x−2 x−2
f (x) = ⇒y=
x+3 x+3
⇒ xy + 3y = x − 2
⇒ xy − x = −3y − 2
⇒ x(y − 1) = −3y − 2
−3y − 2
⇒x=
y−1
−3y − 2
⇒ f −1 (y) = .
y−1

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

 
−3y − 2
= y∈R: ∈R
y−1
= {y ∈ R : y − 1 6= 0}
= {y ∈ R : y 6= 1}
= (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, +∞) .

Set 2x + 3 = 0. Then x = − 32 . The vertical asymptote of the graph of f is

x = − 32 .

We have n = 1 and m = 1. Then n = m. The horizontal asymptote of the

graph of f is y = 1.

Sample Problem 2.8.14 Given the following rational functions, find D(f ),
R(f ), the vertical and horizontal asymptotes, if any.
 29

3x 2 x−2
1. f (x) = 2. f (x) = 3. f (x) =
x−1 x+5 x+2
1 x+2 2x − 5
4. f (x) = 5. f (x) = 6. f (x) =
4−x x−2 4x + 3

p
2.9 Functions of the Form f (x) = g(x)

p
Theorem 2.9.1 Let f be a function in R × R defined by f (x) = g(x), where
g(x) ≥ 0. Then
(i) D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R} = {x ∈ R : g(x) ≥ 0}.
(ii) R(f ) = {y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R and y ≥ 0}.
√
Example 2.9.2 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = x − 1. Find D(f )
and R(f ). Sketch the graph of f .

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 √
= x∈R: x−1∈R
= {x ∈ R : x − 1 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : x ≥ 1}
= [1, +∞).

√ √
f (x) = x−1⇒y = x−1
⇒ y2 = x − 1
⇒ x = y2 + 1
⇒ f −1 (y) = y 2 + 1.

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R and y ≥ 0



= y ∈ R : y 2 + 1 ∈ R and y ≥ 0


= {y ∈ R : y ∈ R and y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y ≥ 0}
= [0, +∞). 
√
Below is the graph of f (x) = x − 1.
 30

.
....
...............

.........
.
...
..
...............

...
..
...
...............
...........
.............................
.. ......................
..................... ..
.......
............
.......

... ....................
..................
..................
.. .................
...............
............... ... ...............
.....
.....
........
.. ....
....
..........

... ...
...
....
.
..
..
...

•
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
..
..
...............
..
........
....
.
...............

√
Example 2.9.3 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = x2 − 4. Find D(f )
and R(f ). Sketch the graph of f .

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
n √ o
= x∈R: x −4∈R 2

= x ∈ R : x2 − 4 ≥ 0


= {x ∈ R : (x + 2)(x − 2) ≥ 0}; r1 = −2, r2 = 2

= (−∞, −2] ∪ [2, +∞).

√ √
f (x) = x2 − 4 ⇒ y = x2 − 4
⇒ y 2 = x2 − 4
⇒ x2 = y 2 + 4
p
⇒ x = ± y2 + 4
p
⇒ f −1 (y) = ± y 2 + 4.

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R and y ≥ 0


n p o
2
= y ∈ R : ± y + 4 ∈ R and y ≥ 0
= y ∈ R : y 2 + 4 ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0


= {y ∈ R : y ∈ R and y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y ≥ 0}
= [0, +∞). 
√
Below is the graph of f (x) = x2 − 4.
 31

.
....
...............

.........
. .
.....
... ......
.......................
..
...............
...
... ..
... .

... ......
...

.. ...
...
...
...
............... ..
...
...
.. ...
...
...
... ...
....
.. ..
...
...
............... ... ...
...
.. ...
...
..
... ...
....
.
•
.
...
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
..
..
..
..
...............
..
........
....
.
...............

√
Example 2.9.4 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = 1 − x2 . Find D(f )
and R(f ). Sketch the graph of f .

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
n √ o
= x∈R: 1−x ∈R 2

= {x ∈ R : 1 − x2 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : x2 − 1 ≤ 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 1)(x − 1) ≤ 0}; r1 = −1, r2 = 1
= [−1, 1].

√ √
f (x) = 1 − x2 ⇒ y = 1 − x2
⇒ y 2 = 1 − x2
⇒ x2 = 1 − y 2
p
⇒ x = ± 1 − y2
p
⇒ f −1 (y) = ± 1 − y 2 .

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R and y ≥ 0


n p o
= y ∈ R : ± 1 − y 2 ∈ R and y ≥ 0
= {y ∈ R : 1 − y 2 ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y 2 − 1 ≤ 0 and y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : (y + 1)(y − 1) ≤ 0} ∩ {y ∈ R : y ≥ 0}
= [−1, 1] ∩ [0, +∞)
= [0, 1]. 
 32

√
Below is the graph of f (x) = 1 − x2 , which is a semicircle with center (0, 0)
and radius 1.
...............
..
...
..........
..
..
..
...
...............

..
...
..
............... ...
..
...
..
...
.....
..................
..................
...............................
...........
........... . . ..........................
....
.
...
.....
....
... ...
...
...
...
.. ......
.. . .. .. ... .
..................
.............
......... ... ........

• •
....

...............................................................................................................................................................................................................
. ...
...............
..
...
.. .
. .
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
...............
..
..
.
.........
...
..
...............

r
x+1
Example 2.9.5 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f )
x−2
and R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
( r )
x+1
= x∈R:y= ∈R
x−2
 
x+1
= x∈R: ≥0
x−2
= (−∞, −1] ∪ (2, +∞).

r r
x+1 x+1
f (x) = ⇒y=
x−2 x−2
x+1
⇒ y2 =
x−2
⇒ xy 2 − 2y 2 = x + 1
⇒ xy 2 − x = 2y 2 + 1
⇒ x(y 2 − 1) = 2y 2 + 1
2y 2 + 1
⇒x= 2
y −1
−1 2y 2 + 1
⇒ f (y) = 2 .
y −1
 33

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R and y ≥ 0



2y 2 + 1
 
= y∈R: 2 ∈ R and y ≥ 0
y −1
= y ∈ R : y 2 − 1 6= 0 and y ≥ 0


= {y ∈ R : (y + 1)(y − 1) 6= 0 and y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y + 1 6= 0 and y − 1 6= 0 and y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y 6= −1 and y 6= 1 and y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y 6= 1 and y ≥ 0}
= [0, +∞)\{1}
= [0, 1) ∪ (1, +∞). 

r
2x
Example 2.9.6 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f )
4−x
and R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
( r )
2x
= x∈R: ∈R
4−x
 
2x
= x∈R: ≥0
4−x
 
x
= x∈R: ≥0
4−x
 
x
= x∈R:− ≥0
x−4
 
x−0
= x∈R: ≤0
x−4
= [0, 4).
 34

r r
2x 2x
f (x) = ⇒y=
4−x 4−x
2x
⇒ y2 =
4−x
⇒ 4y 2 − xy 2 = 2x
⇒ xy 2 + 2x = 4y 2
⇒ x(y 2 + 2) = 4y 2
4y 2
⇒x= 2
y +2
4y 2
⇒ f −1 (y) = 2 .
y +2

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R and y ≥ 0



4y 2
 
= y∈R: 2 ∈ R and y ≥ 0
y +2
= y ∈ R : y 2 + 2 6= 0 and y ≥ 0


= {y ∈ R : y ∈ R and y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y ≥ 0}
= [0, +∞). 

Sample Problem 2.9.7 Find the domain and range of the following functions.
√ √ √
1. f (x) = 3x + 5 2. f (x) = x2 − 16 3.f (x) = 9 − x2

√
r r
x+5 4x
4. f (x) = 25 − x2 5. f (x) = 6.f (x) =
x+3 x−6
r r
x2 2x + 5 4x
7. f (x) = 8. f (x) = 9.f (x) = √ .
x2 − 4 4 − 3x x−6

p
3
2.10 Functions of the Form f (x) = g(x)
p
3
Theorem 2.10.1Let f be a function in R×R defined by f (x) = g(x), where
g(x) is a function in R × R. Then
 35

(i) D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R} = {x ∈ R : g(x) ∈ R}.

(ii) R(f ) = {y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R}.
√
Example 2.10.2 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = 3 x − 1. Find D(f )
and R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 √
= x∈R: 3x−1∈R
= {x ∈ R : x − 1 ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R}
= R.

√
3
√
f (x) = x−1⇒y = 3x−1
⇒ y3 = x − 1
⇒ x = y3 + 1
⇒ f −1 (y) = y 3 + 1.

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R


= y ∈ R : y3 + 1 ∈ R


= {y ∈ R : y ∈ R}
= R. 

√
3
Example 2.10.3 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = x2 − 1. Find D(f )
and R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
n √3
o
= x ∈ R : x2 − 1 ∈ R
= x ∈ R : x2 − 1 ∈ R


= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R}
= R.
 36

√
3
√
3
f (x) = x2 − 1 ⇒ y = x2 − 1
⇒ y 3 = x2 − 1
⇒ x2 = y 3 + 1
p
⇒ x = ± y3 + 1
p
⇒ f −1 (y) = ± y 3 + 1.

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

n p o
= y ∈ R : ± y3 + 1 ∈ R
= y ∈ R : y3 + 1 ≥ 0


= y ∈ R : y 3 ≥ −1

 √
= y ∈ R : y ≥ 3 −1
= {y ∈ R : y ≥ −1}
= [−1, +∞). 

√
3
Example 2.10.4 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = 1 − x2 . Find D(f )
and R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
n √3
o
= x ∈ R : 1 − x2 ∈ R
= {x ∈ R : 1 − x2 ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R
= R.

√
3
√
3
f (x) = 1 − x2 ⇒ y = 1 − x2
⇒ y 3 = 1 − x2
⇒ x2 = 1 − y 3
p
⇒ x = ± 1 − y3
p
⇒ f −1 (y) = ± 1 − y 3 .
 37

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

n p o
= y ∈ R : ± 1 − y3 ∈ R
= {y ∈ R : 1 − y 3 ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y 3 − 1 ≤ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y 3 ≤ 1}
√
= {y ∈ R : y ≤ 31}
= {y ∈ R : y ≤ 1}
= (−∞, 1]. 
r
3 x+1
Example 2.10.5 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f )
x−2
and R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
( r )
x + 1
= x∈R:y= 3 ∈R
x−2
 
x+1
= x∈R: ∈R
x−2
= {x ∈ R : x − 2 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 2}
= (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, +∞).
r r
3 x + 1 x+1
f (x) = ⇒y= 3
x−2 x−2
x+1
⇒ y3 =
x−2
⇒ xy 3 − 2y 3 = x + 1
⇒ xy 3 − x = 2y 3 + 1
⇒ x(y 3 − 1) = 2y 3 + 1
2y 3 + 1
⇒x= 3
y −1
−1 2y 3 + 1
⇒ f (y) = 3 .
y −1
 38

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R


2y 3 + 1
 
= y∈R: 3 ∈R
y −1
= y ∈ R : y 3 − 1 6= 0


= y ∈ R : y 3 6= 1


= {y ∈ R : y 6= 1}
= (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, +∞). 

r
3 2x
Example 2.10.6 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f )
4−x
and R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
( r )
2x
= x∈R: 3 ∈R
4−x
 
2x
= x∈R: ∈R
4−x
= {x ∈ R : 4 − x 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 4}
= (−∞, 4) ∪ (4, +∞).

r r
3 2x 3 2x
f (x) = ⇒y=
4−x 4−x
2x
⇒ y3 =
4−x
⇒ 4y 3 − xy 3 = 2x
⇒ xy 3 + 2x = 4y 3
⇒ x(y 3 + 2) = 4y 3
4y 3
⇒x= 3
y +2
−1 4y 3
⇒ f (y) = 3 .
y +2
 39

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R


4y 3
 
= y∈R: 3 ∈R
y +2
= y ∈ R : y 3 + 2 6= 0


= y ∈ R : y 3 6= −2

 √
= y ∈ R : y 6= 3 −2
n √3
o
= y ∈ R : y 6= − 2
√3
√
3
= (−∞, − 2) ∪ (− 2, +∞). 

Sample Problem 2.10.7 Find the domain and range of the following functions.
√ √ √
3
1. f (x) = r 3x + 5 2. f (x) =r3 8 − x2 3. f (x) =r3 x2 − 27
x+5 4x 2x + 5
4. f (x) = 3 5.f (x) = 3 6. f (x) = 3
x+3 x−6 4 − 3x
 1

CHAPTER 3
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

Learning Outcomes of the Chapter

At the end of the chapter, the student must be able to:
1. define the transcendental functions and find the value of a function at a
real number.
2. find domain and range of the transcendental functions.
3. define properties of the transcendental functions.

3.1 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Definition 3.1.1 A function f in R × R defined by f (x) = bx , where b > 0

and b 6= 1, is called an exponential function.

Example 3.1.2 The following are examples of exponential functions:

f (x) = ex , f (x) = 2x , f (x) = 10x , f (x) = ( 12 )x , f (x) = ( 23 )x .

Theorem 3.1.3 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = bu(x) , where b > 0,

b 6= 1, and u(x) is a function in R × R. Then
(i) D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) = bu(x) ∈ R} = {x ∈ R : u(x) ∈ R}.
(ii) R(f ) = {y ∈ R : f − (y) ∈ R}.

Definition 3.1.4 A function f in R × R defined by f (x) = logb x, where b > 0

and b 6= 1, is called a logarithmic function.

Example 3.1.5 The following are examples of logarithmic functions:

f (x) = loge x, f (x) = log2 x, f (x) = log10 x, f (x) = log 1 x, f (x) = log 2 x.
2 3

Remark 3.1.6 For x > 0 and b > 0, b 6= 1, y = logb x is equivalent to x = by .

Remark 3.1.7 For x > 0, y = loge x is equivalent to y = ln x.

Theorem 3.1.8 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = logb u(x), where b > 0,
b 6= 1, u(x) is a function with u(x) > 0 for all x. Then
(i) D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) = logb u(x) ∈ R} = {x ∈ R : u(x) > 0}.
(ii) R(f ) = {y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R}.
 2

Example 3.1.9 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = log2 x. Find D(f ) and
R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : log2 x ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : x > 0}
= (0, +∞).

f (x) = log2 x ⇒ y = log2 x

⇒ 2y = x
⇒ x = 2y
⇒ f −1 (y) = 2y .

R(f ) = {y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R}
= {y ∈ R : 2y ∈ R}
= {y ∈ R : y ∈ R}
= R.

Example 3.1.10 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = log3 (3x − 6). Find
D(f ) and R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : log3 (3x − 6) ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : 3x − 6 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : x > 2}
= (2, +∞).

f (x) = log3 (3x − 6) ⇒ y = log3 (3x − 6)

⇒ 3y = 3x − 6
3y + 6
⇒x=
3
y−1
⇒x=3 +2
−1
⇒ f (y) = 3y−1 + 2.
 3

R(f ) = {y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R}
= {y ∈ R : 3y−1 + 2 ∈ R}
= {y ∈ R : y − 1 ∈ R}
= {y ∈ R : y ∈ R}
= R.

√
Example 3.1.11 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = ln 4 − x. Find D(f )
and R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
√
= {x ∈ R : ln 4 − x ∈ R}
√
= {x ∈ R : 4 − x > 0}
= {x ∈ R : 4 − x > 0}
= {x ∈ R : x < 4}
= (−∞, 4).

√ √
f (x) = ln 4 − x ⇒ y = ln 4 − x
√
⇒ ey = 4 − x
⇒ e2y = 4 − x
⇒ x = 4 − e2y
⇒ f −1 (y) = 4 − e2y .

R(f ) = {y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R}
= {y ∈ R : 4 − e2y ∈ R}
= {y ∈ R : 2y ∈ R}
= {y ∈ R : y ∈ R}
= R. 

x−1
Example 3.1.12 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = ln . Find D(f )
x−4
and R(f ).
 4

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 
x−1
= x ∈ R : ln ∈R
x−4
 
x−1
= x∈R: >0
x−4
= (−∞, 1) ∪ (4, +∞).

x−1 x−1
f (x) = ln ⇒ y = ln
x−4 x−4
x −1
⇒ ey =
x−4
⇒ xe − 4ey = x − 1
y

⇒ xey − x = 4ey − 1
⇒ x(ey − 1) = 4ey − 1
4ey − 1
⇒x= y
e −1
−1 4ey − 1
⇒ f (y) = y .
e −1

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R


4ey − 1
 
= y∈R: y ∈R
e −1
= {y ∈ R : ey − 1 6= 0}
= {y ∈ R : ey 6= 1}
= {y ∈ R : y 6= 0}
= (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞). 

Example 3.1.13 Let f be function defined by f (x) = 2x . Find D(f ) and

R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : 2x ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R}
= R.
 5

f (x) = 2x ⇒ y = 2x
⇒ x = log2 y
⇒ f −1 (y) = log2 y.

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R


= {y ∈ R : log2 y ∈ R}
= {y ∈ R : y > 0}
= (0, +∞).

Example 3.1.14 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = 3x+1 . Find D(f ) and
R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
= x ∈ R : 3x+1 ∈ R


= {x ∈ R : x + 1 ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R}
= R.

f (x) = 3x+1 ⇒ y = 3x+1

⇒ x + 1 = log3 y
⇒ x = log3 y − 1
⇒ f −1 (y) = log3 y − 1.

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R


= {y ∈ R : log3 y − 1 ∈ R}
= {y ∈ R : y > 0}
= (0, +∞).

2 +1
Example 3.1.15 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = ex . Find D(f ) and
R(f ).
 6

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
n 2
o
= x ∈ R : ex +1 ∈ R
= x ∈ R : x2 + 1 ∈ R


= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R}
= R.

2 +1 2
f (x) = ex ⇒ y = ex +1
⇒ x2 + 1 = ln y
⇒ x2 = ln y − 1
p
⇒ x = ± ln y − 1
p
⇒ f −1 (y) = ± ln y − 1.

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

n p o
= y ∈ R : ± ln y − 1 ∈ R
= {y ∈ R : ln y − 1 ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : ln y ≥ 1}
= {y ∈ R : ln y ≥ ln e}
= {y ∈ R : y ≥ e}
= [e, +∞).

Sample Problem 3.1.16 Given the following functions, find the domain and
range.
1. f (x) = log5 (x + 4) 2. f (x) = log3 (x + 6) 3. f (x) = log10 (2 − x)
x+2 2
4. f (x) = log10 (5 − x) 5. f (x) = 2 6. f (x) = ex +4
x−4
7. f (x) = 12


8. f (x) = 2x+2 9. f (x) = 102x−3

3.2 Trigonometric Functions

Definition 3.2.1 A function f in R × R defined by f (x) = sin x is called the

sine function.

Theorem 3.2.2 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = sin x. Then

 7

D(f ) = R and R(f ) = [−1, 1].

Theorem 3.2.3 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = sin u(x), where u(x) is
a function in R × R. Then

D(f ) = {x ∈ R : u(x) ∈ R}.

Example 3.2.4 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = sin(x2 − 2x + 5). Find

D(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = x ∈ R : x2 − 2x + 5 ∈ R


= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R}
= R.

x+4
Example 3.2.5 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = sin . Find D(f ).
x−4
Solution:
 
x+4
D(f ) = x ∈ R : ∈R
x−4
= {x ∈ R : x − 4 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 4}
= (−∞, 4) ∪ (4, +∞).

Definition 3.2.6 A function f in R × R defined by f (x) = cos x is called the

cosine function.

Theorem 3.2.7 Let f (x) = cos x. Then

D(f ) = R and R(f ) = [−1, 1].

Theorem 3.2.8 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = cos u(x), where u(x) is
a function in R × R. Then

D(f ) = {x ∈ R : u(x) ∈ R}.

 8

√
Example 3.2.8 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = cos x − 1. Find D(f ).

Solution:
 √
D(f ) = x ∈ R : x − 1 ∈ R
= {x ∈ R : x − 1 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : x ≥ 1}
= [1, +∞).

Example 3.2.9 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = cos ln(x − 4). Find
D(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : ln(x − 4) ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : x − 4 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : x > 4}
= (4, +∞).

Definition 3.2.10 A function f in R × R defined by f (x) = tan x is called

the tangent function.

Theorem 3.2.11 n Let f be a function defined by

o f (x) = tan x. Then
π
(i) D(f ) = x ∈ R : x 6= + πk, k ∈ Z .
2
(ii) R(f ) = R.
π
(iii) The lines x = + πk, k ∈ Z are the vertical asymptotes of the
2
graph of f .

Theorem 3.2.12 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = tan u(x), where u(x)
is a function in R × R. Then
n π o
D(f ) = x ∈ R : u(x) 6= + πk, k ∈ Z .
2

π

Example 3.2.13 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = tan x + . Find
2
D(f ).
 9

Solution:
n π π o
D(f ) = x ∈ R : x + 6= + πk, k ∈ Z
2 2
n π π o
= x ∈ R : x 6= − + + πk, k ∈ Z
2 2
= {x ∈ R : x 6= πk, k ∈ Z} . 

1
Example 3.2.14 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = tan x. Find D(f ).
2
Solution:
 
1 π
D(f ) = x ∈ R : x 6= + πk, k ∈ Z
2 2
n π  o
= x ∈ R : x 6= 2 + πk , k ∈ Z
2
= {x ∈ R : x 6= π + 2πk, k ∈ Z} . 

Definition 3.2.14 A function f in R × R defined by f (x) = cot x is called

the cotangent function.

Theorem 3.2.15 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = cot x. Then

(i) D(f ) = {x ∈ R : x 6= πk, k ∈ Z}.
(ii) R(f ) = R.
(iii) The lines x = πk, k ∈ Z are the vertical asymptotes of the graph
of f .

Theorem 3.2.16 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = cot u(x), where u(x)
is a function in R × R. Then
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : u(x) 6= πk, k ∈ Z}.

π

Example 3.2.17 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = cot x − . Find
2
D(f ).

Solution:
n π o
D(f ) = x ∈ R : x − = 6 πk, k ∈ Z
2
n π o
= x ∈ R : x 6= + πk, k ∈ Z . 
2
 10

1
Example 3.2 18 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = cot x. Find D(f ).
2
Solution:
 
1
D(f ) = x ∈ R : x 6= πk, k ∈ Z
2
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 2πk, k ∈ Z} . 

Definition 3.2.19 A function f in R × R defined by f (x) = sec x is called the

secant function.

Theorem 3.2.20 n Let f be a function defined by

o f (x) = sec x. Then
π
(i) D(f ) = x ∈ R : x 6= + πk, k ∈ Z .
2
(ii) R(f ) = (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞).
π
(iii) The lines x = + πk, k ∈ Z are the vertical asymptotes of the
2
graph of f .

Theorem 3.2.21 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = sec u(x), where u(x)
is a function in R × R. Then
n π o
D(f ) = x ∈ R : u(x) 6= + πk, k ∈ Z .
2
 π
Example 3.2.22 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = sec x − . Find
2
D(f ).

Solution:
n π π o
D(f ) = x ∈ R : x − 6= + πk, k ∈ Z
2 2
n π π o
= x ∈ R : x 6= + + πk, k ∈ Z
2 2
= {x ∈ R : x 6= π + πk, k ∈ Z}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= π(k + 1), k ∈ Z} . 

Example 3.2.23 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = sec 3x. Find D(f ).
 11

Solution:
n π o
D(f ) = x ∈ R : 3x 6= + πk, k ∈ Z
 2 
1 π 
= x ∈ R : x 6= + πk , k ∈ Z
3 2
n π π o
= x ∈ R : x 6= + k, k ∈ Z . 
6 3

Definition 3.2.24 A function f in R × R defined by f (x) = csc x is called the

cosecant function.

Theorem 3.2.25 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = csc x. Then

(i) D(f ) = {x ∈ R : x 6= πk, k ∈ Z}.
(ii) R(f ) = (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞).
(iii) The lines x = πk, k ∈ Z are the vertical asymptotes of the graph
of f .

Theorem 3.2.26 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = csc u(x), where u(x)
is a function in R × R. Then

D(f ) = {x ∈ R : u(x) 6= πk, k ∈ Z}.

Example 3.2.27 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = csc (x + π). Find

D(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : x + π 6= πk, k ∈ Z}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= −π + πk, k ∈ Z}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= π(k − 1), k ∈ Z} . 

Example 3.2.28 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = csc 2x. Find D(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : 2x 6= πk, k ∈ Z}
n π o
= x ∈ R : x 6= k, k ∈ Z . 
2
 12

Sample Problem 3.2.29 Given the following trigonometric functions, find

the domain and the vertical asymptotes, if any. √
x
1. f (x) = sin(3x3 −4x+1) 2. f (x) = sin x+1 3. f (x) = cos x + 3
√ 1
4. f (x) = cos 1 − x 5. f (x) = tan x 6. f (x) = tan 2x
3
7. f (x) = cot 2x 8.
f (x) = sec 13 x 9. f (x) =
csc 3x
π
10. f (x)
= cot x − 3 11. f (x) = sec x − 3π 2
12. f (x) =
π
csc x − 4

3.3 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Definition 3.3.1 A function f in R × R defined by f (x) = arcsin x is called

the inverse sine function.

Definition 3.3.2 The inverse sine function is the inverse of the restricted sine
function
y = sin x, − π2 ≤ x ≤ π2 .
Thus,
y = arcsin x ⇔ x = sin y and − π2 ≤ y ≤ π2 .

Example 3.3.3 Use the above definition to find the value (in radians) of the
following expressions. Verify your answer using calculator. √
1. arcsin 0; 2. arcsin 1; 3. arcsin(− 12 ); 4. arcsin( 23 )

Solution:
1. Let y = arcsin 0. Then
π π
y = arcsin 0 ⇒ sin y = 0 and − ≤y≤
2 2
⇒ y = 0.

Therefore, arcsin 0 = 0.

2. Let y = arcsin 1. Then

π π
y = arcsin 1 ⇒ sin y = 1 and − ≤ y ≤
2 2
π
⇒y= .
2
 13

π
Therefore, arcsin 1 = .
2
3. Let y = arcsin(− 12 ). Then
 
1 1 π π
y = arcsin − ⇒ sin y = − and − ≤ y ≤
2 2 2 2
π
⇒y=− .
6
 
1 π
Therefore, arcsin − =− .
2 6
√
3
4. Let y = arcsin( 2
). Then
√ ! √
3 3 π π
y = arcsin ⇒ sin y = and − ≤ y ≤
2 2 2 2
π
⇒y= .
3
√ !
3 π
Therefore, arcsin = .
2 3

Theorem 3.3.4 Let by f (x) = arcsin x. Then

h π πi
D(f ) = [−1, 1] and R(f ) = − , .
2 2

Definition 3.3.5 A function f in R × R defined by f (x) = arccos x is called

the inverse cosine function.

Definition 3.3.6 The inverse cosine function is the inverse of the restricted
cosine function

y = cos x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π.

Thus,

y = arccos x ⇔ x = cos y and 0 ≤ y ≤ π.

Example 3.3.7 Use the above definition to find the value (in radians) of the
following expressions. Verify your answer using calculator.
 14
√
3
1. arccos 0; 2. arccos 1; 3. arccos(− 21 ); 4. arccos( 2
)

Solution:
1. Let y = arccos 0. Then

y = arccos 0 ⇒ cos y = 0 and 0 ≤ y ≤ π.

π
⇒y= .
2
π
Therefore, arccos 0 = .
2
2. Let y = arccos 1. Then

y = arccos 1 ⇒ cos y = 1 and 0 ≤ y ≤ π.

⇒ y = 0.

Therefore, arccos 1 = 0.

3. Let y = arccos(− 21 ). Then

 
1 1
y = arccos − ⇒ cos y = − and 0 ≤ y ≤ π
2 2
2π
⇒y= .
3
 
1 2π
Therefore, arccos − = .
2 3
√
3
4. Let y = arccos( 2
). Then
√ ! √
3 3
y = arccos ⇒ cos y = and 0 ≤ y ≤ π
2 2
π
⇒y= .
6
√ !
3 π
Therefore, arccos = .
2 6

Theorem 3.3.8 Let f (x) = arccos x. Then

D(f ) = [−1, 1] and R(f ) = [0, π].

 15

Definition 3.3.9 A function f in R × R defined by f (x) = arctan x is called

the inverse tangent function.

Definition 3.3.10 The inverse tangent function is the inverse of the restricted
tangent function
π π
y = tan x, − < x < .
2 2
Thus,
π π
y = arctan x ⇔ x = tan y and − < y < .
2 2

Example 3.3.11 Use the above definition to find the value (in radians) of the
following expressions. Verify your answer using calculator. √
1. arctan 0; 2. arctan 1; 3. arctan(− √13 ); 4. arctan 3

Solution:
1. Let y = arctan 0. Then
π π
y = arctan 0 ⇒ tan y = 0 and − <y< .
2 2
⇒ y = 0.
Therefore, arctan 0 = 0.

2. Let y = arctan 1. Then

π π
y = arctan 1 ⇒ tan y = 1 and − < y < .
2 2
π
⇒y= .
4
π
Therefore, arctan 1 = .
4
3. Let y = arctan(− √13 ). Then
 
1 1 π π
y = arctan − √ ⇒ tan y = − √ and − < y < .
3 3 2 2
π
⇒y=− .
6
 
1 π
Therefore, arctan − √ =− .
3 6
 16

√
4. Let y = arctan 3. Then
√ √ π π
y = arctan 3 ⇒ tan y = 3 and − < y < .
2 2
π
⇒y= .
3
√ π
Therefore, arctan 3 = . 
3
Theorem 3.3.12 Let f (x) = arctan x. Then
(i) D(f ) = R.
 π π
(ii) R(f ) = − , .
2 2
π π
(iii) The lines y = and y = − are the horizontal asymptotes of the
2 2
graph of f .

Definition 3.3.13 A function f in R × R defined by f (x) = arccot x is called

the inverse cotangent function.

Definition 3.3.14 The inverse cotangent function is the inverse of the restricted
cotangent function

y = cot x, 0 < x < π.

Thus,

y = arccot x ⇔ x = cot y and 0 < y < π.

Example 3.3.15 Use the above definition to find the value (in radians) of the
following expressions. Verify your answer using calculator. √
1. arccot 0; 2. arccot 1; 3. arccot (− √13 ); 4. arccot 3

Solution:
1. Let y = arccot 0. Then

y = arccot 0 ⇒ cot y = 0 and 0 < y < π.

π
⇒y= .
2
π
Therefore, arccot 0 = .
2
 17

2. Let y = arccot 1. Then

y = arccot 1 ⇒ cot y = 1 and 0 < y < π.

π
⇒y= .
4
π
Therefore, arccot 1 = .
4
3. Let y = arccot (− √13 ). Then
 
1 1
y = arccot − √ ⇒ cot y = − √ and 0 < y < π.
3 3
2π
⇒y= .
3
 
1 2π
Therefore, arccot − √ = .
3 3
√
4. Let y = arccot 3. Then
√ √
y = arccot 3 ⇒ cot y = 3 and 0 < y < π.
π
⇒y= .
6
√ π
Therefore, arccot 3 = . 
6
Theorem 3.3.16 Let f (x) = arccot x. Then
(i) D(f ) = R.
(ii) R(f ) = (0, π).
(iii) The lines y = 0 and y = π are the horizontal asymptotes of the
graph of f .

Definition 3.3.17 A function f in R × R defined by f (x) = arcsec x is called

the inverse secant function.

Definition 3.3.18 The inverse secant function is the inverse of the restricted
secant function
π π
y = sec x, 0 ≤ x < or −π ≤ x < − .
2 2
Thus,
π π
y = arcsec x ⇔ x = sec y and, 0 ≤ y < or −π ≤ y < − .
2 2
 18

Example 3.3.19 Use the above definition to find the value (in radians) of the
following expressions. Verify your answer using calculator.
√
1. arcsec 2; 2. arcsec 1; 3. arcsec (− 2); 4. arcsec √23

Solution:
1. Let y = arcsec 2. Then
π π
y = arcsec 2 ⇒ sec y = 2 and, 0 ≤ y < or − π ≤ y < − .
2 2
π
⇒y= .
3
π
Therefore, arcsec 2 = .
3
2. Let y = arcsec 1. Then
π π
y = arcsec 1 ⇒ sec y = 1 and, 0 ≤ y < or − π ≤ y < − .
2 2
⇒ y = 0.

Therefore, arcsec 1 = 0.
√
3. Let y = arcsec (− 2). Then
 √  √ π π
y = arcsec − 2 ⇒ sec y = − 2 and, 0 ≤ y < or − π ≤ y < − .
2 2
3π
⇒y=− .
4
 √  3π
Therefore, arcsec − 2 = − .
4
4. Let y = arcsec √2 . Then
3

2 2 π π
y = arcsec √ ⇒ sec y = √ and, 0 ≤ y < or − π ≤ y < − .
3 3 2 2
π
⇒y= .
6
2 π
Therefore, arcsec √ = . 
3 6

Theorem 3.3.20 Let f (x) = arcsec x. Then

(i) D(f ) = (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞).
 19
h π h π
(ii) R(f ) = −π, − ∪ 0, .
2 2
π π
(iii) The lines y = and y = − are the horizontal asymptotes of the
2 2
graph of f .

Definition 3.3.21 A function f in R × R defined by f (x) = arccsc x is called

the inverse cosecant function.

Definition 3.3.22 The inverse cosecant function is the inverse of the restricted
cosecant function
π π
y = csc x, 0 < x ≤ or −π < x ≤ − .
2 2
Thus,
π π
y = arccsc x ⇔ x = csc y and 0 < y ≤ 2
or −π < y ≤ − .
2

Example 3.3.23 Use the above definition to find the value (in radians) of the
following expressions. Verify your answer using calculator.
√
1. arccsc 2; 2. arccsc 1; 3. arccsc (− 2); 4. arccsc √23

Solution:
1. Let y = arccsc 2. Then
π π
y = arccsc 2 ⇒ csc y = 2 and, 0 < y ≤ or − π < y ≤ − .
2 2
π
⇒y= .
6
π
Therefore, arccsc 2 = .
6
2. Let y = arccsc 1. Then
π π
y = arccsc 1 ⇒ csc y = 1 and, 0 < y ≤ or − π < y ≤ − .
2 2
π
⇒y= .
2
π
Therefore, arccsc 1 = .
2
 20

√
3. Let y = arccsc (− 2). Then
 √  √ π π
y = arccsc − 2 ⇒ csc y = − 2 and, 0 < y ≤ or − π < y ≤ − .
2 2
3π
⇒y=− .
4
 √  3π
Therefore, arccsc − 2 = − .
4
4. Let y = arccsc √2 . Then
3

2 2 π π
y = arccsc √ ⇒ csc y = √ and, 0 < y ≤ or − π < y ≤ − .
3 3 2 2
π
⇒y= .
3
2 π
Therefore, arccsc √ = . 
3 3

Theorem 3.3.24 Let f (x) = arccsc x. Then

 π i−1]∪ [1, +∞).
(i) D(f ) = (−∞,
πi
(ii) R(f ) = 0, ∪ −π, − .
2 2
(iii) The lines y = 0 and y = −π are the horizontal asymptotes of the
graph of f .

Sample Problem 3.3.25 Use the definition to find the value (in radians) of
the following expressions. Verify √your answer using calculator.
1. arcsin(−1); 2. arcsin(− 23 ); 3. arccos(−1); 4. arccos 21 ;
√
5. arctan(−1); 6. arctan(− 3); 7. arccot (−1); 8. arccsc √13 ;
√ √
9. arcsec (−1); 10. arcsec 2; 11. arccsc (−1); 12. arccsc 2
 1

CHAPTER 4
LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS

Learning Outcomes of the Chapter

At the end of the chapter, the student must be able to:
1. discuss the limit of a function using the intuitive idea of limit.
2. evaluate limits of functions applying the theorems on limits.
3. evaluate one-sided limit of a function, if it exists.
4. use the one-sided limits to find the two-sided limit of a function, if it exists.

4.1 Intuitive Idea of Limit

Let f be a function defined at each x on some open interval I containing
the real number a, except possibly at a itself. If x gets closer and closer to
a, the value f (x) gets closer and closer to some real number L, then we say
that ”the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, is L” or ”f (x) approaches L as x
approaches a”, written

lim f (x) = L.
x→a

Let us consider some examples.

Example 4.1.1 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = x + 1 and a = 1.

Then f is defined for all x on every open interval containing a = 1. Evaluate
lim f (x).
x→1

Solution: Let us investigate the value f (x) when x gets closer and closer to 1
but not equal to 1.
x 0.9 0.99 0.999 0.9999 0.99999
f (x) 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 1.99999

As x gets closer and closer to 1 from the left, the value f (x) gets closer
and closer to 2.
x 1.00001 1.0001 1.001 1.01 1.1
f (x) 2.00001 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.1
 2

As x gets closer and closer to 1 from the right, the value f (x) gets closer
and closer to 2.
Hence, f (x) approaches 2 as x approaches 1. Therefore,

lim f (x) = 2. 
x→1

noindent Example 4.1.2 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = x2 + 3

and a = 0. Then f is defined for all x on every open interval containing a = 0.
Evaluate lim f (x).
x→0

Solution: Let us investigate the value f (x) when x gets closer and closer to 0
but not equal to 0.
x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 −0.00001
f (x) 3.01 3.0001 3.000001 3.000001 3.0000001

As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the left, the value f (x) gets closer
and closer to 3.
x 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
f (x) 3.000001 3.00001 3.0001 3.001 3.01

As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the right, the value f (x) gets closer
and closer to 3.
Hence, f (x) approaches 3 as x approaches 0. Therefore,

lim f (x) = 3. 
x→0

x2 − 4
Example 4.1.3 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = and a = 2.
x−2
Then f is defined for all x on every open interval containing a = 2 except at
a = 2. Evaluate lim f (x).
x→2

Solution: Let us investigate the value f (x) when x gets closer and closer to 2
but not equal to 2.
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 1.99999
f (x) 3.9 3.99 3.999 3.9999 3.99999

As x gets closer and closer to 2 from the left, the value f (x) gets closer
and closer to 4.
 3

x 2.00001 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.1

f (x) 4.00001 4.0001 4.001 4.01 4.1

As x gets closer and closer to 2 from the right, the value f (x) gets closer
and closer to 4.
Hence, f (x) approaches 4 as x approaches 2. Therefore,

lim f (x) = 4. 
x→2

x2 + x
Example 4.1.4 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = and a = −1.
x+1
Then f is defined for all x on every open interval containing a = −1 except at
a = −1. Evaluate lim f (x).
x→−1

Solution: Let us investigate the value f (x) when x gets closer and closer to −1
but not equal to −1.
x −1.1 −1.01 −1.001 −1.0001 −1.00001
f (x) −1.1 −1.01 −1.001 −1.0001 −1.00001

As x gets closer and closer to −1 from the left, the value f (x) gets
closer and closer to −1.
x −0.99999 −0.9999 −0.999 −0.99 −0.9
f (x) −0.99999 −0.9999 −0.999 −0.99 −0.9

As x gets closer and closer to −1 from the right, the value f (x) gets
closer and closer to −1.
Hence, f (x) approaches −1 as x approaches −1. Therefore,

lim f (x) = −1. 

x→−1

Sample Problem 4.1.5 Evalute the following limits applying the ”Intuitive
Idea of Limit”.
1. lim (x + 4) 2. lim (2x + 3) 3. lim (x2 + 2)
x→1 x→−2 x→0
x2 − 9 x2 − x X2 − 1
4. lim 5. lim 6. lim
x→3 x − 3 x→1 x − 1 x→−1 x + 1
 4

4.2 Computation of Limits of Functions in the Set R

We need some rules to evaluate the limits of functions in a straightforward
manner. Hence, we enumerate some limit theorems. In this section, we will
compute limits of functions in the set of real numbers R.

Theorem 4.2.1 (Limit of the Constant Function) If c is a constant, then

for any real number a,

lim c = c.
x→a

Example 4.2.2

1.lim 4 = 4; 2. lim (−5) = −5.— 

x→0 x→−2

Theorem 4.2.3 (Limit of the Polynomial Function) If c0 , c1 , ..., cn−1 , cn

are constants, then for any real number a,

lim (cn xn + cn−1 xn−1 + ... + c1 x + c0 ) = cn an + cn−1 an−1 + ... + c1 a + c0 .

x→a

Example 4.2.4 Evaluate lim (4x − 7).

x→3

Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3, lim (4x − 7) = 4(3) − 7 = 5. 

x→3

Theorem 4.2.5 (Limit of the Sum) Let f and g be functions such that
lim f (x) and lim g(x) both exist. Then
x→a x→a

lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x).

x→a x→a x→a

Example 4.2.6 Evaluate lim [(2x + 1) + (3x4 − x2 )].

x→−1

Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,

lim (2x + 1) = 2(−1) + 1 = −1 and lim (3x4 − x2 ) = 3(−1)4 − (−1)2 = 2.

x→−1 x→−1
 5

Therefore, by the Limit of the Sum,

lim [(2x + 1) + (3x4 − x2 )] = lim (2x + 1) + lim (3x4 − x2 )
x→−1 x→−1 x→−1

= −1 + 2
= 1. 

Note: The limit of the sum can also be applied to the difference of funtions.

Example 4.2.7 Evaluate lim [(2x3 + 1) − (3x4 − 6)].

x→2

Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,

lim (2x3 + 1) = 2(2)3 + 1 = 17 and lim (3x4 − 6) = 3(2)4 − 6 = 42.
x→2 x→2

Therefore, by the Limit of the Sum,

lim [(2x3 + 1) − (3x4 − 6)] = lim (2x3 + 1) − lim (3x4 − 6)
x→2 x→2 x→2
= 17 − 42
= −25. 

Note : The limit of the sum can be applied to any finite number of functions.

Example 4.2.8 Evaluate lim [(2x3 + 1) + (x2 − 5x) − (3x4 − 6)].

x→2

Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,

lim (2x3 + 1) = 2(2)3 + 1 = 17,
x→2

lim (x2 − 5x) = (2)2 − 5(2) = −6,

x→2

and
lim (3x4 − 6) = 3(2)4 − 6 = 42.
x→2

Therefore, by the Limit of the Sum,

lim [(2x3 + 1) + (x2 − 5x) − (3x4 − 6)] = lim (2x3 + 1) + lim (x2 − 5x) − lim (3x4 − 6)
x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2
= 17 − 6 − 42
= −31. 
 6

Theorem 4.2.9 (Limit of the Product) Let f and g be functions such that
lim f (x) and lim g(x) both exist. Then
x→a x→a

lim [f (x) · g(x)] = lim f (x) · lim g(x).

x→a x→a x→a

Example 4.2.10 Evaluate lim [(2x + 1)(3x3 − x2 )].

x→2

Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,

lim (2x + 1) = 2(2) + 1 = 5 and lim (3x3 − x2 ) = 3(2)3 − (2)2 = 20.

x→2 x→2

Therefore, by the Limit of the Product,

lim [(2x + 1) · (3x3 − x2 )] = lim (2x + 1) · lim (3x3 − x2 )

x→2 x→2 x→2
= 5 · 20
= 100. 

Note : The Limit of the Product can be applied to any finite number of
functions.

Example 4.2.11 Evaluate lim [2x3 (x2 − 5x)(3x4 − 6)].

x→1

Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,

lim (2x3 ) = 2(1)3 = 2,

x→1

lim (x2 − 5x) = (1)2 − 5(1) = −4,

x→1

and

lim (3x4 − 6) = 3(1)4 − 6 = −3.

x→1

Therefore, by the Limit of the Product,

lim [2x3 (x2 − 5x)(3x4 − 6)] = lim (2x3 + 1) · lim (x2 − 5x) · lim (3x4 − 6)
x→1 x→1 x→1 x→1
= 2 · (−4) · (−3)
= 24. 
 7

Theorem 4.2.12 (Limit of the nth Power of a Function) Let f be a

function such that lim f (x) exist and n a positive integer. Then
x→a
h in
n
lim [f (x)] = lim f (x) .
x→a x→a

Example 4.2.13 Evaluate lim (3x3 − 7x2 − 15)4 .

x→3

Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,

lim (3x3 − x2 + 4) = 3(3)3 − 7(3)2 − 15 = 3.

x→3

Therefore, by Theorem 4.2.12,

h i4
lim (3x3 − 7x2 − 15)4 = lim (3x3 − 7x2 − 15)
x→3 x→3
4
= (3)
= 81. 

Example 4.2.14 Evaluate lim (x4 + 4x2 − 1)5 .

x→0

Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,

lim (x4 + 4x2 − 1) = −1.

x→0

Therefore, by Theorem 4.2.12,

h i5
4 2 5 4 2
lim (x + 4x − 1) = lim (x + 4x − 1)
x→0 x→0
= (−1)5
= −1. 

Theorem 4.2.15 (Limit of the nth Root of a Function) q Let f be a

function such that lim f (x) exist and n a positive integer. If n lim f (x) ∈ R,
x→a x→a
then
p q
n
lim f (x) = n lim f (x).
x→a x→a
 8

√
Example 4.2.16 Evaluate lim 2x3 − 5x − 1.
x→−1

Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,

lim (2x3 − 5x − 1) = 2(−1)3 − 5(−1) − 1 = 2.

x→−1

Then
q √
lim (2x3 − 5x − 1) = 2 ∈ R.
x→−1

Therefore, by Theorem 4.2.15,

√ q
lim 2x3 − 5x − 1 = lim (2x3 − 5x − 1)
x→−1 x→−1
√
= 2. 

√
5
Example 4.2.17 Evaluate lim 3x2 − 5x + 1.
x→1

Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,

lim (3x2 − 5x + 1) = 3(1)2 − 5(1) + 1 = −1.

x→1

Then
q √
5
5 lim (3x2 − 5x + 1) = −1 = −1 ∈ R.
x→1

Therefore, by Theorem 4.2.15,

√5
q
lim 3x2 − 5x + 1 = 5 lim (3x2 − 5x + 1)
x→1 x→1

= −1. 

Theorem 4.2.18 (Limit of the Quotient) Let f and g be functions such

that lim f (x) and lim g(x) both exist. If lim g(x) 6= 0, then
x→a x→a x→a

f (x) lim f (x)

x→a
lim = .
x→a g(x) lim g(x)
x→a
 9

f (x)
Suggestions for Applying the Limit of the Quotient: lim .
x→a g(x)
1. Evaluate the limits of the numerator and denominator separately.
2. If the limit of the numerator is a real number and the limit of the denominator
is a nonzero real number, then apply the Limit of the Quotient:

f (x) lim f (x)

lim = x→a .
x→a g(x) lim g(x)
x→a

3. If the limit of the numerator is a nonzero real number and the limit of the
denominator is zero, do not apply the Limit of the Quotient. Here,

f (x) lim f (x)

lim 6= x→a .
x→a g(x) lim g(x)
x→a

f (x)
In this case, we may conclude that lim does not exist in R.
x→a g(x)
4. If the limits of the numerator and denominator are both zero, do not
apply the Limit of the Quotient. We may apply the next theorem.
x+3
Example 4.2.19 Evaluate lim if it exists.
x→3 x2 − 4x

Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,

lim (x + 3) = 3 + 3 = 6 and lim (x2 − 4x) = (3)2 − 4(3) = −3.

x→3 x→3

Therefore, by the Limit of the Quotient,

x+3 lim (x + 3)
x→3
lim =
x→3 x2 − 4x lim (x2 − 4x)
x→3
6
=
−3
= −2. 

x+1
Example 4.2.20 Evaluate lim if it exists.
x→−1 x−3
Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,

lim (x + 1) = −1 + 1 = 0 and lim (x − 3) = −1 − 3 = −4.

x→−1 x→−1
 10

Therefore, by the Limit of the Quotient,

x+1 lim (x + 1)
x→−1
lim =
x→−1 x + 3 lim (x + 3)
x→−1
0
=
−4
= 0. 

x2 − 4
Example 4.2.21 Evaluate lim if it exists.
x→2 x + 2

Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,

lim (x2 − 4) = (2)2 − 4 = 0 and lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4.

x→2 x→2

Therefore, by the Limit of the Quotient,

x2 − 4 lim (x2 − 4)
x→2
lim =
x→2 x + 2 lim (x + 2)
x→2
0
=
4
= 0. 

x+2
Example 4.2.22 Evaluate lim if it exists.
x→2 x − 2

Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,

lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.

x→2 x→2

x+2
Therefore, lim does not exist in R. 
x→2 x − 2

3 − x2
Example 4.2.23 Evaluate lim .
x→−3 9 − x2

Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,

lim (3 − x2 ) = 3 − (−3)2 = −6 and lim (9 − x2 ) = 9 − (−3)2 = 0.

x→−3 x→−3
 11

3 − x2
Therefore, lim does not exist in R. 
x→−3 9 − x2

x2 − 4
Example 4.2.24 Evaluate lim if it exists.
x→2 x − 2

Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,

lim (x2 − 4) = (2)2 − 4 = 0 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.
x→2 x→2

Limit of the Quotient does not apply. We may apply the next theorem. 

Theorem 4.2.25 Let F and G be functions such that F (x) = G(x) for all
x 6= a. If lim G(x) exists, then lim F (x) exists. Moreover,
x→a x→a

lim F (x) = lim G(x).

x→a x→a

Note : Theorem 4.2.25 may be applied if the limits of the numerator and the
denominator are both zero.
x2 − 4
Example 4.2.26 Evaluate lim if it exists.
x→2 x − 2

Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,

lim (x2 − 4) = 4 − 4 = 0 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.
x→2 x→2

We may apply Theorem 4.2.25.

If x 6= 2, then
x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
= = x + 2.
x−2 x−2
Evaluate lim (x + 2):
x→2

By Theorem 4.2.3,
lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4.
x→2

Therefore, by Theorem 4.2.25,

x2 − 4
lim = lim (x + 2) = 4. 
x→2 x − 2 x→2
 12

x2 + x − 6
Example 4.2.27 Evaluate lim if it exists.
x→−3 x+3
Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,
lim (x2 + x − 6) = (−3)2 − 3 − 6 = 0 and lim (x + 3) = −3 + 3 = 0.
x→−3 x→−3

We may apply Theorem 4.2.25.

If x 6= −3, then
x2 + x − 6 (x + 3)(x − 2)
= = x − 2.
x+3 x+3
Evaluate lim (x − 2):
x→−3

By Theorem 4.2.3,
lim (x − 2) = −3 − 2 = −5.
x→−3

Therefore, by Theorrem 4.2.25,

x2 + x − 6
lim = lim (x − 2) = −5. 
x→−3 x+3 x→−3

x3 − 1
Example 4.2.28 Evaluate lim if it exists.
x→1 x2 − 1

Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,

lim (x3 − 1) = (1)3 − 1 = 0 and lim (x2 − 1) = (1)2 − 1 = 0.
x→1 x→1

We may apply Theorem 4.2.25.

If x 6= 1, then
x3 − 1 (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1) x2 + x + 1
= = .
x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1) x+1
x2 + x + 1
Evaluate lim :
x→1 x+1
By Theorem 4.2.3,
lim (x2 + x + 1) = (1)2 + 1 + 1 = 3 and lim (x + 1) = 1 + 1 = 2.
x→1 x→1
 13

By the Limit of the Quotient,

x2 + x + 1 lim (x2 + x + 1) 3
x→1
lim = = .
x→1 x+1 lim (x + 1) 2
x→1

Therefore, by Theorem 4.2.25,

x3 − 1 x2 + x + 1 3
lim 2
= lim = . 
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x+1 2

Sample Problem 4.2.29 Evaluate the following limits. When appropriate,

indicate the limit theorems being applied:
1. lim (3x2 − 7x + 6)(2x3 − x2 + 4x − 5) 2. lim (4x2 − 7x + 6)3
x→1 x→2
√ √3 2x + 2
3. lim 4x2 − x − 4 4. lim x2 − 4x − 4 5. lim 2
x→−4 x→2 x→−1 x + 1
x2 − 6x + 5 x3 + 1 x2 − 9
6. lim 7. lim 2 8. lim 2
x→5 x−5 x→−1 x − 1 x→3 x − x − 6

4.3 One-Sided Limits

In our discussion of the limit of a function as the variable x approaches
a real numnber a, we are concerned with the values of x in an open interval
I containing a but not at a itself. Both values of x from the right and from
the left of a, which are close to a, are considered. The ordinary limit that
we defined is also called the two-sided limit. But, there are functions that are
not defined in any open interval containing a. Thus, we consider only either
those values of x greater then a or those values of x less than a. For example,
consider the function
√
f (x) = x − 2

Then f (x) is not defined if x < 2, which implies that f is not defined on any
open interval I containing 2. Thus,

lim f (x) has no meaning.

x→2
√
However, if we restrict values of x greater than 2, the value of x − 2 can be
made closer and closer to 0 as x gets closer and closer to 2 but greater than
2. In this case, as x approaches 2 from the right, the right-hand limit of f (x)
is 0. In symbols, we write
 14

lim f (x) = 0.
x→2+

Definition 4.3.1 (Right-Hand Limit) Let f be a function defined for all

x in some open interval (a, c). Then the limit of f (x) as x approaches a from
the right is L, written

lim f (x) = L,
x→a+

if for every  > 0, however small, there exists a δ > 0 such that

if 0 < x − a < δ, then |f (x) − L| < .

Definition 4.3.2 (Left-Hand Limit) Let f be a function defined for all x

in some open interval (b, a). Then the limit of f (x) as x approaches a from
the left is L, written

lim f (x) = L,
x→a−

if for every  > 0, however small, there exists a δ > 0 such that

if 0 < a − x < δ, then |f (x) − L| < .

Remark 4.3.3 The limit theorems discussed earlier hold if ”x → a” is replaced

by ”x → a+ ” or ”x → a− ”.
√
Example 4.3.4 Evaluate lim+ x − 2 if it exists.
x→2
√
Solution: Note that x − 2 is defined for all x ≥ 2.
By Theorem 4.2.3,

lim (x − 2) = 0.
x→2+

Then
q √
lim+ (x − 2) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→2

Therefore, by Theorem 4.2.15,

√ q
lim+ x − 2 = lim+ (x − 2) = 0. 
x→2 x→2
 15

√ √
Note : lim− x − 2 is not defined since x − 2 is not defined for all x < 2.
x→2
√
Example 4.3.5 Evaluate lim− 4 − x2 if it exists.
x→2
√
Solution: Note that 4 − x2 is defined for all x such that −2 ≤ x ≤ 2.
By Theorem 4.2.3,
lim (4 − x2 ) = 4 − (2)2 = 0.
x→2−

Then
q √
lim− (4 − x2 ) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→2

Therefore, by Theorem 4.2.15,

√ q
lim− 4 − x2 = lim− (4 − x2 ) = 0. 
x→2 x→2

√ √
Note : lim+ 4 − x2 is not defined since 4 − x2 is not defined for all x > 2.
x→2

1 − x2
Example 4.3.6 Evaluate lim − if it exists.
x→−1 1+x
Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,
lim − (1 − x2 ) = 1 − (−1)2 = 0 and lim − (1 + x) = 1 − 1 = 0.
x→−1 x→−1

If x 6= −1, then
1 − x2 (1 − x)(1 + x)
=
1+x 1+x
= 1 − x.
lim (1 − x) = 1 − (−1) = 2.
x→−1−

Therefore, by Theorem 4.2.25,

1 − x2
lim − = lim − (1 − x) = 2. 
x→−1 1+x x→−1

1 − x2
Example 4.3.7 Evaluate lim + if it exists.
x→−1 1+x
Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,
 16

lim + (1 − x2 ) = 1 − (−1)2 = 0 and lim + (1 + x) = 1 − 1 = 0.

x→−1 x→−1

If x 6= −1, then
1 − x2 (1 − x)(1 + x)
=
1+x 1+x
= 1 − x.
lim (1 − x) = 1 − (−1) = 2.
x→−1+

Therefore, by Theorem 4.2.25,

1 − x2
lim + = lim + (1 − x) = 2. 
x→−1 1+x x→−1

x−1
Example 4.3.8 Evaluate lim+ √ if it exists.
x→1 x−1
Solution: Note that √x−1 is defined for all x > 1.
x−1
By THeorem 4.2.3,
lim (x − 1) = 1 − 1 = 0.
x→1+

Then
q √
lim+ (x − 1) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→1

Hence, by Theorem 4.2.15,

√ q
lim+ x − 1 = lim+ (x − 1) = 0.
x→1 x→1

Since the limits of the numerator and denominator are both zero, we may
apply Theorem 4.2.25.

If x 6= 1, then
√
x−1 x−1 x−1
√ =√ ·√
x−1 x−1 x−1
√
(x − 1) x − 1
=
√ x−1
= x − 1.
√
Evaluate lim+ x − 1:
x→1

From the above solution, we have

 17

√
lim+ x − 1 = 0.
x→1

Therefore, by Theorem 4.2.25,

x−1 √
lim+ √ = lim+ x − 1 = 0. 
x→1 x − 1 x→1

x−1
Note : lim− √ is not defined since √x−1 is not defined for all x < 1.
x−1
x→1 x−1

Theorem 4.3.9 lim f (x) exists if and only if lim+ f (x) and lim− f (x) both
x→a x→a x→a
exist and are equal. Moreover,

lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = lim− f (x).

x→a x→a x→a

Example 4.3.10 Use Theorem 3.4.9 to find lim (x2 − 2) if it exists.

x→2

Solution: We evaluate the left-hand and right-hand limits.

lim (x2 − 2) = 22 − 2 = 2 and lim+ (x2 − 2) = 22 − 2 = 2.

x→2− x→2

Thus,

lim (x2 − 2) = lim+ (x2 − 2).

x→2− x→2

Therefore, by Theorem 4.3.9,

lim (x2 − 2x + 2) exists and lim (x2 − 2x + 2) = 2. 

x→2 x→2

√
Example 4.3.11 Evaluate lim x − 2 if it exists.
x→2

Solution: By Example 4.3.4,

√
lim+ x−2=0
x→2

but
√
lim− x − 2 is not defined.
x→2
 18

Thus,
√ √
lim+ x − 2 6= lim− x − 2.
x→2 x→2

Therefore, by Theorem 4.3.9,

√
lim x − 2 does not exist. 
x→2

Example 4.3.12 Let

(
2x2 , if x < 1
f (x) =
3 − x, if 1 ≤ x.

Find lim f (x) if it exists.

x→1

Solution: We evaluate the left-hand and right-hand limits of f (x) at a = 1.

If x < 1, then f (x) = 2x2 . Thus,

lim− f (x) = lim− (2x2 ) = 2(1)2 = 2.
x→1 x→1

If 1 ≤ x, then f (x) = 3 − x. Thus,

lim f (x) = lim+ (3 − x) = 3 − 1 = 2.
x→1+ x→1

Hence,
lim f (x) = lim+ f (x).
x→1− x→1

Therefore, by Theorem 4.3.9,

lim f (x) exists and lim f (x) = 2. 
x→1 x→1

Example 4.3.13 Let

(
x + 3, if x ≤ −3
f (x) =
3 − x, if −3 < x.

Find lim f (x) if it exists.

x→−3

Solution: We evaluate the left-hand and right-hand limits of f (x) at a = −3.

If x ≤ −3, then f (x) = x. Thus,

 19

lim f (x) = lim − (x + 3) = −3 + 3 = 0.

x→−3− x→−3

If −3 < x, then f (x) = 3 − x. Thus,

lim (3 − x) = 3 − (−3) = 6.
x→−3+

Hence,
lim f (x) 6= lim + f (x).
x→−3− x→−3

Therefore, by Theorem 4.3.9,

lim f (x) does not exist in R.
x→−3

Sample Problem 4.3.14 Evaluate the following limits. When appropriate,

indicate√the limit theorems being
√ applied: √
2
1. lim+ x − 1 2. lim− 1 − x2 3. lim − (x + x2 − 1)
x→1 x→1 x→−1
√ x−4 4−x
4. lim + 1 − x 2 5. lim+ √ 6. lim− √
x→−1 x→4 x−4 x→4 4−x
2 2
x+1 x − 2x x − 5x + 6
7. lim − 8. lim− 2 9. lim+
x→−1 x − 1 x→0 x − 3x x→3 x−3
Sample Problem 4.3.15 Find the limit of the function if it exists. If the
limit does not exist, state the reason.
x+1 √
1. lim 2. lim x2 − 1
x→−1 x − 1 x→1
√ x−4
3. lim 1 − x 2 4. lim √
x→−1 x→4 x−4
(
x + 4, if x ≤ −4
5. f (x) = ; find lim f (x).
4 − x, if −4 < x x→0
(
3 + t2 , if t < −2
6. f (t) = ; find lim f (t).
11 − t2 , if −2 ≤ t t→−2

x + 2, if x < −1

7. f (x) = x2 , if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 ; find lim f (x).
 x→−1
2 − x, if 1 < x

(
x + 1, if x ≤ −1
8. f (x) = ; find lim f (x).
1, if −1 < x x→−1
 1

CHAPTER 5
INFINITE LIMITS AND LIMITS AT INFINITY

Learning Outcomes of the Chapter

At the end of the chapter, the student must be able to:
1. determine whether the function increases or decreases without bound.
2. apply the theorems to determine whether the function increases or decreases
without bound.
3. evaluate limit of a function at infinity.
4. apply the theorems to evaluate limit of a function at infinity.

5.1 Infinite Limits

In this section ,we will discuss functions whose values increases without
bound or decreases withour bound as the independent variable gets closer and
closer to real number.

Definition 5.1.1 Let f be a function defined for all x in some open interval
I containing the real number a, except possibly at a itself. We say that f (x)
increases without bound as x approaches a, written
lim f (x) = +∞,
x→a

if for every real number K > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that
if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then f (x) > K.

Remark 5.1.2 lim f (x) = +∞ can also be read as ”the limit of f (x), as x
x→a
approaches a, is positive infinity”. The one sided limits lim+ f (x) = +∞ and
x→a
lim− f (x) = +∞, can be defined accordingly.
x→a

1
Example 5.1.3 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = 2 and a = 0.
x
Determine whether the limit is +∞ or −∞.

Solution: The function f is defined for all real numbers x on every open interval
containing a = 0 except at a = 0. Let us investigate the value f (x) when x
gets closer and closer to 0 but not equal to 0.
 2

x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 −0.00001

f (x) 100 104 106 108 1010

As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the left, the value f (x) increases
without bound.
x 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
f (x) 1010 108 106 104 100

As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the right, the value f (x) increases
without bound.

Hence, f (x) increases without bound as x approaches 0. Therefore,

lim f (x) = +∞. 

x→0

Note that the symbol +∞ is not a symbol for a real number. Thus, the
symbol lim f (x) = +∞ can be read as ”the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is
x→a
positive infinity.” This means that the limit of the function as x approaches
a does not exist in the set R. The symbol lim f (x) = +∞ indicates that the
x→a
behavior of a function values increases without bound as x gets closer and
closer to a.
In a similar manner, we can indicate the behavior of a function whose
function values decrease without bound.

Definition 5.1.4 Let f be a function defined for all x in some open interval
I containing the real number a, except possibly at a itself. We say that f (x)
decreases without bound as x approaches a, written

lim f (x) = −∞,

x→a

if for every real number K < 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that

if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then f (x) < K.

Remark 5.1.5 lim f (x) = −∞ can also be read as ”the limit of f (x), as x
x→a
approaches a, is negative infinity”. The one sided limits lim+ f (x) = −∞ and
x→a
lim− f (x) = −∞, can be defined accordingly.
x→a
 3

−1
Remark 5.1.6 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = 2 and a = 0.
x
Determine whether the limit is +∞ or −∞.

Solution: The function f is defined for all real numbers x on every open interval
containing a = 0 except at a = 0. Let us investigate the value f (x) when x
gets closer and closer to 0 but not equal to 0.
x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 −0.00001
f (x) −100 −104 −106 −108 −1010

As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the left, the value f (x) decreases
without bound.
x 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
f (x) −1010 −108 −106 −104 −100

As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the right, the value f (x) decreases
without bound.

Hence, f (x) decreases without bound as x approaches 0. Therefore,

lim f (x) = −∞. 

x→0

Theorem 5.1.7 If r is any positive integer, then

1
(i) lim+ r = +∞;
x→0 x
1
(ii) lim− r = +∞, if r is even;
x→0 x
1
(iii) lim− r = −∞, if r is odd;
x→0 x
1
(iv) lim r = +∞, if r is even.
x→0 x

Example 5.1.8 Applying 5.1.7, we have

1 1
1. lim+ = +∞. 2. lim = −∞.
x→0 x x→0 x
1 1
3. lim+ 4 = +∞. 4. lim− 4 = +∞.
x→0 x x→0 x
1 1
5. lim+ 5 = +∞. 6. lim− 5 = −∞.
x→0 x x→0 x
 4

1 1
7. lim+ = +∞. 8. lim− = +∞.
x→0 x6 x→0 x6
1 1
9.lim 2 = +∞. 10. lim 4 = +∞.
x→0 x x→0 x

Theorem 5.1.9 If a is a real number, and if lim g(x) = 0 and lim f (x) = c,
x→a x→a
where c is a constant not equal to zero, then
(i) if lim f (x) = c > 0 and if g(x) → 0 through positive values of g(x), then
x→a

f (x)
lim = +∞;
x→a g(x)

(ii) if lim f (x) = c > 0 and if g(x) → 0 through negative values of g(x), then
x→a

f (x)
lim = −∞;
x→a g(x)

(iii) if lim f (x) = c < 0 and if g(x) → 0 through positive values of g(x), then
x→a

f (x)
lim = −∞;
x→a g(x)
(iv) if lim f (x) = c < 0 and if g(x) → 0 through negative values of g(x), then
x→a

f (x)
lim = +∞.
x→a g(x)

Remark 5.1.10 Theorem 3.5.9 is true if ”x → a” is replaced by ”x → a+ ” or

”x → a− ”.
x+2
Example 5.1.11 Evaluate lim+ .
x→2 x−2
Solution: lim+ (x + 2) = 4 and lim+ (x − 2) = 0.
x→2 x→2
x+2
Thus, lim+ does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→2 x−2
Since x → 2+ , consider a real number x > 2 but closer to 2.
Let x = 2.1 and substitute to x − 2:

2.1 − 2 = 0.1 > 0.

 5

Hence,

lim (x + 2) > 0 and (x − 2) → 0 through positive values.

x→2+

Therefore, by 5.1.9(i),
x+2
lim+ = +∞. 
x→2 x−2

x+2
Example 5.1.12 Evaluate lim− .
x→2 x−2
Solution: lim− (x + 2) = 4 and lim− (x − 2) = 0.
x→2 x→2
x+2
Thus, lim− does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→2 x − 2

Since x → 2− , consider a real number x < 2 but closer to 2.

Let x = 1.9 and substitute to x − 2:

1.9 − 2 = −0.1 < 0.

Hence,

lim (x + 2) > 0 and (x − 2) → 0 through negative values.

x→2−

Therefore, by 5.1.9(ii),
x+2
lim− = −∞. 
x→2 x−2

x−1
Example 5.1.13 Evaluate lim− .
x→0 x2 + x
Solution: lim− (x − 1) = −1 and lim− x2 + x = 0.
x→0 x→0
x−1
Thus, lim− does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→0 x2 + x
Since x → 0− , consider a real number x < 0 but closer to 0.
Let x = −0.1 and substitute to x2 + x

(−0.1)2 + (−0.1) = −0.09 < 0.

Hence,
 6

lim (x − 1) < 0 and (x2 + x) → 0 through negative values.

x→0−

Therefore, by 5.1.9(iv),
x−1
lim− = +∞. 
x→2 x2 + x

−3x
Example 5.1.14 Evaluate lim− .
x→2 2−x
Solution:

lim (−3x) = −6 and lim− (2 − x) = 0.

x→2− x→2

−3x
Thus, lim− does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→2 2−x
Since x → 2− , consider a real number x < 2 but closer to 2.
Let x = 1.9 and substitute to 2 − x:

2 − 1.9 = 0.1 > 0.

Hence,

lim (−3x) < 0 and (2 − x) → 0 through positive values.

x→2−

Therefore, by 5.1.9(iii),
−3x
lim− = −∞. 
x→2 2−x

Sample Problem 5.1.15 Evaluate the following limits. When appropriate,

indicate the limit theorems being applied:
3x −3x
1. lim+ 2. lim−
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x − 1
x−4 x−4
3. lim − 4. lim + 2
x→−3 x + 3 x→−3 x − 4
x−1 x−1
5. lim− 2 6. lim + 2
x→2 x − 4 x→−2 x − 4
 7

Theorem 5.1.16 (i) If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = c, where c is a real
x→a x→a
number, then
lim [f (x) + g(x)] = +∞.
x→a

(ii) If lim f (x) = −∞ and lim g(x) = c, where c is a real number, then
x→a x→a

lim [f (x) + g(x)] = −∞.

x→a

Remark 5.1.17 Theorem 5.1.16 is true if ”x → a” is replaced by ”x → a+ ”

or ”x → a− ”.
 
x
Example 5.1.18 Apply Theorem 5.1.16 to evaluate lim+ + (3x + 4) .
x→1 x−1
1
Solution: (1) Evaluate lim+ .
x→1 x − 1

lim x = 1 and lim+ (x − 1) = 0.

x→1+ x→1

1
Thus, lim+ does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→1 x−1
Since x → 1+ , consider a real number x > 1 but closer to 1.
Let x = 1.1. Then substitute to x − 1:
1.1 − 1 = 0.1 > 0.
Hence,
lim 1 > 0 and (x − 1) → 0 through positive values.
x→1+

By Theorem 5.1.9,
1
lim+ = +∞.
x→1 x−1
(2) Evaluate lim+ (3x + 4).
x→1

lim (3x + 4) = 3(1) + 4 = 7.

x→1+

Therefore, by Theorem 5.1.16(i),

 
1
lim + (3x + 4) = +∞. 
x→1+ x − 1
 8
 
−3x 2
Example 5.1.19 Apply Theorem 5.1.16 to evaluate lim− + (x + 5) .
x→2 2−x
−3x
Solution: (1) Evaluate lim− .
x→2 2 − x

lim− (−3x) = −6 and lim− (2 − x) = 0.

x→2 x→2

−3x
Thus, lim− does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→2 2−x
Since x → 2− , consider a real number x < 2 but closer to 2.
Let x = 1.9. Then substitute to 2 − x:
2 − 1.9 = 0.1 > 0.
Hence,
lim (−3x) < 0 and (2 − x) → 0 through positive values.
x→2−

By Theorem 5.1.9,
−3x
lim− = −∞.
x→2 2−x
2
(2) Evaluate lim− (x + 5).
x→2

lim (x2 + 5) = (2)2 + 5 = 9.

x→2−

Therefore, by Theorem 5.1.16(ii),

 
−3x 2
lim + (x + 5) = −∞. 
x→2− 2 − x

Theorem 5.1.20 If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = c, where c is a nonzero

x→a x→a
real number, then
(i) if lim g(x) = c > 0, then lim [f (x) · g(x)] = +∞.
x→a x→a
(ii) if lim g(x) = c < 0, then lim [f (x) · g(x)] = −∞.
x→a x→a

Remark 5.1.21 Theorem 5.1.20 is true if ”x → a” is replaced by ”x → a+ ”

or ”x → a− ”.
 
2x + 1 2
Example 5.1.22 Apply Theorem 5.1.20 to evaluate lim+ 2 · (x + 3x + 4) .
x→1 x − 2x + 1
2x + 1
Solution: (1) Evaluate lim+ 2 .
x→1 x − 2x + 1
 9

lim+ (2x + 1) = 3 and lim+ (x2 − 2x + 1) = 0.

x→1 x→1

2x + 1
Thus, lim+ 2 does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or
x→1 x − 2x + 1
−∞.

Since x → 1+ , consider a real number x > 1 but closer to 1.

Let x = 1.1. Then substitute to x2 − 2x + 1:

(1.1)2 − 2(1.1) + 1 = 0.01 > 0.

Hence,

lim (2x + 1) > 0 and (x2 − 2x + 1) → 0 through positive values.

x→1+

By Theorem 5.1.9,
2x + 1
lim+ = +∞.
x→1 x2 − 2x + 1
(2) Evaluate lim+ (x2 + 3x + 4).
x→1

lim+ (x2 + 3x + 4) = (1)2 + 3(1) + 4 = 8.

x→1

Therefore, by Theorem 5.1.20(i),

 
2x + 1 2
lim · (x + 3x + 4) = +∞. 
x→1+ x2 − 2x + 1

 
3x x−4
Example 5.1.23 Apply Theorem 5.1.20 to evaluate lim+ · .
x→2 2x − 4 x + 1
3x
Solution: (1) Evaluate lim+ .
x→2 2x − 4

lim (3x) = 6 and lim+ (2x − 4) = 0.

x→2+ x→2

3x
Thus, lim+ does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→2 2x − 4
Since x → 2+ , consider a real number x > 2 but closer to 2.
Let x = 2.1. Then substitute to 2x − 4:

2(2.1) − 4 = 0.2 > 0.

 10

Hence,
lim (3x) > 0 and (2x − 4) → 0 through positive values.
x→2+

By Theorem 5.1.9,
3x
lim+ = +∞.
x→2 2x − 4
x−4
(2) Evaluate lim+ .
x→2 x+1
lim (x − 4) = −2 and lim+ (x + 1) = 2.
x→2+ x→2

By the Limit of the Quotient,

x−4 −2
lim+ = = −1 < 0.
x→2 x+1 2
Therefore, by Theorem 5.1.20(ii),
 
3x x−4
lim · = −∞. 
x→2+ 2x − 4 x + 1

Theorem 5.1.24 If lim f (x) = −∞ and lim g(x) = c, where c is a nonzero

x→a x→a
real number, then
(i) if lim g(x) = c > 0, then lim [f (x) · g(x)] = −∞.
x→a x→a
(ii) if lim g(x) = c < 0, then lim [f (x) · g(x)] = +∞.
x→a x→a

Remark 5.1.25 Theorem 5.1.24 is true if ”x → a” is replaced by ”x → a+ ”

or ”x → a− ”.
 
1 − 2x 3x + 4
Example 5.1.26 Apply Theorem 5.1.24 to evaluate lim − · .
x→−1 1 − x2 x + 5
1 − 2x
Solution: (1) Evaluate lim − .
x→−1 1 − x2

lim (1 − 2x) = 3 and lim − (1 − x2 ) = 0.

x→−1− x→−1

1 − 2x
Thus, lim − does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→−1 1 − x2
Since x → −1− , consider a real number x < −1 but closer to −1.
Let x = −1.1. Then substitute to 1 − x2 :
 11

1 − (−1.1)2 = −0.21 < 0.

Hence,

lim (1 − 2x) > 0 and (1 − x2 ) → 0 through negative values.

x→−1−

By Theorem 5.1.9,
1 − 2x
lim − = −∞.
x→−1 1 − x2
3x + 4
(2) Evaluate lim − .
x→−1 x+5
lim (3x + 4) = 1 and lim − (x + 5) = 4.
x→−1− x→−1

By the Limit of the Quotient,

3x + 4 1
lim − = > 0.
x→−1 x+5 4
Therefore, by Theorem 5.1.24(i),
 
1 − 2x 3x + 4
lim · = −∞. 
x→−1− 1 − x2 x+5

 
−3x
Example 5.1.27 Apply Theorem 5.1.24 to evaluate lim − · (x + 3) .
x→−2 x3 + 8
−3x
Solution: (1) Evaluate lim − .
x→−2 x3 + 8
lim (−3x) = 6 and lim − (x3 + 8) = 0.
x→−2− x→−2

−3x
Thus, lim − does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→−2 x3 + 8
Since x → −2− , consider a real number x < −2 but closer to −2.
Let x = −2.1. Then substitute to x3 + 8:

(−2.1)3 + 8 = −1.261 < 0.

Hence,

lim (−3x) > 0 and (x3 + 8) → 0 through negative values.

x→−2−
 12

By Theorem 5.1.9,
−3x
lim − = −∞.
x→−2 x3 + 8
(2) Evaluate lim − (x + 3).
x→−2

lim (x + 3) = 1.
x→−2−

Therefore, by Theorem 5.1.24(ii),

 
−3x x − 4
lim · = +∞. 
x→−2− x3 + 8 x + 3

Sample Problem 5.1.28 Evaluate the following limits. When appropriate,

indicate the limit theorems being applied:
  
x+3 2 x−4 6x
1. lim − + (x − 2x + 4) 2. lim+ +
x→−2
 x+2  x→2 x − 2 5x +4
3x + 1 x x − 5
3. lim+ · (2x2 + 5) 4. lim+ ·
x→4
 x − 4  x→3
 2x − 6 2x + 1
2x + 1 x + 4 −2x x
5. lim − · 6. lim + ·
x→−1 x+1 x+2 x→−2 x+2 x+3

5.2 Limits at Infinity

In this section, we consider limits of functions when the independent
variable either increases or decreases without bound.

x2
Example 5.2.1 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . We investigate
x2 + 1
the function values as x increases without bound. Consider the table below.
x 10 102 103 104 105
f (x) .99 .9999 .999999 .99999999 .999999999

As x increases without bound, f (x) gets closer and closer to 1. In this

case, we write
x2
lim f (x) = lim = 1.
x→+∞ x→+∞ x2 + 1
 13

x2
Example 5.2.2 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . We investigate
x2 + 1
the function values as x decreases without bound. Consider the table below.
x −10 −102 −103 −104 −105
f (x) .99 .9999 .999999 .99999999 .999999999
As x decreases without bound, f (x) gets closer and closer to 1. In this
case, we write
x2
lim f (x) = lim = 1.
x→−∞ x→−∞ x2 + 1

Definition 5.2.3 Let f be a function defined at every real number in some

open interval (a, +∞). The limit of f (x) as x increases without bound , is L,
written
lim f (x) = L,
x→+∞

if for every  > 0, there exists a real number N > 0 such that
if x > N , then |f (x) − L| < .

Definition 5.2.4 Let f be a function defined at every real number in some

open interval (−∞, a). The limit of f (x) as x decreases without bound , is L,
written
lim f (x) = L.
x→−∞

if for every  > 0, there exists a real number N < 0 such that
if x < N , then |f (x) − L| < .

Theorem 5.2.5 If r is a positive integer and c is any real number, then

c c
(i) lim r = 0 and (ii) lim r = 0.
x→+∞ x x→−∞ x

Remark 5.2.6 Theorem 5.2.5 is still valid if x → a is replaced by x → +∞

or x → −∞.
x2 + 2
Example 5.2.7 Evaluate lim .
x→+∞ x2 + 1

Solution: Divide the numerator and the denominator by x2 (x2 is the highest
power of x occuring in either the numerator or the denominator). For x > 0,
 14

x2 + 2 2
x 2 1+
= x2 = x2 .
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 1
1+
x2 x2
By Theorem 5.2.5(i),
2 1
lim = 0 and lim = 0.
x→+∞ x2 x→+∞ x2
Hence,
2
 
1+ 2 1+0
lim 
 x  = = 1.
x→+∞ 1 
1+0
1+ 2
x
Therefore,
2
 
x2 + 2 1+ 2
lim 2 = lim 
 x  = 1. 
x→+∞ x + 1 x→+∞ 1 
1+ 2
x

3x2 + 5
Example 5.2.8 Evaluate lim 3 .
x→−∞ x − 4x

Solution: Divide the numerator and denominator by x3 . For x < 0,

3x2 + 5 3 5
3x + 52
3
+ 3
= 3x = x x .
3
x − 4x x − 4x 4
1− 2
x3 x
By Theorem 5.2.5(ii),
3 5 4
lim = 0, lim = 0, and lim = 0.
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x3 x→−∞ x2

Hence,
3 5
 
+ 3
 0+0
lim  x x  = = 0.

x→−∞ 4 1−0
1− 2
x
Therefore,
 15

3 5
 
3x2 + 5 + 3
lim 3 = lim  x x  = 0. 
 
x→−∞ x − 4x x→−∞ 4
1− 2
x

2x − 3x2
Example 5.2.9 Evaluate lim .
x→+∞ 4x + 5

Solution: Divide the numerator and denominator by x2 . For x > 0,

2x − 3x2 2
2x − 3x2 2
−3
= x = x .
4x + 5 4x + 5 4 5
+
x2 x x2
By Theorem 5.2.5(i),
2 4 5
lim = 0, lim = 0, and lim = 0.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x x→+∞ x2

Then
 
2
lim − 3 = 0 − 3 = −3
x→+∞ x
and
 
4 5
lim + 2 = 0 + 0 = 0.
x→+∞ x x
2
 
−3
Thus, lim  x does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or
 
x→+∞ 4 5 
+ 2
x x
−∞.

Since x → +∞, consider a very large positive real number x. Let x = 103 .
Then
4 5
3
+ > 0.
10 (103 )2
Hence,
   
2 4 5
lim − 3 < 0 and + → 0 through positive values.
x→+∞ x x x2
 16

By Theorem 5.1.9(iii),
2
 
−3
lim  x = −∞.
 
x→+∞ 4 5 
+
x x2
Therefore,
2

2x − 3x2 − 3
lim = lim  x = −∞. 
 
x→+∞ 4x + 5 x→+∞ 4 5 
+ 2
x x

2x − 3x2
Example 5.2.10 Evaluate lim .
x→−∞ 4x + 5

Solution: Divide the numerator and denominator by x2 . For x < 0,

2x − 3x2 2
2x − 3x 2
2
−3
= x = x .
4x + 5 4x + 5 4 5
+
x2 x x2
By Theorem 5.2.5(ii),
2 4 5
lim = 0, lim = 0, and lim = 0.
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x x→−∞ x2
Then
 
2
lim − 3 = 0 − 3 = −3
x→−∞ x
and
 
4 5
lim + 2 = 0 + 0 = 0.
x→−∞ x x
2
 
−3
Thus, lim  x does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or
 
x→−∞ 4 5 
+
x x2
−∞.

Since x → −∞, consider a very small negative real number x. Let x = −104 .
Then
 17

4 5 4 5
4
+ 4 2
= − 4 + 6 < 0.
−10 (−10 ) 10 10
Hence,
   
2 4 5
lim − 3 < 0 and + → 0 through negative values.
x→−∞ x x x2
By Theorem 5.1.9(iv),
2
 
−3
lim  x = +∞.
 
x→−∞ 4 5 
+
x x2
Therefore,
2
 
2x − 3x2 −3
lim = lim  x = +∞. 
 
x→−∞ 4x + 5 x→−∞ 4 5 
+
x x2

Sample Problem 5.2.11 Evaluate the following limits. When appropriate,

indicate the limit theorems being applied:
6x − 4 x2 + 5 2x2 − 3x
1. lim 2. lim 3 3. lim
x→−∞ 3x + 1 x→+∞ x − 2x + 4 x→+∞ x + 5
3 3
5x + 7 5x + 7 x2 + 2
4. lim 5. lim 6. lim
x→−∞ 4x2 + 1 x→+∞ 4x2 + 1 x→+∞ x + 2
2 2
x +2 x +2 x3
7. lim 8. lim 9. lim 2
x→+∞ x3 x→−∞ x3 x→+∞ x + 2
 1

CHAPTER 6
CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

Learning Outcomes of the Chapter

At the end of the chapter, the student must be able to:
1. show that a function is continuous or not continuous at a real number.
2. find the open interval at which the function is continuous.
3. show that a function is continuous on a closed interval.
4. verify that the Intermediate Value Theorem holds for a function on a closed
interval.

6.1 Continuity of a Function at a Real Number

In our discussion of the limit of a function, we pointed out that if
lim f (x) exists, its value is not necessarily equal to f (a), the value of the
x→a
function at the real number a. In fact, f (a) may be undefined. If both f (a)
and lim f (x) exists and are equal, then f is continuous at a. We state the
x→a
following definition.

Definition 6.1.1 The function f is said to be continuous at the real number

a if the following three conditions are satisfied
(i) f (a) exists;
(ii) lim f (x) exists;
x→a
(iii) lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a

If one or more of these three conditions fails to hold at a, then the

function is said to be discontinuous at a. Geometrically, a function f is
discontinuous at a real number a if there a break or cut in the graph of y = f (x)
at x = a.

If f is discontinuous at a real number a but lim f (x) exists, then it is

x→a
called a removable discontinuity. If f is discontinuous at a real number a
such that lim f (x) does no exist, then it is called an essential discontinuity.
x→a

Example 6.1.2 Determine if the function f (x) = x2 +2 is continuous at x = 2.

 2

Solution:
(i) f (2) = (2)2 + 2 = 6.
(ii) lim (x2 + 2) = (2)2 + 2 = 6.
x→2
(iii) lim (x2 + 2) = f (2).
x→2
Therefore, f is continuous at x = 2. 

x
Example 6.1.3 Determine whether or not the function f (x) = is
x−2
continuous at x = 2. If it is discontinuous at x = 2, determine if the
discontinuity is removable or essential.

Solution:
2 2
(i) f (2) = = . Hence, f (2) is not defined.
2−2 0
Therefore, f is discontinuous at x = 2.
x
(ii) Evaluate lim .
x→2 x − 2

lim x = 2 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.

x→2 x→2

x
Hence, lim does not exist in R.
x→2 x − 2

Therefore, the discontinuity is essential. 

x2 − 4
Example 6.1.4 Determine if the function f (x) = is continuous at
x−2
x = 2. If it is discontinuous at x = 2, determine if the discontinuity is
removable or essential.

Solution:
22 − 4 0
(i) f (2) = = . Hence, f (2) is not defined.
2−2 0
Therefore, f is discontinuous at x = 2.

x2 − 4
(ii) Evaluate lim .
x→2 x − 2

lim (x2 − 4) = 22 − 4 = 0 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.

x→2 x→2

If x 6= 2, then
 3

x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
= = x + 2.
x−2 x−2
We have

lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4.
x→2

Hence,
x2 − 4
lim = lim (x + 2) = 4.
x→2 x − 2 x→2

Therefore, the discontinuity is removable. 

Example 6.1.5 Determine if the function

(
x − 1, if x < 1
f (x) =
1 − x2 , if 1 ≤ x

is continuous at x = 1. If it is discontinuous at x = 1, determine if the

discontinuity is removable or essential.

Solution:
(i) If 1 ≤ x ,then f (x) = 1 − x2 . Thus, f (1) = 1 − (1)2 = 0.

(ii) Evaluate lim f (x).

x→1
If x < 1, then f (x) = x − 1. Thus,

lim f (x) = lim− (x − 1) = 1 − 1 = 0.

x→1− x→1

If 1 ≤ x, then f (x) = 1 − x2 . Thus,

lim+ f (x) = lim+ (1 − x2 ) = 1 − (1)2 = 0.

x→1 x→1

Hence, lim f (x) = 0.

x→1

(iii) lim f (x) = f (1).

x→1

Therefore, f is continuous at x = 1. 

Example 6.1.6 Determine if the function

 4
(
4 − x2 , if x 6= 2
f (x) =
1, if x = 2
is continuous at x = −2. If it is discontinuous, determine if the discontinuity
is removable or essential.

Solution:
(i) If x = 2, then f (2) = 1.

(ii) Evaluate lim f (x).

x→2
If x < 2, then f (x) = 4 − x2 . Thus,
lim f (x) = lim− (4 − x2 ) = 4 − (2)2 = 0.
x→2− x→2

If 2 < x, then f (x) = 4 − x2 . Thus,

lim f (x) = lim+ (4 − x2 ) = 4 − (2)2 = 0.
x→2+ x→2

Hence, lim f (x) = 0.

x→2

(iii) lim f (x) 6= f (2).

x→2

Therefore, f is discontinuous at x = 2. The discontinuity is removable. 

Sample Problem 6.1.7 Determine if the given function is continuous at an

indicated number a. If it is discontinuous, determine if the discontinuity is
removable or essential.
(
x − 2, if x 6= 4
1. f (x) = ; at x = 4.
2, if x = 4
(
x − 1, if x < 1
2. f (x) = ; at x = 1.
1 − x, if 1 ≤ x
(
5 + x, if x ≤ −3
3. f (x) = ; at x = −3.
5 − x, if −3 < x
x2 − 1
4. f (x) = ; at x = 1.
x+1
x2 + 4x + 3
5. f (x) = ; at x = −3.
x+3
 5

x+1
6. f (x) = ; at x = 5.
x−5

6.2 Continuity of a Function at an Interval

Theorem 6.2.1 A polynomial function is continuous at every real number.

Example 6.2.2 Let f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 1. Then f (x) is continuous at every

real number.

Theorem 6.2.3 A rational function is continuous at every real number in its

domain.

x3 + 4
Example 6.2.4 Let f (x) = . Determine the real numbers at which the
x−3
function is continuous.

Solution: The function f is continuous in its domain

x3 + 4
 
D(f ) = x ∈ R : y = ∈R
x−3
= {x ∈ R : x − 3 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 3}
= (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).

Therefore, f is continuous at all real numbers on the interval (−∞, 3) ∪

(3, +∞). 

x+1
Example 6.2.5 Let f (x) = . Determine the real numbers at which
x2 − 16
the function is continuous.
 6

Solution: The function is continuous in its domain

 
x+1
D(f ) = x ∈ R : y = 2 ∈R
x − 16
= {x ∈ R : x2 − 16 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 4)(x − 4) 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= −4 and x 6= 4}
= (−∞, −4) ∪ (−4, 4) ∪ (4, +∞).

Therefore, f is continuous at all real numbers on the interval (−∞, −4) ∪

(−4, 4) ∪ (4, +∞). 

√
Theorem 6.2.6 Let n be a positive integer and f (x) = n x.
(i) If n is odd, then f is continuous at every real number.
(ii) If n is even, then f is continuous at every positive real number.

√3
Example 6.2.7 √ 1. If f (x) = x, then f is continuous at every real number.
2. If f (x) = √x, then f is continuous at every positive real number.
5
3. If f (x) = √ x, then f is continuous at every real number.
4
4. If f (x) = x, then f is continuous at every positive real number.

Theorem 6.2.8 (Continuity of a Composite Function) Let f and g be

functions such that g is continuous at a real number a and f is continuous at
g(a). Then the composite function f ◦ g is continuous at a.

√
Example 6.2.9 Let f (x) = 2x − 6. Determine the real numbers at which
the function is continuous.

Solution: The function f is continuous on the set

S = {x ∈ R : 2x − 6 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : 2x > 6}
= {x ∈ R : x > 3}
= (3, +∞).
√
Therefore, f (x) = 2x − 6 is continuous on the interval (3, +∞). 
 7

√
Example 6.2.10 Let f (x) = x2 − 4. Determine the real numbers at which
the function is continuous.

Solution: The function f is continuous on the set

S = {x ∈ R : x2 − 4 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 2)(x − 2) > 0}
= (−∞, −2) ∪ (2, +∞).
√
Therefore, f (x) = x2 − 4 is continuous on the interval (−∞, −2) ∪ (2, +∞).


Sample Problem 6.2.11 Determine the real numbers at which the given
function is continuous. r
2 x+2 x
1. f (x) = 2. f (x) = 2 2. f (x) =
x+5 x −5 x −r2
√ √ x+3
4. f (x) = x2 − 25 5. f (x) = 9 − x2 6. f (x) =
x−4
x2 − 2 √ 1
7. f (x) = 8. f (x) = x2 − 2x − 8 9. f (x) = √
x−7 x+3

6.3 Continuity of a Function on an Open Interval

Definition 6.3.1 A function is said to be continuous on an open interval if it

is continuous at every real number in the open interval.

Example 6.3.2 Let f (x) = x3 + 2x2 − 3x + 4. Determine the open interval

on which the function is continuous.

Solution: The function f is a polynomial function. Thus, f is continuous

at every real numbers R. Therefore, f is continuous on the open interval
(−∞, +∞). 

x+2
Example 6.3.3 Let f (x) = . Determine the open interval on which the
x−3
function is continuous.
 8

x+2
Solution: The function f (x) = is a rational function. Thus, f is
x−3
continuous on its domain
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : x − 3 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 3}
= (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).

Therefore, f is continuous on the open interval (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, +∞). 

x
Example 6.3.4 Let f (x) = . Determine the open interval on which
x2 −9
the function is continuous.
x
Solution: The function f (x) = is a rational function. Thus, f is
x2 −9
continuous on its domain
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : x2 − 9 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 3)(x − 3) 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= −3 and x 6= 3}
= (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).

Therefore, f is continuous on the open interval (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).


√
Example 6.3.5 Let f (x) = 1 − x2 . Determine the open interval for which
the function is continuous.
√
Solution: The function f (x) = 1 − x2 is continuous on the set

S = {x ∈ R : 1 − x2 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : x2 − 1 < 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 1)(x − 1) < 0}
= (−1, 1).

Therefore, f is continuous on the open interval (−1, 1). 

√
Example 6.3.6 Let f (x) = x2 − x − 6. Determine the open interval for
which the function is continuous.
 9

√
Solution: The function f (x) = x2 − x − 6 is continuous on the set

S = {x ∈ R : x2 − x − 6 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 2)(x − 3) > 0}
= (−∞, −2) ∪ (3, +∞).

Therefore, f is continuous on the open interval (−∞, −2) ∪ (3, +∞). 

r
x−3
Example 6.3.7 Let f (x) = . Determine the open interval for which
x−5
the function is continuous.
r
x−3
Solution: The function f (x) = is continuous on the set
x−5
 
x−3
S= x∈R: >0
x−5
= (−∞, 3) ∪ (5, +∞).

Therefore, f is continuous on the open interval (−∞, 3) ∪ (5, +∞). 

Sample Problem 6.3.8 Determine the open interval for which the function
is continuous.
1 x √
1. f (x) = 2. f (x) = 2 3. f (x) = x − 5
x−5 x − 5x + 4
√ √
r
x+1
4. f (x) = x2 − 25 5. f (x) = x2 + 2x − 8 6. f (x) =
x−3

x+2
Example 6.3.9 Let f (x) = . Determine whether or not the function is
x−3
continuous on the indicated open interval.
1. (3, +∞) 2. (−∞, 3) 3. (0, +∞).
x+2
Solution: f (x) = is continuous on the set
x−3
S = {x ∈ R : x − 3 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 3}
= (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).
 10

Hence, f is continuous on the open interval (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).

1. (3, +∞) ⊆ (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, +∞). Therefore, f is continuous on the open

interval (3, +∞).

2. (−∞, 3) ⊆ (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, +∞). Therefore, f is continuous on the open

interval (−∞, 3).

3. (0, +∞) * (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, +∞). Therefore, f is discontinuous on the open

interval (0, +∞). 

√
Example 6.3.10 Let f (x) = x − 4. Determine whether or not the function
is continuous on the indicated open interval:
1. (4, 10), 2. (6, +∞), 3. (0, +∞).
√
Solution: The function f (x) = x − 4 is continuous on the set
S = {x ∈ R : x − 4 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : x > 4}
= (4, +∞).
Hence, f is continuous on the open interval (4, +∞).

1. (0, 4) * (4, +∞). Therefore, f is discontinuous on the open interval (0, 4).

2. (6, +∞) ⊆ (4, +∞). Therefore, f is continuous on the open interval

(6, +∞).

3. (0, +∞) 6⊆ (4, +∞). Therefore, f is discontinuous on the open interval

(0, +∞). 
√
Example 6.3.11 Let f (x) = x2 − 9. Determine whether or not the function
is continuous on the indicated open interval:
1. (−∞, −3), 2. (0, +∞), 3. (9, +∞).
√
Solution: The function f (x) = x2 − 9 is continuous on the set
S = x ∈ R : x2 − 9 > 0


= {x ∈ R : (x + 3)(x − 3) > 0}
= (−∞, −3) ∪ (3, +∞).
 11

Hence, f is continuous on the open interval (−∞, −3) ∪ (3, +∞).

1. (−∞, −3) ⊆ (−∞, −3) ∪ (3, +∞). Therefore, f is continuous on the open
interval (−∞, −3).

2. (0, +∞) 6⊆ (−∞, −3) ∪ (3, +∞). Therefore, f is discontinuous on the open
interval (0, +∞).

3. (9, +∞) ⊆ (−∞, −3) ∪ (3, +∞). Therefore, f is continuous on the open
interval (9, +∞. 

Sample Problem 6.3.12 Determine whether or not the following functions

are continuous on the indicated intervals.
1. f (x) = x2 − 4x + 5; (a) (0, +∞), (b) (−∞, 0) (c) (−1, 1)
x+5
2. f (x) = ; (a) (0, +∞), (b) (−∞, 0), (c) (−4, +∞)
x−4
√
3. f (x) = x + 2; (a) (0, +∞), (b) (−∞, 0), (c) (−2, 2)
√
4. f (x) = 16 − x; (a) (0, +∞), (b) (−∞, 0), (c) (0, 16)
√
5. f (x) = x2 − x − 12; (a) (4, +∞), (b) (3, +∞), (c) (−∞, −3)

6.4 Continuity of a Function on a Closed Interval

Definition 6.4.1 The function f is said to be continuous from the right at

the real number a if the following three conditions are satisfied
(i) f (a) exists;
(ii) lim+ f (x) exists;
x→a
(iii) lim+ f (x) = f (a).
x→a

√
Example 6.4.2 Let f (x) = x − 2. Determine whether or not the function
is continuous from the right at 2.
√ √
Solution: (i) f (2) = 2−2= 0 = 0.
 12

√
(ii) lim+ x − 2 = 0.
x→2 √
(iii) lim+ x − 2 = f (2).
x→2

Therefore, f is continuous from the right at 2. 


2x,
 if x < 1
Example 6.4.3 Determine whether or not the function f (x) = 2, if x = 1

2x − 1, if 1 < x

is continuous from the right at 1.

Solution: (i) If x = 1, then, f (1) = 2.

(ii) If x > 1, then f (x) = 2x − 1. Thus,

lim f (x) = lim+ (2x − 1) = 2(1) − 1 = 1.

x→1+ x→1

(iii) lim+ (2x − 2) 6= f (1).

x→1

Therefore, f is not continuous from the right at 1. 

Definition 6.4.4 The function f is said to be continuous from the left at the
real number a if the following three conditions are satisfied
(i) f (a) exists;
(ii) lim− f (x) exists;
x→a
(iii) lim− f (x) = f (a).
x→a

√
Example 6.4.5 Determine whether or not the function f (x) = 2 − x is
continuous from the left at 2
√
Solution: (i) f (2) = 2 − 2 = 0.
√
(ii) lim− 2 − x = 0.
x→2 √
(iii) lim− 2 − x = f (2).
x→2

Therefore, f is continuous from the left at 2. 

 13
(
x + 1, if x < −1
Example 6.4.6 Determine whether or not the function f (x) =
x2 + 1, if −1 ≤ x
is continuous from the left at -1.

Solution: (i) If −1 ≤ x, then f (x) = x2 + 1. Thus, f (−1) = (−1)2 + 1 = 2.

(ii) If x < −1, then f (x) = x + 1. Thus,

lim f (x) = lim − (x + 1) = 0.

x→−1− x→−1

(iii) lim − f (x) 6= f (−1).

x→−1

Therefore, f is not continuous from the left at −1. 

Definition 6.4.7 A function f whose domain includes the closed interval [a, b]
is said to be continuous on [a, b] if it is continuous on the open interval (a, b),
continuous from the right at a, and continuous from the left at b.

√
Example 6.4.8 Determine whether or not the function f (x) = 1 − x2 is
continuous on the closed interval [−1, 1].

Solution:
1. Determine whether or not f is continuous on the open interval (−1, 1).

The function f is continuous on the set

S = {x ∈ R : 1 − x2 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : x2 − 1 < 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 1)(x − 1) < 0}
= (−1, 1).

Hence, f is continuous on the open interval (−1, 1).

2. Determine whether or not f is continuous from the right at −1.

p
(i) f (−1) = 1 − (−1)2 = 0.
√
(ii) lim + 1 − x2 = 0.
x→−1
 14

√
(iii) lim + 1 − x2 = f (−1).
x→−1

Hence, f is continuous from the right at −1.

3. Determine whether or not f is continuous from the left at 1.

p
(i) f (1) = 1 − (1)2 = 0.
√
(ii) lim− 1 − x2 = 0.
x→1 √
(iii) lim− 1 − x2 = f (1).
x→1

Hence, f is continuous from the left at 1.

Therefore, f is continuous on the closed interval [−1, 1]. 

√
Example 6.4.9 Determine whether or not the function f (x) = 6 − x − x2
is continuous on the closed interval [−3, 2].

Solution:
1. Determine whether or not f is continuous on the open interval (−3, 2).

The function f is continuous on the set

S = {x ∈ R : 6 − x − x2 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : x2 + x − 6 < 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 3)(x − 2) < 0}
= (−3, 2).
Hence, f is continuous on the open interval (−3, 2).

2. Determine whether or not f is continuous from the right at −3.

p √
(i) f (−3) = 6 − (−3) − (−3)2 = 6 + 3 − 9 = 0.
√
(ii) lim + 6 − x − x2 = 0.
x→−3 √
(iii) lim + 6 − x − x2 = f (−3).
x→−3

Hence, f is continuous from the right at −3.

 15

3. Determine whether or not f is continuous from the left at 2.

p
(i) f (2) = 6 − 2 − (2)2 = 0.
√
(ii) lim− 6 − x − x2 = 0.
x→2 √
(iii) lim− 6 − x − x2 = f (2).
x→2

Hence, f is continuous from the left at 2.

Therefore, f is continuous on the closed interval [−3, 2]. 

x+1
Example 6.4.10 Determine whether or not the function f (x) = is
x−3
continuous on the closed interval [0, 2].

Solution:
1. Determine whether or not f is continuous on the open interval (0, 2).

The function f is a rational function. Then f is continuous on its

domain
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : x − 3 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 3}
= (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).
Since (0, 2) ⊆ (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, +∞), f is continuous on the open interval
(0, 2).

2. Determine whether or not f is continuous from the right at 0.

0+1 1
(i) f (0) = =− .
0−3 3
x+1 1 1
(ii) lim+ = =− .
x→0 x − 3 −3 3
x+1
(iii) lim+ = f (0).
x→0 x − 3

Hence, f is continuous from the right at 0.

3. Determine whether or not f is continuous from the left at 2.

 16

2+1 3
(i) f (2) = 2−3
= − −1 = −3.
x+1 3
(ii) lim− = = −3.
x→2 x − 3 −1
x+1
(iii) lim− = f (2).
x→2 x − 3

Hence, f is continuous from the left at 2.

Therefore, f is continuous on the closed interval [0, 2]. 

Sample Problem 6.4.11

I. Determine whether or not the following function is continuous on the indicated
closed interval. √
1. f (x) = √4 − x2 ; [−2, 2]
2. f (x) = √16 − x2 ; [−4, 4]
3. f (x) = √12 + 4x − x2 ; [−2, 6]
4. f (x) = 10 − 3x − x2 ; [−5, 2]
1
5. f (x) = x−1 ; [2, 4]
x
6. f (x) = x+4 ; [−3, 0]

6.5 The Intermediate-Value Theorem

Theorem 6.5.1 (The Intermediate-Value Theorem) If the function f

is continuous on the closed interval [a, b], and if f (a) 6= f (b), then for any
number k betweeen f (a) and f (b) there exists a number c betweeen a and b
such that f (c) = k.

Example 6.5.2 Given the function f (x) = 2 + x − x2 . Then f is continuous

on the closed interval [0, 3]. Verify the Intermediate Value Theorem on [0, 3]
for k = 2.

Solution: We have f (0) = 2 + 0 − (0)2 = 2 and f (3) = 2 + 3 − (3)2 = −4.

Thus, f (0) 6= f (3). By the Intermediate Value Theorem, there exists a real
number c with 0 < c < 3 such that f (c) = 2. Hence,
f (c) = 2 ⇒ 2 + c − c2 = 2
⇒ c2 − c = 0
⇒ c(c − 1) = 0
⇒ c = 0 or c = 1.
 17

0∈
/ (0, 3) and 1 ∈ (0, 3).

Therefore, there exist 1 ∈ (0, 3) such that f (1) = 2. 

x+1
Example 6.5.3 Given the function f (x) = . Then f is continuous on
x−2
the closed interval [−2, 1]. Verify whether the Intermediate Value Theorem
holds on [−2, 1] for k = −1.
−2 + 1 1 1+1
Solution: We have f (−2) = = and f (1) = 1−2 = −2. Thus,
−2 − 2 4
f (−2) 6= f (1). By the Intermediate Value Theorem, there exists a real number
c with −2 < c < 1 such that f (c) = −1. Hence,
c+1
f (c) = −1 ⇒ = −1
c−2
⇒ c + 1 = −c + 2
⇒ 2c = 1
⇒ c = 0.5.

0.5 ∈ (−2, 1).

Therefore, there exist c = 0.5 with −2 < 0.5 < 1 such that f (0.5) = −1. 

Sample Problem 6.5.4 Verify whether the Intermediate Value Theorem

holds for the given function, the given closed interval, and the given value
of k. Assume that the function is continuous on the closed interval.
1. f (x) = x2 + 5x − 6; [a, b] = [−1, 2]; k = 4.
4
2. f (x) = ; [a, b] = [0, 1]; k = 0.5.
x+2
√
3. f (x) = 25 − x2 ; [a, b] = [−4.5, 3]; k = 3.
4. f (x) = 2 + x − x2 ; [a, b] = [0, 1]; k = 1.
5
5. f (x) = ; [a, b] = [1, 2]; k = 2.
2x − 1
 1

CHAPTER 7
LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

Learning Outcomes of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, the student must be able to:
1. evaluate the limits of trigonometric, exponential, logarithmic, and inverse
trigonometric functions.
2. apply the theorem on Limit of a Composite Function to evaluate the limits of
trigonometric, exponential, logarithmic, and inverse trigonometric functions.

7.1 Limits and Continuity of Trigonometric Functions

Theorem 7.1.1 Let a be any real number. Then

(i) lim sin x = sin a.
x→a
(ii) lim cos x = cos a.
x→a

Example 7.1.2 Evaluate the following limits. Verify your answer using
calculator.
1. limπ sin x; 2. limπ sin x; 3. lim3π sin x; 4. lim3π sin x;
x→ 6 x→− 3 x→ x→−
4 2
5. lim5π sin x; 6. lim5π sin x; 7. limπ cos x; 8. limπ cos x;
x→ x→− x→ 6 x→− 3
6 3
9. lim3π cos x; 10. lim3π cos x; 11. lim5π cos x; 12. lim5π cos x.
x→ 4
x→− 2
x→ 6
x→ 3

Solution:
π 1
1. limπ sin x = sin = .
x→ 6 6 2 √
 π 3
2. limπ sin x = sin − =− .
x→− 3 3 √ 2
3π 2
3. lim3π sin x = sin = .
x→ 4 4 2
 
3π
4. lim3π sin x = sin − = 1.
x→− 2 2
5π 1
5. lim5π sin x = sin = .
x→ 6 6 2
 2

  √
5π 3
6. lim5π sin x = sin − = .
x→− 3 3 2
√
π 3
7. limπ cos x = cos = .
x→ 6 6 2
 π 1
8. limπ cos x = cos − = .
x→− 3 3 √2
3π 2
9. lim3π cos x = cos =− .
x→ 4 4 2
 
3π
10. lim3π cos x = cos − = 0.
x→− 2 2
√
5π 3
11. lim5π cos x = cos =− .
x→ 6 6 2
 
5π 1
12. lim5π cos x = cos − = .
x→− 3 3 2

sin x
Theorem 7.1.3 lim = 1.
x→0 x

1 − cos x
Theorem 7.1.4 lim = 0.
x→0 x
sin x
Example 7.1.5 Evaluate lim .
x→0 4x

Solution:

lim sin x = sin 0 = 0 and lim 4x = 0.

x→0 x→0

For all x 6= 0,
sin x 1 sin x
= · .
4x 4 x
By 7.1.3,
sin x
lim = 1.
x→0 x

Thus,
   
1 sin x 1 sin x 1 1
lim · = lim = ·1= .
x→0 4 x 4 x→0 x 4 4
 3

Therefore,
 
sin x 1 sin x 1
lim = lim · = . 
x→0 4x x→0 4 x 4

sin2 x
Example 7.1.6 Evaluate lim .
x→0 x
Solution:

lim sin2 x = 0 and lim x = 0.

x→0 x→0

For all x 6= 0,
sin2 x sin x
= sin x · .
x x
We have

lim sin x = 0.
x→0

By 7.1.3,
sin x
lim = 1.
x→0 x
Hence,
   
sin x sin x
lim sin x · = (lim sin x) lim = 0 · 1 = 0.
x→0 x x→0 x→0 x

Therefore,
sin2 x
 
sin x
lim = lim sin x · = 0. 
x→0 x x→0 x

1 − cos x
Example 7.1.7 Evaluate lim .
x→0 sin x
Solution:

lim (1 − cos x) = 0 and lim sin x = 0.

x→0 x→0

For all x 6= 0,
 4

1 − cos x
1 − cos x x
= .
sin x sin x
x
By 7.1.4,
1 − cos x
lim =0
x→0 x
and by 7.1.3,
sin x
lim = 1.
x→0 x

Hence,
1 − cos x 1 − cos x
 
lim 0
lim 
 x  x→0
= x = = 0.
x→0 sin x  sin x 1
lim
x x→0 x

Therefore,
1 − cos x
 
1 − cos x x
lim = lim  = 0. 
 
x→0 sin x x→0 sin x 
x

Sample Problem 7.1.8 Evaluate the limit if it exists.

3x 3x 1 − cos2 x
1. lim . 2. lim . 3. lim .
x→0 sin x x→0 cos x x→0 2x2
sin3 x 1 − cos x sin x
4. lim 2
. 5. lim 2
. 6. lim 2 .
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 2x + 3x

Theorem 7.1.9 Let f (x) = tan x. Then

(i) lim tan x = tan a, if a 6= π2 + πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
π
(ii) lim+ tan x = −∞, if a = 2
+ πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
(iii) lim− tan x = +∞, if a = π2 + πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a

Example 7.1.10 Evaluate the following limits. Verify using a calculator.

1. limπ tan x; 2. lim3π tan x; 3. limπ tan x; 4. lim tan x;
x→ 3 x→− x→− 6 x→3π
4
 5

5. lim tan x; 6. lim

π−
tan x; 7. lim tan x; 8. lim tan x.
π+
x→ 2 x→ 2 x→− π2 + x→− π2 −

Solution:
π √
1. limπ tan x = tan = 3;
x→ 3 3 
3π
2. lim3π tan x = tan − = 1;
x→− 4 4
 π 1
3. limπ tan x = tan − =√ ;
x→− 6 6 3
4. lim tan x = tan 3π = 0;
x→3π
5. By 7.1.9(ii), if k = 0, then a = π2 . Thus, lim
π+
tan x = −∞;
x→ 2
π
6. By 7.1.9(iii), if k = 0, then a = 2
. Thus, lim
π−
tan x = +∞;
x→ 2
π
7. By 7.1.9(ii), if k = −1, then a = 2
− π = − π2 . Thus, lim tan x = −∞;
x→− π2 +
π
8. By 7.1.9(iii), if k = −1, then a = 2
− π = − π2 . Thus, lim tan x = +∞.
x→− π2 −


Theorem 7.1.11 Let f (x) = cot x. Then

(i) lim cot x = cot a, if a 6= πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
(ii) lim+ cot x = +∞, if a = πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
(iii) lim− cot x = −∞, if a = πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a

Example 7.1.12 Evaluate the following limits. Verify using a calculator.

1. limπ cot x; 2. lim3π cot x; 3. limπ cot x; 4. limπ cot x;
x→ 3 x→− x→− 6 x→ 2
4
5. lim+ cot x; 6. lim− cot x; 7. lim+ cot x; 8. lim− cot x.
x→0 x→0 x→π x→π
9. lim + cot x; 10. lim − cot x.
x→−π x→−π

Solution:
π 1
1. limπ cot x = cot = √ ;
x→ 3 3  3
3π
2. lim3π cot x = cot − = 1;
x→− 4 4
 π √
3. limπ cot x = cot − = 3;
x→− 6 6
π
4. limπ cot x = cot = 0;
x→ 2 2
5. By 7.1.11(ii), if k = 0, then a = 0. Thus, lim+ cot x = +∞;
x→0
 6

6. By 7.1.11(iii), if k = 0, then a = 0. Thus, lim− cot x = −∞;

x→0
7. By 7.1.11(ii), if k = 1, then a = π. Thus, lim+ cot x = +∞;
x→π
8. By 7.1.11(iii), if k = 1, then a = π. Thus, lim− cot x = −∞;
x→π
9. By 7.1.11(ii), if k = −1, then a = −π. Thus, lim + cot x = +∞;
x→−π
10. By 7.1.11(iii), if k = −1, then a = −π. Thus, lim − cot x = −∞. 
x→−π

Theorrem 7.1.13 Let f (x) = sec x. Then

(i) lim sec x = sec a, if a 6= π2 + πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
π
(ii) lim+ sec x = −∞, if a = 2
+ 2πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
(iii) lim+ sec x = +∞, if a = − π2 + 2πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
π
(iv) lim− sec x = +∞, if a = 2
+ 2πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
(v) lim− sec x = −∞, if a = − π2 + 2πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a

Example 7.1.14 Evaluate the following limits. Verify using a calculator.

1. limπ sec x; 2. lim3π sec x; 3. lim sec x; 4. lim sec x;
x→ 3 x→− x→0 x→π
4
5. lim sec x; 6. lim
π−
sec x; 7. lim sec x; 8. lim sec x.
π+
x→ 2 x→ 2 x→− π2 + x→− π2 −

Solution:
π
1. limπ sec x = sec = 2;
x→ 3 3
√

3π
2. lim3π sec x = sec − = − 2;
x→− 4 4
3. lim sec x = sec 0 = 1;
x→0
4. lim sec x = sec π = −1;
x→π
5. By 7.1.13(ii), if k = 0, then a = π2 . Thus, lim
π+
sec x = −∞;
x→ 2
π
6. By 7.1.13(iv), if k = 0, then a = 2
. Thus, lim
π−
sec x = +∞;
x→ 2
π
7. By 7.1.13(iii), if k = −1, then a = 2
−π = − π2 . Thus, lim sec x = +∞;
x→− π2 +
π
8. By 7.1.13(v), if k = −1, then a = 2
− π = − π2 . Thus, lim sec x = −∞.
x→− π2 −


Theorem 7.1.15 Let f (x) = csc x. Then

(i) lim csc x = csc a, if a 6= πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
 7

(ii) lim+ csc x = +∞, if a = 2πk, for all k ∈ Z.

x→a
(iii) lim− csc x = −∞, if a = 2πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
(iv) lim+ csc x = −∞, if a = π(2k + 1), for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
(v) lim− csc x = +∞, if a = π(2k + 1), for all k ∈ Z.
x→a

Example 7.1.16 Evaluate the following limits. Verify using a calculator.

1. limπ csc x; 2. lim3π csc x; 3. limπ csc x; 4. limπ csc x;
x→ 3 x→− x→− 6 x→ 2
4
5. lim+ csc x; 6. lim− csc x; 7. lim+ csc x; 8. lim− csc x.
x→0 x→0 x→π x→π
9. lim + csc x; 10. lim − csc x.
x→−π x→−π

Solution:
π 2
1. limπ csc x = csc = √ ;
x→ 3 3  3
3π √
2. lim3π csc x = csc − = − 2;
x→− 4 4
 π
3. limπ csc x = csc − = −1;
x→− 2 2
π
4. limπ csc x = csc = 1;
x→ 2 2
5. By 7.1.15(ii), if k = 0, then a = 0. Thus, lim+ csc x = +∞;
x→0
6. By 7.1.15(iii), if k = 0, then a = 0. Thus, lim− csc x = −∞;
x→0
7. By 7.1.15(iv), if k = 0, then a = π. Thus, lim+ csc x = −∞;
x→π
8. By 7.1.15(v), if k = 0, then a = π. Thus, lim− csc x = +∞;
x→π
9. By 7.1.15(iv), if k = −1, then a = −π. Thus, lim + csc x = −∞;
x→−π
10. By 7.1.15(v), if k = −1, then a = −π. Thus, lim − csc x = +∞. 
x→−π

Example 7.1.17 Evaluate lim (tan x + sec x).

x→π

Solution:

lim tan x = tan π = 0 and lim sec x = sec π = −1.

x→π x→π

Therefore,

lim (tan x + sec x) = 0 − 1 = −1. 

x→π
 8

Example 7.1.18 Evaluate limπ (cot x + csc x).

x→ 2

Solution:

lim cot x = 0 and limπ csc x = sec π = 1.

x→ π2 x→ 2

Therefore,

lim (cot x + csc x) = 0 + 1 = 1. 

x→ π2

Example 7.1.19 Evaluate limπ (cot x csc x).

x→ 2

Solution:
π π
limπ cot x = cot = 0 and limπ csc x = csc = 1.
x→ 2 2 x→ 2 2
Therefore,

lim cot x sec x = 0 · 1 = 0. 

x→ π2

Sample Problem 7.1.20 Evaluate the following limits. Verify using calculator
or the graph of the function.
1. lim4π sin x; 2. lim5π sin x; 3. lim5π cos x; 4. lim4π cos x;
x→ 3
x→− 4
x→ 4
x→− 3
5. lim tan x; 6. lim −
tan x; 7. lim + cot x; 8. lim cot x;
x→− 3π
+
x→− 3π x→−2π x→−2π −
2 2
9. lim sec x; 10. lim −
sec x; 11. lim csc x; 12. lim csc x.
x→− 3π
+
x→− 3π x→−2π + x→−2π −
2 2

Theorem 7.1.21 The sine and cosine functions are continuous on their domain,
the set R of real numbers.

Theorem 7.1.22 n The tangentπ and secant functions

o are continuous on their
domain, the set x ∈ R : x 6= + πk, k ∈ Z .
2
Theorem 7.1.23 The cotangent and cosecant functions are continuous on
their domain, the set {x ∈ R : x 6= πk, k ∈ Z}.
 9

Theorem 7.1.24 (Limit of a Composite Function) Let f and g be functions

such that

lim g(x) = b
x→a

and

f is continuous at b, that is, lim f (x) = f (b).

x→b

Then

lim (f ◦ g)(x) = f (b)

x→a

or, equivalently,

lim f (g(x)) = f (lim g(x)).

x→a x→a

Example 7.1.25 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim sin(3x − 3).

x→1

Solution: Let

f (x) = sin x and g(x) = 3x − 3.

Then

lim g(x) = lim (3x − 3) = 0.

x→1 x→1

By Theorem 7.1.21,

f (x) = sin x is continuous at 0.

Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,

h i
lim sin(3x − 3) = sin lim (3x − 3) = sin 0 = 0. 
x→1 x→1

Example 7.1.26 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim cos(x2 − 25).

x→5

Solution: Let

f (x) = cos x and g(x) = x2 − 25.

Then
 10

lim g(x) = lim (x2 − 25) = 0.

x→5 x→5

By Theorem 7.1.21,

f (x) = cos x is continuous at 0.

Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,

h i
lim cos(x2 − 25) = cos lim (x2 − 25) = cos 0 = 1. 
x→5 x→5

Example 7.1.27 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim tan(π + x2 ).

x→0

Solution: Let

f (x) = tan x and g(x) = π + x2 .

Then

lim g(x) = lim (π + x2 ) = π.

x→0 x→0

By Theorem 7.1.22,

f (x) = tan x is continuous at π.

Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,

h i
lim tan(π + x2 ) = tan lim (π + x2 ) = tan π = 0. 
x→0 x→0

Example 7.1.28 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate limπ sec(4x − π).

x→ 2

Solution: Let

f (x) = sec x and g(x) = 4x − π.

Then

lim g(x) = limπ (4x − π) = π.

x→ π2 x→ 2

By Theorem 7.1.22,

f (x) = sec x is continuous at π.

Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,

 11
 
limπ sec(4x − π) = sec limπ (4x − π) = sec π = −1. 
x→ 2 x→ 2

π 
Example 7.1.29 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim cot − 2x + x2 .
x→2 2
Solution: Let
π
f (x) = cot x and g(x) = − 2x + x2 .
2
Then
π  π
lim g(x) = lim − 2x + x2 = .
x→2 x→2 2 2
By Theorem 7.1.23,
π
f (x) = cot x is continuous at .
2
Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,
π  h π i π
2 2
lim cot − 2x + x = cot lim − 2x + x = cot = 0. 
x→2 2 x→2 2 2

Sample Problem 7.1.30 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate the following

limits.
2 π 1 π 
1. lim sin(x − ) 2. lim cos (π − 2x) 3. lim+ tan −x
x→0 4 x→π 4 x→π 2
4. limπ−
cot(2 cos x) 5. lim sec(x2 − π) 6. limπ csc(π − 2x)
x→ 2 x→0 x→ 4

7.2 Limits and Continuity of Natural Logarithmic and

Natural Exponential Functions

Theorem 7.2.1 If f (x) = ln x, then

(i) lim ln x = ln a, for all a ∈ R+ ,
x→a
(ii) lim ln x = +∞,
x→+∞
(iii) lim+ ln x = −∞.
x→0

Theorem 7.2.2 The logarithmic function is continuous on its domain, the set
of all positive real numbers.
Example 7.2.3 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim ln(x2 − 2x − 4).
x→4

Solution: Let
 12

f (x) = ln x and g(x) = x2 − 2x − 4

Then

lim g(x) = lim (x2 − 2x − 4) = 4.

x→4 x→4

By Theorem 7.2.2,

f (x) = ln x is continuous at 4.

Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,

h i
lim ln(x2 − 2x − 4) = ln lim (x2 − 2x − 4) = ln 4. 
x→4 x→4

Example 7.2.4 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim ln cos x.

x→0

Solution: Let

f (x) = ln x and g(x) = cos x.

Then

lim g(x) = lim cos x = cos 0 = 1.

x→0 x→0

By Theorem 7.2.2,

f (x) = ln x is continuous at 1.

Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,

 
lim ln cos x = ln lim cos x = ln 1 = 0. 
x→0 x→0

Example 7.2.5 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim+ ln(sec x + tan x).
x→0

Solution: Let

f (x) = ln x and g(x) = sec x + tan x.

Then

lim g(x) = lim+ (sec x + tan x) = 1 + 0 = 1.

x→0+ x→0

By Theorem 7.2.2,
 13

f (x) = ln x is continuous at 1.

Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,

 
lim ln(sec x + tan x) = ln lim (sec x + tan x) = ln 1 = 0. 
x→0+ x→0+

Theorem 7.2.6 If f (x) = ex , then

(i) lim ex = ea , for all a ∈ R,
x→a
(ii) lim ex = +∞,
x→+∞
(iii) lim ex = 0.
x→−∞

Theorem 7.2.7 The exponential function is continuous on its domain, the set
R of real numbers.
2 +2x−4
Example 7.2.8 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim ex .
x→2

Solution: Let

f (x) = ex and g(x) = x2 + 2x − 4

Then

lim g(x) = lim (x2 + 2x − 4) = (2)2 + 2(2) − 4 = 4.

x→2 x→2

By Theorem 7.2.7,

f (x) = ex is continuous at 4.

Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,

x2 +2x−4
lim (x2 + 2x − 4)
lim e = ex→2 = e4 . 
x→2

2
Example 7.2.9 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim esin x .
x→0

Solution: Let

f (x) = ex and g(x) = sin2 x.

Then
 14

lim g(x) = lim sin2 x = 0.

x→0 x→0

By Theorem 7.2.7,
f (x) = ex is continuous at 0.
Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,

sin2 x
lim sin2 x
lim e = ex→0 = e0 = 1. 
x→0

Example 7.2.10 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim ecsc x+cot x .

x→ π2 +

Solution: Let
f (x) = ex and g(x) = csc x + cot x.
Then
lim g(x) = lim (csc x + cot x) = 1 + 0 = 1.
x→ π2 + π+
x→ 2

By Theorem 7.2.7,
f (x) = ex is continuous at 1.
Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,
lim (csc x + cot x)
sec x+tan x x→ π2 +
lim
π+
e = e = e1 = e. 
x→ 2

Sample Problem 7.2.11 Evaluate the following limits using Theorem 7.1.24.
1. lim ln(csc x + cot x) 2. lim ln(5 − x2 ) 3. limπ ln(sin x + cos x)
π+
x→ 2 x→2 x→ 6
√
sec x+tan x sin x+cos x 3−x+x2
4. lim e 5. lim e 6. lim e
π+
x→ 2 x→−π x→−2

7.3 Limits and Continuity of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Theorem 7.3.1 If f (x) = arcsin x, then

(i) D(f ) = [−1, 1] and R(f ) = [− π2 , π2 ],
 15

(ii) lim arcsin x = arcsin a, for all a ∈ (−1, 1),

x→a
π
(iii) lim− arcsin x = ,
x→1 2
π
(iv) lim + arcsin x = − .
x→−1 2
Theorem 7.3.2 The inverse sine function is continuous on its domain, the
closed interval [−1, 1].

Example 7.3.3 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim arcsin(x2 − 1).

x→1

Solution: Let

f (x) = arcsin x and g(x) = x2 − 1

Then

lim g(x) = lim (x2 − 1) = 0.

x→1 x→1

By Theorem 7.3.2,

f (x) = arcsin x is continuous at 0.

Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,

h i
2 2
lim arcsin(x − 1) = arcsin lim (x − 1) = arcsin 0 = 0. 
x→1 x→1

Example 7.3.4 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim arcsin ex .

x→0

Solution: Let

f (x) = arcsin x and g(x) = ex

Then

lim g(x) = lim ex = e0 = 1.

x→0 x→0

By Theorem 7.3.2,

f (x) = arcsin x is continuous at 1.

Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,

  π
lim arcsin ex = arcsin lim ex = arcsin 1 = . 
x→0 x→0 2
 16

Theorem 7.3.5 If f (x) = arccos x, then

(i) D(f ) = [−1, 1] and R(f ) = [0, π],
(ii) lim arccos x = arccos a, for all a ∈ (−1, 1),
x→a
(iii) lim− arccos x = 0,
x→1
(iv) lim + arccos x = π.
x→−1

Theorem 7.3.6 The inverse cosine function is continuous on its domain, the
closed interval [−1, 1].

Example 7.3.7 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim arccos(x2 + x).

x→0

Solution: Let

f (x) = arccos x and g(x) = x2 + x.

Then

lim g(x) = lim (x2 + x = 0.

x→0 x→0

By Theorem 7.3.6,

f (x) = arccos x is continuous at 0.

Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,

 
2 2
lim arccos(x + x) = arccos lim (x + x) = arccos 0 = 1. 
x→0 x→0

Example 7.3.8 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim arccos ex .

x→0

Solution: Let

f (x) = arccos x and g(x) = ex .

Then

lim g(x) = lim ex = 1.

x→0 x→0

By Theorem 7.3.6,

f (x) = arccos x is continuous at 1.

Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,

 17
 
lim arccos ex = arccos lim ex = arccos 1 = 0. 
x→0 x→0

Example 7.3.9 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim arccos ln x.

x→1

Solution: Let

f (x) = arccos x and g(x) = ln x

Then

lim g(x) = lim ln x = 0.

x→1 x→1

By Theorem 7.3.6,

f (x) = arccos x is continuous at 0.

Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,

  π
lim arccos ln x = arccos lim ln x = arccos 0 = . 
x→1 x→1 2

Theorem 7.3.10 If f (x) = arctan x, then

π π
(i) D(f ) = R and R(f ) = − , ,
2 2
(ii) lim arctan x = arctan a, for all a ∈ R,
x→a
π
(iii) lim arctan x = ,
x→+∞ 2
π
(iv) lim arctan x = − .
x→−∞ 2
Theorem 7.3.11 The inverse tangent function is continuous on its domain,
the set of all real numbers.

Example 7.3.12 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate limπ arctan (2 cos x).
x→ 6

Solution: Let

f (x) = arctan x and g(x) = 2 cos x.

Then
√
3 √
limπ g(x) = limπ cos x = 2 · = 3.
x→ 6 x→ 6 2
 18

By Theorem 7.3.11,
√
f (x) = arctan x is continuous at 3.

Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,

√
 
π
limπ arctan(2 cos x) = arctan limπ 2 cos x = arctan 3 = . 
x→ 6 x→ 6 3

1
Example 7.3.13 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim arctan .
x→+∞ x
Solution: Let
1
f (x) = arctan x and g(x) = .
x
Then
1
lim g(x) = lim = 0.
x→+∞ x→+∞ x

By Theorem 7.3.11,

f (x) = arctan x is continuous at 0.

Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,

 
1 1
lim arctan = arctan lim = arctan 0 = 0. 
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x

Theorem 7.3..14 If f (x) = arccot x, then

(i) D(f ) = R and R(f ) = (0, π),
(ii) lim arccot x = arccot a, for all a ∈ R,
x→a
(iii) lim arccot x = 0,
x→+∞
(iv) lim arccot x = π.
x→−∞

Theorem 7.3.15 The inverse cotangent function is continuous on its domain,

the set of real numbers.

Example 7.3.16 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim arccot(x − 1).

x→0

Solution: Let
 19

f (x) = arccot x and g(x) = x − 1.

Then
lim g(x) = lim (x − 1) = −1.
x→0 x→0

By Theorem 7.3.15,
f (x) = arccot x is continuous at −1.
Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,
  π
lim arccot(x − 1) = arccot lim (x − 1) = arccot(−1) = − . 
x→0 x→0 4

Example 7.3.17 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim arccot(x2 − 1).

x→1

Solution: Let
f (x) = arccot x and g(x) = x2 − 1.
Then
lim g(x) = lim (x2 − 1) = 0.
x→1 x→1

By Theorem 7.3.15,
f (x) = arccot x is continuous at 0.
Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,
  π
lim arccot(x2 − 1) = arccot lim (x2 − 1) = arccot0 = − . 
x→1 x→1 2

Theorem 7.3.18 If f (x) = arcsec x, then h π h π

(i) D(f ) = (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞) and R(f ) = −π, − ∪ 0, ,
2 2
(ii) lim arcsec x = arcsec a, for all a ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, +∞),
x→a
(iii) lim+ arcsec x = 0,
x→1
(iv) lim − arcsec x = −π,
x→−1
π
(v) lim arcsec x = ,
x→+∞ 2
π
(vi) lim arcsec x = − .
x→−∞ 2
 20

Theorem 7.3.19 The inverse secant function is continuous on its domain,

the interval (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞).

Example 7.3.20 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim arcsec(2x − 4).

x→3

Solution: Let

f (x) = arcsec x, and g(x) = 2x − 4.

Then

lim g(x) = lim (2x − 4) = 2.

x→3 x→3

By Theorem 7.3.19,

g(x) = arcsec x is continuous at 2.

Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,

h i π
lim arcsec(2x − 4) = arcsec lim (2x − 4) = arcsec 2 = . 
x→3 x→3 3

Example 7.3.21 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim arcsec (ln x − 1).
x→1

Solution: Let

f (x) = arcsec x and g(x) = ln x − 1.

Then

lim g(x) = lim (ln x − 1) = 0 − 1 = −1.

x→1 x→1

By Theorem 7.3.19,

f (x) = arcsec x is continuous at −1.

Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,

 
lim arcsec (ln x − 1) = arcsec lim (ln x − 1) = arcsec (−1) = −π. 
x→1 x→1
 21

Theorem 7.3.22 If f (x) = arccsc x, then  πi  πi

(i) D(f ) = (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞) and R(f ) = −π, − ∪ 0, ,
2 2
(ii) lim arccsc x = arccsc a, for all a ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, +∞),
x→a
π
(iii) lim+ arccsc x = ,
x→1 2
π
(iv) lim − arccsc x = − ,
x→−1 2
(v) lim arccsc x = 0,
x→+∞
(vi) lim arccsc x = −π.
x→−∞

Theorem 7.3.23 The inverse cosecant function is continuous on its domain,

the interval (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞).

Example 7.3.24 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim arccsc(x2 + 2).

x→0

Solution: Let

f (x) = arccsc x and g(x) = x2 + 2.

Then

lim g(x) = lim (x2 + 2) = 2.

x→0 x→0

By Theorem 7.3.23,

f (x) = arccsc x is continuous at 2.

Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,

h i π
lim arccsc(x2 + 2) = arccsc lim (x2 + 2) = arccsc2 = . 
x→0 x→0 6
√
Example 7.3.25 Apply Theorem 7.1.24 to evaluate lim arccsc( 2 − x).
x→0

Solution: Let
√
f (x) = arccsc x and g(x) = 2 − x.

Then
√ √
lim g(x) = lim ( 2 − x) = 2.
x→0 x→0

By Theorem 7.3.23,
 22

√
f (x) = arccsc x is continuous at 2.

Therefore, by Theorem 7.1.24,

√ h √ i √ π
lim arccsc( 2 − x) = arccsc lim ( 2 − x) = arccsc 2 = . 
x→0 x→0 4

Sample Problem 7.3.26 Evaluate the following limits using Theorem 7.1.24.
1. lim1 arcsin(x − 1) 2. lim arcsin(x − ln x) 3. lim arccos(ln x − 1)
x→ 2 x→1 x→1
1 √
4. lim arctan 5. lim arctan(ex −cos x) 6. lim arccot( 3−x)
x→0 x−1 x→0 x→0
7. lim arccsc(x + ln x) 8. lim arcsec(x2 + ln x)
2
9. lim arccsc(ex + e−x )
x→−1 x→−1 x→0
 1

CHAPTER 8
DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Learning Outcomes of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, the student must be able to:
1. find the derivative of a function using the definition.
2. find the derivative of a function applying the theorems on differentiation.
3. perform implicit differentiation.
4. use the derivative to find the equations of the lines tangent and normal to
a given curve.
5. find the derivatives of higher order.

8.1 Definition of the Derivative

Definition 8.1.1 Let f be a function of an independent variable x. Then the
derivative of f at x0 , denoted by f 0 (x0 ), is given by
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim ,
h→0 h
if the limit exists. If f 0 (x0 ) exists, then f is said to be differentiable at x0 . The
function f is said to be differentiable if it is differentiable at each real number
in the domain.

The Three-Step Rule

Step 1. Simplify f (x + h) − f (x).

f (x + h) − f (x)
Step 2. Simplify , for h 6= 0.
h
f (x + h) − f (x)
Step 3. Evaluate lim .
h→0 h
f (x + h) − f (x)
If the limit exists, then f 0 (x) = lim .
h→0 h
Example 8.1.2 Find the derivative of f (x) = 3x + 4 using the three-step rule.
Solution:
 2

1. f (x + h) − f (x) = [3(x + h) + 4] − [3x + 4] = 3x + 3h + 4 − 3x − 4 = 3h.

f (x + h) − f (x) 3h
2. For h 6= 0, = = 3.
h h
f (x + h) − f (x)
3. lim = lim (3) = 3.
h→0 h h→0

Therefore, f 0 (x) = 3. 

Example 8.1.3 Find the derivative of f (x) = x2 + 1 using the three-step rule.
Solution:
1. f (x+h)−f (x) = [(x+h)2 +1]−[x2 +1] = x2 +2xh+h2 +1−x2 −1 = 2xh+h2 .

f (x + h) − f (x) 2xh + h2 h(2x + h)

2. For h 6= 0, = = = 2x + h.
h h h
f (x + h) − f (x)
3. lim = lim (2x + h) = 2x.
h→0 h h→0

Therefore, f 0 (x) = 2x. 

1
Example 8.1.4 Find the derivative of f (x) = using the three-step rule.
x+3
Solution:
1 1 x + 3 − x − h − 3) h
1. f (x+h)−f (x) = − = =− .
x+h+3 x+3 (x + h + 3)(x + 3) (x + h + 3)(x + 3)
f (x + h) − f (x) h 1 1
2. For h 6= 0, =− · =− .
h (x + h + 3)(x + 3) h (x + h + 3)(x + 3)
 
f (x + h) − f (x) 1 1
3. lim = lim − =− .
h→0 h h→0 (x + h + 3)(x + 3) (x + 3)(x + 3)
1
Therefore, f 0 (x) = − . 
(x + 3)(x + 3)
√
Example 8.1.5 Find the derivative of f (x) = x − 2 using the three-step
rule.
Solution:
√ √
1. f (x + h) − f (x) = x + h − 2 − x − 2
√ √
√ √ x+h−2+ x−2
= x+h−2− x−2· √ √
x+h−2+ x−2
h
=√ √ .
x+h−2+ x−2
 3

f (x + h) − f (x) h 1
2. =√ √ ·
h x+h−2+ x−2 h
1
=√ √ , for h 6= 0.
x+h−2+ x−2
f (x + h) − f (x) 1 1
3. lim = lim √ √ = √ .
h→0 h h→0 x+h−2+ x−2 2 x−2
1
Therefore, f 0 (x) = √ . 
2 x−2

Example 8.1.6 Find the derivative of f (x) = sin x using the three-step rule.
Solution:
1. f (x + h) − f (x) = sin(x + h) − sin x
= sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x.

f (x + h) − f (x) sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x

2. =
h h
cos x sin h − sin x(1 − cos h)
=
h
sin h 1 − cos h
= (cos x) · − (sin x) · .
h h
 
f (x + h) − f (x) sin h 1 − cos h
3. lim = lim (cos x) · − (sin x) ·
h→0 h h→0 h h
sin h 1 − cos h
= (cos x) · lim − (sin x) · lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= (cos x) · (1) − (sin x) · (0)
= cos x.
Therefore, f 0 (x) = cos x. 

Sample Problem 8.1.7 Using the Three-Step Rule, find the derivative of the
following functions.
x
1. f (x) = 7x − 3 2. f (x) = 4x2 − 5x 3. f (x) =
√ x+2
4. f (x) = x + 5 5. f (x)√= cos x 6. f (x) = x3 − 1
7. f (x) = x+1
x−1
8. f (x) = x − 4 9. f (x) = x2 − 5x + 3

8.2 Theorems on Differentiation

 4

Definition 8.2.1 The process of finding the derivative of a function is called

differentiation.

Notations. If the function f is defined by y = f (x), the derivative of

f at x can be denoted by

dy d
f 0 (x), y 0 , , [f (x)], Dx f , Dx f (x), Dx y
dx dx

Theorem 8.2.2 (Derivative of the Constant Function) Let c be a real

number. If f (x) = c, then f 0 (x) = 0.

Example 8.2.3 1. If f (x) = 6, then f 0 (x) = 0.

2. If f (x) = − 23 , then f 0 (x) = 0.
√
3. If f (x) = 5, then f 0 (x) = 0.

Theorem 8.2.4 Let r be a rational number. If f (x) = xr , then f 0 (x) = rxr−1 .

Example 8.2.5 1. If f (x) = x5 , then f 0 (x) = 5x5−1 = 5x4 .

2. If f (x) = x−4 , then f 0 (x) = −4x−4−1 = −4x−5 .
3 3 3 3 5
3. If f (x) = x− 2 , then f 0 (x) = − x− 2 −1 = − x− 2 .
2 2
Theorem 8.2.6 Let g be a differentiable function at x and c a constant. If
f (x) = c · g(x), then f is differentiable at x and f 0 (x) = c · g 0 (x).
0
Example 8.2.7 1. If f (x) = 4 x5 . Then 4 4
 f (x) =4(5x ) = 20x .
3 3 3 5
2. If f (x) = −6x− 2 , then f 0 (x) = −6 − x− 2 −1 = 9x− 2 .
2
1 −4 0 1 −4−1
3. If f (x) = x , then f (x) = (−4x ) = −2x−5 .
2 2
Theorem 8.2.8 (Derivative of the Polynomial Function) Let c0 , c1 , ..., cn−1 , cn
be constants. If f (x) = cn xn + cn−1 xn−1+...+ c1 x + c0 , then f 0 (x) = cn nxn−1 +
cn−1 (n − 1)xn−2 + ... + c1 .

Example 8.2.9
1. If f (x) = 4x3 +6x2 −4x+2, then f 0 (x) = 4(3x2 )+6(2x)−4 = 12x2 +12x−4.

2. If f (x) = x5 +7x4 −2x3 , then f 0 (x) = 5x4 +7(4x3 )−2(3x2 ) = 5x4 +28x3 −6x2 .
 5

3. If f (x) = 43 x6 − 21 x4 , then f 0 (x) = 34 (6x5 ) − 12 (4x3 ) = 8x5 − 2x3 .

Theorem 8.2.10 (Derivative of the Sum) Let g and h be differentiable

functions at x. If f (x) = g(x) + h(x), then f is differentiable at x and
f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) + h0 (x).

Example 8.2.11 Apply the derivative of the sum to find the derivative of
f (x) = (5x3 + 4x2 − 7) + (3x5 + 3x3 − 6x).

Solution: Let g(x) = 5x3 + 4x2 − 7 and h(x) = 3x5 + 3x3 − 6x. Then
g 0 (x) = 15x2 + 8x and h0 (x) = 15x4 + 9x2 − 6.
Therefore,
f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) + h0 (x)
= (15x2 + 8x) + (15x4 + 9x2 − 6)
= 15x4 + 24x2 + 8x − 6.

Example 8.2.12 Apply the derivative of the sum to find the derivative of
f (x) = (5x3 + 4x2 − 7) − (3x5 + 3x3 − 6x).

Solution: Let g(x) = 5x3 + 4x2 − 7 and h(x) = 3x5 + 3x3 − 6x. Then
g 0 (x) = 15x2 + 8x and h0 (x) = 15x4 + 9x2 − 6.
Therefore,
f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) − h0 (x)
= (15x2 + 8x) − (15x4 + 9x2 − 6)
= −15x4 + 6x2 + 8x + 6.

Theorem 8.2.13 (Derivative of the Product) Let g and h be differentiable

functions at x. If f (x) = g(x) · h(x), then f is differentiable at x and
f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) · h(x) + g(x) · h0 (x).

Example 8.2.14 Apply the derivative of the product to find the derivative of
f (x) = (2x − 7)(3x2 + 3x − 6).

Solution: Let g = 2x − 7 and h = 3x2 + 3x − 6. Then

 6

g 0 = 2 and h0 = 6x + 3.

Therefore,

f 0 (x) = g 0 · h + g · h0
= (2)(3x2 + 3x − 6) + (2x − 7)(6x + 3)
= 6x2 + 6x − 12 + 12x2 − 36x − 21
= 18x2 − 30x − 33. 

Example 8.2.15 Apply the derivative of the product to find the derivative of
f (x) = (4x3 + 3x2 )(2x−1 + 3x−2 ).

Solution: Let g = 4x3 + 3x2 and h = 2x−1 + 3x−2 . Then

g 0 = 12x2 + 6x and h0 = −2x−2 − 6x−3 .

Therefore,

f 0 (x) = g 0 · h + g · h0
= (12x2 + 6x)(2x−1 + 3x−2 ) + (4x3 + 3x2 )(−2x−2 − 6x−3 )
= 24x + 24 + 12 + 18x−1 − 8x − 24 − 6 − 18x−1
= 16x + 6. 

Theorem 8.2.16 (Derivative of the Quotient) Let g and h be differentiable

g(x)
functions at x. If f (x) = with h(x) 6= 0 for all x, then f is differentiable
h(x)
at x and
g 0 (x) · h(x) − g(x) · h0 (x)
f 0 (x) = .
[h(x)]2

x2 + 1
Example 8.2.17 Find the derivative of f (x) = .
x2 − 1
Solution: Let g = x2 + 1 and h = x2 − 1. Then

g 0 = 2x and h0 = 2x.
 7

Therefore,

g 0 · h − g · h0
f 0 (x) =
h2
2x(x − 1) − (x2 + 1)(2x)
2
=
(x2 − 1)2
4x
=− 2 .
(x − 1)2

x2 + 2x + 4
Example 8.2.18 Find the derivative of f (x) = .
3x3 + 1
Solution: Let g = x2 + 2x + 4 and h = 3x3 + 1. Then

g 0 = 2x + 2 and h0 = 9x2 .

Therefore,

g 0 · h − g · h0
f 0 (x) =
h2
(2x + 2)(3x3 + 1) − (x2 + 2x + 4)(9x2 )
=
(3x3 + 1)2
6x4 + 6x3 + 2x + 2 − 9x4 − 18x3 − 36x2
=
(3x3 + 1)2
−3x − 12x − 36x2 + 2x + 2
4 3
= .
(3x3 + 1)2

Theorem 8.2.19 (The Chain Rule) Let h be a differentiable functions at

x and g be a differnatiable function at h(x). If f (x) = g(h(x)), then f is
differentiable at x and

f 0 (x) = g 0 (h(x)) · h0 (x).

Corollary 8.2.20 Let r be a rational number and let g be a differentiable

function at x. If f (x) = [g(x)]r , then f is differentiable at x and

f 0 (x) = r[g(x)]r−1 · g 0 (x).

 8

Example 8.2.21 Apply the chain rule to find the derivative of f (x) = (5x2 −
4x + 1)4 .

Solution: Let g = 5x2 − 4x + 1. Then g 0 = 10x − 4. Therefore,

f 0 (x) = r(g)r−1 · g 0
= 4(5x2 − 4x + 1)4−1 (10x − 4)
= (40x − 16)(5x2 − 4x + 1)3 .

p
Example 8.2.22 Apply the chain rule to find the derivative of f (x) = 3
(5x2 − 4x + 1)2 .
p 2
Solution: Write f (x) = 3
(5x2 − 4x + 1)2 = (5x2 − 4x + 1) 3 .

Let g = 5x2 − 4x + 1. Then g 0 = 10x − 4.

Therefore,

f 0 (x) = r(g)r−1 · g 0
2 1
= (5x2 − 4x + 1)− 3 (10x − 4)
3
2
3
(10x − 4)
= 1
(5x2 − 4x + 1) 3
4
3
(5x − 2)
= √3
.
5x2 − 4x + 1

4
3x2 + 5

Example 8.2.23 Apply the chain rule to find the derivative of f (x) = .
4x + 7
3x2 + 5
Solution: Let g = . To find g 0 , let
4x + 7
u = 3x2 + 5 and v = 4x + 7.
Then
u0 = 6x and v 0 = 4.
Thus,
u0 v − uv 0 6x(4x + 7) − (3x2 + 5)4
g0 = = .
v2 (4x + 7)2
 9

Therefore,
f 0 (x) = r(g)r−1 · g 0
 2 4−1 
6x(4x + 7) − (3x2 + 5)4

3x + 5
=4
4x + 7 (4x + 7)2
 2 3 
12x2 + 42x − 22

3x + 5
=4
4x + 7 (4x + 7)2
8(6x2 + 21x − 11)(3x2 + 5)3
= .
(4x + 7)5

Sample Problem 8.2.24 Find the derivative using the theorems on differentiation.
4x2 − 5x + 1
1. f (x) = (x4 − 1)(x3 + 5) 2. f (x) =
x3 + 8
4 2 5 3 2 −3
3. f (x) = (x
√ + 3x + 4x − 8) p = (x − 2x + 1)
4. f (x)
4 3 3 3
5. f (x) = x − 2x − 6 6. f (x) = (x − 2x)
 2 3
4x + 1 1
7. f (x) = 8. f (x) = √
s x2 − 3 3x + 5
5 r
4 3x + 4 1
9. f (x) = 10. f (x) =
x2 − 3 x2 − 3

8.3 Implicit Differentiation

If a function f is defined by f = {(x, y) : y = 2x3 − 4x + 1}, then the
equation y = 2x3 − 4x + 1 defines the function f explicitly. There are some
functions which cannot be defined explicitly. For example, we cannot solve
the equation
x4 − 2x2 = y 6 − y 5 − y 3
for y in terms of x. A function f may exist such that if y = f (x), then the
equation above is satisfied, that is, the equation
x4 − 2x2 = [f (x)]6 − [f (x)]5 − [f (x)]3
holds for all x in the domain of f . In this case. the function f is defined
implicitly by the given equation.

The method of finding the derivative of a function defined implicitly is

called implicit differentiation.
 10

Example 8.3.1 Suppose that y is a differentiable function of a variable x

given by x3 + y 3 = 9. Find y 0 .

Solution: Differentiating both sides of the equation term by term, we get

3x2 + 3y 2 · y 0 = 0.
Solving for y 0 , we get
3x2 x2
y0 = − = − .
3y 2 y2
To better understand this example, let us consider another solution:

Because y is a function of x, let y = f (x) (replace y by f (x)).

x3 + y 3 = 9. ⇒ x3 + [f (x)]3 = 9.
Differentiate term by term, apply chain rule to the second term.
3x2 + 3[f (x)]3−1 · f 0 (x) = 0. ⇒ 3x3 + 3[f (x)]2 · f 0 (x) = 0.
Substitute y = f (x) and y 0 = f 0 (x).
3x3 + 3y 2 · y 0 = 0.
Solve for y 0 .
3x2 x2
3y 2 · y 0 = −3x3 . ⇒ y0 = − = − .
3y 2 y2

Example 8.3.2 Suppose that y is differentiable function of a variable x given

by x3 + y 2 = 5xy. Find y 0 .

Solution: Differentiating both sides of the equation term by term, we get

3x2 + 2yy 0 = 5y + 5xy 0 ).
Then
yy 0 − 5xy 0 = 5y − 3x2 .
Solving for y 0 , we get

0 5y − 3x2
y = .
2y − 5x
 11

Another solution:

Replace y by f (x).

x3 + y 2 = 5xy. ⇒ x3 + [f (x)]2 = 5x · f (x).

Differentiate term by term, apply chain rule to the second term and product
rule to the right side.

3x2 + 2[f (x)]2−1 · f 0 (x) = 5 · f (x) + 5x · f 0 (x).

Substitute y = f (x) and y 0 = f 0 (x).

3x3 + 2y · y 0 = 5y + 5x · y 0 .

Solve for y 0 .

2y · y 0 − 5x · y 0 = 5y − 3x3 . ⇒ (2y − 5x)y 0 = 5y − 3x3 .

Therefore,
5y − 3x3
y0 = .
2y − 5x

Example 8.3.3 Suppose that y is differentiable function of a variable x given

by 4x3 y − 2xy 3 = y 4 . Find y 0 .

Solution: Differentiating both sides of the equation term by term, we get

12x2 y + 4x3 y 0 − 2y 3 − 2x(3y 2 y 0 ) = 4y 3 y 0 .

Then
12x2 y + 4x3 y 0 − 2y 3 − 6xy 2 y 0 = 4y 3 y 0
⇒ 4x3 y 0 − 6xy 2 y 0 − 4y 3 y 0 = 2y 3 − 12x2 y
⇒ (4x3 − 6xy 2 − 4y 3 )y 0 = 2y 3 − 12x2 y

Therefore,
2y 3 − 12x2 y y 3 − 6x2 y
y0 = = .
4x3 − 6xy 2 − 4y 3 2x3 − 3xy 2 − 2y 3
 12

Sample Problem 8.3.5 Suppose that y is differentiable function of a variable

x. Find y 0 .
1. 4x3 − 9y 3 = 2 2. x√3
y + 4xy 3 = 2
2 2 2 2 √
3. x y = x + y 4. x + y = 1
2 2
5. + = 3x 6. x sin y + y cos x = 1
x y
7. cot xy + xy = 0 8. y = cos(x − y)

8.4 Geometric Interpretation of a Derivative

Let a curve be given by a function y = f (x), and let P0 (x0 , y0 ) and
P (x0 + h, y0 + h), where h is a real number. Then P0 is the point (x0 , f (x0 ))
and P is the point P (x0 + h, f (x0 + h)). Draw a secant line Lh through P0
and P . The slope of Lh is
f (x0 + h) − f (x) f (x0 + h) − f (x)
mLh = = .
x0 + h − x0 h
As h tends to zero, we see that the point P slides along the curve and tends to
the point P0 and the secant line Lh rotates about the point P0 . Intuitively, as
h tends to zero, the secant line Lh tends to a limiting line called the tangent
line to the curve at the point P0 . If the function f is differentiable at x0 , then
f (x0 + h) − f (x)
lim mLh = lim = f 0 (x0 ).
h→0 h→0 x0 + h − x0
This means that the slope mLh of the line Lh tend to the limiting slope which
is f 0 (x0 ). The limiting position of Lh is the tangent line to the curve at P0 .
Hence, f 0 (x0 ) is the slope of the tangent line to the curve at the point P0 .
Definition 8.4.1 Let f be a function such that f 0 (x0 ) exists. Then the tangent
line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P0 (x0 , y0 ) is the line through P0 having
slope mT = f 0 (x0 ).
Definition 8.4.2 Let f be a function such that f 0 (x0 ) exists. Then the normal
line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P0 (x0 , y0 ) is the line through P0
perpendicular to the tangent line to the curve at P0 .
If f 0 (x0 ) exists and not zero, then the slope of the normal line is mN =
− m1T 1
− f 0 (x 0)
.
Example 8.4.3 Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal line to
the curve y = f (x) = x2 − 4x + 7 at the point P0 (3, 4).

Solution: f 0 (x) = 2x − 3. Then

 13

1
mT = f 0 (x0 ) = 2x0 − 3 and mN = − .
mT
Substitute x0 = 3 to solve for the slopes.
1
mT = 2(3) − 3 = 3 and mN = − .
3
Use the point-slope form with x0 = 3 and y0 = 4.
y − y0 = mT (x − x0 ) ⇒ y − 4 = 3(x − 3) ⇒ 3x − y − 5 = 0
and
y − y0 = mN (x − x0 ) ⇒ y − 4 = − 31 (x − 3) ⇒ x + 3y − 15 = 0.
Therefore, the equation of the tangent line is 3x − y − 5 = 0 and the equation
of the normal line is x + 3y − 15 = 0. 
Example 8.4.4 Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal line to
3
the curve y = f (x) = at the point where x0 = 1.
x
3
Solution: If x0 = 1, then y0 = f (1) = = 3.
1
3 3
f (x) = = 3x−1 . Then f 0 (x) = −3x−1−1 = −3x−2 = − 2 . Thus,
x x
3 1
mT = − 2 and mN = − .
x0 mT
Substitute x0 = 1 to solve for the slopes.
1
mT = − (1)3 2 = −3 and mN = − −3 = 13 .
Use the point-slope form with x0 = 1 and y0 = 3.
y − y0 = mT (x − x0 ). ⇒ y − 1 = −3(x − 3). ⇒ 3x + y − 10 = 0.
and
y − y0 = mN (x − x0 ) ⇒ y − 1 = 31 (x − 3) ⇒ x − 3y = 0.
Therefore, the equation of the tangent line is 3x + y − 10 = 0 and the equation
of the normal line is x − 3y = 0. 
Example 8.4.5 Find √ the equations of the tangent line and the normal line to
the curve y = f (x) = 2x − 1 at the point where x0 = 1.
p √
Solution: If x0 = 1, then y0 = f (1) = 2(1) − 1 = 1 = 1.
1 1
f 0 (x) = (2x − 1)−1/2 (2) = √ . Then
2 2x − 1
 14

1 1
mT = √ and mN = − .
2x0 − 1 mT
Substitute x0 = 1.
1 1 1
mT = p = = 1 and mN = − = −1.
2(1) − 1 1 1

Use the point-slope form with x0 = 1 and y0 = 1.

y − y0 = mT (x − x0 ) ⇒ y − 1 = 1(x − 1) ⇒ x − y = 0

and

y − y0 = mN (x − x0 ) ⇒ y − 1 = −1(x − 1) ⇒ x + y = 0.

Therefore, the equation of the tangent line is x − y = 0 and the equation of

the normal line is x + y = 0. 

Example 8.4.6 Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal line to
the curve y = f (x) = 3 cos 2x at the point where x0 = π3 .
π π 2π 3
Solution: If x0 = , then y0 = f ( ) = 3 cos =− .
3 3 3 2
We have f 0 (x) = −6 sin 2x. Thus,
√
π
0 2π 3 1 2
mT = f ( ) = −6 sin = and mN = − 0 π = − √ .
3 3 2 f (3) 3
Using the point-slope form, we have
3
√
3
√ √
3π
y+ 2
= 2
(x − π3 ) ⇒ 3x − 2y − 3 − 3
=0

and
3
√ √
3 3
y+ 2
= − √23 (x − π3 ) ⇒ 2x + 3y + 2
− 2π
3
= 0.
√ √
Therefore, the equation of the tangent line is√ 3x − 2y − 3 − 33π = 0 and the
√
equation of the normal line is 2x + 3y + 3 2 3 − 2π
3
= 0. 

Example 8.4.7 Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal line to
the curve x2 + 3xy + y 2 = 5 at the point (1, −4).

Solution: We find the derivative by implicit differentiation.

 15

2x + 3y
2x + 3y + 3xy 0 + 2yy 0 = 0 ⇒ (3x + 2y)y 0 = −2x − 3y ⇒ y 0 = − .
3x + 2y
Thus,
2x0 + 3y0 1
mT = − and mN = − .
3x0 + 2y0 mT
Substitute x0 = 1 and y0 = −4.
2(1) + 3(−4) 1 1
mT = − = −2 and mN = − = .
3(1) + 2(−4) −2 2
Use the point-slope form with x0 = 1 and y0 = −4.

y − (−4) = −2(x − 1) ⇒ y + 4 = −2x + 2 ⇒ 2x + y + 2 = 0

and
1 1
y − (−4) = (x − 1) ⇒ y + 4 = (x − 1) ⇒ x − 2y − 9 = 0.
2 2
Therefore, the equation of the tangent line is 2x + y + 2 = 0 and the equation
of the normal line is x − 2y − 9 = 0. 

Sample Problem 8.4.8 Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal
line at the point corresponding to the value of x0 .
1. f (x) = −x3 + 3x + 1, x0 = 2 2. f (x) = x4 − 2x + 5, x0 = −1
x+1 √
3. f (x) = , x0 = 3 4. f (x) = 3 − x, x0 = −1
x−2
5. f (x) = e2x , x0 = 0 6. f (x) = ln(x − 2), x0 = 3
2 3
7. x + xy − 20 = 0, x0 = 2 8. f (x) = tan x, x0 = π4

8.5 Derivatives of Higher Order

If the function f is differentiable, then its derivative f 0 is called the
first derivative of f . If the function f 0 is differentiable, then its derivative
f 00 is called the second derivative of f . If the fu8nction f 00 is differentiable,
then its derivative f 000 is called the third derivative of f . The nth derivative
of the function f , denoted by f ( n), is the derivative of the (n-1)st derivative
of f , provided it exist.

Notations: Given y = f (x).

 16

y0 y 00 y 000 ... y n

f0 f 00 f 000 ... f n

dy d2 y d3 y dn y
...
dx dx2 dx3 dxn
Dx (f ) Dx2 (f ) Dx3 (f ) ... Dxn (f )

Example 8.5.1 Find all the derivatives of the function f (x) = 2x3 + 4x2 −
3x + 5.
Solution:
f 0 (x) = 6x2 + 4x − 3
f 00 (x) = 12x + 4
f 000 (x) = 12
f (4) (x) = 0
f (5) (x) = 0
f (n) (x) = 0 for n ≥ 4. 
√
Example 8.5.2 Find f 000 (x) if f (x) = x + 3.
Solution: √ 1
f (x) = 2x + 3 = (x + 3) 2
1 1 1 1
f 0 (x) = (x + 3) 2 −1 = (x + 3)− 2
2  2 
1 1 1 1 3
f 00 (x) = − (x + 3)− 2 −1 = − (x + 3)− 2
2 2 4
 
000 1 3 − 32 −1 3 5
Therefore, f (x) = − − (x + 3) = (x + 3)− 2 . 
4 2 8

x−1
Example 8.5.4 Find Dx4 (f ) if f (x) = .
x+1
Solution:
1(x + 1) − (x − 1)1 2
Dx (f ) = = = 2(x + 1)−2
(x + 1)2 (x + 1)2
Dx2 (f ) = −4(x + 1)−3 (1) = −4(x + 1)−3
Dx3 (f ) = 12(x + 1)−4 (1) = 12(x + 1)−4
48
Therefore, Dx2 (f ) = −48(x + 1)−5 (1) = − .
(x + 1)5
 17

Sample Problem 8.5.5

1. Find all the derivatives if f (x) = 2x4 + 3x3 + 4.
2. Find Dx3 (f ) if f (x) = (x + 1)5 .
3. Find Dx3 (f ) if f (x).
4. Find f 000 (x) if f (x) =.
5. Find Dx4 (f ) if f (x) =.
1
6. Find f 000 (x) if f (x) = .
x−1
 1

CHAPTER 9
DERIVATIVE OF TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

Learning Outcomes of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, the student must be able to:
1. find the derivative of the trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential, and
inverse trigonometric functions.
2. use logarithmic differention to find the derivative of some functions.

9.1 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Theorem 9.1.1 The following are the derivarives of the trigonometric functions.
(i) If f (x) = sin x, then f 0 (x) = cos x.
(ii) If f (x) = cos x, then f 0 (x) = − sin x.
(iii) If f (x) = tan x, then f 0 (x) = sec2 x.
(iv) If f (x) = cot x, then f 0 (x) = − csc2 x.
(v) If f (x) = sec x, then f 0 (x) = sec x tan x.
(vi) If f (x) = csc x, then f 0 (x) = − csc x cot x.

Example 9.1.2 Find the derivative of f (x) = sin x + cos x.

Solution: f 0 (x) = cos x − sin x. 

Example 9.1.3 Find the derivative of f (x) = sin x tan x.

Solution: Apply the derivative of the product.

Let g = sin x and h = tan x. Then g 0 = cos x and h0 = sec2 x.

Therefore,

f 0 (x) = g 0 h + gh0
= cos x tan x + sin x sec2 x
sin x
= cos x · + sin x sec2 x
cos x
= sin x + sin x sec2 x
= sin x(1 + sec2 x). 
 2

Example 9.1.4 Find the derivative of f (x) = 4x2 cot x.

Solution: Apply the derivative of the product.

Let g = 4x2 and h = cot x. Then g 0 = 8x and h0 = − csc2 x.

Therefore,

f 0 (x) = g 0 h + gh0
= 8x cot x + 4x2 (− csc2 x)
= 4x(2x cot x − x csc2 x). 

sin x
Example 9.1.5 Find the derivative of f (x) = .
cos x − 1
Solution: Apply the derivative of the quotient.
Let g = sin x and h = cos x − 1. Then g 0 = cos x and h0 = − sin x.

Therefore,

g 0 h − gh0
f 0 (x) =
h2
cos x(cos x − 1) − sin x(− sin x)
=
(cos x − 1)2
cos2 x − cos x + sin2 x
=
(cos x − 1)2
cos2 x + sin2 x − cos x
=
(cos x − 1)2
1 − cos x
=
(1 − cos x)2
1
= .
1 − cos x

Example 9.1.6 Find the derivative of f (x) = cot x csc x.

Solution: Apply the derivative of the product.

Let g = cot x and h = csc x. Then g 0 = − csc2 x and h0 = − csc x cot x.
 3

Therefore,
f 0 (x) = g 0 h + gh0
= − csc2 x csc x + cot x(− csc x cot x)
= − csc x(csc2 x + cot2 x). 

Example 9.1.7 Find the derivative of f (x) = sec4 x.

Solution: f (x) = sec4 x = (sec x)4 . Apply the chain rule.

Let g = sec x. Then g 0 = sec x tan x.

Therefore,
f 0 (x) = n(g)n−1 · g 0
= 4(sec x)4−1 · sec x tan x
= 4(sec x)3 · sec x tan x
= 4(sec x)4 tan x
= 4 sec4 x tan x. 

√
3
Example 9.1.8 Find the derivative of f (x) = csc x.
√ 1
Solution: f (x) = 3 csc x = (csc x) 3 . Apply the chain rule.
Let g = csc x. Then g 0 = − csc x cot x.

Therefore,
f 0 (x) = n(g)n−1 · g 0
1 1
= (csc x) 3 −1 (− csc x cot x)
3
1 2
= − (csc x)− 3 csc x cot x
3
1 1
= − (csc x) 3 cot x
3
1 √
= − cot x 3 csc x. 
3

sin x − 1
Example 9.1.9 Find the derivative of f (x) = .
cos x + 1
 4

Solution: Apply the derivative of the quotient.

Let g = sin x − 1 and h = cos x + 1. Then g 0 = cos x and h0 = − sin x.

Therefore,
g 0 h − gh0
f 0 (x) =
h2
cos x(cos x + 1) − (sin x − 1)(− sin x)
=
(cos x + 1)2
cos2 x + cos x + sin2 x − sin x
=
(cos x + 1)2
cos2 x + sin2 x + cos x − sin x
=
(cos x − 1)2
1 + cos x − sin x
= .
(1 − cos x)2

Sample Problem 9.1.10 Find the derivative and simplify.

cot x
1. f (x) = cos x cot x 2. f (x) = 5x3 csc x 3. f (x) =
1 − sin x
1 √
4. f (x) = tan6 x 5. f (x) = 4
6. f (x) = cos x
cot3 x √
1 + sin x 3
7. f (x) = sec−6 x 8. f (x) = 9. f (x) = tan4 x
1 − sin x

Theorem 9.1.11 Let u be a differentiable function of x. Then

(i) If f (x) = sin u, then f 0 (x) = u0 cos u.
(ii) If f (x) = cos u, then f 0 (x) = u0 (− sin u).
(iii) If f (x) = tan u, then f 0 (x) = u0 sec2 u.
(iv) If f (x) = cot u, then f 0 (x) = u0 (− csc2 u).
(v) If f (x) = sec u, then f 0 (x) = u0 sec u tan u.
(vi) If f (x) = csc u, then f 0 (x) = u0 (− csc u cot u).

Example 9.1.12 Find the derivative of f (x) = sin(5x2 − 3x + 2).

Solution: Let u = 5x2 − 3x + 2. Then, u0 = 10x − 3.

Therefore,

f 0 (x) = u0 cos u = (10x − 3) cos(5x2 − 3x + 2). 

 5
 
4x + 2
Example 9.1.13 Find the derivative of f (x) = cos .
2x − 3
4x + 2
Solution: Let u = . Then
2x − 3
4(2x − 3) − (4x + 2)2
u0 = .
(2x − 3)2
Therefore,

f 0 (x) = u0 (− sin u)
  
4(2x − 3) − (4x + 2)2 4x + 2
= − sin
(2x − 3)2 2x − 3
  
8x − 12 − 8x − 4 4x + 2
= − sin
(2x − 3)2 2x − 3
  
−16 4x + 2
= 2
− sin
(2x − 3) 2x − 3
 
16 4x + 2
= sin .
(2x − 3)2 2x − 3

√
Example 9.1.14 Find the derivative of f (x) = tan 1 − x2 .
√
Solution: Let u = 1 − x2 = (1 − x2 )1/2 . Then
1
u0 = (1 − x2 )−1/2 (−2x) = −x(1 − x2 )−1/2 .
2
Therefore,

f 0 (x) = u0 sec2 u
√
= −x(1 − x2 )−1/2 sec2 1 − x2
x 2
√
=− sec 1 − x2
(1 − x2 )1/2
x √
= −√ sec2 1 − x2 . 
1 − x2

 
x
Example 9.1.15 Find the derivative of f (x) = csc .
x−1
x
Solution: Let u = . Then
x−1
 6

1(x − 1) − x(1) −1
u0 = 2
= .
(x − 1) (x − 1)2
Therefore,

f 0 (x) = u0 (− csc u cot u)

    
−1 x x
= − csc cot
(x − 1)2 x−1 x−1
   
1 x x
= csc cot .
(x − 1)2 x−1 x−1

p
3
Example 9.1.16 Find the derivative of f (x) = cot (5x + 4)2 .
p
Solution: Let u = 3
(5x + 4)2 = (5x + 4)2/3 . Then
2 10
u0 = (5x + 4)−1/3 (5) = (5x + 4)−1/3 .
3 3
Therefore,

f 0 (x) = u0 − csc2 u

10 −1/3
 p
2 3 2

= (5x + 4) − csc (5x + 4)
3
10 p
2 3
=− csc (5x + 4)2
3(5x + 4)1/3
10 p
=− √ 3
csc2 3 (5x + 4)2 . 
3 5x + 4

 
1
Example 9.1.17 Find the derivative of f (x) = sec √ .
1 + x2
1 1 2 − 21
Solution: Let u = √ = 1 = (1 + x ) . Then
1 + x2 (1 + x2 ) 2
1 1 3
u0 = − (1 + x2 )− 2 −1 (2x) = −x(1 + x2 )− 2 .
2
 7

Therefore,
f 0 (x) = u0 sec u tan u
   
2 − 32 1 1
= −x(1 + x ) sec √ tan √
1 + x2 1 + x2
   
x 1 1
=− 3 sec √ tan √
(1 + x2 ) 2 1 + x2 1 + x2
   
x 1 1
= −p sec √ tan √ .
(1 + x2 )3 1 + x2 1 + x2

Example 9.1.18 Find the derivative of f (x) = tan4 (x2 − 4).

Solution: Write f (x) = tan4 (x2 − 4) = [tan(x2 − 4)]4 .

Let g = tan(x2 − 4). Then let u = x2 − 4. Thus, u0 = 2x.

Hence,
g 0 = u0 sec2 u
= 2x sec2 (x2 − 4).
Therefore,
f 0 (x) = r(g)r−1 · g 0
= 4[tan(x2 − 4)]4−1 · 2x sec2 (x2 − 4)
= 8x sec2 (x2 − 4) tan3 (x2 − 4). 

Sample Problem 9.1.19 Find the derivative and simplify the result.
3 2
√ + 3x = 4x − 5)
1. f (x) = sin(2x 2. fp(x) = cos(x2 − 5x + 1)5
3. f (x) = tan 1 − 4x2 4. f (x) = cot 4 (x2 + 4)3
1−x 1
5. f (x) = sec 6. f (x) = csc √
1+x 1−x
1 − sin x
7. f (x) = sin 5x cos 5x 8. f (x) =
r cos x
tan x 1 − csc x
9. f (x) = 10. f (x) =
1 − sec x cot x

8.4 Derivatives of the Inverse Trigonometric Functions

 8

Theorem 8.4.1 Let u be a differentiable function of x.

u0
1. If f (x) = arcsin u, then f 0 (x) = √ .
1 − u2
u0
2. If f (x) = arccos u, then f 0 (x) = − √ .
1 − u2
u0
3. If f (x) = arctan u, then f 0 (x) = .
1 + u2
u0
4. If f (x) = arccot u, then f 0 (x) = − .
1 + u2
u0
5. If f (x) = arcsec u, then f 0 (x) = √ .
u u2 − 1
u0
6. If f (x) = arccsc u, then f 0 (x) = − √ .
u u2 − 1

Example 8.4.2 Find the derivative of f (x) = arcsin x2 .

Solution: Let u = x2 . Then u0 = 2x.

Therefore,

u0
f 0 (x) = √
1 − u2
2x
=p
1 − (x2 )2
2x
=√ .
1 − x4

√
Example 8.4.3 Find the derivative of f (x) = arccos 1 − x2 .
√
Solution: Let u = 1 − x2 = (1 − x2 )1/2 . Then
1 x
u0 = (1 − x2 )−1/2 (−2x) = − √ .
2 1 − x2
 9

Therefore,

u0
f 0 (x) = − √
1 − u2
x
−√
1 − x2
= −q √
1 − ( 1 − x2 )2
x
√
1 − x2
=p
1 − (1 − x2 )
x
√
1 − x2
=
x
1
=√ .
1 − x2

Example 8.4.4 Find the derivative of f (x) = arccos(sin x).

Solution: Let u = sin x. Then u0 = cos x.

Therefore,

0 u0
f (x) = − √
1 − u2
cos x
= −p
1 − (sin x)2
cos x
=−
cos x
= −1. 

1
Example 8.4.5 Find the derivative of f (x) = arctan .
x+1
1 1
Solution: Let u = = (x + 1)−1 . Then u0 = −1(x + 1)−2 = − .
x+1 (x + 1)2
 10

Therefore,
u0
f 0 (x) =
1 + u2
1
−
(x + 1)2
=  2
1
1+
x+1
1
−
(x + 1)2
=
(x + 1)2 + 1
(x + 1)2
1
=− 2 .
x + 2x + 2

2
Example 8.4.6 Find the derivative of f (x) = arccot .
x
2 2
Solution: Let u = . Then u0 = − 2 .
x x
Therefore,
u0
f 0 (x) = −
1 + u2
2
− 2
=− x 2
2
1+
x
2
2
= 2x
x +4
x2
2
= 2 .
x +4

√
Example 8.4.7 Find the derivative of f (x) = arcsec x2 + 4.
√ 1 1 x
Solution: Let u = x2 + 4. Then u0 = (x2 + 4)− 2 (2x) = √ .
2 x2 + 4
 11

Therefore,

u0
f 0 (x) = √
u u2 − 1
x
√
2
=√ qx√+ 4
x2 + 4 ( x2 + 4)2 − 1
x
= √ .
(x2 + 4) x2 + 3

√
Example 8.4.8 Find the derivative of f (x) = arccsc x.
√ 1
Solution: Let u = x. Then u0 = √ .
2 x
Therefore,

u0
f 0 (x) = − √
u u2 − 1
1
√
2 x
= −√ p √
x ( x)2 − 1
1
=− √ .
2x x − 1

Example 8.4.9 Find the derivative of f (x) = arccsc (e2x ).

Solution: Let u = e2x . Then u0 = 2e2x .

Therefore,

u0
f 0 (x) = − √
u u2 − 1
2e2x
=− p
e2x (e2x )2 − 1
2
= −√ .
4x
e −1
 12

Sample Problem 8.4.10 Find the derivative and simplify the result.
3x
1. f (x) = arcsin x3 2. f (x) = arccos
√ √ 1 − x2 √
3. f (x) = arcsin x + arccos x 4. f (x) = arcsec 1 + 4x2
2x √
3
5. f (x) = arctan 2
6. f (x) = arccsc 1 + x2
1+x
1−x
7. f (x) = arccot 8. f (x) = arctan x2 + arccot x2
√1 + x
9. f (x) = arcsec x 10. f (x) = arcsec 5x + arccsc 5x

8.5 Derivative of the Natural Logarithmic Function

Theorem 8.5.1 Let a and b be any positive real numbers. Then

1. ln(ab) = ln a + ln b
a
2. ln = ln a − ln b
b
3. ln ar = r ln a, where r is a rational number.

Theorem 8.5.2 Let u be a differentiable function of x and u > 0. If f (x) =

u0
ln u, then f 0 (x) = .
u
Example 8.5.3 Find the derivative of f (x) = ln(3x3 − 4x2 + 7).

Solution: Let u = 3x3 − 4x2 + 7. Then u0 = 9x2 − 8x.

Therefore,
u0 9x2 − 8x
f 0 (x) = = 3 .
u 3x − 4x2 + 7

Example 8.5.4 Find the derivative of f (x) = ln[(4x2 + 3)(2x − 1)].

Solution: Let u = (4x2 + 3)(2x − 1). Then u0 = 8x(2x − 1) + (4x2 + 3)2.

Therefore,
u0 8x(2x − 1) + (4x2 + 3)2 24x2 − 8x + 6
f 0 (x) = = = .
u (4x2 + 3)(2x − 1) (4x2 + 3)(2x − 1)

Example 8.5.5 Find the derivative of f (x) = ln[(4x2 + 3)(2x − 1)].

 13

Solution: Apply Theorem 8.5.1(1):

f (x) = ln[(4x2 + 3)(2x − 1)] = ln(4x2 + 3) + ln(2x − 1).

Let u = (4x2 + 3) and v = (2x − 1). Then u0 = 8x and v 0 = 2.

Therefore,
u0 v 0
f 0 (x) = +
u v
8x 2
= 2 +
4x + 3 2x − 1
16x2 − 8x + 8x2 + 6
=
(4x2 + 3)(2x − 1)
24x2 − 8x + 6
= .
(4x2 + 3)(2x − 1)

4x2 + 3x + 1
Example 8.5.6 Find the derivative of f (x) = ln .
2x − 5
Solution: Apply Theorem 8.5.1(2):
4x2 + 3x + 1
f (x) = ln = ln(4x2 + 3x + 1) − ln(2x − 5).
2x − 5
Let u = 4x2 + 3x + 1 and v = 2x − 5. Then u0 = 8x + 3 and v 0 = 2.

Therefore,
u0 v 0
f 0 (x) = −
u v
8x + 3 2
= 2 −
4x + 3x + 1 2x − 5
16x2 − 34x − 15 − 8x2 − 6x − 2
=
(4x2 + 3x + 1)(2x − 5)
8x2 − 40x − 17
= .
(4x2 + 3x + 1)(2x − 5)
√
Example 8.5.7 Find the derivative of f (x) = ln 4x2 − 2x − 5.

Solution: Apply Theorem 8.5.1(3):

√ 1
f (x) = ln 4x2 − 2x − 5 = ln(4x2 − 2x − 5)1/2 = ln(4x2 − 2x − 5).
2
 14

Let u = 4x2 − 2x − 5. Then u0 = 8x − 2.

Therefore,
0 1 u0
f (x) = ·
2 u
1 8x − 2
= ·
2 4x2
− 2x − 5
1 2(4x − 1)
= · 2
2 4x − 2x − 5
4x − 1
= 2 .
4x − 2x − 5

Example 8.5.8 Find the derivative of f (x) = ln(sin 3x).

Solution: Let u = sin 3x. Then u0 = 3 cos 3x.

Therefore,
0 u0
f (x) =
u
3 cos 3x
=
sin 3x
cos 3x
=3
sin 3x
= 3 cot 3x. 

Example 8.5.9 Find the derivative of f (x) = ln(sec x + tan x).

Solution: Let u = sec x + tan x. Then u0 = sec x tan x + sec2 x.

Therefore,
u0
f 0 (x) =
u
sec x tan x + sec2 x
=
sec x + tan x
(sec x)(sec x + tan x)
=
sec x + tan x
= sec x. 

Theorem 8.5.10 Let u be a differentiable function of x. If f (x) = ln |u|, then

u0 (x)
f 0 (x) = .
u(x)
 15

Example 8.5.11 Find the derivative of f (x) = (x2 − 1)4 (x + 1)5 .

Solution:
|f (x)| = |(x2 − 1)4 (x + 1)5 |
= |(x2 − 1)4 ||(x + 1)5 |.
Take logarithm on both sides and apply Theorem 8.5.1.
ln |f (x)| = ln |(x2 − 1)4 ||(x + 1)5 |

= ln |(x2 − 1)4 | + ln |(x + 1)5 |

= 4 ln |x2 − 1| + 5 ln |x + 1|.
Differentiating on both sides, we obtain
f 0 (x)
   
2x 1
=4 +5
f (x) x2 − 1 x+1
8x 5
= 2 + .
x −1 x+1
Therefore,
 
0 8x 5
f (x) = f (x) +
x2 − 1 x + 1
 
2 4 5 8x 5
= (x − 1) (x + 1) +
(x + 1)(x − 1) x + 1
 
2 4 5 8x + 5(x − 1)
= (x − 1) (x + 1)
(x + 1)(x − 1)
 
2 4 5 13x − 5
= (x − 1) (x + 1)
(x + 1)(x − 1)
2 3 4
= (x − 1) (x + 1) (13x − 5). 
√
2x + 5
Example 8.5.12 Find the derivative of f (x) = 2 .
(x − 3)2
Solution:
√ 1
2x + 5 (2x + 5) 2
f (x) = 2 = 2 .
(x − 3)2 (x − 3)2
Then
1
(2x + 5) 2
|f (x)| =
(x2 − 3)2
1
|(2x + 5) 2 |
= .
|(x2 − 3)2 |
 16

Take logarithm on both sides and apply Theorem 8.5.1.

1
!
|(2x + 5) 2 |
ln |f (x)| = ln
|(x2 − 3)2 |
1
= ln |(2x + 5) 2 | − ln |(x2 − 3)2 |
1
= ln |2x + 5| − 2 ln |x2 − 3|.
2
Differentiating on both sides, we obtain
f 0 (x)
   
1 2 2x
= −2
f (x) 2 2x + 5 x2 − 3
1 4x
= − 2 .
2x + 5 x − 3
Therefore,
 
0 1 4x
f (x) = f (x) −
2x + 5 x2 − 3
1 
(2x + 5) 2 x2 − 3 − 8x2 − 20x

= 2
(x − 3)2 (2x + 5)(x2 − 3)
1
(2x + 5) 2 −7x2 − 20x − 3
 
= 2
(x − 3)2 (2x + 5)(x2 − 3)
−7x2 − 20x − 3
= 1
(x2 − 3)3 (2x + 5) 2
(−7x2 − 20x − 3)
= 2 √ .
(x − 3)3 2x + 5
√
(x − 1)3 x + 1
Example 8.5.13 Find the derivative of f (x) = 2 .
(x − 2) 3
Solution:
√ 1
(x − 1)3 x + 1 (x − 1)3 (x + 1) 2
f (x) = 2 = 2 .
(x − 2) 3 (x − 2) 3
Then
1
(x − 1)3 (x + 1) 2
|f (x)| = 2
(x − 2) 3
1
|(x − 1)3 ||(x + 1) 2 |
= 2 .
|(x − 2) 3 |
 17

Take logarithm on both sides and apply Theorem 8.5.1.

1
!
|(x − 1)3 ||(x + 1) 2 |
ln |f (x)| = ln 2
|(x − 2) 3 |
1 2
= ln |(x − 1)3 | + ln |(x + 1) 2 | − ln |(x − 2) 3 |
1 2
= 3 ln |x − 1| + ln |x + 1| − ln |x − 2|.
2 3
Differentiating on both sides, we obtain

f 0 (x)
     
1 1 1 2 1
=3 + −
f (x) x−1 2 x+1 3 x−2
3 1 2
= + − .
x − 1 2(x + 1) 3(x − 2)

Therefore,
 
0 3 1 2
f (x) = f (x) + −
x − 1 2(x + 1) 3(x − 2)
1
(x − 1)3 (x + 1) 2 18(x + 1)(x − 2) + 3(x − 1)(x − 2) − 4(x − 1)(x + 1)
= 2 ·
(x − 2) 3 6(x − 1)(x + 1)(x − 2)
1
(x − 1)3 (x + 1) 2 17x2 − 27x − 26
= 2 ·
(x − 2) 3 6(x − 1)(x + 1)(x − 2)
(x − 1)2 (17x2 − 27x − 26)
= 1 5
(x + 1) 2 (x − 2) 3
(x − 1)2 (17x2 − 27x − 26)
= 5√ .
(x − 2) 3 x + 1

Sample Problem 8.5.14 Find the derivative and simplify the result.
1. f (x) = ln x3 − 3x2 − 5x 2. f (x) = ln (4 − x2 )(1 − 2x − 5x2 )
3
x +8 √
3. f (x) = ln 3 2
4. f (x) = ln 3 4 − x2
2x − 3x + 1
5. f (x) = ln tan
r x 6. f (x) = ln(cot x + cscx)
2
4 x − 1
7. f (x) = ln 2+1
8. f (x) = ln[(5x − 3)4 (2x2 + 7)3 ]
r x
x+2 (x + 2)2
9. f (x) = 3 10. f (x) = √
x+1 3
x−2
 18

8.6 Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function

Theorem 8.6.1 Let u be a differentiable function of x. If f (x) = eu(x) , then

f 0 (x) = u0 (x) · eu(x) .
3 +3x2 −1
Example 8.6.2 Find the derivative of f (x) = ex .

Solution: Let u = x3 + 3x2 − 1. Then u0 = 3x2 + 6x.

Therefore,
3 +3x2 −1
f 0 (x) = u0 · eu = (3x2 + 6x)ex .

Example 8.6.3 Find the derivative of f (x) = esin 3x .

Solution: Let u = sin 3x. Then u0 = 3 cos 3x.

Therefore,

f 0 (x) = u0 · eu = (3 cos 3x)esin 3x . 

√
x2 +1
Example 8.6.4 Find the derivative of f (x) = e .
√
Solution: Let u = x2 + 1 = (x2 + 1)1/2 . Then
1 x x
u0 = (x2 + 1)−1/2 (2x) = 2 1/2
=√ .
2 (x + 1) 2
x +1
Therefore,
√
x2 +1
f 0 (x) = u0 · eu = √ x
2
x +1
e . 

Sample Problem 8.6.5 Find the derivative√

and simplify the result.
3x2 −5x−1 x2 −1
1. f (x) = e 2. f (x) = e 3. f (x) = e5 cos 2x
√ ex − e−x
4. f (x) = ecot x 5. f (x) = esec x − e− sec x 6. f (x) = x
e + e−x

8.7 Derivatives of Other Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Theorem 8.7.1 Let u be a differentiable function of x and a a positive real

number. If f (x) = au(x) , then f 0 (x) = (ln a)u0 (x)au(x) .
 19

3 +3x2 −1
Example 8.7.2 Find the derivative of f (x) = 3x .

Solution: Let u = x3 + 3x2 − 1. Then u0 = 3x2 + 6x.

Therefore,

f 0 (x) = (ln a)u0 au

3 +3x2 −1
= (ln 3)(3x2 + 6x)3x
3 +3x2 −1
= ln 3(3x2 + 6x)3x .

Example 8.7.3 Find the derivative of f (x) = 2csc 3x .

Solution: Let u = csc 3x. Then u0 = 3(− csc 3x cot 3x) = −3 csc 3x cot 3x.

Therefore,

f 0 (x) = (ln a)u0 2u

= (ln 2)(−3 csc 3x cot 3x)2csc 3x
= −3 ln 2(csc 3x cot 3x)2csc 3x . 

Example 8.7.4 Find the derivative of f (x) = 3tan x−sec x .

Solution: Let u = tan x − sec x. Then u0 = sec2 x − sec x tan x.

Therefore,

f 0 (x) = (ln a)u0 au = (ln 3)(sec2 x − sec x tan x)3tan x−sec x . 

Theorem 8.7.5 Let u be a differentiable function of x and a a positive real

u0 (x)
number. If f (x) = loga u(x), then f 0 (x) = .
(ln a)u(x)

Example 8.7.6 Find the derivative of f (x) = log10 (3x2 − 1).

Solution: Let u = 3x2 − 1. Then u0 = 6x.

Therefore,
 20

u0 6x
f 0 (x) = = .
(ln a)u (ln 10)(3x2 − 1)

x
Example 8.7.7 Find the derivative of f (x) = log10 .
x+1
x 1(x + 1) − x(1) 1
Solution: Let u = . Then u0 = 2
= .
x+1 (x + 1) (x + 1)2
Therefore,
1
0
u (x + 1)2 1
f 0 (x) = = x = .
(ln a)u (ln 10) (ln 10)(x2 + x)
x+1

Sample Problem 8.7.8 Find the derivative √ and simplify the result.
3x2 −4x+5 x2 +1
1. f (x) = 5 2. f (x) = 2 3. f (x) = 4csc 3x
2
4. f (x) = 3sec x  5.
 f (x) = e
cot 5x−csc 5x
6. f (x) = log4 (3x2 − 2x)
1+x
7. f (x) = log10 8. f (x) = log2 (sin4 x)
1−x
 1

CHAPTER 10
APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE: ABSOLUTE
EXTREMUM, THE EXTREME VALUE THEOREM

Learning Outcomes of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, the student must be able to:
1. find the critical number and critical point of a function.
2. apply the Extremum Value Theorem to find the absolute extrema of a
function.
3. solve applications involving an absolute extremum on a closed intervall.

10.1 Critical Number and Critical Point of a Function

Definition 10.1.1 Let f be a function and c a real number in the domain of

f . If either f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) does not exist, then c is called a critical number
or a critical value of f . A critical point is a point (c, f (c)) on f corresponding
to the critical number c.

Suggestions for Finding the Critical Values and Critical Points of a

Function

There are two cases:

I. The derivative f 0 (x) does not involve a rational function.
(1) Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x.
(2) If the value obtained in (1) is an element of D(f ), then this value
is a critical number of f .
(3) Substitute the critical value to the function to find the critical point.

II. The derivative f 0 (x) involves a rational function.

(1) Find the value/s of x that will make the denominator zero (assume
that one of the values is x = r). Consider the two cases:
Case (a) If x 6= r, then set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x, if any.
Case (b) If x = r, then f 0 (r) does not exists.
(2) If the value obtained in Case (a) and r are elements of D(f ), then
these values are critical numbers of f .
(3) Substitute the critical value to the function to find the critical point.
 2

In this chapter, let us denote by S the set of all critical numbers of

f , if there is any.

Example 10.1.2 Find the critical number and critical point of the function
defined by f (x) = x2 − 4x.

Solution: D(f ) = R.

f 0 (x) = 2x − 4. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ D(f ).

S = {x ∈ D(f ) : f 0 (x) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 2x − 4 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x = 2}
= {2}.

Thus, 2 is a critical number of f .

Calculate f (2):

If x = 2, then f (2) = (2)2 − 4(2) = 4 − 8 = −4.

Therefore, the critical number of f is 2 and the critical point is (2, −4). 

Example 10.1.3 Find the critical numbers and critical points of the function
defined by f (x) = x3 − 3x2 .

Solution: D(f ) = R.

f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 6x. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ D(f ).

S = {x ∈ D(f ) : f 0 (x) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 3x2 − 6x = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 3x(x − 2) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 3x = 0 or x − 2 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x = 0 or x = 2}
= {0, 2}.

Thus, 0 and 2 are critical numbers of f :

 3

Calculate f (0) and f (2):

If x = 0, then f (0) = (0)3 − 3(0)2 = 0.

If x = 2, then f (2) = (2)3 − 3(2)2 = 8 − 12 = −4.

Therefore, the critical numbers of f are 0 and 2; and the critical points are
(0, 0) and (2, −4). 

Example 10.1.4 Find the critical numbers and critical points of the function
defined by f (x) = x4/3 + 4x1/3 .

Solution: D(f ) = R.
 
4 4 4 1 4(x + 1)
f (x) = x1/3 + x−2/3 =
0 1/3
x + 2/3 = .
3 3 3 x 3x2/3
Because the denominator 3x2/3 is 0 if x = 0, let us consider two cases:

Case 1. If x 6= 0, then 3x2/3 6= 0. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x.

S = {x ∈ D(f ) : f 0 (x) = 0}
 
4(x + 1)
= x∈R: =0
3x2/3
 
4(x + 1)
= x∈R: (3x ) = 0(3x ) , since 3x2/3 6= 0
2/3 2/3
3x2/3
= {x ∈ R : 4(x + 1) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x + 1 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x = −1}
= {−1}.

Thus, −1 is a critical number of f .

Case 2. If x = 0, then
4(0 + 1) 4
f 0 (0) = 2/3
= ∈/ R. Hence, f 0 (0) does not exist.
3(0) 0
Since 0 ∈ D(f ) = R, it follows that 0 is a critical number of f .
 4

Calculate f (−1) and f (0):

If x = −1, then f (−1) = (−1)4/3 + 4(−1)1/3 = 1 − 4 = −3.

If x = 0, then f (0) = (0)4/3 + 4(0)1/3 = 0.

Therefore, the critical numbers of f are −1 and 0, and the critical points are
(−1, −3) and (0, 0). 

Example 10.1.5 Find the critical numbers and critical points of the function
x2 − 3
defined by f (x) = .
x−2
Solution: D(f ) = {x ∈ R : x 6= 2} = (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, +∞).

2x(x − 2) − (x2 − 3)1 2x2 − 4x − x2 + 3 x2 − 4x + 3

f 0 (x) = = = .
(x − 2)2 (x − 2)2 (x − 2)2
Because the denominator (x − 2)2 is 0 if x = 2, consider two cases:

Case 1. If x 6= 2, then (x − 2)2 6= 0. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ R.

S = {x ∈ D(f ) : f 0 (x) = 0}
x2 − 4x + 3
 
= x ∈ (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, +∞) : 2
= 0 , note that (x − 2)2 6= 0
(x − 2)
2
 
x − 4x + 3 2 2
= x ∈ (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, +∞) : (x − 2) = 0(x − 2)
(x − 2)2
= {x ∈ (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, +∞) : x2 − 4x + 3 = 0}
= {x ∈ (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, +∞) : (x − 1)(x − 3) = 0}
= {x ∈ (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, +∞) : x − 1 = 0 or x − 3 = 0}
= {x ∈ (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, +∞) : x = 1 or x = 3}
= {1, 3}.

Thus, 1 and 3 are critical numbers of f .

Case 2. If x = 2, then
(2)2 − 4(2) + 3 −1
f 0 (2) = 2
= / R. Hence, f 0 (2) does not exist.
∈
(2 − 2) 0
 5

Since 2 ∈
/ D(f ) = (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, +∞), the value 2 is not a critical number of
f.

Calculate f (1) and f (3):

(1)2 − 3 1−3 −2
If x = 1, then f (1) = = = = 2.
1−2 −1 −1
(3)2 − 3 9−3 6
If x = 3, then f (3) = = = = 6.
3−2 1 1
Therefore, the critical numbers of f are 1 and 3; and the critical points are
(1, 2) and (3, 6). 

Example 10.1.6 Find

√ the critical number and critical point of the function
defined by f (x) = x − 1.

Solution: D(f ) = {x ∈ R : x − 1 ≥ 0} = {x ∈ R : x ≥ 1} = [1, +∞).

1 1 1
f 0 (x) = (x − 1)−1/2 (1) = 1/2
= √ .
2 2(x − 1) 2 x−1
√
Because the denominator 2 x − 1 is 0 if x = 1, let us consider two cases:
√
Case 1. If x 6= 1, then 2 x − 1 6= 0. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x.

S = {x ∈ D(f ) : f 0 (x) = 0}
√
 
1
= x ∈ [1, +∞) : √ = 0 , note that 2 x − 1 6= 0
2 x−1
√ √
 
1
= x ∈ [1, +∞) : √ ·2 x−1=0·2 x−1
2 x−1
= {x ∈ [1, +∞) : 1 = 0}
= { }.

Thus, there is no x ∈ D(f ) = [1, +∞) so that f 0 (x) = 0.

Case 2. If x = 1, then
1 1
f 0 (1) = √ = ∈/ R. Thus, f 0 (1) does not exist.
2 1−1 0
Since 1 ∈ D(f ), it follows that 1 is a critical number of f .
 6

Calculate f (1):
√
If x = 1, then f (1) = 1 − 1 = 0.

Therefore, the critical number of f is 1 and the critical point is (1, 0). 

Example 10.1.7 Find the critical numbers and critical points of the function
x−2
defined by f (x) = .
x+2
Solution: D(f ) = {x ∈ R : x 6= −2} = (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, +∞).

1(x + 2) − (x − 2)1 x+2−x+2 4

f 0 (x) = 2
= 2
= .
(x + 2) (x + 2) (x + 2)2
Because the denominator (x + 2)2 is 0 if x = −2, let us consider two cases:

Case 1. If x 6= −2, then (x + 2)2 6= 0. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x.

S = {x ∈ D(f ) : f 0 (x) = 0}
 
4
= x ∈ (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, +∞) : = 0 , note that (x + 2)2 6= 0
(x + 2)2
 
4 2 2
= x ∈ (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, +∞) : (x + 2) = 0(x + 2)
(x + 2)2
= {x ∈ (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, +∞) : 4 = 0}
= { }.

Thus, there is no x ∈ D(f ) = (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, +∞) so that f 0 (x) = 0.

Case 2. If x = −2, then

4 4
f 0 (2) = 2
= ∈/ R. Thus, f 0 (−2) does not exist.
(−2 + 2) 0
Since −2 ∈
/ D(f ) = (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, +∞), it follows that −2 is not a critical
number of f .

Therefore, the function f has no critical number and has no critical point. 

Sample Problem 10.1.8 Find the critical numbers and the critical points of
the function.
 7

1. f (x) = x2 − 6x 2. f (x) = x3 − 3x 3.f (x) = −2x3 + 9x2

2
x +3 x2 + 3
4. f (x) = x6/5 − 6x1/5 5. f (x) = 6. f (x) =
x−1 x+1
√ x+1 √
7. f (x) = x − 2 8. f (x) = 9.f (x) = 3 − x
x−1

10.2 Maximum and Minimum Values of a Function

Definition 10.2.1 The function f has an absolute maximum value on an
interval if there is some number c in the interval such that f (c) ≥ f (x) for all
x in the interval. The number f (c) is then the absolute maximum value of f
on the interval.
Definition 10.2.2 The function f has an absolute minimum value on an
interval if there is some number c in the interval such that f (c) ≤ f (x) for all
x in the interval. The number f (c) is then the absolute minimum value of f
on the interval.
An absolute extremum of a function on an interval is either an
absolute maximum value or an absolute minimum value of the function on the
interval.
Theorem 10.2.3 (The Extreme Value Theorem) If f is a function defined
on a closed interval [a, b], then there is at least one point in [a, b] where f has
a largest value and there is at least one point in [a, b] where f has a smallest
value.
Procedure for Determining the Absolute Extrema on [a, b]
(1) Find the critical numbers of f on (a, b).
(2) Find the function values at the critical numbers.
(3) Find the values f (a) and f (b).
(4) The largest of the values from (2) and (3) is the absolute maximum value
of f and the smallest of the values is the absolute minimum value of f .
Example 10.2.4 Given the continuous function f (x) = 3x2 + 6x + 1 on the
interval [−2, 0], find the absolute extrema of f .

Solution: f 0 (x) = 6x + 6. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ [−2, 0].

S− = {x ∈ [−2, 0] : f 0 (x) = 0}
= {x ∈ [−2, 0] : 6x + 6 = 0}
= {x ∈ [−2, 0] : x = −1}
= {−1}.
 8

Thus, −1 is a critical number of f on [−2, 0].

Calculate the function values f (−1), f (−2), and f (0):

If x = −1, then f (−1) = 3(−1)2 + 6(−1) + 1 = −2.

If x = −2, then f (−2) = 3(−2)2 + 6(−2) + 1 = 1.

If x = 0, then f (0) = 1.

Therefore, the absolute maximum value of f on the interval [−2, 0] is 1 and

the absolute minimum value is −2. 

Example 10.2.5 Given the continuous function f (x) = 31 x3 − x + 2 on the

interval [−2, 2], find the absolute extrema of f .

Solution: f 0 (x) = x2 − 1. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ [−2, 2].

S = {x ∈ [−2, 2] : f 0 (x) = 0}
= {x ∈ [−2, 2] : x2 − 1 = 0}
= {x ∈ [−2, 2] : (x + 1)(x − 1) = 0}
= {x ∈ [−2, 2] : x + 1 = 0 or x − 1 = 0}
= {x ∈ [−2, 2] : x = −1 or x = 1}
= {−1, 1}.

Thus, −1 and 1 are critical numbers of f on [−2, 2].

Calculate the function values f (−1), f (1), f (−2), and f (2):

If x = −1, then f (−1) = 13 (−1)3 − (−1) + 2 = 83 .

If x = 1, then f (1) = 13 (1)3 − 1 + 2 = 43 .

If x = −2, then f (−2) = 13 (−2)3 − (−2) + 2 = 43 .

If x = 2, then f (2) = 13 (2)3 − 2 + 2 = 83 .

8
Therefore, the absolute maximum value of f on the interval [−2, 2] is 3
and
the absolute minimum value is 43 . 
 9

Example 10.2.6 Given the continuous function f (x) = x3 − 3x2 − 9x on the

interval [−2, 1], find the absolute extrema of f .

Solution: f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 6x − 9. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ [−2, 1].

S = {x ∈ [−2, 1] : 3x2 − 6x − 9 = 0}
= {x ∈ [−2, 1] : 3(x2 − 2x − 3) = 0}
= {x ∈ [−2, 1] : x2 − 2x − 3 = 0}
= {x ∈ [−2, 1] : (x + 1)(x − 3) = 0}
= {x ∈ [−2, 1] : x + 1 = 0 or x − 3 = 0}
= {x ∈ [−2, 1] : x = −1 or x = 3}, note that 3 ∈
/ [−2, 1]
= {−1}.

Thus, −1 is the only critical number of f on [−2, 1].

Calculate the function values f (−1), f (−2), and f (1):

If x = −1, then f (−1) = (−1)3 − 3(−1)2 − 9(−1) = 5.

If x = −2, then f (−2) = (−2)3 − 3(−2)2 − 9(−2) = −2.

If x = 1, then f (1) = (1)3 − 3(1)2 − 9(1) = −11.

Therefore, the absolute maximum value of f on the interval [−2, 1] is 5 and

the absolute minimum value is −11. 

Sample Problem 10.2.7 Find the absolute extrema of f on the given interval.
1. f (x) = x2 − 2x − 2, [0, 2] 2. f (x) = x2 + 4x + 2, [−3, 0]
3. f (x) = x3 − 3x2 − 1, [−2, 2] 4. f (x) = x3 + 3x2 − 9x, [−2, 2]
2x + 3
5. f (x) = x4 − 8x2 , [−1, 3] 6. f (x) = , [1, 4]
x−2

10.3 Applications Involving an Absolute Extremum on a Closed

Interval

We now apply the Extreme Value Theorem to problems involving an

absolute extremum of a function on a closed interval. The theorem asuures
us that a function that is continuous on a closed interval has an absolute
maximum value and an absolute minimum value on the closed interval.
 10

Elementary Geometric Formulas

(1) Circle of radius r: A = πr2 , C = 2πr.

(2) Circular sector of radius r and central angle α in radians: A = 12 r2 α.

(3) Triangle of base b and altitude h: A = 12 bh.

(4) Square of side x: A = x2 , P = 4x.

(5) Rectangle of length l and width w: A = lw, P = 2l + 2w.

(6) Trapezoid of bases b and B and altitude h: A = 21 (B + b)h.

(7) Rectangular box of length l, width w, and altitude h:

V = lwh
A = 2lw + 2lh + 2wh (closed rectangular box)
A = lw + 2lh + 2wh (open top, closed bottom)
A = 2lh + 2wh (open top and bottom)

(8) Right circular cylinder of base radius r and altitude h:

V = πr2 h
A = 2πrh (open top and bottom)
A = 2πrh + πr2 (open top, closed bottom)
A = 2πrh + 2πr2 (closed top and bottom)

(9) Right circular cone of base√radius r and altitude h:

V = 13 πr2 h, A = πr r2 + h2

(10) Sphere of radius r: V = 34 πr3 , A = 4πr2 .

Example 10.3.1 Find two numbers in the interval [2, 10] whose sum is 12
such that their product is an absolute maximum.

Solution: Let x and y be the two nonnegative numbers, and let P be their
product. Then

P = xy and x + y = 12.

Solving for y in x + y = 12, we have y = 12 − x. Thus,

 11

P = x(12 − x) = 12x − x2 .
Hence, P is a function of x given by
P (x) = 12x − x2 , for all x ∈ [2, 10].
P 0 (x) = 12 − 2x. Set P 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ [2, 10].

S = {x ∈ [2, 10] : P 0 (x) = 0}

= {x ∈ [2, 10] : 12 − 2x = 0}
= {x ∈ [2, 10] : 2x = 12}
= {x ∈ [2, 10] : x = 6}
= {6}.

Thus, x = 6 is a critical number of P .

Calculate the function values P (6), P (2), and P (10).

If x = 6, then P (6) = 12(6) − (6)2 = 36.

If x = 2, then P (2) = 12(2) − (2)2 = 20.

If x = 10, then P (10) = 12(10) − (10)2 = 20.

The absolute maximum value of P on [2, 10] is P (6) = 36.

Solving for y, we get y = 12 − 6 = 6.

Conclusion: The absolute maximum product is 36, obtained when the two
nonnegative numbers are both 6. 

Example 10.3.2 Find the number in the interval [−1, 1] such that the difference
of the number and its square is an absolute minimum.

Solution: Let x be the number and T be the sum of the number and its square.
Then
T = x − x2 .
Hence, T is a function of x given by
T (x) = x − x2 , for all x ∈ [−1, 1].
 12

T 0 (x) = 1 − 2x. Set T 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ [−1, 1].

S = {x ∈ [−1, 1] : T 0 (x) = 0}
= {x ∈ [−1, 1] : 1 − 2x = 0}
= {x ∈ [−1, 1] : 2x = 1}
= {x ∈ [−1, 1] : x = 0.5}
= {0.5}.

Thus, x = 0.5 is a critical number of T .

Calculate the function values T (0.5), T (−1), and T (1).

If x = 0.5, then T (0.5) = 0.5 − (0.5)2 = 0.25.

If x = −1, then T (−1) = −1 − (−1)2 = −2.

If x = 1, then T (1) = 1 − (1)2 = 0.

The absolute minimum value of T on [−1, 1] is T (−1) = −2.

Conclusion: The absolute minimum difference of the number and its square
is −2, obtained when the number is −1. 

Example 10.3.3 A rectangular garden is to be fenced off with 32 meters of

fencing material. What dimensions will result with a largest possible area?
Let the domain of the function be [0, 16].

Solution: Let x be the length of the garden, y be the width of the garden, A
be the area of the garden, and P = 30 be the perimeter of the garden. Then

A = xy and P = 2x + 2y.

Since P = 32, we have 32 = 2x + 2y. Solving for y, we get

1
A = xy and y = (30 − 2x = 16 − x.
2
Thus,

A = x(16 − x) = 16x − x2 .

Therefore, A is a function of x given by

 13

A(x) = 16x − x2 , for all x ∈ [0, 16].

A0 (x) = 16 − 2x. Set A0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ [0, 16].

S = {x ∈ [0, 16] : A0 (x) = 0}

= {x ∈ [0, 16] : 16 − 2x = 0}
= {x ∈ [0, 16] : 2x = 16}
= {x ∈ [0, 16] : x = 8}
= {8}.

Thus, x = 8 is a critical number of A.

Calculate the function values A(8), A(0), and A(16).

If x = 8, then A(8) = 16(8) − (8)2 = 64.

If x = 0, then A(0) = 16(0) − (0)2 = 0.

If x = 16, then A(16) = 16(16) − (16)2 = 0.

The absolute maximum value of A on [0, 16] is A(8) = 64.

Solving for y, we get y = 16 − 8 = 8.

Conclusion: The largest possible area of the garden is 64 m2 , obtained when

the two sides are both 6 meters. 

Example 10.3.4 An open metal pan is to be made by cutting out squares of

the same size from the corners of a rectangular piece of metal 10 inches by 16
inches and turning up the sides. What should be the size of the squares cut
out if the box is to have as large as volume as possible? Let the domain of the
function be [0, 5].

Solution: Let x be the size of the square cut out. Then the width of the metal
pan is 10 − 2x, the length is 16 − 2x, and the altitude is x. Thus,the volume
V of the metal pan is

V = lwh = (16 − 2x)(10 − 2x)x = 4x3 − 52x2 + 160x.

The volume V of the metal pan is a function of x given by

V (x) = 4x3 − 52x2 + 160x, for all x ∈ [0, 5].

 14

V 0 (x) = 12x2 − 104x + 160. Set V 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ [0, 5].

S = {x ∈ [0, 5] : V 0 (x) = 0}
= {x ∈ [0, 5] : 12x2 − 104x + 160}
= {x ∈ [0, 5] : 4(3x2 − 26x − 40) = 0}
= {x ∈ [0, 5] : 3x2 − 26x − 40 = 0}
= {x ∈ [0, 5] : (x − 2)(3x − 20) = 0}
= {x ∈ [0, 5] : x − 2 = 0 or 3x − 20 = 0}
20 20
= {x ∈ [0, 5] : x = 2 or x = }, ∈/ [0, 5]
3 3
= {2}.
Thus, x = 2 is a critical number of V .

Calculate the function values V (2), V (0), and V (5):

If x = 2, then V (2) = 4(2)3 − 52(2)2 + 160(2) = 144.

If x = 0, then V (0) = 4(0)3 − 52(0)2 + 160(0) = 0.

If x = 5, then V (5) = 4(5)3 − 52(5)2 + 160(5) = 0.

The absolute maximum value of V on [0, 5] is 144 cubic inches, obtained when
x = 2.

Conclusion: The largest possible volume of the metal pan is 144 cubic inches,
obtained when the size of the square cut out is 2 inches. 

Sample Problem 10.3.5

1. Find the number in the interval [ 13 , 2] such that the sum of the number and
its reciprocal is a minimum.
2. Find the number in the interval [−1, 1] such that the sum of the number
and its square is a maximum.
3. A rectangle has a perimeter of 120 meters. What dimensions yield a
maximum area? Let the domain of the function be [10, 60].
4. A box with a square base is to have an open top. the area of the material
in the box is to be 100 square centimeters. What dimensions will yield a
maximum volume? Let the domain of the function be [0, 10].
5. The difernece between two numbers is 20. Find the numbers so that the
 15

product is as small as possible. Let the domain of the function be [5, 20].
6. A rectangular garden is to be fenced off with 100 meters of fencing material.
What dimensions will result with a largest possible area? Let the domain of
the function be [5, 50].
7. An open box is to be made from a square piece of cardboard of side 12 inches
by cutting out squares of the same size from the four corners and turning up
the sides. What should be the size of the squares cut out if the box is to have
as large as volume as possible? Let the domain of the function be [0, 6].
8. A rectangular field is to be fenced off with 240 meters of fencing material.
What dimensions will result with a largest possible area? Let the domain of
the function be [10, 100].
9. The sum of one number and four times a second number is 200. Find the
two numbers in the interval [50, 100] whose product is as large as possible.
10. A rectangular field with a stone wall on one side is to be fenced off with
800 meters of fencing material. What dimensions will result with a largest
possible area? Let the domain of the function be [100, 400].
 1

CHAPTER 11
APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE: RELATIVE
EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION

Learning Outcomes of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, the student must be able to:
1. determine whether the function is increasing or deceasing on an interval.
2. discuss the function for relative extrema using the definition, the first
derivative test, and the second derivative test

11.1 Increasing and Decreasing Functions on an Interval

Definition 11.1.1 A function f defined on an interval is increasing on that

interval if

f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 ,

where x1 and x2 are any real numbers in the interval.

Definition 11.1.2 A function f defined on an interval is decreasing on that

interval if

f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 ,

where x1 and x2 are any real numbers in the interval.

Example 11.1.3 Let f (x) = x2 +4. Then the graph of f is a parabola opening
upward with vertex at (0, 0). Therefore, f is decreasing on the interval (−∞, 0)
and is increasing on the interval (0, +∞).

Theorem 11.1.4 Let the function f be continuous on the open interval interval
I and f 0 (x) 6= 0 for all x ∈ I. Then either f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ I or f 0 (x) < 0
for all x ∈ I.

Theorem 11.1.5 Let the function f be continuous on the closed interval [a, b]
and differentiable on the open interval (a, b).
(i) If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x in (a, b), then f is increasing on [a, b].
(ii) If f 0 (x) < 0 for all x in (a, b), then f is decreasing on [a, b].
 2

Suggestions for Determining the Intervals where a Function is Increasing

or Decreasing
(1) Find f 0 (x).
(2) find the critical numbers of f .
(3) Divide the domain of f according to the critical numbers.
(4) Choose a value x0 in each of the intervals and calculate f 0 (x0 ).
(5) Apply Theorems 11.1.4 and 11.1.5:
If f 0 (x0 ) > 0, then f is increasing on the interval.
If f 0 (x0 ) < 0, then f is decreasing on the interval.

Example 11.1.6 Let f (x) = x2 − 4x + 2 be continuous and differentiable on

its domain, D(f ) = R. Determine the intervals on which f is increasing and
on which f is decreasing.

Solution: f 0 (x) = 2x − 4. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ D(f ) = R.

S = {x ∈ D(f ) : f 0 (x) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 2x − 4 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 2x = 4}
= {x ∈ R : x = 2}
= {2}.

Thus, 2 is a critical number of f .

Divide D(f ) = R into intervals according to the critical number 2:

)(
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

The intervals are: (−∞, 2) and (2, +∞).

Construct the following table.

Interval x0 f 0 (x0 ) Conclusion
(−∞, 2) x0 = 0 f 0 (0) = −2 < 0 f is decreasing on (−∞, 2)
(2, +∞) x0 = 3 f 0 (1) = 2 > 0 f is increasing on (2, +∞)
 3

Example 11.1.7 Let f (x) = x3 − 3x2 be continuous and differentiable on its

domain, D(f ) = R. Determine the intervals on which f is increasing and on
which f is decreasing.

Solution: f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 6x. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ D(f ) = R.

S = {x ∈ D(f ) : f 0 (x) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 3x2 − 6x = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 3x(x − 2) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 3x = 0 or x − 2 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x = 0 or x = 2}
= {0, 2}.

Thus, 0 and 2 are critical numbers of f .

Divide D(f ) = R into intervals according to the critical numbers 0 and 2:

)( )(
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

0 2

The intervals are: (−∞, 0), (0, 2), and (2, +∞).

Construct the following table.

Interval x0 f 0 (x0 ) = 3(x0 )2 − 6(x0 ) Conclusion
(−∞, 0) x0 = −1 f 0 (−1) = 9 > 0 f is increasing on (−∞, 0)
(0, 2) x0 = 1 f 0 (1) = −3 < 0 f is decreasing on (0, 2)
(2, +∞) x0 = 3 f 0 (2) = 9 > 0 f is increasing on (2, +∞)

Example 11.1.8 Let f (x) = 3x − x3 be continuous and differentiable on its

domain, D(f ) = R. Determine the intervals on which f is increasing and on
which f is decreasing.

Solution: f 0 (x) = 3 − 3x2 . Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ D(f ) = R.

 4

S = {x ∈ D(f ) : f 0 (x) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 3 − 3x2 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 3(1 − x2 ) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 1 − x2 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x2 − 1 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 1)(x − 1) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x + 1 = 0 or x − 1 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x = −1 or x = 1}
= {−1, 1}.
Thus, −1 and 1 are critical numbers of f .

Divide D(f ) = R into intervals according to the critical numbers −1 and 1:

)( )(
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

−1 1

The intervals are: (−∞, −1), (−1, 1), and (1, +∞).

Construct the following table.

Interval x0 f 0 (x0 ) = 3 − 3(x0 )2 Conclusion
(−∞, −1) x0 = −2 f 0 (−2) = −9 < 0 f is decreasing on (−∞, −1)
(−1, 1) x0 = 0 f 0 (0) = 3 > 0 f is increasing on (−3, 1)
(1, +∞) x0 = 2 f 0 (2) = −9 < 0 f is decreasing on (1, +∞)

Sample Problem 11.1.9 Let f (x) be continuous and differentiable function

on its domain, D(f ) = R. Determine the intervals on which f is increasing
and on which f is decreasing.
1. f (x) = x2 +6x+5 2. f (x) = −x2 +6x+4 3. f (x) = x3 −6x2 +20
4. f (x) = −x3 + 3x2 + 9x 5. f (x) = 2x3 + 9x 6. f (x) = x4 + 1

11.2 Relative Maximum and Relative Minimum Values

Definition 11.2.1 The function f has a relative maximum value at the

number c if there exists an open interval containing c, on which f is defined,
such that f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x in this interval.
 5

Definition 11.2.2 The function f has a relative minimum value at the number
c if there exists an open interval containing c, on which f is defined, such that
f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x in this interval.

If a function has either a relative maximum or a relative minimum value

at c, then f has a relative extremum at c.

Theorem 11.2.3 If f (x) exists for all x in the open interval (a, b), and if
f has a relative extremum at c, where a < c < b, and if f 0 (c) exists, then
f 0 (c) = 0.

Example 11.2.4 Discuss the function f (x) = x2 +4 for relative extrema using
the definition.

Solution: D(f ) = R.

f 0 (x) = 2x. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x.

S = {x ∈ D(f ) : f 0 (x) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 2x = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x = 0}
= {0}.

Thus, x = 0 is a critical number of f .

Calculate the function value f (0):

If x = 0, then f (0) = (0)2 + 4 = 4.

Construct the following table.

x −2 −1 0 1 2
f (x) 8 5 4 5 8
Conclusion f (0) < f (x)
Therefore, f has a relative minimum value at 0 and the relative minimum
value is f (0) = 4. 

Example 11.2.5 Discuss the function f (x) = x3 −3x2 −9x for relative extrema
using the definition.
 6

Solution: D(f ) = R.

f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 6x − 9. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ D(f ).

S = {x ∈ D(f ) : f 0 (x) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 3x2 − 6x − 9 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 3(x2 − 2x − 3) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x2 − 2x − 3 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 1)(x − 3) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x + 1 = 0 or x − 3 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x = −1 or x = 3}
= {−1, 3}.

Thus, x = −1 and x = 3 are critical numbers of f .

Calculate the function values f (−1) and f (3):

If x = −1, then f (−1) = (−1)3 − 3(−1)2 − 9(−1) = −1 − 3 + 9 = 5.

If x = 3, then f (3) = (3)3 − 3(3)2 − 9(3) = 27 − 27 − 27 = −27.

Construct the following table.

x −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
f (x) −2 5 0 −11 −22 −27 −20
Conclusion f (−1) > f (x) f (3) < f (x)

Therefore, f has a relative maximum value at x = −1 and the relative

maximum value is f (−1) = 5; and f has a relative minimum value at x = 3
and the relative minimum value is f (3) = −27. 

Example 11.2.6 Discuss the function f (x) = x3 − x2 − x for relative extrema

using the definition.

Solution: D(f ) = R.

f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 2x − 1. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ D(f ).

 7

S = {x ∈ D(f ) : f 0 (x) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 3x2 − 2x − 1 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : (3x + 1)(x − 1) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 3x + 1 = 0 or x − 1 = 0}
 
1
= x ∈ R : x = − or x = 1
3
 
1
= − ,1 .
3

Thus, x = − 13 and x = 1 are critical numbers of f .

Calculate the function values f (− 31 ) and f (1):

If x = − 13 , then f (− 13 ) = (− 13 )3 − (− 31 )2 − (− 13 ) = 5
27
.

If x = 1, then f (1) = (1)3 − (1)2 − 1 = −1.

Construct the following table.

x −1 − 31 0 1 2
5
f (x) −1 27
0 −1 2
Conclusion f (− 31 ) > f (x) f (1) < f (x)

Therefore, f has a relative maximum value at x = − 13 and the relative

5
maximum valuet is f (− 13 ) = 27 ; and f has a relative minimum value at x = 1
and the relative minimum value is f (1) = −1. 

Sample Problem 11.2.7 Discuss the function for relative extrema using the
definition.
1. f (x) = x2 +6x+5 2. f (x) = −x2 +6x+4 3. f (x) = x3 −6x2 +20
4. f (x) = −x3 + 3x2 + 9x 5. f (x) = 2x3 + 9x 6. f (x) = x4 + 1
 8

11.3 The First Derivative Test for Relative Extrema

Theorem 11.3.1 (The First Derivative Test for Relative Extrema) Let
the function f be continuous on the open interval (a, b) containing the number
c and suppose that f 0 exists at all points of (a, b) except possibly at c.
(i) If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x in some open interval having c as its right
endpoint, and if f 0 (x) < 0 for all x in some open interval having c as its left
endpoint, then f has a relative maximum value at c.
(ii) If f 0 (x) < 0 for all x in some open interval having c as its right
endpoint, and if f 0 (x) > 0 for all x in some open interval having c as its left
endpoint, then f has a relative maximum value at c.

Suggestions in Discussing the Relative Extrema

1. Find f 0 (x).
2. Find the critical number of f and the function value at the critical number.
3. Divide D(f ) into intervals according to the critical number of f .
4. Determine the interval on which the function is increasing and on which
the function is decreasing.
5. Write a conclusion:
If f is increasing from the left of the critical number and decreasing
from the right of the critical number, then f has a relative maximum
value at the critical number. The function value at the critical number is the
relative maximum value of f .
If f is decreasing from the left of the critical number and increasing
from the right of the critical number, then f has a relative minimum
value at the critical number. The function value at the critical number is the
relative minimum value of f .

Example 11.3.2 Let f (x) = x2 − 4x − 1 be continuous and differentiable on

its domain, D(f ) = R. Discuss for relative extrema using the First Derivative
Test.

Solution: f 0 (x) = 2x − 4. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ D(f ) = R.

S = {x ∈ D(f ) : f 0 (x) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 2x − 4 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x = 2}
= {2}.
 9

Thus, 2 is a critical number of f .

Calculate the function value f (2):

If x = 2, then f (2) = (2)2 − 4(2) − 1 = 4 − 8 − 1 = −5.

Divide D(f ) = R according to the critical number 2.

)(
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

The intervals are (−∞, 2) and (2, +∞).

Construct the following table.

Interval x f 0 (x) Conclusion
(−∞, 2) x=0 f 0 (0) = −4 < 0 f is decreasing on (−∞, 2)
x=2 f 0 (2) = 0
(2, +∞) x=3 f 0 (3) = 2 > 0 f is increasing on (2, +∞)
Conclusion: Since f is decreasing from the left of 2 and increasing from the
right of 2, by the First Derivative Test (FDT), f has a relative minimum value
at 2 and the relative minimum value of f is f (2) = −5. 

Example 11.3.3 Let f (x) = −x2 − 6x be continuous and differentiable on

its domain, D(f ) = R. Discuss for relative extrema using the First Derivative
Test..

Solution: f 0 (x) = −2x − 6. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ D(f ) = R.

S = {x ∈ D(f ) : f 0 (x) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : −2x − 6 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : −2x = 6}
= {x ∈ R : x = −3}
= {−3}.

Thus, −3 is a critical number of f .

Calculate the function value f (−3):

 10

If x = −3, then f (−3) = −(−3)2 − 6(−3) = −9 + 18 = 9.

Divide D(f ) = R according to the critical number x = −3.

)(
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

−3

The intervals are (−∞, −3) and (−3, +∞).

Construct the following table.

Interval x f 0 (x) Conclusion
(−∞, −3) x = −4 f 0 (−4) = 2 > 0 f is increasing on (−∞, −3)
x = −3 f 0 (−3) = 0
(−3, +∞) x=0 f 0 (−3) = −6 < 0 f is decreasing on (−3, +∞)
Conclusion: Since f is increasing from the left of -3 and decreasing from the
right of -3, by the First Derivative Test (FDT), f has a relative minimum
value at −3 and the relative minimum value of f is f (−3) = 9. 

Example 11.3.4 Let f (x) = 13 x3 − x2 − 3x be continuous and differentiable

on its domain, D(f ) = R. Discuss the function for relative extrema using the
First Derivative Test.

Solution: f 0 (x) = x2 − 2x − 3. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ D(f ).

S = {x ∈ D(f ) : f 0 (x) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x2 − 2x − 3 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 1)(x − 3) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x + 1 = 0 or x − 3 = 0.
= {x ∈ R : x = −1 or x = 3}
= {−1, 3}.
Thus, −1 and 3 are critical numbers of f .

Calculate the function values f (−1) and f (3):

If x = −1, then f (−1) = 31 (−1)3 − 2(−1)2 − 3(−1) = − 13 − 2 + 3 = 23 .

If x = 3, then f (3) = 13 (3)3 − 2(3)2 − 3(3) = 9 − 18 − 9 = −18.

 11

Divide D(f ) = R according to the critical numbers x = −1 and x = 3.

)( )(
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

−1 3

The intervals are (−∞, −1), (−1, 3), and (3, +∞).

Construct the following table.

Interval x f 0 (x) Conclusion
0
(−∞, −1) x = −2 f (−2) = 5 > 0 f is increasing on (−∞, −1)
x = −1 f 0 (−1) = 0
(−1, 3) x=0 f 0 (0) = −3 < 0 f is decreasing on (−1, 3)
x=3 f 0 (3) = 0
(3, +∞) x=4 f 0 (4) = 5 > 0 f is increasing on (3, +∞)

Conclusion:
1. Since f is increasing from the left of -1 and decreasing from the
right of -1, by the FDT, f has relative maximum value at −1 and the relative
maximum value is f (−1) = 23 .
2. Since f is decreasing from the left of 3 and increasing from the right
of 3, by the FDT, f has relative minimum value at 3 and the relative minimum
value is f (3) = −18. 

Example 11.3.5 Let f (x) = 4x−6x2/3 be continuous and differentiable on its

domain. Discuss the function for relative extrema using the First Derivative
Test.

Solution: D(f ) = R.
√
0 4 4( 3 x − 1)
−1/3
f (x) = 4 − 4x =4− √ = √ .
3
x 3
x
√
Because the denominator 3 x is zero if x = 0, consider the two cases:
√
Case 1. If x 6= 0, then 3
x 6= 0. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ D(f ).
 12

S = {x ∈ D(f ) : f 0 (x) = 0}
√
√
 
4( 3 x − 1)
= x∈R: √ = 0 , 3 x 6= 0
3
x
√
4( x − 1) √ √
 3

= x∈R: √ · x=0· x
3 3
3
x
√
= {x ∈ R : 4( 3 x − 1) = 0}
√
= {x ∈ R : 3 x − 1 = 0}
√
= {x ∈ R : 3 x = 1}
= {x ∈ R : x = (1)3 }
= {x ∈ R : x = 1}
= {1}.

Thus, 1 is a critical number of f .

Case 2. If x = 0, then
√
4( 3 0 − 1) −4
f (0) = √3
= ∈
/ R. Hence, f (0) does not exist.
0 0
Since 0 ∈ D(f ) = R, it follows that 0 is a critical number of f .

Calculate the function values f (0) and f (1):

If x = 0, then f (0) = 4(0) − 6(0)2/3 = 0.

If x = 1, then f (1) = 4(1) − 6(1)2/3 = 4 − 6 = −2.

Divide D(f ) = R according to the critical numbers 0 and 1.

)( )(
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

0 1

Consider the intervals (−∞, 0), (0, 1), and (1, +∞).

Construct the following table.

 13

Interval x f 0 (x) Conclusion

(−∞, 0) x = −1 f 0 (−1) = 8 > 0 f is increasing on (−∞, 0)
x=0 f 0 (0) does not exist
(0, 1) x = 81 f 0 ( 18 ) = −4 < 0 f is decreasing on (0, 1)
x=1 f 0 (1) = 0
(1, +∞) x=8 f 0 (8) = 2 > 0 f is increasing on (1, +∞)

Conclusion:
1. Since f is increasing from the left of 0 and decreasing from the right
of 0, by the FDT, f has relative maximum value at x = 0 and the relative
maximum value is f (0) = 0.
2. Since f is decreasing from the left of 1 and increasing from the right
of 1, by the FDT, f has relative minimum value at x = 1 and the relative
minimum value is f (1) = −2. 

Sample Problem 11.3.6 Given the function f , discuss for relative extrema
using the First Derivative Test.
1. f (x) = 2x2 +8x−1 2. f (x) = −3x2 +6x 3. f (x) = x3 +3x2 −9x
1
4. f (x) = −x3 − 3x2 5. f (x) = 14 x4 − x3 + x2 6. f (x) = x +
x

11.4 Second Derivative Test for Relative Extrema

Theorem 11.4.1 (Second Derivative Test for Relative Extrema) Let c

be a critical number of a function f and let f 00 (x) exists for all x in some open
interval containing c.
(i) If f 00 (c) > 0, then f has a relative minimum value at c.
(ii) If f 00 (c) < 0, then f has a relative maximum value at c.
Note that if f 00 (c) = 0, then the above test does not apply.

Suggestion for Dicussing for Relative Extrema Using the Second

Derivative Test
(1) Find f 0 (x).
(2) Find the critical number of f .
(3) Calculate the function value at the critical number.
(4) Find f 00 (x).
(5) Apply the Second Derivative Test: (Let c be a critical number of f )
If f 00 (c) > 0, then f has a relative minimum value at c.
If f 00 (c) < 0, then f has a relative maximum value at c.
 14

(6) Write a conclusion for the relative extremum. The relative extremum is
the function value at the critical point.

Example 11.4.2 Let f (x) = x2 − 4x − 1. Discuss for relative extrema using

the Second Derivative Test.

Solution: D(f ) = R.

f 0 (x) = 2x − 4. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ D(f ).

S = {x ∈ D(f ) : f 0 (x) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 2x − 4 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 2x = 4}
= {x ∈ R : x = 2}
= {2}.

Thus, 2 is a critical number of f .

Calculat the function value f (2).

If x = 2, then f (2) = (2)2 − 4(2) − 1 = −5.

f 00 (x) = 2. If x = 2, then f 00 (2) = 2 > 0.

Therefore, f has a relative minimum value at 2 and the relative minimum

value is f (2) = −5. 

Example 11.4.3 Let f (x) = −x3 + 32 x2 + 6x. Discuss for relative extrema
using the Second Derivative Test.

Solution: D(f ) = R.

f 0 (x) = −3x2 + 3x + 6. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ D(f ).

 15

S = {x ∈ D(f ) : f 0 (x) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : −3x2 + 3x + 6 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : −3(x2 − x − 2) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x2 − x − 2 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 1)(x − 2) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x + 1 = 0 or x − 2 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x = −1 or x = 2}
= {−1, 2}.

Thus, −1 and 2 are critical numbers of f .

Calculate the function values f (−1) and f (2).

If x = −1, then f (−1) = −(−1)3 + 23 (−1)2 + 6(−1) = − 72

If x = 2, then f (2) = −(2)3 + 32 (2)2 + 6(2) = 10.

f 00 (x) = −6x + 3.

We construct the following table.

Crit. Value f 00 (x) = −6x + 3 Conclusion
x = −1 f 00 (−1) = 9 > 0 f has a relative min. value at x = −1
x=2 f 00 (2) = −9 < 0 f has a relative max. value at x = 2

Conclusion: The relative minimum value of f is f (−1) = − 72 and the relative

maximum value is f (2) = 10. 

Example 11.4.4 Let f (x) = x3 − x2 − x. Discuss for relative extrema using

the Second Derivative Test.

Solution: D(f ) = R.

f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 2x − 1. Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ D(f ).

 16

S = {x ∈ D(f ) : f 0 (x) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 3x2 − 2x − 1 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : (3x + 1)(x − 1) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 3x + 1 = 0 or x − 1 = 0}
 
1
= x ∈ R : x = − or x = 1
3
 
1
= − ,1 .
3

Thus, x = − 13 and x = 1 are critical numbers of f .

Calculate the function values f (− 31 ) and f (1).

If x = − 13 , then f (− 13 ) = (− 13 )3 − (− 31 )2 − (− 13 ) = 5
27
If x = 1, then f (1) = (1)3 − (1)2 − 1 = −1.

f 00 (x) = 6x − 2.

We construct the following table.

Crit. Value f 00 (x) = 6x − 2 Conclusion
x = − 13 f 00 (− 13 ) = −4 < 0 f has a relative max. value at x = − 31
x=1 f 00 (1) = 4 > 0 f has a relative min. value at x = 1

Conclusion: The relative maximum value of f is f (− 13 ) = 5

27
and the relative
minimum value is f (1) = −1. 

Example 11.4.5 Let f (x) = 3x5 − 5x3 + 1. Discuss for relative extrema using
the Second Derivative Test.

Solution: D(f ) = R.

f 0 (x) = 15x4 − 15x2 . Set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ D(f ).

 17

S = {x ∈ D(f ) : f 0 (x) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 15x4 − 15x2 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 15x2 (x2 − 1) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 15x2 (x + 1)(x − 1) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 15x2 = 0 or x + 1 = 0 or x − 1 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x = 0 or x = −1 or x = 1}
= {0, −1, 1}.
Thus, x = 0, x = −1 and x = 1 are critical numbers of f .

Calculate the function values f (−1), f (0), and f (1).

If x = −1, then f (−1) = 3(−1)5 − 5(−1)3 + 1 = 3.

If x = 0, then f (0) = 3(0)5 − 5(0)3 + 1 = 1.

If x = 1, then f (1) = 3(1)5 − 5(1)3 + 1 = −1.

We have f 00 (x) = 60x3 − 30x.

We construct the following table.

Crit. Value f 00 (x) = 60x3 − 30x Conclusion
x = −1 f 00 (−1) = −30 < 0 f has a relative max. value at x = −1
x=0 f 00 (0) = 0 (the Second Derivative Test fails)
x=1 f 00 (1) = 30 > 0 f has a relative min. value at x = 1
Conclusion: The relative maximum value of f is f (−1) = 3 and the relative
minimum value is f (1) = −1.

We apply the First Derivative Test to the critical number x = 0.

Consider the following intervals: (−1, 0) and (0, 1).

We construct the following table.

Interval x f 0 (x) Conclusion
0
(−1, 0) x = − 21 f (− 21 ) = − 45
16
<0 f is decreasing on (−1, 0)
0 1
(0, 1) x = 21 45
f ( 2 ) = − 16 < 0 f is decreasing on (0, 1)
 18

Therefore, f has no relative extremum at x = 0. 

Sample Problem 11.4.6 Given the function f , discuss for relative extrema
by applying the Second Derivative Test.
1. f (x) = −4x3 + 3x2 + 18x 2. f (x) = x4 − 31 x3 − 32 x2
3. f (x) = 51 x5 − 23 x3 4. f (x) = x4 + 4x3
 1

CHAPTER 12
FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE

Learning Outcomes of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, the student must be able to:
1. discuss the function for concavity and find the point of inflection, if there
is one.
2. solve applications of relative extrema as an absolute extremum.
3. solve problems on related rates.

12.1 Concavity and Point of Inflection

Definition 12.1.1 The graph of the function f is said to be concave upward
on an interval I, if at each point of I the graph of f remains above the line
tangent to the curve at this point.

Definition 12.1.2 The graph of the function f is said to be concave downward

on an interval I, if at each point of I the graph of f remains below the line
tangent to the curve at this point.

Theorem 12.1.3 (The Second Derivative Test for Concavity) Let f be

a function such that f 00 (x) exists for every x in some open interval I.
(i) If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave upward
on I;
(ii) if f 00 (c) < 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave downward
on I.

Example 12.1.4 Consider the function f (x) = x2 + 1. The graph of f is

parabola opening upward. This implies that the graph of f is concave upward
for all values of x ∈ R. Calculate the derivatives: f 0 (x) = 2x and f 00 (x) = 2.
Thus, f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ R. Therefore, the graph of f is concave upward
for all x ∈ R.

Definition 12.1.5 The point (b, f (b)) is a point of inflection of the graph of
the function f if the graph has a tangent line there, and if there exists an open
interval I containing b such that if x is in I, then either
(i) if f 00 (x) < 0 if x < b and f 00 (x) > 0 if x > b; or
(ii) if f 00 (x) > 0 if x < b and f 00 (x) < 0 if x > b.
 2

Theorem 12.1.6 Suppose that the function f is differentiable on some open

interval containing b and (b, f (b)) is a point of inflection of the graph of f . If
f 00 (b) exists, then f 00 (b) = 0.

Remark 12.1.7 The point (b, f (b)) is a point of inflection of the graph of f if
(i) f 00 (b) = 0 or f 00 (b) does not exists, and
(ii) the graph of f is concave upward on one side of (b, f (b)) and concave
downward on the other.

Suggestion for Determining the Intervals of Concavity

(1) Find f 00 (x).
(2) Find the values of x in D(f ) for which f 00 (x) = 0 or f 00 (x) does not exists.
(3) Divide D(f ) into intervals according to the values obtained in (2).
(4) Choose one representative value in each interval obtained in (3) and substitute
to f 00 (x):
If f 00 (x) > 0, then the graph of f is concave upward on that interval.
If f 00 (x) < 0, then the graph of f is concave downward on that interval.

Example 12.1.8 Let f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 2. Determine where the graph

is concave upward and concave downward, and find the point of inflection of
the graph of f .

Solution: D(f ) = R.

f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 12x + 9 and f 00 (x) = 6x − 12.

Set f 00 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ D(f ).

{x ∈ D(f ) : f 00 (x) = 0} = {x ∈ R : 6x − 12 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 6x = 12}
= {x ∈ R : x = 2}
= {2}.

Calculate the function value f (2):

If x = 2, then f (2) = (2)3 − 6(2)2 + 9(2) + 2 = 4.

The graph of f may have a point of inflection at (2, 4).

 3

Divide D(f ) = R according to the number x = 2.

)(
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Consider the intervals (−∞, 2), and (2, +∞).

We construct the following table.

Interval x f 00 (x) Conclusion : The graph of f is
00
(−∞, 2) x=0 f (0) = −12 < 0 concave downward on (−∞, 2)
(2, +∞) x=3 f 00 (3) = 6 > 0 concave upward on (2, +∞)

Conclusion: Since the graph of f is concave downward from the left of 2

and concave upward from the right of 2, we conclude that (2, 4) is a point of
inflection of the graph of f . 

Example 12.1.9 Let f (x) = x4 − 6x2 . Determine where the graph is concave
upward and concave downward. Find the point of inflection of the graph of f .

Solution: D(f ) = R.

f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 12x and f 00 (x) = 12x2 − 12.

Set f 00 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ D(f ).

{x ∈ D(f ) : f 00 (x) = 0} = {x ∈ R : 12x2 − 12 = 0}

= {x ∈ R : 12(x2 − 1) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x2 − 1 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 1)(x − 1) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x + 1 = 0 or x − 1 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x = −1 or x = 1}
= {−1, 1}.

Calculate the function values f (−1) and f (1):

If x = −1, then f (−1) = (−1)4 − 4(−1)3 = 5.

If x = 1, then f (1) = (1)4 − 4(1)3 = −3.

 4

The graph of f may have points of inflection at (−1, 5) and (1, −3).

Divide D(f ) = R according to the numbers x = −1 and x = 1.

)( )(
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

−1 1

Consider the intervals: (−∞, −1), (−1, 1), and (1, +∞).

We construct the following table.

Interval x f 00 (x) Conclusion: The graph of f is
(−∞, −1) x = −2 f 00 (−2) = 36 > 0 concave upward on (−∞, −1)
(−1, 1) x=0 f 00 (0) = −12 < 0 concave downward on (−1, 1)
(1, +∞) x=2 f 00 (2) = 36 > 0 concave upward on (1, +∞)
Conclusion:
(1) Since the graph of f is concave upward from the left of -1 and
concave downward from the right of -1, we conclude that (−1, 5) is a point of
inflection of the graph of f .
(2) Since the graph of f is concave downward from the left of 1 and
concave upward from the right of 1, we conclude that (1, 3) is a point of
inflection of the graph of f . 
3
Example 12.1.10 Let f (x) = 2x + (x + 1) 5 . Determine where the graph is
concave upward and concave downward; and find the point of inflection of the
graph of f .

Solution: D(f ) = R.

3 2 6 7 6
f 0 (x) = 2 + (x + 1)− 5 and f 00 (x) = − (x + 1)− 5 = − 7 .
5 25 25(x + 1) 5
7
Because the denominator 25(x + 1) 5 is zero if x = −1, consider the two cases:
7
Case 1. If x 6= −1, then 25(x + 1) 5 6= 0. Set f 00 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ D(f ).
( )
6 7
{x ∈ D(f ) : f 00 (x) = 0} = x ∈ R : − 7 = 0 , note: 25(x + 1) 5 6= 0
25(x + 1) 5
= {x ∈ R : −6 = 0}
= { }.
 5

Thus, there is no x ∈ D(f ) = R so that f 00 (x) = 0.

Case 2. If x = −1, then

6 6
f (−1) = − 7 = / R. Hence, f 00 (−1) does not exist.
∈
25(−1 + 1) 5 0

We have −1 ∈ D(f ) = R.

Calculate the function value f (−1):

3
If x = −1, then f (−1) = 2(−1) + (−1 + 1) 5 = −2.

The graph of f may have a point of inflection at (−1, −2).

Divide D(f ) = R according to the number x = −1.

)(
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

−1

Consider the intervals: (−∞, −1), and (−1, +∞).

We construct the following table.

Interval x f 00 (x) Conclusion: The graph of f is
(−∞, −1) x = −2 f 00 (−2) = 25 6
>0 concave upward on (−∞, −1)
00 6
(−1, +∞) x=0 f (0) = − 25 < 0 concave downward on (−1, +∞)

Conclusion: Since the graph of f is concave upward from the left of -1 and
concave downward from the right of -1, we conclude that (−1, −2) is a point
of inflection of the graph of f . 
4 1
Example 12.1.11 Let f (x) = x 3 +4x 3 . Determine where the graph is concave
upward and concave downward, and find the point of inflection of the graph
of f .

Solution: D(f ) = R.

4 1 4 2 4 2 8 5 4x − 8
f 0 (x) = x 3 + x− 3 and f 00 (x) = x− 3 − x− 3 = 5 .
3 3 9 9 9x 3
 6

5
Because the denominator 9x 3 is zero if x = 0, consider the two cases:
5
Case 1. If x 6= 0 , then 9x 3 6= 0. Set f 00 (x) = 0 and solve for x.
 
00 4x − 8 5
{x ∈ D(f ) : f (x) = 0} = x ∈ R : 5 = 0 , note: 9x 3 6= 0
9x 3
= {x ∈ R : 4x − 8 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : 4x = 8}
= {x ∈ R : x = 2}
= {2}.

Thus, f 00 (2) = 0.

Case 2. If x = 0,
4(0) − 8 −8
f (0) = 5 = / R. Hence, f 00 (0) does not exist.
∈
9(0) 3 0
We have 0 ∈ D(f ) = R.

Calculate the function values f (0) and f (2).

4 1
If x = 0, then f (0) = (0) 3 + 4(0) 3 = 0
4 1 √
3
If x = 2, then f (2) = (2) 3 + 4(2) 3 = 6 2.
√
The graph of f may have points of inflection at (0, 0) and (2, 6 3 2).

Divide D(f ) = R according to the numders x = 0 and x = 2.

)( )(
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

0 2

Consider the intervals: (−∞, 0), (0, 2), and (2, +∞).

We construct the following table.

Interval x f 00 (x) Conclusion: The graph of f is
(−∞, 0) x = −1 f 00 (−1) = 43 > 0 concave upward on (−∞, 0)
(0, 2) x=1 f 00 (1) = − 43 < 0 concave downward on (0, 2)
(2, +∞) x=3 f 00 (3) = 814√ 3
3
>0 concave upward on (2, +∞)
 7

Conclusion:
(1) Since the graph of f is concave upward from the left of 0 and concave
downward from the right of 0, we conclude that (0, 0) is a point of inflection
of the graph of f .
(2) Since the graph of f is concave downward from √ the left of 2 and
concave upward from the right of 2, we conclude that (2, 6 3 2) is a point of
inflection of the graph of f . 

Sample Problem 12.1.12 Given the function f , determine where the graph
is concave upward and concave downward, and find the point of inflection of
the graph of f .
1. f (x) = x3 + 3x2 − 9x 2. f (x) = −x3 − 3x2 3. f (x) = 14 x4 − x3 + x2
1
4. f (x) = x + 5. f (x) = x4 + 4x3 6. f (x) = 3x5 − 5x3 + 1
x

12.2 Additional Applications Involving Absolute Extremum

In this section, we deal with applications involving absolute extrema

for which the Extreme Value Theorem cannot be applied.

Theorem 12.2.1 Let f be a function continuous on the interval I containing

the real number c. If f (c) is a relative extremum of f on I and c is the only
number in I for which f has a relative extremum, then f (c) is an absolute
extremum of f on I.

Example 12.2.2 Find the positive real number such that the sum of the
number and its reciprocal is a minimum.

Solution: Let x be the positive real number and T be the sum of the number
and its reciprocal. Then
1
T (x) = x + .
x
Because the number is a positive real number, D(T ) = (0, +∞). Thus,
1
T (x) = x + ; x ∈ (0, +∞).
x
1 x2 − 1
T 0 (x) = 1 − = .
x2 x2
 8

Because the denominator x2 is zero if x = 0, consider two cases.

Case 1. If x 6= 0, then x2 6= 0. Set T 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ (0, +∞).

S = {x ∈ (0, +∞) : T 0 (x) = 0}

x2 − 1
 
= x ∈ (0, +∞) : 2
= 0 , x2 6= 0
x
2

= x ∈ (0, +∞) : x − 1 = 0
= {x ∈ (0, +∞) : (x + 1)(x − 1) = 0}
= {x ∈ (0, +∞) : x + 1 = 0 or x − 1 = 0}
= {x ∈ (0, +∞) : x = −1 or x = 1}
= {1}.

Thus, x = 1 is a critical number of T .

Case 2. If x = 0, then
(0)2 − 1 −1
T 0 (0) = 2
= / R. Thus, T 0 (0) does not exist.
∈
(0) 0
Since 0 ∈
/ (0, +∞), the value 0 is not a critical number of T .
2
T 00 (x) = .
x3
Apply the Second Derivative Test to x = 1:
2 2
T 00 (1) = 3
= = 2 > 0.
(1) 1
Hence, x = 1 yields a relative minimum value. By Theorem 12.2.1, this relative
minimum value of T is the absolute minimum value.

Conclusion: The minimum of the sum of the number and its reciprocal is
obtained when the number is 1. 

Example 12.2.3 A manufacturer makes plastic cups of volume 10 cm3 in the

form of a right circular cylinder open at the top. Find the radius which use
the least material. Let the domain of the function be (0, +∞).

Solution: Let r be the radius, h the altitude, V the volume, and A the surface
area of the right circular cylinder open at the top. Then
 9

A = 2πrh + πr2 and V = πr2 h.

Substitute V = 10.

A = 2πrh + πr2 and 10 = πr2 h.

Solving for h, we get

10
A = 2πrh + πr2 and h= .
πr2
Thus,
 
2 10 20
A = 2πrh + πr = 2πr + πr2 = + πr2 .
πr2 r
The surface area A is a function of r given by
20
A(r) = + πr2 , r ∈ (0, +∞).
r
20 2πr3 − 20
A0 (r) = − + 2πr = .
r2 r2
Because the denominator r2 is zero if r = 0, consider two cases.

Case 1. If r 6= 0, then r2 6= 0. Set A0 (r) = 0 and solve for r ∈ (0, +∞).

S = {r ∈ (0, +∞) : A0 (r) = 0}

2πr3 − 20
 
= r ∈ (0, +∞) : =0 , r2 6= 0
r2
= r ∈ (0, +∞) : 2πr3 − 20 = 0

 
3 10
= r ∈ (0, +∞) : r =
π
( r )
3 10
= r ∈ (0, +∞) : r =
π
(r )
3 10
= .
π
q
3 10
Thus, r = π
is a critical number of A.

Case 2. If r = 0, then
 10

2π(0)3 − 20 −20
A0 (0) = 2
= / R. Thus, A0 (0) does not exist.
∈
(0) 0
Since 0 ∈
/ (0, +∞), the value 0 is not a critical number of A.
40
A00 (r) = + 2π.
r3
q
Apply the Second Derivstive Test to r = 3 10π
.
r !
3 10 40
A00 = q 3 + 2π = 6π > 0.
π 3 10
π
q
Hence, r = 3 10 π
yields a relative minimum value. By Theorem 12.2.1, this
relative minimum value of A is the absolute minimum value.

Conclusion:
q The least material to be used is obtained when the radius of the
3 10
cup is π
cm. 

Example 12.2.4 A sign containing 50 m2 of printed materials is required to

have margins of 4 m at the top and bottom and 2 m on each side. What are
the dimensions of the sign of least area? Let the domain of the function be
(4, +∞).

Solution: Let x be width, y the height, and A the area of the sign. Then

A = xy.

The area of the printed material is

50 = (x − 4)(y − 8).

Solving for y, we get

50 8x + 18
y= +8= .
x−4 x−4
Thus,
8x2 + 18x
 
8x + 18
A = xy = x = .
x−4 x−4
The area of the sign is a function of x given by
 11

8x2 + 18x
A(x) = , where x ∈ (4, +∞).
x−4
(16x + 18)(x − 4) − 1(18x + 18) 8x2 − 64x − 72
A0 (x) = = .
(x − 4)2 (x − 4)2
Because the denominator (x − 4)2 is zero if x = 4, consider two cases.

Case 1. If x 6= 4, then (x − 4)2 6= 0. Set A0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ (4, +∞).
S = {x ∈ (4, +∞) : A0 (x) = 0}
8x2 − 64x − 72
 
= x ∈ (4, +∞) : = 0 , (x − 4)2 6= 0
(x − 4)2
= x ∈ (4, +∞) : 8(x2 − 8x − 9) = 0


= x ∈ (4, +∞) : x2 − 8x − 9 = 0


= {x ∈ (4, +∞) : (x + 1)(x − 9) = 0}

= {x ∈ (4, +∞) : x + 1 = 0 or x − 9 = 0}
= {x ∈ (4, +∞) : x = −1 or x = 9}
= {9} .
Thus, x = 9 is a critical number of A.

Case 2. If x = 4, then
0 8(4)2 − 64(4) − 72 −72
A (4) = 2
= / R. Thus, A0 (4) does not exist.
∈
(4 − 4) 0
Since 4 ∈
/ (4, +∞), the value 4 is not a critical number of A.

(16x − 64)(x − 4)2 − 2(x − 4)(8x2 − 64x − 72 400

A00 (x) = 4
= .
(x − 4) (x − 4)3
Apply the Second Derivative Test to x = 9.
400
A00 (9) = = 80 > 0.
(9 − 4)3
Hence, x = 9 yields a relative minimum value. By Theorem 12.2.1, this relative
minimum value is the absolute minimum value.

8(9) + 18
Solving for y, we get y = = 18.
9−4
Conclusion: The area of the sign will be least when the width is 9 m and the
height is 18 m. 
 12

Example 12.2.5 An open box with a square base is to have a volume of 4

cubic meters. What should the dimensions be in order to make the area as
small as possible. Let the domain of the function be (0, +∞).

Solution: Let x be the width and the length, y the height, A the area of the
box, and V the volume of the box. Then
A = x2 + 4xy and V = x2 y.
Substitute V = 4.
A = x2 + 4xy and 4 = x2 y.
Solving for y, we get
4
A = x2 + 4xy and y= .
x2
Thus,
 
2 4 16
A = x + 4x = x2 + .
x2 x
The area is a function of x given by
16
A(x) = x2 + , where x ∈ (0, +∞).
x
3
16 2x − 16
A0 (x) = 2x − 2 = .
x x2
Because the denominator x2 is zero if x = 0, consider two cases.

Case 1. If x 6= 0, then x2 6= 0. Set A0 (x) = 0 and solve for x ∈ (0, +∞).

S = {x ∈ (0, +∞) : A0 (x) = 0}
2x3 − 16
 
= x ∈ (0, +∞) : =0 , x2 6= 0
x2
= x ∈ (0, +∞) : 2x3 − 16 = 0


= x ∈ (0, +∞) : 2x3 = 16



= x ∈ (0, +∞) : x3 = 8


= {x ∈ (0, +∞) : x = 2}
= {20} .
Thus, x = 2 is a critical number of A.

Case 2. If x = 0, then
 13

2(0)3 − 16 −16
A0 (0) = 2
= / R. Thus, A0 (0) does not exist.
∈
(0) 0
Since 0 ∈
/ (0, +∞), the value 0 is not a critical number of A.
32
A00 (x) = 2 + .
x3
Apply the Second Derivative Test to x = 2:
32
A00 (2) = 2 + > 0.
(2)3
Hence, x = 2 yields a relative minimum value. By Theorem 12.2.1, this relative
minimum value of A is the absolute minimum value.
4
Solving for y, we get y = = 1.
(2)2
Conclusion: The area will be least when the width is 2 m, the length is 2 m
and the height is 1 m. 

Sample Problem 12.2.6

1. A closed box with a square base is to have a volume of 1000 cubic inches.
Find the dimensions which yield a minimum area of the box. Let the domain
of the function be (0, +∞).
2. A right circular cone has a volume of 120 cm3 . what shape should it be in
order to have the smallest lateral surface area? Let the domain of the function
be (0, +∞).
3. The product of two positive numbers is 16. Determine them so that the
square of one plus the cube of the other is as small as possible.
4. Find the positive real number such that the sum of the square of the number
and twice its reciprocal is a minimum.
5. A cardboard poster containing 32 square cm of printed region is to have
a margin of 2 cm at the top and bottom, and 4/3 cm at the sides. Find the
dimensions of the cardboard that will used the least material. Let the domain
of the function be (4, +∞).
6. A closed right circular cylinder has a volume of 100 cm2 . What should the
dimensions be in order to provide the smallest possible sutface area? Let the
domain of the function be (0, +∞)
 14

12.3 Related Rates

In this section, let us consider problems where every quantity is a

function of time. Hence, we take derivatives of each quantity with respect
to time t. This derivative is called rate of change. Therefore, related rates
are problems involving rates of change of related variables.

Some Suggestions in Solving Problems Involving Related Rates

(1) Draw a diagram. Label any numerical quantities which remain fixed
throughout the problem.
(2) Denote all quantities which change with time by letters. a relation/s is
found among the quantities which vary and these relations must hold for all
time t.
(3) Differentiate the relation found in (2) with respect to t.
(4) Insert the values of the known quantities to get the desired result.

Convention. Let s be a function of time t.

ds
(i) If s increases with time t, then the rate carries a positive sign.
dt
ds
(ii) If s decreases with time t, then the rate carries a negative sign.
dt
Example 12.3.1 Water is flowing into a vertical cylindrical tank of radius 3
meters at the rate of 18 cubic meters per minute. How fast is the water level
rising?

Solution: At any time t, let r be the radius of the water, h the height of the
water and V the volume of the water in the cylindrical tank.

Since water is flowing into a tank at the rate of 18 cubic meters per
dV
minute, we have = 18.
dt
dh
We wish to find .
dt
At any time t, the volume of the water may be expressed as the volume
of the right circular cylinder.

V = πr2 h.
 15

The radius of the water is r = 3. Thus,

V = πr2 h
= π(3)2 h
= 9πh.

Differentiate both sides with respect to t.

dV dh
= (9π) .
dt dt
dV
When = 18, we have
dt
dh
18 = (9π) .
dt
Therefore,
dh
= 2.
dt
Conclusion: The water level is rising at the rate of 2 m/min. 

Example 12.3.2 Water is flowing at the rate of 4 m3 /min into a tank in the
form of an inverted cone of radius 10 m and altitude 20 m. How fast is the
water level rising when the water is 6 m deep?

Solution: At any time t, let r be the radius of the water, h the altitude of the
water, and V the volume of the water in the conical tank.
dV
Since water is flowing at the rate of 4 m3 /min, we have = 4.
dt
dh
We wish to find when h = 6.
dt
At any time t, the volume of the water may be expressed as the volume
of the right circular cone.
1
V = πr2 h.
3
By similar triangles (draw a figure),
r 10 h
= ⇔ r= .
h 20 2
 16

Thus,
 2
1 h 1
V = π h = πh3 .
3 2 12
Differentiate both sides with respect to t
 
dV 1 2 dh
= πh .
dt 4 dt
dV
When h = 6 and = 4, we have
dt
 
1 2 dh
4 = π(6) .
4 dt
Therefore,
dh 4
= .
dt 9π
4
Conclusion: The water level is rising at the rate of 9π
m/min when the water
is 6 m deep. 

Example 12.3.3 Two automobiles start from a point A at the same time.
One travels west 60 km/hr and the other travels south at 45 km/hr. How fast
is the distance between them changing 3 hr later?

Solution: At any time t, let s be the distance between the two automobiles, x
the distance travelled by the automobile going west and y the distance travelled
by the automobile going south.
dx
The rate of the automobile going west is = 60.
dt
dy
The rate of the automobile going south is = 45.
dt
ds
We wish to find when t = 3.
dt
At any time t, the distances travelled by the two automobiles and the distance
between them formed a right triangle. By the Pythagorean theorem,
s 2 = x2 + y 2 .
Differentiate both sides with respect to t.
 17

ds dx dy
2s = 2x + 2y .
dt dt dt
Thus,
ds dx dy
s =x +y .
dt dt dt
When t = 3,

x = 60(3) = 180, y = 45(3) = 135, and

p √
s= (180)2 + (135)2 = 50, 625 = 225.

Hence,
ds
225 = 180(60) + 135(45).
dt
Therefore,
ds
= 75.
dt
Conclusion: The distance between the two automobiles is changing at the
rate of 75 km/hr 3 hours later. 

Example 12.3.4 At noon of a certain day, ship A is 20 km due south of ship

B. Ship A sails east at 4 km/hr and ship B sails south at 3 km/hr. How
rapidly the distance between them changing 3 hr later?

Solution: At any time t, let s be the distance between ships A and B, x the
distance travelled by ship A, and y the distance travelled by ship B.
dx
Since ship A sails east at 4 km/hr, we have = 4.
dt
dy
Also, since ship B sails south at 3 km/hr, we have = 3.
dt
ds
We wish to find when t = 3.
dt
At any time t, the distance travelled by ship A, the distance 20−y (the distance
of ship B from the original position of ship A), and the distance between the
two ships formed a right triagle. By the Pythagorean theorem,
s2 = x2 + (20 − y)2 .
 18

Differentiate with respect to t.

ds dx dy
2s = 2x − 2(20 − y) .
dt dt dt
Thus,
ds dx dy
s =x − (20 − y) .
dt dt dt
When t = 3,
p √
x = 4(3) = 12, y = 3(3) = 9, and s = (12)2 + (9)2 = 225 = 15.

Hence,
ds
15 = 12(4) − (20 − 9)3.
dt
Therefore,
ds
= 1.
dt
Conclusion: The distance between the two ships is changing at the rate of 1
km/hr 3 hours later. 

Example 12.3.5 The top of 25 foot ladder, leaning against a wall, is slipping
down the wall at the rate of 1 ft/sec. How fast is the bottom of the ladder
slipping along the ground when the bottom of the ladder is 7 ft away from the
base of the wall?

Solution: At any time t, let x be the distance of the bottom of the ladder from
the base of the wall and y be the distance of the top of the ladder from the
ground (draw a figure).

Since the ladder is slipping down the wall at the rate of of 1 ft/sec (y
dy
decreases as t increases), we have = −1.
dt
dx
We wish to find when x = 7.
dt
At any time t, the distances x, y, and 25 formed a right triagle. By the
Pythagorean theorem,
x2 + y 2 = (25)2 .
 19

Differentiate with respect to t.

dx dy
2x + 2y = 0,
dt dt
Thus,
dx dy
+yx = 0.
dt dt
p √
When x = 7, y = (25)2 − (7)2 = 576 = 24.

Hence,
dx
7 + 24(−1) = 0.
dt
Therefore,
dx 24
= .
dt 7
Conclusion: The bottom of the ladder is slipping along the ground at the
rate of 24/7 ft/sec when the bottom of the ladder is 7 ft away from the base
of the wall. 

Sample Problem 12.3.6

1. Two automobiles start from the same point at hte same time. One travels
north at 50 km/hr and the other travels east at 35 km/hr. How fast is the
distance between them increasing 3 hr later?
2. A street light is 5 m above a sidewalk. A man 2 m tall walks away from the
point under the light at the rate of 2 m/sec. How fast is his shadow lengthening
when he is 7 m away fromm the point under the light?
3. Sand is isssuing from a spout at the rate of 3 m3 /min and falling on a
conical pile whose diameter at the base is always three times the altitude. At
what rate is the altitude increasing when the altitude is 4 m?
4. Water is leaking out of a conical tank (vertex down) at the rate of 0.5
m3 /min. The tank is 30 m across the top and 10 m deep. If the water level
is rising at the rate of 1.5 m/min, at what rate is water being poured into the
tank from the top?
5. The surface area of the sphere is increasing at the rate of 6π square inches
per second. How fast is the volume changing when the volume of the sphere
is 9π
2
cubic inches?
 20

6. A light is on the ground 40 m from the building. A man 2 m tall walks

from the light toward the building at 2 m/sec. How rapidly is his shadow on
the building growing shorter when he is 20 m from the building?
7. A balloon is being inflated at the rate of 15 m3 /min. At what rate is the
diameter increasing after 5 min? Assume that the diameter is zero at time
zero.
8. A rhombus with an acute angle of 45o has sides which are growing at the
rate of 2 cm/min, while always retaining the same shape. How fast is the area
changing when the sides are 10 cm?
 1

CHAPTER 13

ANTIDIFFERENTIATION

Learning Outcomes of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, the student must be able to:
1. apply the properties of antidifferentiation to find the antiderivative of a
function.
2. apply the antidifferentiation formulas to find the antiderivative of a function.
3. state and apply the chain rule for antidifferentiation to find the antiderivative
of a composite function.

13.1 Definition and Properties of Antidifferentiation

Definition 13.1.1 Let F and f be two real-valued functions defined on [a, b].
Then the function F is an antiderivative of f on [a, b] if F 0 (x) = f (x) for all
x ∈ [a, b].

Example 13.1.2 Let f : [−1, 1] → R defined by f (x) = 2x. Then the

functions F1 (x) = x2 , F2 (x) = x2 + 1, and F3 (x) = x2 − 1 for all x ∈ [−1, 1]
are antiderivatives of f (x) = 2x. If C is a constant, then the function F (x) =
x2 + C is an natiderivative of f (x) = 2x.

Theorem 13.1.3 If F and G are antiderivatives of a function f on [a, b], then

there exists a constant k such that F − G = k.

Theorem 13.1.4 Let F be an antiderivative of a function f on [a, b]. If G

is an antiderivative of f on [a, b]., then there exists a constant C such that
G = F + C.

Antidifferentiation is theR process of finding the set of all antiderivatives

of a given function. The symbol ” ” denotes the operation of antidifferentiation.
Thus, if F is an antiderivative of f , then we write
R
f (x)dx = F (x) + C,

where F 0 (x) = f (x) and d (F (x)) = f (x) dx. The expression

F (x) + C
 2

is the general antiderivative of f .

Example 13.1.5 Let f (x) = 2x. Then F (x) = x2 is an antiderivative of
f since F 0 (x) = 2x = f (x). Thus, x2 + C is a general antiderivative of f .
Therefore,
Z
2x dx = x2 + C.

Example 13.1.6 Let f (x) = 3x2 . Then F (x) = x3 is an antiderivative of

f since F 0 (x) = 3x2 = f (x). Thus, x3 + C is a general antiderivative of f .
Therefore,
Z
3x2 dx = x3 + C.

13.2 Antidifferentiation Formulas

Z
Theorem 13.2.1 dx = x + C.

xr+1
Z
Theorem 13.2.2 For any rational number r 6= −1, xr dx = + C.
r+1
Z
Example 13.2.3 Evaluate x3 dx.
Solution:
x3+1
Z
x3 dx = +C
3+1
x4
= +C
4
1
= x4 + C. 
4
Z
Example 13.2.4 Evaluate x−4 dx.
Solution:
x−4+1
Z
x−4 dx = +C
−4 + 1
x−3
= +C
−3
1
= − x−3 + C. 
3
 3
Z
1
Example 13.2.5 Evaluate √
3
dx.
x2
Solution:
Z Z
1 1
√
3
dx = 2/3
dx
x2 x
Z
= x−2/3 dx
2
x− 3 +1
= 2 +C
−3 + 1
x1/3
= 1 +C
3
√
= 3 3 x + C. 

Z Z
Theorem 13.2.6 For any real number a, af (x) dx = a f (x) dx.
Z
6
Example 13.2.7 Evaluate dx.
x4
Solution:
Z Z
6
dx = 6x−4 dx
x4
Z
= 6 x−4 dx
 −3 
x
=6 +C
−3
2
= − 3 + C. 
x

Theorem 13.2.8 Let f and g be real-valued functions on [a, b]. Then

Z Z Z
[f (x) + g(x)] dx = f (x) dx + g(x) dx.

Z
Example 13.2.9 Evaluate (x4 + x2 ) dx.
 4

Solution:
Z Z Z
4 2 4
(x + x ) dx = x dx + x2 dx
x5 x3
= + +C
5 3
1 1
= x5 + x3 + C. 
5 3

Theorem 13.2.10 Let f1 , f2 ,...,fn be real-valued functions on [a, b] and a1 ,

a2 ,...,an be real numbers. Then
Z Z Z
[a1 f1 (x) + ... + an fn (x)] dx = a1 f1 (x) dx + ... + an fn (x) dx.

Z  
4 6
Example 13.2.11 Evaluate 3x − 2 + 2 dx.
x
Solution:
Z   Z
6
3x − 2 + 2 dx = (3x4 − 6x−2 + 2) dx
4
x
Z Z Z
4 −2
= 3x dx − 6x dx + 2 dx
Z Z Z
4 −2
= 3 x dx − 6 x dx + 2 dx
 5  −1 
x x
=3 −6 + 2x + C
5 −1
3 6
= x5 + + 2x + C. 
5 x
Z  
3/2 4 3
Example 13.2.12 Evaluate x x − 5/3 dx.
x
Solution:
Z   Z Z
3
x 3/2 4
x − 5/3 dx = x 11/2
dx − 3x−1/6 dx
x
Z Z
= x 11/2
dx − 3 x−1/6 dx

x13/2
 5/6 
x
= 13 − 3 5 +C
2 6
2 18
= x13/2 − x5/6 + C. 
13 5
 5

8x2 + 3
Z
Example 13.2.13 Evaluate dx.
x2/3
Solution:
8x2 + 3 x2
Z Z Z
1
dx = 8 dx + 3 dx
x2/3 x2/3 x2/3
Z Z
= 8 x dx + 3 x−2/3 dx
4/3

 7/3   1/3 
x x
=8 7 +3 1 +C
3 3
24
= x7/3 + 9x1/3 + C. 
7

Z √ √ 
4 3 1
Example 13.2.14 Evaluate x 3 x −√
2 dx.
3
x
Solution:
Z √ √  Z
4 3 1
dx = x3/4 x2/3 − x−1/3 dx


x 3 x −√
2
3
x
Z Z
17/12
= x dx − x5/12 dx

x29/12 x17/12
= 29 − 17 +C
12 12
12 29/12 12 17/12
= x − x + C. 
29 17

Sample
Z √ Problem 13.2.15 Z Perform the antidifferentiation.
√
Z  
4 6x 1
1. 3
5 x dx 2. √
3
dx 3. 3
x− √ dx
x2 x 
√
Z Z 
1
4. 4x2 (3x3 − 5x2 + 2x) dx 5. x 3x2 + 6x − dx
x
2 + 3x − 4x2
Z   Z
2 3
6. − + 4 dx 7. √ dx
x3 x2 x

13.3 Chain Rule for Antidifferentiation

Theorem 13.3.1 Let g be a differentiable function on [a, b] and r be a rational

number with r 6= −1. Then
 6

[g(x)]r+1
Z
[g(x)]r g 0 (x) dx = + C.
r+1

Z
Example 13.3.2 Evaluate (x2 + 4)5 2x dx.

Solution: Let u = x2 + 4. Then du = 2x dx. Thus,

Z Z
(x + 4) 2x dx = u5 du
2 5

u6
= +C
6
1
= (x2 + 4)6 + C. 
6

Z
4
Example 13.3.3 Evaluate √3
dx.
3x − 2
Z Z
4
Solution: Write √
3
dx = 4 (3x − 2)−1/3 dx.
3x − 2
1
Let u = 3x − 2. Then du = 3dx ⇔ du = dx.
3
Hence,
Z Z
4
√3
dx = 4 (3x − 2)−1/3 dx
3x − 2
Z  
−1/3 1
=4 u du
3
Z
4
= u−1/3 du
3
4 u2/3
 
= 2 +C
3 3
= 2(3x − 2)2/3 + C.
p
= 2 3 (3x − 2)2 + C. 

Z √
Example 13.3.4 Evaluate (2x − 3) 2x2 − 6x + 5 dx.

Solution: Let u = 2x2 − 6x + 5. Then

 7

1
du = (4x − 6)dx ⇔ du = 2(2x − 3)dx ⇔ du = (2x − 3)dx.
2
Hence,
Z √ Z
(2x − 3) 2x − 6x + 5 dx = (2x2 − 6x + 5)1/2 (2x − 3)dx
2

Z  
1/2 1
= u du
2
1 u3/2
 
= 3 +C
2 2
1
= (2x2 − 6x + 5)3/2 + C.
3
1√ 2
= 2x − 6x + 5 + C. 
3
Z
x+3
Example 13.3.5 Evaluate dx.
(3 − x)2/3
Z Z
x+3
Solution: Write 2/3
dx = (x + 3)(3 − x)−2/3 dx.
(3 − x)
Let u = 3 − x. Then x = 3 − u and dx = −du.
Hence,
Z Z
x+3
dx = (3 − u + 3)(3 − x)−2/3 dx
(3 − x)2/3
Z
= (6 − u)u−2/3 (−du)
Z
= (u1/3 − 6u−2/3 ) du
 4/3
6u1/3

u
= 4 − 1 +C
3 3
 
3 4/3 1/3
= (3 − x) − 18(3 − x) + C.
4
3
= (3 − x)1/3 [(3 − x) − 24] + C.
4
3
= − (x + 21)(3 − x)1/3 + C. 
4
Z √
Example 13.3.6 Evaluate x3 x2 + 2 dx.
 8
Z
3
√ Z
Solution: Write x x2 + 2 dx = (x2 + 2)1/2 x3 dx.

Let u = x2 + 2. Then x2 = u − 2 and

1
2xdx = du ⇔ xdx = du.
2
Hence,
Z
3
√ Z
x x2 + 2 dx = (x2 + 2)1/2 x3 dx
Z
= (x2 + 2)1/2 x2 xdx
Z  
1/2 1
= u (u − 2) du
2
Z
1
= (u3/2 − 2u1/2 ) du
2
1 u5/2 2u3/2
 
= 5 − 3 +C
2 2 2
 
1 2 2 5/2 4 2 3/2
= (x + 2) − (x + 2) + C.
2 5 3
1 2
= (x2 + 2)5/2 − (x2 + 2)3/2 + C. 
5 3

Sample Problem 13.3.7 I. Perform

Z the antidifferentiation.
√
Z
1. 3
4x − 7 dx 2. x(3x2 + 5)4 dx
x2
Z Z
3. √ dx 4. y(y + 3)3/2 dy
4 − x 3
x5
Z Z
5. 3 − 4)2/3
dx 6. x3 (2 − x2 )3/4 dx
(x
Z r
x3
Z
1 dx
7. 1+ 2
8. 2 )3/2
dx
2x x (1 − 2x
Z p √ Z 2
1+ x x + 4x + 2
9. √ dx 10. dx
x (x + 2)2
 1

CHAPTER 14
ANTIDIFFERENTIATION OF TRANSCENDENTAL
FUNCTIONS

Learning Outcomes of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, the student must be able to:
1. perform antidifferentiation of some trigonometric and exponential functions.
2. perform antidifferention yielding the natural logarithmic and inverse trigonometric
functions.

14.1 Antidifferentiation of Some Trigonometric Functions

The following antidifferentiation formulas of some trigonometric functions

can be verified using the differentiation fiormulas for the trigonometric functions.

Theorem Z14.1.1 The following formulas hold:

(1) sin u du = − cos u + C.
Z
(2) cos u du = sin u + C.
Z
(3) sec2 u du = tan u + C.
Z
(4) csc2 u du = − cot u + C.
Z
(5) sec u tan u du = sec u + C.
Z
(6) csc u cot u du = − csc u + C.
Z
Example 14.1.2 Evaluate 3 cos x + 5 sin x) dx.

Solution:
Z Z Z
(3 cos x + 5 sin x) dx = 3 cos x dx + 5 sin x dx

= 3 sin x + 5(− cos x) + C

= 3 sin x − 5 cos x + C. 
 2
Z
Example 14.1.3 Evaluate csc(−3x) cot(−3x) dx.

Solution: Let u = −3x. Then du = −3dx ⇔ − 13 du = dx.

Hence,
Z Z  
1
csc(−3x) cot(−3x) dx = (csc u cot u) − du
3
Z
1
=− csc u cot u du
3
1
= − (− csc u) + C
3
1
= csc(−3x) + C. 
3

3 tan x + 5 cos2 x
Z
Example 14.1.4 Evaluate dx.
cos x
Solution:
3 tan x + 5 cos2 x cos2 x
Z Z Z
1
dx = 3 · tan x dx + 5 dx
cos x cos x cos x
Z Z
= 3 sec x tan x dx + 5 cos x dx

= 3 sec x + 5 sin x + C. 

Z
Example 14.1.5 Evaluate tan2 x dx.
Solution:
Z Z
2
tan x dx = (sec2 x − 1) dx
Z Z
2
= sec x dx − dx

= tan x − x + C. 

Z
Example 14.1.6 Evaluate cot 2x csc2 2x dx.
 3

1
Solution: Let u = cot 2x. Then du = −2 csc2 x dx ⇔ − du = csc2 x dx.
2
Hence,
Z Z  
2 1
cot 2x csc 2x dx = u − du
2
Z
1
=− u du
2
1 u2
=− · +C
2 2
1
= − cot 2x + C. 
4

Z
sin 3x
Example 14.1.7 Evaluate dx.
(1 − cos 3x)4
1
Solution: Let u = 1 − cos 3x. Then du = 3 sin 3x dx ⇔ du = sin 3x dx.
3
Hence,
Z Z
sin 3x
dx = (1 − cos 3x)−4 sin 3x dx
(1 − cos 3x)4
Z  
−4 1
= u du
3
Z
1
= u−4 du
3
1 u−3
 
= +C
3 −3
1
= − (1 − cos 3x)−3 + C.
9
1
=− + C. 
9(1 − cos 3x)3

Z
Example 14.1.8 Evaluate (tan 4x − cot 4x)2 dx.
1
Solution: Let u = 4x. Then du = 4 dx ⇔ du = dx.
4
 4

Hence,
Z Z
2 1
(tan 4x − cot 4x) dx = (tan u − cot u)2 du
4
Z
1
= (tan u − cot u)2 du
4
Z
1
= (tan2 u − 2 tan u cot u + cot2 u) du
4
Z
1
= (sec2 u − 1 − 2(1) + csc2 u − 1) du
4
Z
1
= (sec2 u + csc2 u − 4) du
4
Z Z Z
1 2 1 2
= sec u du + csc u du − du
4 4
1 1
= (tan u) + (− cot u) − u + C
4 4
1 1
= tan 4x − cot 4x − 4x + C. 
4 4

Z
Example 14.1.9 Evaluate (cos3 θ − cos θ) dθ.
Solution:
Z Z
3
(cos θ − cos θ) dθ = (cos2 θ − 1) cos θ dθ
Z
= (− sin2 θ) cos θ dθ
Z
= − (sin θ)2 cos θ dθ.

Let u = sin θ. Then du = cos θ dθ.

Therefore,
Z Z
3
(cos θ − cos θ) dθ = − u2 du
u3
=− +C
3
1
= − sin3 θ + C. 
3
 5

sec2 (1 − 4x) sin(1 − 4x)

Z
Example 14.1.10 Evaluate p dx.
1 − sec(1 − 4x)
1
Solution: Let u = 1 − 4x. Then du = −4 dx ⇔ − du = dx.
4
Hence,
sec2 (1 − 4x) sin(1 − 4x) sec2 u sin u
Z Z  
1
p dx = √ − du
1 − sec(1 − 4x) 1 − sec u 4
Z
1 sec u sec u sin u
=− √ du
4 1 − sec u
Z sec u · 1 · sin u
1
=− √ cos u du
4 1 − sec u
Z
1 sec u tan u
=− √ du
4 1 − sec u
Z
1
=− (1 − sec u)−1/2 sec u tan u du
4
Let v = 1 − sec u. Then
dv = − sec u tan u du ⇔ −dv = sec u tan u du.
Therefore,
sec2 (1 − 4x) sin(1 − 4x)
Z Z
1
p dx = − v −1/2 (−dv)
1 − sec(1 − 4x) 4
1 v 1/2
= · 1 +C
4 2
1
= (1 − sec u)1/2 + C
2
1
= [1 − sec(1 − 4x)]1/2 + C
2
1p
= 1 − sec(1 − 4x) + C. 
2

Sample
Z Problem 14.1.11 I. Perform
Z the antidifferentiation.
1. 4x2 sin 2x3 dx 2. 2y csc 3y 2 cot 3y 2 dy
1 − 2 sin2 x
Z Z
3. dx 4. cos y(5 − sin y)3/2 dy
1 + sin 2x
 6

2 sec2 x
Z Z
5. 2/3
dx 6. x3 (2 − x2 )3/4 dx
Z (1 + tan x)
5 cos2 x − 3 tan x
Z
7. cos x cos 2x dx 8. dx
cos x
sec x − 1
Z Z
9. dx 10. (sin x + cos 2x) dx
tan2 x

14.2 Antidifferentiation Yielding the Natural Logarithmic Function

Z Z
1 du
Theorem 14.2.1 du = = ln |u| + C.
u u
Z
3x
Example 14.2.2 Evaluate 2
dx.
x +4
1
Solution: Let u = x2 + 4. Then du = 2x dx ⇔ du = x dx.
2
Hence,
Z Z
3x 1
2
dx = 3 2
(x dx)
x +4 x +4
Z  
1 1
=3 du
u 2
Z
3 1
= du
2 u
3
= ln |u| + C
2
3
= ln |x2 + 4| + C. 
2
Z 2
x + 2x + 3
Example 14.2.3 Evaluate dx.
x+1
x2 + 2x + 3
Solution: The integrand is an improper fraction. We divide the
x+1
numerator by the denominator.
x2 + 2x + 3 2
=x+1+ .
x+1 x+1
Thus,
Z 2 Z  
x + 2x + 3 2
dx = x+1+ dx
x+1 x+1
Z Z Z
1
= x dx + dx + 2 dx.
x+1
 7

On the third integral, let u = x + 1. Then du = dx. Hence,

Z 2 Z Z Z
x + 2x + 3 1
dx = x dx + dx + 2 du
x+1 u
x2
= + x + 2 ln |u| + C
2
1
= x2 + x + 2 ln |x + 1| + C. 
2
Z
cos 2x
Example 14.2.4 Evaluate dx.
sin 2x − 1
1
Solution: Let u = sin 2x − 1. Then du = 2 cos 2x dx ⇔ du = cos 2x dx.
2
Therefore,
Z Z
cos 2x 1
dx = (cos 2x dx)
sin 2x − 1 sin 2x − 1
Z  
1 1
= du
u 2
Z
1 1
= du
2 u
1
= ln |u| + C
2
1
= ln | sin 2x − 1| + C. 
2

ex dx
Z
Example 14.2.5 Evaluate .
ex + 1
Solution: Let u = ex + 1. Then du = ex dx.

noindent Therefore,
ex dx
Z Z
du
x
=
e +1 u
= ln u + C
= ln |ex + 1| + C. 

Z
dx
Example 14.2.6 Evaluate .
x ln x
 8
Z Z
dx 1 dx
Solution: = .
x ln x ln x x
1 dx
Let u = ln x. Then du = dx = .
x x
Therefore,
Z Z
dx 1 dx
=
x ln x ln x x
Z
1
= du
u
= ln |u| + C
= ln | ln x| + C. 

Z
Theorem 14.2.7 tan u du = ln | sec u| + C.
Z Z
sin u du
Solution: tan u du = .
cos u
Let v = cos u. Then dv = − sin u du ⇔ −dv = sin u du.
Therefore,
Z Z
sin u du
tan u du =
cos u
−dv
Z
=
v
Z
dv
=−
v
= − ln |v| + C
= ln |v −1 | + C
= ln |(cos u)−1 | + C.
= ln | sec u| + C. 

Z
Example 14.2.8 Evaluate tan(2 − 3x) dx.
1
Solution: Let u = 2 − 3x. Then du = −3 dx ⇔ − du = dx.
3
 9

Therefore,
Z Z  
1
tan(2 − 3x) dx = tan(2 − 3x) − du
3
Z
1
=− tan u du, apply Theorem 14.2.7
3
1
= − ln | sec u| + C
3
1
= − ln | sec(2 − 3x)| + C 
3
Z
Theorem 14.2.9 cot u du = ln | sin u| + C.
Z Z
cos u du
Solution: cot u du = .
sin u
Let v = sin u. Then dv = cos u du.
Therefore,
Z Z
cos u du
cot u du =
sin u
Z
dv
=
v
= ln |v| + C
= ln | sin u| + C 

Z √
cot x
Example 14.2.10 √ dx.
x
√ 1 dx
Solution: Let u = x. Then du = √
2 x
dx ⇔ 2 du = √ .
x
Therefore,
√
√
Z Z
cot x dx
√ dx = (cot x) √
x x
Z
= (cot u) (2 du)
Z
= 2 cot u du, apply Theorem 14.2.9

= 2 ln | sin u| + C
√
= 2 ln | sin x| + C 
 10
Z
Theorem 14.2.11 sec u du = ln | sec u + tan u| + C.

Solution:
Z Z
sec u(tan u + sec u)
sec u du = du
tan u + sec u
(sec u tan u + sec2 u) du
Z
= .
sec u + tan u

Let v = sec u + tan u. Then dv = (sec u tan u + sec2 u) du.

Therefore,

(sec u tan u + sec2 u) du

Z Z
sec u du =
sec u + tan u
Z
dv
=
v
= ln |v| + C
= ln | sec u + tan u| + C 

Z
Example 14.2.12 Evaluate (sec 3x − tan 3x) dx.
1
Solution: Let u = 3x. Then du = 3 dx ⇔ du = dx.
3
Therefore,
Z Z  
1
(sec 3x − tan 3x) dx = (sec u − tan u) du
3
Z Z 
1
= sec u du − tan u du
3
1
= (ln | sec u + tan u| − ln | sec u|) + C
3
1 | sec 3x + tan 3x|
= ln +C
3 | sec 3x|
1 tan 3x
= ln 1 + +C
3 sec 3x
1
= ln |1 + sin 3x| + C. 
3
 11
Z
Theorem 14.2.13 csc u du = ln | csc u − cot u| + C.
Solution:
csc u(csc u − cot u)
Z Z
csc u du = du
csc u − cot u
(csc2 u − csc u cot u) du
Z
= .
csc u − cot u
Let v = csc u − cot u. Then dv = (− csc u cot u + csc2 u) du.
Therefore,
(csc2 u − csc u cot u) du
Z Z
csc u du =
csc u − cot u
Z
dv
=
v
= ln |v| + C
= ln | csc u − cot u| + C 

Z
4 + cos 5x
Example 14.2.14 Evaluate dx.
sin 5x
1
Solution: Let u = 5x. Then du = 5 dx ⇔ du = dx.
5
Therefore,
Z Z  
4 + cos 5x 4 + cos u 1
dx = du
sin 5x sin u 5
Z
1 4 + cos u
= du
5 sin u
Z Z
4 1 1 cos u
= du + du
5 sin u 5 sin u
Z Z
4 1
= csc u du + cot u du
5 5
4 1
= ln | csc u − cot u| + ln | sin u| + C
5 5
4 1
= ln | csc 5x − cot 5x| + ln | sin 5x| + C. 
5 5
 12

Sample Problem 14.2.15 Perform the antidifferentiation.

3x2 − 4x
Z Z
4
1. dx 2. dx
Z 5 − 2x x3Z− 2x2 + 5
4x + 6 2
3. 2
dx 4. dy
Z x + 3x + 1 y Zln y 2
4 − 5 sin 4x
5. (cot 5x − csc 5x) dx 6. dx
cos 4x
2x3 + x2 + 1 ln2 4x
Z Z
7. dx 8. dx
Z x2 + 1 Z x
cot(ln x) 1
9. dx 10. √ √ dx
x (1 + x) x

14.3 Antidifferentiation of Exponential Functions

Z
Theorem 14.3.1 eu du = eu + C.
Z
Example 14.3.2 Evaluate e3x+4 dx.
1
Solution: Let u = 3x + 4. Then du = 3 dx ⇔ du = dx.
3
Hence,
Z Z  
3x+4 u 1
e dx = e du
3
Z
1
= eu du
3
1
= eu + C
3
e3x+4
= + C. 
3

√
e x
Z
Example 14.3.3 Evaluate √ dx.
x
√ 1 dx
Solution: Let u = x = x1/2 . Then du = x−1/2 dx ⇔ 2 du = √ .
2 x
 13

Hence,
√
e x
Z Z  
√ dx
x
√ dx = e √
x x
Z
= eu (2 du)
Z
= 2 eu du

= 2eu + C
√
x
= 2e + C. 

Theorem 14.3.4 Let a be a real number such that a > 0 and a 6= 1. Then
au
Z
au du = + C.
ln a
Z
Example 14.3.5 Evaluate 52x+7 dx.
1
Solution: Let u = 2x + 7. Then du = 2 dx ⇔ du = dx.
2
Hence,
Z Z  
2x+7 u 1
5 dx = 5 du
2
Z
1
= 5u du
2
1 5u
= · +C
2 ln 5
52x+7
= + C. 
2 ln 5

Z √
Example 14.3.6 Evaluate 103x dx.
Z √ Z
3x
Solution: Write 103x dx = 10 2 dx.
3x 3 3 2
Let u = = x. Then du = dx ⇔ du = dx.
2 2 2 3
 14

Hence,
Z √ Z
3x
103x dx = 10 2 dx
Z  
u 2
= 10 du
3
Z
2
= 10u du
3
2 10u
= · +C
3√ ln 10
2 103x
= + C. 
3 ln 10

Sample
Z Problem 14.3.7Z Evaluate the following:
Z
2 2x4 2
1. e 4−3x
dx 2. x e dx 3. (3x − 2)e3x e−4x dx
e2x 1 + e2x
Z Z Z
dx
4. 2x 2
dx 5. x
dx 6. dx
Z (1 − e ) Z 1+e ex Z
3 3 y y
7. x2 102x +1 dx 8. (2x2 + 4)3x +6x dx 9. ey 2e 3e dy
Z ln( 1 )
5 x
10. dx
x

14.4 Antidifferentiation Yielding Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Theorem
Z 14.4.1 The following formulas hold.
du u
(i) √ = arcsin + C, where a > 0.
Z a −u
2 2 a
du 1 u
(ii) 2 2
= arctan + C, where a 6= 0.
Z a +u a a
du 1 u
(iii) √ = arcsec + C, where a > 0.
2
u u −1 a a
Z
dx
Example 14.4.2 Evaluate √ .
1 − 4x2
Z Z
dx dx
Solution: Write √ = p .
1 − 4x 2 1 − (2x)2
 15

1
Let u = 2x. Then du = 2 dx ⇔ du = dx.
2
Hence,
Z Z
dx dx
√ = p
1 − 4x 2 1 − (2x)2
1
du
Z
= √2
2
Z 1−u
1 du
= √
2 1 − u2
1
= arcsin u + C
2
1
= arcsin(2x) + C. 
2

Z
dx
Example 14.4.3 Evaluate .
x2 + 25
Solution:
Z Z
dx dx
2
=
x + 25 x2
+ (5)2
1 x
= tan−1 +C
5 5

Z
dx
Example 14.4.4 Evaluate √ .
x 16x2 − 9
Z Z
dx dx
Solution: Write √ = p .
x 16x2 − 9 x (4x)2 − (3)2
1
Let u = 4x. Then u = x and
4
1
du = 4 dx ⇔ du = dx.
4
 16

Hence,
Z Z
dx dx
√ = p
x 16x2 − 9 (4x)2 − (3)2
x
1
du
Z
4
= 1
p
u u2 − (3)2
Z 4
du
= p
u u2 − (3)2
1 u
= arcsec + C
3 3 
1 4x
= arcsec + C. 
3 3

Z
x dx
Example 14.4.5 Evaluate √ .
16 − 9x4
Z Z
x dx x dx
Solution: Write √ = p .
16 − 9x4 (4)2 − (3x2 )2
1
Let u = 3x2 . Then du = 6x dx ⇔ du = x dx.
6
Hence,
Z Z
x dx x dx
√ = p
16 − 9x4 (4)2 − (3x2 )2
1
du
Z
= p 6
(4)2 − u2
Z
1 du
= p
6 (4)2 − u2
1 u
= arcsin + C
6 4
3x2
 
1
= arcsin + C. 
6 4

Z
tan x dx
Example 14.4.6 Evaluate √ .
cos2 x − 2
Z Z
tan x dx sin x dx
Solution: Write √ = q √ .
cos2 x − 2 cos x cos x − ( 2)2
2
 17

Let u = cos x. Then du = − sin x dx ⇔ −du = sin x dx.

Hence,
Z Z
tan x dx sin x dx
√ = q √
cos2 x − 2 cos x cos2 x − ( 2)2
−du
Z
= q √
u u2 − ( 2)2
Z
du
=− q √
u u2 − ( 2)2
u
= −arcsec √ + C
2
 
cos x
= −arcsec √ + C. 
2

Z
dx
Example 14.4.7 Evaluate .
x2 − 4x + 7
Solution: We complete the square of the denominator.
Z Z Z
dx dx dx
2
= 2
= √ .
x − 4x + 7 x − 4x + 4 + 3 (x − 2)2 + ( 3)2
Let u = x − 2. Then du = dx. Hence,
Z Z
dx dx
2
= √
x − 4x + 7 (x − 2)2 + ( 3)2
Z
du
= √
u2 + ( 3)2
 
1 u
= √ arctan √ +C
3 3
 
1 x−2
= √ arctan √ +C
3 3

Sample
Z Problem 14.4.8 Evaluate
Z the following:
dx dx
1. 2
2. √
9x + 16 4x x2 − 16
 18

ex dx
Z Z
dx
3. √ 4. 2x + 5
Z 2x − x2 eZ
dx dx
5. √ 6. √
Z 3x − x2 − 2 Z (x − 2) x2 − 6x + 5
dx dx
7. √ 8.
(1 + x) x x[1 + (ln x)2 ]
 1

CHAPTER 15
THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

Learning Outcomes of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, the student must be able to:
1. apply the properties of definite integrals to evaluate the definite integral.
2. apply the Fundamental Theorems of Calculus to evaluate the definite
integral.
3. evaluate definite integrals involving transcendental functions.

15.1 The Definite Integral

Definition 15.1.1 Let f be a function defined on a closed interval [a, b]. Then
Z b
the definite integral of f from a to b, denoted by f (x) dx, is given by
a
Z b n
X
f (x) dx = lim f (wi )∆i x
a k∆k→0
i=1

if the limit exists.

The statement ”the function is integrable on the closed interval [a, b]”
means that ”the definite integral of f from a to b exists.”

In the notation for the definite integral

Z b
f (x) dx,
a

f (x) is the
R integrand, a is the lower limit, and b is the upper limit. The
symbol is the integral sign.

Theorem 15.1.2 If a function is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then

it is integrable on [a, b].
 2

15.2 Properties of the Definite Integral

Theorem 15.2.1 If f (a) exists, then

Z a
f (x) dx = 0.
a

Example 15.2.2 Let f (x) = x2 . Then f (2) = 4. Thus,

Z 2
x2 dx = 0.
2

Rb
Theorem 15.2.3 If a < b and a f (x) dx exists, then
Z a Z b
f (x) dx = − f (x) dx.
b a

R1
Example 15.2.4 If 0
x2 dx = 13 , then
Z 0 Z 1
2 1
x dx = − x2 dx = − .
1 0 3

R2
Example 15.2.5 If 1
x2 dx = 73 , then
Z 1 Z 2
2 7
x dx = − x2 dx = − .
2 1 3

Theorem 15.2.6 If f is integrable on [a, c] and [c, b]. where a < c < b, then
f is integrable on [a, b] and
Z b Z c Z b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx.
a a c

R1 R2
Example 15.2.7 If 0 x2 dx = 13 and 1 x2 dx = 73 , then
Z 2 Z 1 Z 2
2 2 1 7 8
x dx = x dx + x2 dx = + = .
0 0 1 3 3 3
 3

Theorem 15.2.8 If f is integrable on [a, b] and k is a real number, then kf

is integrable on [a, b] and
Z b Z b
kf (x) dx = k f (x) dx
a a

R1
Example 15.2.9 If 0 x2 dx = 31 , then
Z 1 Z 1  
2 2 1
3x dx = 3 x dx = 3 = 1.
0 0 3

Theorem 15.2.10 If f and g are integrable on [a, b], then f + g is integrable

on [a, b] and
Z b Z b Z b
[f (x) + g(x)] dx = f (x) dx + g(x) dx.
a a a

R1 R1
Example 15.2.11 If 0 x3 dx = 41 and 0 x2 dx = 13 , then
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
3 2 3 1 1 7
(x + x ) dx = x dx + x2 dx = + = .
0 0 0 4 3 12

Theorem 15.2.10 can be applied to the difference of two functions. This is

often applied in finding the area between curves.
R1 R1
Example 15.2.12 If 0 x3 dx = 14 and 0 x2 dx = 13 , then
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
2 3 2 1 1 1
(x − x ) dx = x dx − x3 dx = − = .
0 0 0 3 4 12

Theorem 15.2.10 can be extended to a finite number of functions.

R1 R1 R1
Example 15.2.13 If 0 x dx = 12 , 0 x2 dx = 13 , and 0 x3 dx = 14 , then
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
2 3 2 1 1 1 7
(x + x − x ) dx = x dx + x dx − x3 dx = + − = .
0 0 0 0 2 3 4 12

15.3 Evaluation of Definite Integrals

The first two theorems show the link between the integral and the
derivative. The second theorem enables us to evaluate the definite integrals of
some functions.
 4

Theorem 15.3.1 (The First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus) Let f

be a continuous function on [a, b]. If F is the function defined by
Z b
F (t) = f (t) dt
a

for every x ∈ [a, b], then F 0 (x) = f (x) for every x ∈ [a, b], that is, F is an
antiderivative of f .

Theorem 15.3.2 (The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus) Let

f be a continuous function on [a, b] and let F be an antiderivative of f , that
is, F 0 (x) = f (x) for all x ∈ [a, b]. Then
Z b
f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a).
a

Z 2
Example 15.3.3 Evaluate (2x2 − 4x + 5) dx.
−1
Solution:
Z 2  2
2 2 3 2
(2x − 4x + 5) dx = x − 2x + 5x
−1 3 −1
   
2 3 2 2 3 2
= (2) − 2(2) + 5(2) − (−1) − 2(−1) + 5(−1)
3 3
   
16 2
= − 8 + 10 − − − 2 − 5
3 3
 
22 23
= − −
3 3
45
=
3
= 15. 

4 √
Z
Example 15.3.4 Evaluate 2x + 1 dx.
0

Solution: (If g(x) = 2x + 1. Then g 0 (x)dx = 2 dx.)

 5

Hence,
4 √ 4
Z Z
1
2x + 1 dx = (2x + 1)1/2 (2 dx)
0 2 0
4
1 (2x + 1)3/2

= 3
2 2 0
1  3/2
(9) − (1)3/2

=
3
1
= (27 − 1)
3
26
= .
3

Another Method: Change of Variables

√
Z 4
Example 15.3.4 Evaluate 2x + 1 dx.
0

Solution: Let u = 2x + 1. Then du = 2 dx.

If x = 0, then u = 2(0) + 1 = 1.
If x = 4, then u = 2(4) + 1 = 9.

Hence,
4 √ 1 4√
Z Z
2x + 1 dx = 2x + 1 (2 dx)
0 2 0
1 9 1/2
Z
= u du
2 1
9
1 u3/2

= 3
2 2 1
1  3/2
(9) − (1)3/2

=
3
1
= (27 − 1)
3
26
= .
3
 6

Z π/2
cos x
Example 15.3.5 Evaluate dx.
0 1 + 2 sin x
Solution: (If g(x) = 1 + 2 sin x, then g 0 (x) dx = 2 cos x dx.)

Hence,
π/2
1 π/2 2 cos x dx
Z Z
cos x
dx =
0 1 + 2 sin x 2 0 1 + 2 sin x
1
= [ln(1 + 2 sin x)]π/2
0
2
1 h  π i
= ln 1 + 2 sin − ln(1 + 2 sin 0)
2 2
1
= (ln 3 − ln 1)
2
1
= ln 3. 
2

Another Method: Change of Variables

Z π/2
cos x
Example 15.3.5 Evaluate dx.
0 1 + 2 sin x
Solution:
Let u = 1 + 2 sin x. Then du = 2 cos x dx.

If x = π2 , then u = 1 + 2 sin π2 = 3.
If x = 0, then u = 1 + 2 sin 0 = 1.

Hence,
π/2
1 π/2 2 cos x dx
Z Z
cos x
dx =
0 1 + 2 sin x 2 0 1 + 2 sin x
Z 3
1 du
=
2 1 u
1
= [ln u]31
2
1
= (ln 3 − ln 1)
2
1
= ln 3. 
2
 7

Z π/4
Example 15.3.6 Evaluate (sin x + sin x cos x) dx.
0
Z π/4 Z π/4
Solution: Write (sin x + sin x cos x) dx = (1 + cos x) sin x dx.
0 0

(If g(x) = 1 + cos x. Then g 0 (x) dx = − sin x dx.)

Hence,
Z π/4 Z π/4
(sin x + sin x cos x) dx = (1 + cos x) sin x dx
0 0
Z π/4
=− (1 + cos x)(− sin x dx)
0
π/4
(1 + cos x)2

=−
2 0
 
1 π 2

2
=− 1 + cos − (1 + cos 0)
2 4
√ !2
 
1 2
=−  1+ − (1 + 1)2 
2 2
1 3 √
 
=− + 2−4
2 2
1 √ 
= 5−2 2 . 
4

Another Method : Change of Variables

Z π/4
Example 15.3.6 Evaluate (sin x + sin x cos x) dx.
0
Z π/4 Z π/4
Solution: Write (sin x + sin x cos x) dx = (1 + cos x) sin x dx.
0 0

Let u = 1 + cos x. Then du = − sin x dx.

If x = 0, then u = 1 + cos 0 = 2. √
π π 2
If x = , then u = 1 + cos = 1 + .
4 4 2
 8

Hence,
Z π/4 Z π/4
(sin x + sin x cos x) dx = (1 + cos x) sin x dx
0 0
Z π/4
=− (1 + cos x)(− sin x dx)
0
√
2
Z 1+ 2
=− u du
2
 1+ √22
1 2
=− u
2
 2
√ !2

1 2
=−  1+ − (2)2 
2 2
1 √
 
5
=− 2−
2 2
1  √ 
= 5−2 2 . 
4

Z π/6
Example 15.3.7 Evaluate (tan 2x + sec 2x) dx.
0

Solution:
Z π/6 Z π/6 Z π/6
(tan 2x + sec 2x) dx = tan 2x dx + sec 2x dx
0 0 0
1 π/6 1 π/6
Z Z
= (tan 2x) (2dx) + (sec 2x) (2dx)
2 0 2 0
1 1
= [ln | sec 2x|]π/6
0 + [ln | sec 2x + tan 2x|]π/6
0
2 2
1 1 √
= (ln |2| − ln |1|) + (ln |2 + 3| − ln |1|)
2 2
1 1 √
= ln 2 + ln(2 + 3)
2 2
1 √
= ln[2(2 + 3)]
2
1 √
= ln(4 + 2 3). 
2
 9

Another Method: Change of Variables

Z π/6
Example 15.3.7 Evaluate (tan 2x + sec 2x) dx.
0

Solution: Let u = 2x. Then du = 2 dx.

If x = 0, then u = 2(0) = 0.
If x = π6 , then u = 2( π6 ) = π3 .

Hence,
Z π/6 Z π/6 Z π/6
(tan 2x + sec 2x) dx = tan 2x dx + sec 2x dx
0 0 0
1 π/6 1 π/6
Z Z
= (tan 2x) (2dx) + (sec 2x) (2dx)
2 0 2 0
1 π/3 1 π/3
Z Z
= tan u du + sec u du
2 0 2 0
1 1
= [ln | sec u|]π/3
0 + [ln | sec u + tan u|]π/3
0
2 2
1 1 √
= (ln |2| − ln |1|) + (ln |2 + 3| − ln |1|)
2 2
1 1 √
= ln 2 + ln(2 + 3)
2 2
1 √
= ln[2(2 + 3)]
2
1 √
= ln(4 + 2 3). 
2

2
1 + e2x
Z
Example 15.3.8 Evaluate dx.
0 ex
Solution:
2 2
1 + e2x
Z Z
dx = (e−x + ex ) dx
0 ex 0
 −x 2
= −e + ex 0
= (−e−2 + e2 ) − (−e0 + e0 )
1
= e2 − 2 . 
e
 10
√
Z 3
x
Example 15.3.9 Evaluate √ dx.
0 12 − x4
Solution:
√ √
Z 3 Z 3
x x dx
√ dx = q √
0 12 − x4 0 (2 3)2 − (x2 )2
√
Z 3
1 2x dx
= q √
2 0 (2 3)2 − (x2 )2
√ 3
x2

1
= arcsin √
2 2 3 0
 
1 3
= arcsin √ − arcsin 0
2 2 3
√ !
1 3
= arcsin
2 2
1 π
 
=
2 3
π
= .
6

Another Method: Change of Variables

√
Z 3
x
Example 15.3.9 Evaluate √ dx.
0 12 − x4
√ Z √3
Z 3
x x dx
Solution: Write √ dx = q √ .
12 − x 4
0 0 2 2
(2 3) − (x )2

Let u = x2 . Then du = 2x dx.

2
If x = √
0, then u = (0)√ = 0.
If x = 3, then u = ( 3)2 = 3.

Hence,
 11

√ √
Z 3 Z 3
x x dx
√ dx = q √
0 12 − x4 0 (2 3)2 − (x2 )2
√
Z 3
1 2x dx
= q √
2 0 (2 3)2 − (x2 )2
Z 3
1 du
= q √
2 0 (2 3)2 − u2
 3
1 u
= arcsin √
2 2 3 0
 
1 3
= arcsin √ − arcsin 0
2 2 3
√ !
1 3
= arcsin
2 2
1 π
 
=
2 3
π
= .
6
Z 5
dx
Example 15.3.10 Evaluate .
2 x2 − 4x + 13
Solution:
Z 5 Z 5
dx dx
2
=
2 x − 4x + 13 x2
− 4x + 4 + 9
Z2 5
dx
= 2 2
2 (x − 2) + (3)
  5
1 x−2
= arctan
3 3
   2  
1 5−2 2−2
= arctan − arctan
3 3 3
1
= (arctan 1 − arctan 0)
3
1 π 
=
3 4
π
= .
12
 12

Another Method: Change of Variables

5 Z
dx
Example 15.3.10 Evaluate 2
.
2 x − 4x + 13
Z 5 Z 5 Z 5
dx dx dx
Solution: Write 2
= 2
= 2 2
.
2 x − 4x + 13 2 x − 4x + 4 + 9 2 (x − 2) + (3)

Let u = x − 2. Then du = dx.

If x = 5, then u = 3.
If x = 2, then u = 0.

Hence,
Z 5 Z 5
dx dx
2
= 2 2
2 x − 4x + 13 2 (x − 2) + (3)
Z 3
du
= 2 2
0 u + (3)
1 h u 3
i
= arctan
3 3 0 
1 3
= arctan − arctan 0
3 3
1
= (arctan 1)
3
1 π 
=
3 4
π
= .
12
 13

Z 2
3x
Example 15.3.11 Evaluate dx.
0 x2+4
Solution:
Z 2 Z 2
3x x dx
2
dx = 3
0 x +4 x2 + 4
Z0 2
3 2x dx
=
2 0 x2 + 4
3 2
= ln(x2 + 4) 0
2
3
= [ln(4 + 4) − ln(0 + 4)]
2
3
= (ln 8 − ln 4)
2
3 8
= ln
2 4
3
= ln 2. 
2
 14

Exercises

Evaluate the definite integrals.

3 π/4
x2 + 2x − 1
Z Z
1. √ dx 2. cot2 x dx
1
3
x 0
Z 2
x2 + 1
Z 1 √
3. √ dx 4. x x2 + 1 dx
0 x3 + 3x + 1 0
Z π/4 Z π/3
5/3
5. sec x sin x dx 6. sin2/3 3x cos 3x dx
π/6 0
Z7 2 Z π/2
x cos x
7. √ dx 8. dx
−1 x+2 0 1 + 2 sin x
Z 2 Z 1 2x
ex e
9. x
dx 10. x
dx
1 e +e 0 e +3
Z 1 Z −2
1+x dx
11. 2
dx 12. √
0 1+x −4 −x2 − 6x − 5
Z √3 Z 1
x dx
13. √ dx 14. x −x
0 12 − x4 0 e +e
Z π/6 Z 1
sec2 x dx
15. dx 16. √
√
0 1 + 9 tan2 x 2
1/ 2 x 4x − 1
 1

CHAPTER 16
AREA OF A PLANE REGION, ARC LENGTH

Learning Outcomes of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, the student must be able to:
1. define a plane region in set notation.
2. define the area of a plane region in terms of the definite integral.
3. find the area of a plane region using definite integral.
4. define and find the arc length of a curve using definite integral.

16.1 Area of a Plane Region

Let f and g be two continuous functions defined on the closed interval
[a, b] and, suppose that
g(x) ≤ f (x), a ≤ x ≤ b.
Let R denote the region bounded by the lines
x = a, x = b, and the curves y = g(x), y = f (x),
that is, the reion R is defined by
R = {(x, y) : a ≤ x ≤ b, g(x) ≤ y ≤ f (x)}.
Then the area of the region R is given by
Z b
A(R) = [f (x) − g(x)] dx.
a

Suggestions for Finding the Area of the Region

1. Describe the boundaries of the region or sketch the graph of the region to
determine the boundaries and in order to define the region.
2. Define the region in set notation:
R = {(x, y) : a ≤ x ≤ b, g(x) ≤ y ≤ f (x)}.
3. Define the area of the
Z region:
b
A(R) = [f (x) − g(x)] dx.
a
4. Evaluate the definite integral to find the area of the region.

Example 16.4.1 Find the area of the region R defined by

 2

√
R = {(x, y) : 1 ≤ x ≤ 4, 0 ≤ y ≤ x}.
Solution: Define the area of the region:
Z 4
√
A(R) = ( x − 0) dx.
1

Therefore,
Z 4 √
A(R) = ( x − 0) dx
Z1 4
= x1/2 dx
1
4
x3/2

= 3
2 1
2
= [(4)3/2 − (1)3/2 ]
3
2
= (8 − 1)
3
14
= .
3

Example 16.4.2 Find the area of the region R defined by

R = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, x3 ≤ y ≤ x}.
Solution: Define the area of the region:
Z 1
A(R) = (x − x3 ) dx.
0

Therefore,
Z 1
A(R) = (x − x3 ) dx
0
 2 1
x x4
= −
2 4 0
 2
(1)4
  2
(0)4

(1) (0)
= − − −
2 4 2 4
1 1
= −
2 4
1
= .
4
 3

Example 16.4.3 Find the area of the region R defined by

π
R = {(x, y) : 4
≤ x ≤ π2 , 0 ≤ y ≤ csc x}.
Solution: Define the area of the region:
Z π
2
A(R) = (csc x − 0) dx.
π
4

Therefore,
Z π
2
A(R) = (csc x − 0) dx
π
4
Z π
2
= csc x dx
π
4
π/2
= [− ln | csc x + cot x|]π/4
π π π π
= − ln csc + cot + ln csc + cot
2 √2 4 4
= − ln |1 + 0| + ln | 2 + 1|
√
= ln | 2 + 1|. 

Example 16.4.4 Find the area of the region R defined by

R = {(x, y) : y 2 ≤ x ≤ 4, −2 ≤ y ≤ 2}.
Solution: Define the area of the region:
Z 2
A(R) = (4 − y 2 ) dy.
−2
Therefore,
Z 2
A(R) = (4 − y 2 ) dy
−2
2
y3

= 4y −
3 −2
(2)3 (−2)3
   
= 4(2) − − 4(−2) −
3 3
8 8
=8− +8−
3 3
16
= 16 −
3
32
= .
3
 4

Example 16.4.5 Find the area of the region R bounded by x = 2, y = 0, and

y = x2 .
Solution: Sketch the graph of the region R:
.
....
..........
...
...
... .. ...
...
... ... ....
...
...
..
...
...
...
.. .. ...
.... ....
... .
. .. ..
.... ....
...
... .
... .
... ... ...
... .... ....
...
... ... ....

• (2, 4) .........
...
...
...
... ............... .. ....
....
...
... .
. .....
... ....
...
.
... .. ..
... ... ...
... ... ...
...
... ... ... ...
... ..
.. ..
...
...
... .. ... ...
... .....
...
... ............... .
. ..
... ..
....
...
... .
.
.
... ... ...
... ... .....
...
...
... ... ..
...
...
..
.....
...
... .
. .
...
...
..
....
...
.
. ..
... ...
...
. 2 . .....

y=x
... .
...
... ............... .
. ...
....
.
..
....
...
... .
.
.
...
....
...
.....
...
... .
. .. ..
.
...
...
...
...
...
...
.
.
.
.
. ..
.
...
.
...
.....
....
.
x=2 ....
...
.....
..
.....

R
...
... ............... .
. ...
... ..
....
...
... .
. .
...
..
...
...
...
... .
. ...
.... .....
..
...
... .
. ....
. ....
...
...
... .
. .....
.
... ...
.....
....
.
. ....
... ..

• •
....
...................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
...................................................................................................................................................................................
. ...

..
y=0...
..
..
.....
..
....
...
...
.....
..
.....
.. ...
...............
..
..
..
........
...
..
...............

Define the region: R = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, 0 ≤ y ≤ x2 }.

Define the area of the region:

Z 2
A(R) = (x2 − 0) dx.
0

Therefore,
Z 2
A(R) = (x2 − 0) dx
Z0 2
= x2 dx
0
 3 2
x
=
3 0
1
= [(2)3 − (0)3 ]
3
8
= .
3
 5

Example 16.4.6 Find the area of the region R bounded by x = 0, x = y,

y = 1, and y = 2.

Solution: Sketch the graph of the region region R.

..
...............

...
.........
...
..
...............
... ....
....
...
.. ...
....
... ....
....

y=2 ...............
..
...
... ....
....
....
.. . .. ....
....

................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
....
...
....
..
x=0 R x=y
....
....
... ....
.. .. .....

.. ....

...............
... ....
....
....
....
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.. ....

y=1 ...
.. .............
... ...........
........
....

..
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
...............
..
..
.
.........
...
.
.
...............

Define the region: R = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ y, 1 ≤ y ≤ 2}.

Define the area of the region:

Z 2
A(R) = (y − 0) dy.
1

Therefore,
Z 2
A(R) = (y − 0) dy
1
Z 2
= y dy
1
 2 2
y
=
2 1
1
= [(2)2 − (1)2 ]
2
3
= .
2

Example 16.4.7 Find the area of the region R bounded by the curves x+y = 2
and y = −x2 + 2x + 2.

Solution: Sketch the graph of the region R.

 6

y-axis

..
....
.......
..
..
..
...
..
...
..
...
..
...
.... ............... ..
.... .
....
.... ...
2
y = −x + 2x + 2
....
....
.... ..
....
....
...............
..
...
....
....
....
....
.... ............... .
. .. ...................
.....
....
....
.... .
. ............ ............
.............
(0, 2) • .... .. ...
...... ...
................. .. .
...............
...
.........
... .
....... ...
... .
. ........ ...
...
.... .
...
.... ...
... . .... ...
..... ............... . ....
..
...
.... ...
...
.... .
.
....
....
...
...

.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. . .. .... ..
. .
. ...
. ...
. ...
. ... ....
.
..
...
..
.
...
. .......

. .... ....
.... ..
x-axis
y = 2 − x • (3, −1)
..
...
....
..
...
....
...
.
.
..
...............
..
.
.... ...
...........
..... ......... ....
.......
..........
... ....
... ....
... ....
.... ..
...............
...
...
....
....
... . ... ....

...
.... ...
...
....
....
... ... ....
.....
.. .. ...
...
....
....
....
...
...............
.
.
.
....
....
....
....
.... .. ...
.
... ....
...
.... ...............
.
. ...
.
...
....
....
.
...
..... .
.. ...
.
.
..
.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.
..........
...
..

Define the region: R = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 3, 2 − x ≤ y ≤ −x2 + 2x + 2}.

Define the area of the region:

Z 3
A(R) = [(−x2 + 2x + 2) − (2 − x)] dx.
0

Therefore,
Z 3
A(R) = [(−x2 + 2x + 2) − (2 − x)] dx
0
Z 3
= (−x2 + 3x) dx
0
 3 3
x 3x2
= − +
3 2 0
3
(3) 3(3)2
=− +
3 2
27
= −9 +
2
9
= .
2
 7

Example 16.4.8 Find the area of the region R bounded by x = 0, y = 0, and

y = cos x.

Solution: Sketch the graph of the region R.

.
...............
....
.........
.
...
..
...
..
.......................................................
1 ...............
.. ..........

y = cos x ...
..
..........
.....
....
....
....
....

x=0 R
....
... ....
....
....
.. ....
....
....
.. ....
....
.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
....
. . .
..
0 y=0 ..
..
..
π
..
.. 2
..
..
..
..
...............
..
..
..
..
..
..
.
.........
..
.
.
...............

Define the region: R = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ π2 , 0 ≤ y ≤ cos x}.

Define the area of the region:

Z π/2
A(R) = (cos x − 0) dx.
0

Therefore,
Z π/2
A(R) = (cos x − 0) dx
0
Z π/2
= cos x dx
0
= [sin x]π/2
0
= sin(π/2) − sin(0)
= 1. 

Example 16.4.9 Find the area of the region R bounded by x = 1, x = 4,

y = 0, and xy = 4.
4
Solution: The region is bounded by x = 1, x = 4, y = 0, and y = .
x
 8
 
4
Define the region: R = (x, y) : 1 ≤ x ≤ 4, 0 ≤ y ≤ .
x
Define the area of the region:
Z 4  
4
A(R) = − 0 dx.
1 x
Therefore,
Z 4  
4
A(R) = − 0 dx
1 x
Z 4
4
= dx
1 x
Z 4
1
=4 dx
1 x
= 4 [ln |x|]41
= 4 [ln |4| − ln |1|]
= 4 ln 4. 

Example 16.4.10 Find the area of the region bounded by x = − 27 , x = − 32 ,

1
x-axis, and y = √ .
5 − 4x − x2
Solution: x- axis ⇒ y = 0.
1
The region is bounded by x = − 72 , x = − 12 , y = 0, and y = √ .
5 − 4x − x2
 
7 1 1
Define the region: R = (x, y) : − ≤ x ≤ − , 0 ≤ y ≤ √ .
2 2 5 − 4x − x2
Define the area of the region:
Z −1/2  
1
A(R) = √ − 0 dx.
−7/2 5 − 4x − x2
 9

Therefore,
Z −1/2  
1
A(R) = √ − 0 dx
−7/2 5 − 4x − x2
Z−1/2
dx
= √
−7/2 9 − 4 − 4x − x2
Z −1/2
dx
= p
−7/2 9 − (4 + 4x + x2 )
Z −1/2
dx
= p
−7/2 (3)2 − (2 + x)2
 −1/2
2+x
= arcsin
3 −7/2
   
1 1
= arcsin − arcsin −
2 2
π  π
= − −
6 6
π
= .
3

Example 16.4.11 Find the area of the region in the first quadrant bounded
1
by x- axis, y-axis, x = 1, and y = 1+x 2.

Solution: y- axis ⇒ x = 0, x- axis ⇒ y = 0.

The region in the first quadrant is bounded by x = 0, x = 1, y = 0, and

1
y = 1+x 2.

1
Define the region: R = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1+x2
}.

Define the area of the region:

Z 1  
1
A(R) = − 0 dx.
0 1 + x2
 10

Therefore,
Z 1  
1
A(R) = − 0 dx
0 1 + x2
Z 1
dx
= 2
0 1+x
= [arctan x]10
= arctan(1) − arctan 0
π
= −0
4
π
= .
4

Example 16.4.12 Find the area of the region bounded by x = 2, the coordinate
axes, and y = ex .

Solution: y- axis ⇒ x = 0, x- axis ⇒ y = 0.

The region is bounded by x = 0, x = 2, y = 0, and y = ex .

Define the region: R = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, 0 ≤ y ≤ ex }.

Define the area of the region:

Z 2
A(R) = (ex − 0) dx.
0

Therefore,
Z 2
A(R) = (ex − 0) dx
Z0 2
= ex dx
0
= [ex ]20
= e2 − e0
= e2 − 1. 
 11

Sample Problem 16.4.13 Define the region R, define the area of the region,
and find its area.
1. R is bounded by x = 2, x = 4, y = x2 , y = −x.
1
2. R is bounded by x = 0, x = 3, y = 0, y = √x+1 .
2
3. R is bounded by x = 1, x = 2, y = x.
4. R is bounded by x = y 2 , x = 8 − y 2 .
5. R is in the first quadrant bounded by y = sin x, y = cos x, y- axis.
6. R is bounded by y = ex , 2y − x + 2 = 0, x = 2.
7. R is bounded by y = tan x, y = cot x, x-axis, where 0 ≤ x ≤ π2 .
8. R is bounded by y = sec x, y = 2.
9. R is bounded by y = 1, y = 2, x = 0, x = √ y 2 .
9−y
10. R is bounded by y 2 = x + 1, x − y = 3.

16.2 Arc Length of a Plane Curve

Let f be a function continuous on the closed interval [a, b]. Consider
the the graph of the function defined by the equation y = f (x). The portion
of the curve from the point (a, f (a)) to the point (b, f (b)) is called an arc of
the graph of the function.
Theorem 16.2.1 Let the function f and its derivative f 0 be continuous on the
closed inteval [a, b]. Then the length of the arc of the curve y = f (x) from the
point (a, f (a)) to the point (b, f (b)) is
Rbp
L = a 1 + [f 0 (x)]2 dx.

Theorem 16.2.2 Let the function g and its derivative g 0 be continuous on the
closed inteval [c, d]. Then the length of the arc of the curve x = f (y) from the
point (g(c), c) to the point (g(d), d) is
Rdp
L = c 1 + [g 0 (y)]2 dy.

Note that if an arc is a line segement from , then the point (a, f (a))
to
p the point (b, f (b)), then from the distance formula, the length is given by
(b − a) + [f (b) − f (a)]2 .
2

Example 16.2.3 Compute the length of the segment of the line 3x + y = 4

from the point (0, 4) to the point (2, −2) by three methods:

Solution: (a) Using the distance formula:

 12

p √ √ √
L= (−2 − 4)2 + (2 − 0)2 = 36 + 4 = 40 = 2 10.

(b) Using Theorem 16.2.1:

3x + y = 4 ⇒ y = −3x + 4 ⇒ f (x) = −3x + 4.

Thus,

f 0 (x) = −3.

Hence,
Z 2 p
L= 1 + (−3)2 dx
Z0 2 √
= 10 dx
0
√ Z 2
= 10 dx
0
√
= 10 [x]20
√
= 10[2 − 0]
√
= 2 10.

(c) Using Theorem 16.2.2:

1 4 1 4
3x + y = 4 ⇒ x = − y + ⇒ g(y) = − y + .
3 3 3 3
Thus,
1
g 0 (y) = − .
3
 13

Hence,
s
 2
Z 4
1
L= 1+ − dy
−2 3
Z 4 √
1
= 10 dy
−2 3
√ Z 4
10
= dy
3 −2
√
10 4
= [y]−2
√3
10
= [4 − (−2)]
3
√
= 2 10. 

Example 16.2.4 Find the length of the arc of the curve y 3 = 8x2 from the
point (1, 2) to the point (8, 8).

Solution:
y 3 = 8x2 ⇒ y = 2x2/3 ⇒ f (x) = 2x2/3 .
Thus,
4 4
f 0 (x) = x−1/3 = 1/3 .
3 3x
Hence,
s 2
Z 8 
4
L= 1+ dx
1 3x1/3
r
8
9x2/3 + 16
Z
= dx
1 9x2/3
Z 8 √ 2/3
9x + 16
= dx
1 3x1/3
1 8
Z

1/2 −1/3
= 9x2/3 + 16 (x dx).
3 1

Let u = 9x2/3 + 16. Then du = 6x−1/3 dx.

 14

If x = 1, then u = 9(1)2/3 + 16 = 25
If x = 8, then u = 9(8)2/3 + 16 = 52.

Therefore,
1 52 1/2 1
Z  
L= u du
3 25 6
Z 52
1
= u1/2 du
18 25
52
1 u3/2

= 3
18 2 25
1 
(52)3/2 − (25)3/2

=
27
1 √
= (104 13 − 125). 
27

Example 16.2.5 Find the length of the arc of the curve x = y 3/2 from the
point (1, 2) to the point (8, 4).
3
Solution: g(y) = y 3/2 and g 0 (y) = y 1/2 .
2
Therefore,
s 2
Z 4 
3 1/2
L= 1+ y dy
1 2
Z 4r
9y
= 1+ dy
1 4
Z 4√
4 + 9y
= dy
1 2
1 4
Z
= (4 + 9y)1/2 dy
2 1
Z 4
1
= (4 + 9y)1/2 (9dy)
18 1
4
1 (4 + 9y)3/2

= 3
18 2 1
1 
(40)3/2 − (13)3/2

=
27
1 √ √
= (80 10 − 13 13). 
27
 15

Example 16.2.6 Use Theorem 16.2.1 to find √ the length of the arc√of the curve
y 2 = 94 (x − 2)3 from the point x = (5, −2 3) to the point (8, −4 6).
Solution:
4 2
y 2 = (x − 2)3 ⇒ y = ± (x − 2)3/2
9 3
2 2
⇒ f (x) = (x − 2)3/2 or f (x) = − (x − 2)3/2 .
3 3
√ √
The points x = (5, −2 3) and (8, −4 6) are on the graph of the function
2
f (x) = − (x − 2)3/2 .
3
Thus,

f 0 (x) = −(x − 2)1/2 .

Hence,
Z 8 q
2
L= 1 + (−(x − 2)1/2 ) dx
Z5 8
√
= 1 + x − 2 dx
Z5 8
= (x − 1)1/2 dx
5
8
(x − 1)3/2

=
3/2 5
2 3/2
= (7 − 43/2 )
3
2 √
= (7 7 − 8). 
3

Example 16.2.7 Find the length of the arc of the curve y = ln sec x from the
point where x = 0 to the point where x = π4 .

Solution: Use Theorem 16.2.1.

sec x tan x
f 0 (x) = = tan x.
sec x
 16

Hence,
Z π/4 p
L= 1 + tan2 x dx
0
Z π/4 √
= sec2 x dx
0
Z π/4
= sec x dx
0
= [ln | sec x + tan x|]π/4
0
= [ln | sec(π/4) + tan(π/4)|] − [ln | sec 0 + tan 0|]
h √ i
= ln | 2 + 1| − [ln |1 + 0|]
√
= ln | 2 + 1|
√
= ln( 2 + 1). 

Sample Problem 16.2.8

1. Find the length of the arc of the curve y 3 = 8x2 from the point (1, 2) to the
point (27, 18).
2. Find the length of the arc of the curve 8y = x4 + 2x−2 from the point where
x = 1 to the point where x = 2.
3. Find the length of the arc of the curve y = 23 (x − 5)3/2 from the point where
x = 6 to the point where x = 8.
4. Find the length of the arc of the curve y = 13 (x2 + 2)3/2 from the point
where x = 0 to the point where x = 3.
2 3
√ of the arc of the curve x = (2y + 3) from the point (1, −1)
5. Find the length
to the point (7 7, 2).
6. Find the length of the arc of the curve y = ln cscx from the point where
x = π6 to the point where x = π2 .
7. Find the length of the arc of the curve x = 2y 1/2 − 61 y 3/2 from the point
where y = 1 to the point where y = 2.
8. Find the length of the arc of the curve x = 35 y 5/3 − 34 y 1/3 from the point
where y = 1 to the point where y = 2.
 1

CHAPTER 17
VOLUME OF A SOLID OF REVOLUTION

Learning Outcomes of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, the student must be able to:
1. define a plane region in set notation.
2. define the volume of the solid of revolution by the disk method or washer
method or shell method.
3. find the volume of the solid of revolution by the disk method or washer
method or shell method.

17.1 Volumes of Solids by Disk Method

In this section, we discuss methods of finding the volume solids of

revolution using the techniques of integration. The basis of this methods are
the following:
1. The right circular cylinder with radius of base r and altitude h has a volume
given by V = πr2 h.
2. Any solid of revolution maybe approximated by a combination of right
circular cylinders.

Consider a region R bounded by the curve y = f (x) and the lines y = k,

x = a, and x = b. The formula for finding the volume of the solid obtained if
R is revolved about the line y = k is given by the following theorem.

Theorem 17.1.1 (Disk Method) Let y = f (x) be a continuous function

on the closed inteval [a, b]. Then the solid obtained by revolving the region R
bounded by the curve y = f (x) and the lines y = k, x = a, and x = b about
the line y = k has a volume V given by the formula
Rb
V = π a [f (x) − k]2 dx.

In Theorem 17.1.1, the solid S obtained by revolving the region R about

the line y = k is called the solid of revolution and the horizontal line y = k
is called the axis of revolution, which is a boundary of the region R.
 2

Example 17.1.2 Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when
the region bounded by the curve y = x2 + 2, the y-axis, and the lines y = 1
and x = 2 is revolved about the line y = 1.

Solution: Sketch the graph of R:

..
...
...
...
...
...
...............
6.............. ....
.....
.. ..
... ...
... ....
...
...
... ... ... ..
... ...
.. ..
... ...
...
... .. .... ....
...
...
... ... ............... ...
...
..
... ...
....
...
...
... .. ... .....
...
... .. ...
...
..
....
. ..
...
...
... ... ...
... .... .....
... . ..
... .. ...
. ....
.. 2
.
... ...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
y =x +2...
..
...............

.
.
...
...
.
.
..
...
.
.... ...
.....
..
.....
..
....
...
... .
... ... ...
... ..... .....
...
... .. ....
.
. ..
....
... ...
...
...
...

x=2
...
... ............... .... .....
..
...
...
... ....
... ..
....
...
.
...
... ... ...
... ... .....
...
.. ...
...
... ...... ..
....
... ...
....
.... ....
.. ....
... ...
.....
..
2 R
......... ..... ..
................................
............... ..... .....
... ....
...
.. ...
. ...
... ....
..
...
.. ....
.. ..

...
..
...............
1 y=1
...................................................................................................................................................
.

...
..
... ..................................................................................................................................................................
.
...
...
. . .
.
.
.

0 2

The region R is bounded from the left by the line x = 0 (the y-axis), from the
right by the line x = 2, above by the curve y = x2 + 2, and below by the line
y = 1.

Define the region R: R = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, 1 ≤ y ≤ x2 + 2}.

Z 2
Define the volume of the solid: V = π (x2 + 2 − 1)2 dx.
0

Therefore,
Z 2
V =π (x2 + 1)2 dx
Z0 2
=π (x4 + 2x2 + 1) dx
0
 5 2
x 2x3
=π + +x
5 3
  0
32 16
=π + +2
5 3
206
= π. 
15

Example 17.1.3 Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when
 3

π
the region bounded by the curve y = tan x, the x-axis, and the line x = is
4
revolved about the x-axis.

Solution: Sketch the graph of R:

.. ............... . .
... ...

..........
..
...
..
.. ...
..
... ...
.. ...... ..
.. ..
........
........ ....
...
...
... ...
....
..
...
.. ...
....
..
....
... ...
.....
.
....
.. ...
....
.
....

1 • ...............
.
.
...
... . .
.... .
.......... ....
..
......
..... ....
..
.
...
.
.....
.
....
.
....
.. .......... ... ...
..
..... .. .... ..
...

y = tan x x = ...
.. ..
...... ..
.. .....
...
........
. ...
.
.
..
...
.
.
π ...
..
...
...
. ..
... ... ..
...
.. .....
...
.... .
.
..
...
.
.
4 ...
..
...
... ..............
. . ..
... ...
.....
.. ...... ..
....
..
...
...
..... . ..
.
.
.
.
..
..
y=0
...... ..........................................................................................................................................................................................
.....
.

π
...
.
.
.
...
.
.

π........
..
.. 0 4 2..........
..

... ....
.. .

...
.....
.
....
........ .
. .
....
... .
....
.
............... . ..
...

The region R is bounded from the left by the point where x = 0, from the
right by the line x = π4 , above by the curve y = tan x, and below by the line
y = 0 (the x-axis).
n π o
Define the region R: R = (x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ , 0 ≤ y ≤ tan x .
4
Z π/4
Define the volume of the solid: V = π (tan x − 0)2 dx.
0

Therefore,

Z π/4
V =π (tan x)2 dx
0
Z π/4
=π tan2 x dx
0
Z π/4
=π (sec2 x − 1) dx
0
= π [tan x − x]π/4
0
h π πi
= π tan −
4  4
 π
=π 1−
4
π
= (4 − π). 
4
 4

Example 17.1.4 Find the volume of the

√ solid of revolution generated when
the region bounded by the curve y = x, y = 2, and the y-axis is revolved
about the line y = 2.

Solution: Sketch the graph of R:

..
...
..........
...
..
...............
2 y=2 •
...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.............................
.....................
..................... ..
.......
....
...........
........
............

... .....................
.....................
.....................
..
...
..
R √ ......
.................
......
...... ..................
...................
..................

...............
...
.. ........................... y= x
...............
.............
...............
...............

... ..........
.........
...
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
..........
..
. 0 4
....
.
...............

The region R is bounded from the left by the line x = 0 (the y-axis), from the
right by the
√ point where x = 4, above by the line y = 2, and below by the
curve y = x.
√
Define the region R: R = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 4, x ≤ y ≤ 2}.
Z 4
√
Define the volume of the solid: V = π ( x − 2)2 dx.
0

Therefore,

Z 4 √
V =π ( x − 2)2 dx
Z0 4
=π (x − 4x1/2 + 4) dx
0
4
x2 8x3/2

=π − + 4x
2 3
 0 
16 64
=π − + 16 − 0
2 3
8
= π. 
3

Example 17.1.5 Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when
2
the region bounded by the curve y = 1 + √ , the x-axis, and the lines x = 1
x
 5

and x = 4, is revolved about the x-axis.

Solution: Sketch the graph of R:

..
...
..........
...

3
..
...
...............
..
.....
........
.....................
..... ..... • y =1+ √2
...
...... .................
..
.....
...
....................
..........
.........
..........
...........
............
x
.. ..
....
.............
.............
..............
...............
................
..................
...
..................
... ...................

•
....................
.....................
..... ......................
....................... ....

2
............... ..
...
..
..
.....
..
....
...
.........................
..........................
........................... ...................
...............
...................
............................
...
...
.....
..
...........
....

...
..
.....
..
....
...
.....
R .....
..
....
...
.....
............... ...
..
...
x=1 ..
.....
..
....
...
.....
x=4 ..
.....
..
....
...
.....
.. ..
.....
..
.....
.
. ..
....
..
...
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
........
..
.. 0 1 y=0 4
...
..
...............

The region R is bounded from the left by the line x = 1, from the right by the
line x = 4, above by the curve y = 1 + √2x , and below by the line y = 0 (the
x-axis).
 
2
Define the region R: R = (x, y) : 1 ≤ x ≤ 4, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 + √ .
x
Z 4 2
2
Define the volume of the solid: V = π 1+ √ −0 dx.
1 x
Therefore,

Z  4 2
2
V =π 1+ √ dx
1 x
Z 4 
4 4
=π 1+ √ + dx
1 x x
Z 4 
−1/2 4
=π 1 + 4x + dx
1 x
4
= π x + 8x1/2 + 4 ln |x| 1

h √ √ i
= π (4 + 8 4 + 4 ln |4|) − (1 + 8 1 + 4 ln |1|)
= π (20 + 4 ln |4| − 9)
= (11 + 4 ln 4)π. 
 6

Theorem 17.1.6 (Disk Method) Let x = g(y) be a continuous function on

the closed inteval [c, d]. Then the solid S obtained by revolving the region R
bounded by the curve x = g(y) and the lines x = h, y = c, and y = d about
the line x = h has a volume V given by the formula
Rd
V = π c [g(y) − h]2 dy.

In Theorem 17.1.6, the axis of revolution, which is a boundary of the

region R, is a vertical line. In this case, the definition of the volume of the
solid is an integration with respect to y

Example 17.1.7 Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when
√
the region bounded by the curve x = y, the x-axis, and the line x = 2 is
revolved about the line x = 2.

Solution: Sketch the graph of R:

..
...
.........
.
...
4 ..
...............
..
.. •
.......
........
... ....... ....
... ...
.. ..
...
...

... ... ...

.... ....
.. .. ..
... ..
.. ...
... ... .....
...

√
...
............... .. ...
...
..
..
....
... ...
.....
...
.....

x= ..
...
..
y ...
....
...
...
....
..
....
...
.....
..
...............
...
..
.....
...
....
....
...
x=2 ....
...
.....
..
.....
... ...
.....
..
....
.. ...
....
...
.....
.
. ...
.....
..
....
............... ...
...
.. .
...
.....
.
...
...
....
R ...
.....
..
....
...
.. .....
...
.
... ..
..... .....
. ...
..............................................................................................................
. .... ...
.. .
...................................................... ... .
..
........
..
0 ..
.. 2
..
...............

√
The region R is bounded from the left by the curve x = y, from the right by
the line x = 2, above by the point where y = 4, and below by the line y = 0
(the x-axis).
√
Define the region R: R = {(x, y) : y ≤ x ≤ 2, 0 ≤ y ≤ 4}.
Z 4
√
Define the volume of the solid: V = π ( y − 2)2 dy.
0

Therefore,
 7

4
√
Z
V =π ( y − 2)2 dy
Z0 4
=π (y − 4y 1/2 + 4) dy
0
4
y 2 8y 3/2

=π − + 4y
2 3 0
 
16 64
=π − + 16
2 3
8
= π. 
3

Example 17.1.8 Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when
the region bounded by the curve x = 4 − y 2 , and the y-axis, is revolved about
the y-axis.

Solution: Sketch the graph of R:

..
...
.........
..
...
2•
....................
..
....................
...................
........................
..................
... ..................
.................
.................
.. ................
................
...............
...
...............
..............
..............
.............
.. .............
............

x = 4 − y2
............
... ...............
...........
...........
..........
.. ..........
.......
.....
... ....
....

x=0
....
.. ....
...
...
... ...
...

.......................................................................................................................................................................................
. ...
...
.
R
...
.... .... .... .... ..
... .. ... ... ... ...
...
..
..
..
..
0 ....
....
....
......
...
..
4
.
...
...

.. .......
.....
.. ...............
..........
.............
.. ...............
...............
.. ................
.. ..................
......
......
.. ....................
..................
.. .....................
.....................

−2• .. ......................
........................
.. ........................
.......................
................. .................. ..
.........................
..
.
.........
...
..

The region R is bounded from the left by the line x = 0, from the right by
the curve x = 4 − y 2 , above by the point where y = 2 and below by the point
where y = −2.

Define the region R: R = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 4 − y 2 , −2 ≤ y ≤ 2}.

Z 2
Define the volume of the solid: V = π (4 − y 2 − 0)2 dy.
−2

Therefore,
 8

Z 2
V =π (4 − y 2 − 0)2 dy
−2
Z 2
=π (16 − 8y 2 + y 4 ) dy
−2
2
8y 3 y 5

= π 16y − +
3 5 −2
   
8(8) 32 8(−8) 32
= π 32 − + − −32 − −
3 5 3 5
 
64 32
= 2π 32 − +
3 5
512
= π. 
15

Example 17.1.9 Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when
π
the region bounded by the curve x = tan y, the y-axis and the lines y = and
4
π
y = is revolved about the y-axis.
3
Solution: Sketch the graph of R:
.
....
.........
π ................... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..........
.
.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..........

2 .....
.. .............................
.....
..................
..................
. ..................................
.........
π .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ...................................
................................
...........................................
.......................................
.................................................
..............................................

.. ..........

x=0 3π ... .........

.........
.......................
.................

4 .....
....................................................................................................................................................
...............
..........

x = tan y
...
..
...
..
..
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
..
√
0 ..
..
..
1 3
..
..
..
..
.
.........
.................
..

The region R is bounded from the left by the line x = 0 (the y-axis), from the
right by the curve x = tan y, above by the line x = π3 and below by the line
x = π4 .
n π πo
Define the region R: R = (x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ tan y, ≤y≤ .
4 3
 9

Z π/3
Define the volume of the solid: V = π (tan y − 0)2 dy.
π/4

Therefore,

Z π/3
V =π (tan y)2 dy
π/4
Z π/3
=π tan2 y dy
π/4
Z π/3
=π (sec2 y − 1) dy
π/4
π/3
= π [tan y − y]π/4
h π π  π π i
= π tan − − tan −
√ 3π 3 π
4 4
=π 3− −1+
√ 3  4
π
= 3−1− π. 
12

Sample Problem 17.1.10

1. Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when the region
bounded by the curve y = x3 , the x-axis and the line x = 2 is revolved about
the x-axis.
2. Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when the region
bounded by the curve x = y 2 and the line x = 4 is revolved about the line
x = 4.
3. The region is bounded by the x-axis, the y-axis and the line 3x+2y =
1. Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when the region is
revolved about (a) the x-axis, (b) the y-axis.
4. The region is bounded by the y-axis, the line y = 2 and the curve
2
x = y . Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when the region
is revolved about (a) the y-axis, (b) the line y = 2.
5. The region is bounded by the x-axis, the y-axis and the curve
2
x + y = 4. Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when the
region is revolved about (a) the x-axis, (b) the y-axis.
6. Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when the region
bounded by the the x-axis, the y-axis, the line x = π4 and the curve y = sec x
 10

is revolved about the x-axis.

7. Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when the region
bounded by the the y-axis, the lines y = π6 and y = π4 and the curve x = cos y
is revolved about the y-axis.
8. Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when the region
bounded by the the line y = −1 and the curve y = 3 − x2 is revolved about
the line y = −1.
9. Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when the region
bounded by the the lines y = 1 and x = 2 and the curve y = ex is revolved
about the line y = 1.
10. The region is bounded by the lines x = 4 and y = 2 and the curve
x + y 2 = 4. Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when the
region is revolved about (a) the line x = 4, (b) the line y = 2.

17.2 Volumes of Solids by Washer Method

Theorem 17.2.1 (Washer Method) Let f and g be a continuous function

on the closed inteval [a, b] such that f (x) ≥ g(x) for all x ∈ [a, b]. Then the
volume of the solid of revolution generated by revolving about the line y = k
the region bounded by the curves y = f (x) and y = g(x), and the lines x = a
and x = b is given by the formula
Rb
V = π a ([f (x) − k]2 − [g(x) − k]2 ) dx.

In Theorem 17.2.1, the axis of revolution is the horizontal line y = k,

which is a not a boundary of the region R.

Example 17.2.2 Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when
the region R = {(x, y) : −1 ≤ x ≤ 2, x2 + 2 ≤ y ≤ x + 4} is revolved about
the line y = 1.
Z 2
Solution: Define the volume of the solid: V = π [(x + 4 − 1)2 − (x2 + 2 − 1)2 ] dx.
−1

Therefore,
 11

Z 2
V =π [(x + 3)2 − (x2 + 1)2 ] dx
−1
Z 2
=π [(x2 + 6x + 9) − (x4 + 2x2 + 1)] dx
−1
Z 2
=π (8 + 6x − x2 − x4 ) dx
−1
2
x3 x5

2
= π 8x + 3x − −
3 5 −1
   
8 32 1 1
= π 16 + 12 − − − −8 + 3 + +
3 5 3 5
 
33
= π 30 −
5
117
= π. 
5

Example 17.2.3 Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when
1
the region R bounded by curve y = , the x-axis and the lines x = 1 and
x
x = 4 is revolved about the line y = −1.

Solution: Sketch the graph of R:

..
...
.........
...
..
...
..
...
2 ...............
..
...
..
...
....
.........
....
... ... ....
.. ....
...
...
...
...
.. ...
...

...
...
...
...
.. ...
...

•
...
...
1
...
...
............... .....
. ..
.. ... .........

...
..... ..............
1
..
...
..
....
...
.....
..
.....
.............
...............
.........
............
...........
............
y=
............
.............
..............
..............
...............
................
...... ..................
................................ x
.. .......................................

•
.. ...................................................
.... ......................................................................................
...
.
...
.....

.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
.. R ..........................
.............
............................
.....
..

0 ..
..
..
..
1 y=0 4
..
..
..
..
−1 ............... ..
.. y = −1
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
..
..
..
..
.
........
...
..

The region R is bounded from the left by the line x = 1, from the right by the
line x = 4, above by the curve y = x1 , and below by the line y = 0 (the x-axis).
 12
 
1
Define the region R : R = (x, y) : 1 ≤ x ≤ 4, 0 ≤ y ≤ .
x
Z 4  2 !
1
Define the volume of the solid: V = π − (−1) − [0 − (−1)]2 dx.
1 x
Therefore,

" 2 #
Z 4
1
V =π +1 − (1)2 dx
1 x
Z  4 
1 2
=π + + 1 − 1 dx
1 x2 x
Z 4 
−2 2
=π x + dx
1 x
 4
1
= π − + 2 ln |x|
x 1
  
1
= π − + 2 ln |4| − (−1 + 2 ln |1|)
4
 
1 2
= π − + ln 4 + 1
4
 
3
= + ln 16 π. 
4

Example 17.2.4 Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when
the region R bounded by curves y = cos x and y = sin x and the lines x = 0
π
and x = is revolved about the x-axis.
4
Solution: Sketch the graph of R:
.
...............
....
..........
...
..
..
y = cos x ..
.......................................
...
............... ..............................
................ ..................
.......... ..............
..........
.. .....
.... .......
..........

... ..
........

R ..
... ..............
.. ......
....
.... .......
....
....
....
....
....

y = sin x
....
.. .......... ....
....
.. .... ....

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...

.. π π
..
0 ..
..
..
..
4 2
....... .
.....
.
...............
 13

Thus, R is bounded from the left by the line x = 0 (the y-axis), from the right
by the point where x = π4 , above by the curve y = cos x, and below by the
curve y = sin x.
n π o
Define the region R : R = (x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ , sin x ≤ y ≤ cos x .
4
Z π/4
(cos x − 0)2 − (sin x − 0)2 dx.
 
Define the volume of the solid: V = π
0

Therefore,

Z π/4
V =π (cos2 x − sin2 x) dx
0
Z π/4
=π cos 2x dx
0
π π/4
Z
= (cos 2x) (2dx)
2 0
π
= [sin 2x]π/4
0
2
π π 
= sin − sin 0
2 2
π
= (1 − 0)
2
π
= .
2

Theorem 17.2.5 (Washer Method) Let f and g be a continuous function

on the closed inteval [c, d] such that f (y) ≥ g(y) for all y ∈ [c, d]. Then the
volume of the solid of revolution generated by revolving about the line x = h
the region bounded by the curves x = f (y) and x = g(y), and the lines y = c
and y = d is given by the formula
Rd
V = π c ([f (y) − h]2 − [g(y) − h]2 ) dy.

In Theorem 17.2.5, the axis of revolution is the vertical line x = h,

which is a not a boundary of the region R.
 14

Example 17.2.6 Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when
√
the region bounded by the curves x = y 2 and x = y is revolved about the
line x = −1.

Solution: Find the values of y where the intersection of the two curves
√
x = y 2 and x = y occur:
√
y2 = y ⇒ y 4 − y = 0 ⇒ y(y 3 − 1) = 0 ⇒ y = 0 or y = 1.

Sketch the graph of R:

.. .
..
.... ...
..
.....
.
..........
..... ..
....
... ..
..
.... ..
...
...
....
..
.... ..
...
...
.... .........
............
..
...... .
... ......................
...........
..
............... ...
....
..
...
....
...
..
....
1 .....
.......
... .
... ...
•
.
...
...
....
........ .............
.....................
........... ..
............... .
.

.. ...
2......................... ................ √
...
....
..
.... .. x=y
Rx= y
..
.. ..............
...
.... ..
...
...
... ............ ..
..
.... ...
...
... ........ ...
..
.... ...
...

x = −1 ...
...
......... .... ...
...
......
.
..
.... ....
....

•
..
.......................................................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................................
... ...
....
....... ....
...
.......
0 1
...

... ...........
...
...
....
.. ...... ..
....
... ............. ...
....
.. ......
....
...
....
... ....
....
.... ....
.. .. ....
....

...
.... .....
.....
.. .........
.... .........
.. ... ............
..............
...
............... ... ..........
...............
...............
.. ...............

...
...............
........

..
..
..
..
..
..
........
....
.

Hence, the region R is bounded from the left by the curve x = y 2 , from the
√
right by the curve x = y, above by the point where y = 1, and below by the
point where y = 0.
√
Define the region R : R = {(x, y) : y 2 ≤ x ≤ y, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1}.
Z 1
√
Define the volume of the solid: V = π [( y + 1)2 − (y 2 + 1)2 ] dy.
0

Therefore,
 15

1
√
Z
V =π [( y + 1)2 − (y 2 + 1)2 ] dy
Z0 1
√
=π [(y + 2 y + 1) − (y 4 + 22 + 1)] dy
Z0 1
y + 2y 1/2 − 2y 2 − y 4 dy


=π
0
1
y 2 4y 3/2 2y 3 y 5

=π + − −
2 3 3 5 0
  
1 4 2 1
=π + − − −0
2 3 3 5
8
= π. 
15

Example 17.2.7 Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when
the region R bounded by curves x = 4y − y 2 and x = y is revolved about the
y-axis.

Solution: Find the values of y where the intersection of the two curves
x = 4y − y 2 and x = y occur:

y = 4y − y 2 ⇒ y 2 − 3y = 0 ⇒ y(y − 3) = 0 ⇒ y = 0 or y = 3.

Sketch the graph of R:

x= .... 0
...... . ... .
..
..
4 .........................................................
...............

...
...
.................
................
................
...............
..............
..............
.. .............
.............
............
. ............
.
•
...........

3
...........
...............
... ..........
........
... .................
... ....
....
.... .....
....
....
.. . .. .... ....
....
....
...
...
.. .... ...
...
... ...

2 x=y
.. .. ..... ...
...
...
...............
... ....
. . .....
...
..
...
.. ...
. .....
...
...

... .... ...

..
... ....
. ...
R
....
... ...

....
. .......
....
.....

x = 4y − y 2
.... .....
... ........
.... ............
...............
.. ....
.... ...............
... ....
....
................
...............
...............

.. .............. ..................
..............................

... .......... .....................................................................

• . ... ...............
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
........
...
..
. 0 4
..
...............

Hence, The region R is bounded from the left by the line x = y, from the right
by the curve x = 4y − y 2 , above by the point where y = 3, and below by the
 16

point where y = 0.

Define the region R : R = {(x, y) : y ≤ x ≤ 4y − y 2 , 0 ≤ y ≤ 3}.

Z 3
(4y − y 2 − 0)2 − (y − 0)2 dy.
 
Define the volume of the solid: V = π
0

Therefore,

Z 3
(4y − y 2 )2 − y 2 dy
 
V =π
Z0 3
=π (16y 2 − 8y 3 + y 4 − y 2 ) dy
Z0 3
=π (y 4 − 8y 3 + 15y 2 ) dy
0
 5 3
x 8y 4 15y 3
=π − +
5 4 3 0
  
243
=π − 162 + 135 − 0
5
 
243
=π − 27
5
108
= π. 
5

Sample Problem 17.2.8

1. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the line
y = 4 the region bounded by the curves y 2 = 4x and y = x.

2. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the line
y = 1 the region bounded by the y-axis and the curves y = sin x and y = cos x
for 0 ≤ x ≤ π4 .

3. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the x-axis
the region bounded by the curve y = sec x, the y-axis, and the line y = 2.

4. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the x-axis
the region R = {(x, y) : 1 ≤ x ≤ 2, 1 ≤ y ≤ x2 }.
 17

5. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving

√ about the line
y = −2 the region R = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, x2 ≤ y ≤ x}.

6. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the line
x = −1 the region bounded by the curves y 2 = 4x and y = x.

7. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the line
x = 2 the region bounded by the curves y = x3 and y 2 = x.

8. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the line
y-axis the region bounded by the lines y = π3 , y = 0 and the curve x = tan y.

9. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the y-axis
the region R = {(x, y) : y ≤ x ≤ y4 , 1 ≤ y ≤ 2}.

10. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving

√ about the line
x = 5 the region R = {(x, y) : 2 ≤ x ≤ 4 − y 2 , 0 ≤ y ≤ 2}.

17.3 Volumes of Solids by Shell Method

Theorem 17.3.1 (Shell Method) Let f and g be a continuous function on

the closed inteval [a, b], where a ≥ 0 such that f (x) ≥ g(x) for all x ∈ [a, b].
Then the volume of the solid of revolution generated by revolving about the line
x = h the region bounded by the curves y = f (x) and y = g(x), and the lines
x = a and x = b is given by the formula
Rb
V = 2π a (x − h)[f (x) − g(x)] dx.

In Theorem 17.3.1, the axis of revolution is the vertical line x = h.

Note that the region R should be to the right of the line x = h.

Example 17.3.2 Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when
the region R = {(x, y) : 1 ≤ x ≤ 2, 1 ≤ y ≤ x2 } is revolved about the line
x = −1.
 18

Z 2
Solution: Define the volume of the solid: V = 2π [x − (−1)](x2 − 1) dx.
1

Therefore,

Z 2
V = 2π (x + 1)(x2 − 1) dx
Z1 2
= 2π (x3 + x2 − x − 1) dx
1
 4 2
x x3 x2
= 2π + − −x
4 3 2
 1  
16 8 4 1 1 1
= 2π + − −2 − + − −1
4 3 2 4 3 2
 
15 7 3
= 2π + − −1
4 3 2
 
43
= 2π
12
43
= π. 
6

Example 17.3.3 Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when
1
the region R bounded by curves y = and y = 1, and the lines x = 1 and
x
x = 4 is revolved about the y-axis.

Solution: Sketch the graph of R:

x=0
2.............. .. .
... .......
...
....
.........
.
.. .. ....
...
.. ...
...
... ...
...
...
..
y=1
...
...
.. ...
...

•
...
...
1
...
...
............... ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.... ...
.. ......
........
.........
..
.....
... .............
...............
.........
..
....
.. ............
...........
............
............
.............
..............
...
.....

R
..............
...
...............
................
...... .................. ..
.. 1
................................ .....

y=
.......................................
................................................... ...
........................................................................................
..
... ..........................
............................
..............
.....
..
.
. . . x
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. . . ...

..
..
0
..
..
..
1 4
..
.........
....
−1 .
 19

Hence, the region R is bounded from the left by the point where x = 1, from the
1
right by the line x = 4, above by the line y = 1, and below by the curve y = .
x
 
1
Define the region R : R = (x, y) : 1 ≤ x ≤ 4, ≤y≤1 .
x
Z 4  
1
Define the volume of the solid: V = 2π (x − 0) 1 − dx.
1 x
Therefore,

Z 4
V = 2π (x − 1) dx
1
 2 4
x
= 2π −x
2 1
   
16 1
= 2π −4 − −1
4 2
 
15
= 2π −3
2
 
9
= 2π
2
= 9π. 

Example 17.3.4 Find the volume of√the solid of revolution generated when
the region R bounded by curve y = x − 2 and the lines y = 0 and x = 6 is
revolved about the line x = 2.

Solution: Sketch the graph of R:

. ...
.... ..
.....
......... ..
....
..
...
...
.....
..
.....
√
2 ..
...............
..
...
..
....
...
.....
..
....
y= x−2 • .....................
.....................
...................
.............................
...................
........................... ....
.....................
... .....
........
...........
..
...
.....
.. ...
.....
..................
......
......
............
..
.....
... ..
....
..................
......
.....
..........
..
....
............... .. ...
.....
...............
.....
.....
.....
...
.....
... ..
.....
..........
............ ..
.....

R
....
....
...
.. ..
.... ......
.... ..
....
...
..
... ..... ...
..... ..... .....
.. ....
.....
. ..
....

•
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
0
........
..
. 2 y=0 ....
.
...
.
.
.
...
.....
6
.... ..
....
..
x=2
.
............... .. ...
 20

The region R is bounded from the left by the

√ point where x = 2, from the right
by the line x = 6, above by the curve y = x − 2, and below by the line y = 0.
√
Define the region R : R = {(x, y) : 2 ≤ x ≤ 6, 0 ≤ y ≤ x − 2}.
√
Z 6
Define the volume of the solid: V = 2π (x − 2)( x − 2 − 0) dx.
2

Therefore,

6 √
Z
V = 2π (x − 2) x − 2 dx
Z2 6
= 2π (x − 2)3/2 dx
2
6
2(x − 2)5/2

= 2π
5
 5/2
2
2(4)
= 2π −0
5
128
= π. 
5

Theorem 17.3.5 (Shell Method) Let f and g be a continuous function on

the closed inteval [c, d] such that f (y) ≥ g(y) for all y ∈ [c, d]. Then the volume
of the solid of revolution generated by revolving about the line y = k the region
bounded by the curves x = f (y) and x = g(y), and the lines y = c and y = d
is given by the formula
Rd
V = 2π c (y − k)(f (y) − g(y)) dy.

In Theorem 17.3.5, the axis of revolution is the horizontal line y = k.

Note that the region R should be above the horizontal line y = k.

Example 17.3.6 Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when
√
the region bounded by the curves x = y 2 and x = y is revolved about the
line y = −1.
 21

Solution: Find the values of y where the intersection of the two curves
√
x = y 2 and x = y occur:
√
y2 = y ⇒ y 4 − y = 0 ⇒ y(y 3 − 1) = 0 ⇒ y = 0 or y = 1.

Skecth the graph of R:

..
....
........
...
..
...
..
...
.. ...........
............
.........

...
.
... ......................

1 ............... ..
...
.. .....
.. .
..
•
.......... ...
........ .....
..
....
........ .............
............................
............ ..
.

2........................ ................ √
x=y ...
.. ... .

Rx= y
.... ...
.... ...
... ............ ....
.
...

.. ...... ...
...
..

... .......... ...

...
...
...
...

......... ....
. ....
............................................................................................................................................................... .
•
.......
.......
...
. .......
..........................................................................................................................................

0
.. .......
.. ......
... ............
1
.. ....

...
....
....
....
.. ....
....
....
...
....
.....
.....
.. ......
.........

y = −1
............
...
.............
..........
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............... ..........
.. ...............
...............

...
...............
...............
...
..
..
..
..
..
..
.
.........
...
..

Hence, The region R is bounded from the left by the cuve x = y 2 , from the
√
right by the curve x = y, above by the point where y = 1, and below by the
point where y = 0.
√
Define the region R : R = {(x, y) : y 2 ≤ x ≤ y, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1}.
Z 1
√
Define the volume of the solid: V = 2π [y − (−1)]( y − y 2 ) dy.
0

Therefore,
 22

Z 1
V = 2π (y + 1)(y 1/2 − y 2 ) dy
Z0 1
= 2π (y 3/2 + y 1/2 − y 3 − y 2 ) dy
0
1
2y 5/2 2y 3/2 y 4 y 3

= 2π + − −
5 3 4 3 0
  
2 2 1 1
= 2π + − − −0
5 3 4 3
 
29
= 2π
60
29
= π. 
30

Example 17.3.7 Find the volume of pthe solid of revolution generated when
the region R bounded by curve x = y 2 + 4, and the lines x = 0, y = 0, and
y = 2 is revolved about the x-axis.

Solution: Skecth the graph of R:

..
...
..........
...
2 ..
...............

...
•
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
.................
...
... ..
...
.. ...
...
..
...
..... p
...
.
x=0 ............... .
...
.. R x=
...
..
...
..
...
.....

y2 + 4
... ...
...
..
...
.. .....
.
..........................................
...
............................................................................................................................................................
..
........
..
0 ..
.. 2 3
..
...............

The region R is boundedpfrom the left by the line x = 0 (the y-axis), from the
right by the curve x = y 2 + 4, above by the line y = 2, and below by the
line y = 0 (the x-axis).
p
Define the region R : R = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ y 2 + 4, 0 ≤ y ≤ 2}.
Z 2 p
Define the volume of the solid: V = 2π (y − 0)( y 2 + 4 − 0) dy.
0
 23

Therefore,

Z 2 p
V = 2π y y 2 + 4 dy
0
Z 2
=π (y 2 + 4)1/2 2ydy
0
2
2(y 2 + 4)3/2

=π
3 0
 3/2
2(8 ) 2(43/2 )

=π −
3 3
√ !
4 2 16
=π −
3 3
4 √
= ( 2 − 4)π. 
3

Sample Problem 17.3.8

1. The region R bounded by the curve y = x3 , y = 0, and x = 1 is
revolved about the line x = −2. Find the volume of the solid of revolution
generated.
√
2. The region R = {(x, y) : 1 ≤ x ≤ 2, y3 ≤ y ≤ y} is revolved about
the y-axis. Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated.

csc2 x
3. The region R bounded by the curve y = and the lines y = 0,
π π
x
x = 6 , and x = 4 is revolved about the y-axis. Find the volume of the solid
of revolution generated.
√
4. The region R = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 4, x ≤ y ≤ 2} is revolved about
the line x = −4. Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated.

5. The region R bounded by the y = 0 and y = 4 − x2 is revolved about

the line x = −2. Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated.

6. The region R bounded by the curve x = y 2 and the lines x = 0 and

y = 3 is revolved about the x-axis. Find the volume of the solid of revolution
 24

generated.
2
7. The region R = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 3 − y4 , 0 ≤ y ≤ 2} is revolved
about the line y = −1. Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated.
√ √
8. The region R bounded by the curves x = y and x = 3 y is revolved
about the x-axis. Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated.

9. The region R = {(x, y) : y 2 ≤ x ≤ 8 − y 2 , 0 ≤ y ≤ 2} is revolved

about the x-axis. Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated.

10. The region R bounded by the x-axis, the y-axis, and the line
x + y = 1 is revolved about the line y = −1. Find the volume of the solid of
revolution generated.
 1

CHAPTER 18
INDETERMINATE FORMS

Learning Outcomes of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, the student must be able to:
1. identify the different types of indeterminate forms.
2. apply the appropriate L’Hopital’s rule to evaluate limits of function having
an indeterminate form.

0
18.1 The Indeterminate Form 0

Definition 18.1.1 If f and g are two functions such that lim f (x) = 0 and
x→a
f (x) 0
lim g(x) = 0 then has the indeterminate form at a.
x→a g(x) 0

x2 − 4
Example 18.1.2 Let F (x) = . Then
x−2
lim (x2 − 4) = 0, and lim (x − 2) = 0.
x→2 x→2

x2 − 4 0
Hence, F (x) = has the indeterminate form 0
at 2.
x−2
x − sin x
Example 18.1.3 Let F (x) = . Then
x3
lim (x − sin x) = 0, and lim (x3 ) = 0.
x→0 x→0

x − sin x 0
Hence, F (x) = has the indeterminate form 0
at 0.
x3
To find the limit at the number a of a function having the indeterminate
form 00 at a, we apply the theorem called L’Hopital’s Rule, named for the
French mathematician Guillaume Francois de L’Hopital (1661-1707).

Theorem 18.1.4 (L’Hopital’s Rule) Let f and g be functions differentiable

on an open interval I, except possibly at the number a in I. Suppose that for
all x 6= a in I, g 0 (x) 6= 0. If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, and
x→a x→a

f 0 (x) f (x)
if lim = L, then lim = L.
x→a g 0 (x) x→a g(x)
 2

The theorem is valid if all the limits are right-hand limits or all the limits are
left-hand limits.
x2 − 4
Example 18.1.5 Evaluate lim .
x→2 x − 2
Solution:
lim (x2 − 4) = 0 and lim (x − 2) = 0.
x→2 x→2
2
x −4
The function has the indeterminate form 00 .
x−2
Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.

x2 − 4 2x
lim = lim = 4.
x→2 x − 2 x→2 1

x2 − 4
Therefore, lim = 4. 
x→2 x − 2

x − sin x
Example 18.1.6 Evaluate lim .
x→0 x3
Solution:
lim (x − sin x) = 0 and lim (x3 ) = 0.
x→0 x→0

x − sin x
The function has the indeterminate form 00 .
x3
Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.
x − sin x 1 − cos x
lim 3
= lim .
x→0 x x→0 3x2
lim (1 − cos x) = 0 and lim (3x2 ) = 0.
x→0 x→0

1 − cos x
The function has the indeterminate form 00 .
3x2
Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.
1 − cos x sin x
lim 2
= lim .
x→0 3x x→0 6x

lim (sin x) = 0 and lim (6x) = 0.

x→0 x→0

sin x
The function has the indeterminate form 00 .
6x
 3

Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.

 
sin x cos x 1 1
lim = lim = lim cos x = .
x→0 6x x→0 6 x→0 6 6
x − sin x 1
Therefore, lim 3
= . 
x→0 x 6
x−1
Example 18.1.7 Evaluate lim+ √ .
x→1 x−1
Solution: √
lim+ (x − 1) = 0 and lim+ x − 1 = 0.
x→1 x→1
x−1
The function √ has the indeterminate form 00 .
2 x−1
Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.
!
x−1 1 √
lim+ √ = lim+ = lim+ x − 1 = 0.
x→1 x − 1 x→1 √1 x→1
x−1
x−1
Therefore, lim+ √ = 0. 
x→1 x−1
ln sin x
Example 18.1.8 Evaluate limπ .
x→ 2 1 − sin x
Solution:
limπ ln sin x = 0 and limπ (1 − sin x) = 0.
x→ 2 x→ 2
ln sin x
The function has the indeterminate form 00 .
1 − sin x
Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.
 cos x 
ln sin x
limπ = limπ  sin x  = limπ (− csc x) = −1.
x→ 2 1 − sin x x→ 2 − cos x x→ 2

ln sin x
Therefore, limπ = −1. 
x→ 2 1 − sin x
 4

Theorem 18.1.9 (L’Hopital’s Rule) Let f and g be functions differentiable

for all x > N , where N is a positive constant, and suppose that for all x > N ,
g 0 (x) 6= 0. If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, and
x→+∞ x→+∞

f 0 (x) f (x)
if lim =L then lim = L.
x→+∞ g 0 (x) x→+∞ g(x)

The theorem is valid if x → +∞ is replaced by x → −∞.

 1 
x
Example 18.1.10 Evaluate lim .
x→+∞ tan x1
Solution:
1 1
lim = 0 and lim tan = 0.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x
1
The function x
1 has the indeterminate form 00 .
tan x

Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.

" #
1
− x12
   
x 2 1
lim = lim
= lim cos = 1.
tan x1 − x12 sec2 x1


x→+∞ x→+∞ x→+∞ x
 1 
x
Therefore, lim = 1. 
x→+∞ tan x1
1
!
1 − ex
Example 18.1.11 Evaluate lim 1 .
x→−∞
x
Solution:
1 1
lim (1 − e x ) = 0 and lim = 0.
x→−∞ x→−∞ x
1
1 − ex
The function 1 has the indeterminate form 00 .
x

Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.

! !
1 1 x1
1 − ex x 2 e 1
lim 1 = lim 1 = lim (−e x ) = −1. 
x→−∞
x
x→−∞ − x2 x→−∞
1
!
1 − ex
Therefore, lim 1 = −1. 
x→−∞
x
 5

Sample Problem 18.1.12 Evaluate the following limits:

tan 3x ln sin x 1 − sin x
1. lim 2. limπ 2
3. limπ
x→0 sin x x→ 2 (π − 2x) x→ 2 cos x
ln(sin x) x sin x ex − 10x
4. limπ 5. lim x 6. lim
x→ 2 1 − sin x x→0 e − cos x x→0 x
2 1
sin arctan x
7. lim 1 x 8. lim 1
x→0 x→0
x x

±∞
18.2 The Indeterminate Form ±∞

Another indeterminate form of a quotient of two functions occurs when

the numerator increases or decreases without bound and the denominator
increases or decreases without bound.
ln x
Example 18.2.1 Let F (x) = 1 . Then
x

1
lim+ ln x = −∞, and lim+ = +∞.
x→0 x→0 x
ln x −∞
Hence, F (x) = 1 has the indeterminate form +∞
at 0.
x

ln(x + ex )
Example 18.2.2 Let F (x) = . Then
3x
lim ln(x + ex ) = +∞ and lim (3x) = +∞.
x→+∞ x→+∞

ln(x + ex ) +∞
Hence, F (x) = has the indeterminate form +∞
.
3x
Theorem 18.2.3 (L’Hopital’s Rule) Let f and g be functions differentiable
on an open interval I, except possibly at the number a in I. Suppose that for
all x 6= a in I, g 0 (x) 6= 0. If lim f (x) is +∞ or −∞ and lim g(x) is +∞ or
x→a x→a
−∞, and
f 0 (x) f (x)
if lim =L then lim = L.
x→a g 0 (x) x→a g(x)

The theorem is valid if all the limits are right-hand limits or all the limits are
left-hand limits.
 6
 
ln x
Example 18.2.4 Evaluate lim+ 1 .
x→0
x
Solution:
1
lim+ ln x = −∞ and lim+ = +∞.
x→0 x→0 x
ln x −∞
The function 1 has the indeterminate form +∞
.
x

Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.

   1 
ln x x
lim 1 = lim+ 1 = lim+ (−x) = 0.
x→0+
x
x→0 − x 2 x→0

ln x
Therefore, lim+ 1 = 0. 
x→0
x

ln(x + ex )
Example 18.2.5 Evaluate lim .
x→+∞ 3x
Solution:
lim ln(x + ex ) = +∞ and lim (3x) = +∞.
x→+∞ x→+∞

ln(x + ex ) +∞
The function has the indeterminate form +∞
.
3x
Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.
1+ex
ln(x + ex ) x 1 + ex
lim = lim x+e = lim .
x→+∞ 3x x→+∞ 3 x→+∞ 3x + 3ex

lim (1 + ex ) = +∞ and lim (3x + 3ex ) = +∞.

x→+∞ x→+∞
x
1+e +∞
The function has the indeterminate form +∞
.
3x + 3ex
Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.
1 + ex ex
lim = lim .
x→+∞ 3x + 3ex x→+∞ 3 + 3ex

lim (ex ) = +∞ and lim (3 + 3ex ) = +∞.

x→+∞ x→+∞

ex +∞
The function has the indeterminate form +∞
.
3 + 3ex
Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.
 7

ex ex
 
1 1
lim = lim = lim = .
x→+∞ 3 + 3ex x→+∞ 3ex x→+∞ 3 3
x
ln(x + e ) 1
Therefore, lim = . 
x→+∞ 3x 3
ln x
Example 18.2.6 Evaluate lim+ .
x→0 ln(2ex − 2)
Solution:
lim+ ln x = −∞ and lim+ ln(2ex − 2) = −∞.
x→0 x→0
ln x −∞
The function has the indeterminate form −∞
.
ln(2ex − 2)
Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.
!
1
ln x x ex − 1
lim+ = lim+ 2ex = lim+ .
x→0 ln(2ex − 2) x→0 x→0 xex
2ex −2

lim (ex − 1) = 0 and lim+ ln(xex ) = 0.

x→0+ x→0
x
e −1
The function has the indeterminate form 00 .
xex
Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.
ex − 1 ex 1
lim+ x
= lim x x
= lim = 1.
x→0 xe x→0+ e + xe x→0+ 1 + x
ln x
Therefore, lim+ = 1. 
x→0 ln(2ex − 2)

Sample Problem 18.2.7 Evaluate the following limits:

x2 + 2x ln(cos x) ln(1 − ex )
1. lim 3x 2. lim 3. lim+ 1
x→+∞ e −1 x→ π2 − ln(tan x) x→0
x
1
csc x (ln x)3 e− x
4. lim+ 1 5. lim 6. lim+
x→0
x
x→+∞ x x→0 x

18.3 The Indeterminate Forms 0 · (+∞) and (+∞) − (+∞)

To find the limit of a function having one of the indeterminate forms

±∞
0 · (+∞) and (+∞) − (+∞), it must be changed to either form 00 or ±∞ before
L’Hopital’s Rule can be applied.
 8

Example 18.3.1 Evaluate lim+ (arcsin x csc x).

x→0
Solution:
lim+ arcsin x = 0 and lim csc x = +∞.
x→0 x→0+

The function arcsin x csc x has the indeterminate form 0 · (+∞).

Write the function as a ratio of two functions.

arcsin x
lim+ arcsin x csc x = lim+ .
x→0 x→0 sin x
lim arcsin x = 0 and lim+ sin x = 0.
x→0+ x→0
arcsin x
The function has the indeterminate form 00 .
sin x
Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.
√ 1
arcsin x 2 sec x
lim+ = lim+ 1−x = lim+ √ .
x→0 sin x x→0 cos x x→0 1 − x2
√
lim+ sec x = 1 and lim+ 1 − x2 = 1.
x→0 x→0
sec x
Hence, lim+ √ = 1.
x→0 1 − x2
Therefore, lim+ (arcsin x csc x) = 1. 
x→0
 π
Example 18.3.2 Evaluate lim x − tan x.
x→ π2 − 2
Solution:  π
lim x − = 0 and lim tan x = +∞.
x→ π2 − 2 x→ π2 −
 π 
The function x− tan x has the indeterminate form 0 · (+∞).
2
Write the function as a ratio of two functions.

x − π2


 π
lim x − tan x = lim .
x→ π2 − 2 x→ π2 − cot x
 π
lim x − = 0 and lim cot x = 0.
x→ π2 − 2 x→ π2 −
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x − π2


The function has the indeterminate form 00 .
cot x
Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.

x − π2

 
1 2


lim = lim 2
= lim − sin x = −1.
x→ π2 − cot x x→ π2 − − csc x x→ π2 −
 π
Therefore, lim x− tan x = −1. 
x→ π2 − 2

Example 18.3.3 Evaluate lim (sec x − tan x).

x→ π2 −
Solution:
lim
π−
sec x = +∞ and lim tan x = +∞.
x→ 2 x→ π2 −

The function sec x − tan x has the indeterminate form (+∞) − (+∞).

Write the function as a ratio of two functions.

 
1 sin x 1 − sin x
lim (sec x − tan x) = lim − = lim .
π−
x→ 2 π−
x→ 2 cos x cos x π
x→ 2 − cos x
lim (1 − sin x) = 0 and lim cos x = 0.
x→ π2 − x→ π2 −
1 − sin x
The function has the indeterminate form 00 .
cos x
Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.
 
1 − sin x − cos x
lim = lim = lim cot x = 0.
x→ π2 − cos x x→ π2 − − sin x π−
x→ 2

Therefore, lim (sec x − tan x) = 0. 

x→ π2 −
 
1 1
Example 18.3.4 Evaluate lim+ − .
x→0 sin x x
Solution:
1 1
lim+ = +∞ and lim+ = +∞.
x→0 sin x x→0 x
1 1
The function − has the indeterminate form (+∞) − (+∞).
sin x x
Write the function as a ratio of two functions.
 10
 
1 1 x − sin x
lim+ − = lim+ .
x→0 sin x x x→0 x sin x
lim (x − sin x) = 0 and lim+ x sin x = 0.
x→0+ x→0
x − sin x
The function has the indeterminate form 00 .
x sin x
Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.
x − sin x 1 − cos x
lim+ = lim+ .
x→0 x sin x x→0 sin x + x cos x

lim (1 − cos x) = 0 and lim+ (sin x + x cos x) = 0.

x→0+ x→0
1 − cos x
The function has the indeterminate form 00 .
sin x + x cos x
Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.
1 − cos x sin x sin x
lim+ = lim+ = lim+ .
x→0 sin x + x cos x x→0 cos x + cos x − x sin x x→0 2 cos x − x sin x
lim sin x = 0 and lim+ (2 cos x − x sin x) = 2.
x→0+ x→0
sin x
Hence, lim+ = 0.
x→0 2 cos x − x sin x
 
1 1
Therefore, lim+ − = 0. 
x→0 sin x x

Sample Problem Example 18.3.5 Evaluate the following  limits: 

1
1. lim+ arctan x cot x 2. lim+ x cot x 3. lim+ cot x −
x→0 x→0 x→0 x
 π
4. lim+ (tan x) ln x 5 lim+ x csc x 6. limπ + x + sec x
x→0 x→0 x→− 2 2
   
1 1 1 1
7. lim+ − 8. lim −
x→1 ln x x − 1 x→0 x2 x2 sec x
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18.4 Other Indeterminate Forms

Other indeterminate forms are 00 , (±∞)0 , and 1±∞ . To find the limit
of a function having one of these indeterminate forms, apply the properties of
±∞
logarithm to obtain a function having an indeterminate form either 00 or ±∞
and apply L’Hopital’s Rule.
1
Example 18.4.1 Evaluate lim+ (1 + x) x .
x→0
Solution:
1
lim+ (1 + x) = 1 and lim+ = +∞.
x→0 x→0 x
1
The function (1 + x) x has the indeterminate form 1+∞ .

1 1 ln(1 + x)
Let y = (1 + x) x . Then ln y = ln(1 + x) x =
x
ln(1 + x)
Thus, lim+ ln y = lim+ .
x→0 x→0 x
lim ln(1 + x) = 0 and lim+ x = 0.
x→0+ x→0

ln(1 + x)
The function has the indeterminate form 00 .
x
Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.
1
ln(1 + x) 1
lim+ = lim+ 1+x = lim+ = 1.
x→0 x x→0 1 x→0 1 + x

Hence, lim ln y = 1.
x→0+
 
exp lim+ ln y = exp(1). ⇒ lim+ y = e.
x→0 x→0
1
Therefore, lim+ (1 + x) = e.  x
x→0

Example 18.4.2 Evaluate lim+ (cot x)x .

x→0
Solution:
lim+ (cot x) = +∞ and lim x = 0.
x→0 x→0+
The function (cot x)x has the indeterminate form (+∞)0 .
ln cot x
Let y = (cot x)x . Then ln y = ln(cot x)x = x ln cot x = 1 , and
x
 12

ln cot x
lim+ ln y = lim+ 1 .
x→0 x→0
x
1
lim+ ln cot x = +∞ and lim+ = +∞.
x→0 x→0 x
ln cot x +∞
The function 1 has the indeterminate form +∞
.
x

Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.

− csc2 x
ln cot x cot x x2
lim+ 1 = lim+ = lim+
x→0
x
x→0 − x12 x→0 sin x cos x
lim x2 = 0 and lim+ sin x cos x = 0.
x→0+ x→0
2
x
The function has the indeterminate form 00 .
sin x cos x
Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.

x2 2x 0
lim+ = lim+ 2 = = 0.
x→0 2
sin x cos x x→0 cos x − sin x 1−0
lim (2x) = 0 and lim+ (cos2 x − sin2 x) = 1.
x→0+ x→0
2x
Thus, lim+ =0
x→0 cos2 x − sin2 x
Hence, lim+ ln y = 0.
x→0
 
exp lim+ ln y = exp(0). ⇒ lim+ y = 1.
x→0 x→0

Therefore, lim+ (cot x)x = 1. 

x→0

2
Example 18.4.3 Evaluate lim+ xx .
x→0
Solution:
lim+ x = 0 and lim+ x2 = 0.
x→0 x→0
2
The function xx has the indeterminate form 00 .

2 2 ln x
Let y = xx . Then ln y = ln xx = x2 ln x = 1
x2
and
ln x
lim+ ln y = lim+ 1 .
x→0 x→0
x2
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1
lim+ ln x = −∞ and lim+ = +∞.
x→0 x→0 x2
ln x −∞
The function 1 has the indeterminate form +∞
.
x2

Apply L’Hopital’s Rule.

1  
ln x x 1 2
lim 1 = lim+ = lim+ − x = 0.
x→0+
x2
x→0 − x23 x→0 2
Thus, lim+ ln y = 0.
x→0
 
exp lim+ ln y = exp(0). ⇒ lim+ y = 1.
x→0 x→0
x2
Therefore, lim+ x = 1. 
x→0

Sample Problem 18.4.4 Evaluate the following limits:

2
1. lim (1 + 3x)1/x 2. lim+ (1 + x)ln x 3. lim (cos x)1/x
x→0 x→0 x→0
x 2/x 4x x2
4. lim (e + x) 5. lim x 6. lim x
x→+∞ x→0 x→0