University :

Abdelhamid Mehri Constantine 2

MATH AND COMPUTER DEPARTMENT

ANALYSIS 1

Teacher : Benzeghba Soumeya

 Contents

CHAPTER 1 REALS NUMBERS

1 Introduction

2 Axioms for arithmetic in R

3 Properties of arithmetic in R

4 Ordering the real numbers

Inequalities and arithmetic

5 Upper and lower bounds

Supremum, infimum and completeness

6 The modulus of a real number

Upper and lower bounds

Supremum, infimum and completeness

7 Intervals.

8 Archimedes' theorem

9 Properties of the Upper bound

10 Integer part of a real

11 Density of ℚ In ℝ
Chapter 2: numerical sequences

1 Introduction to sequences

2 Convergence of a sequence

3 Limits: first key results

4 Limits: modulus and inequalities

5 Bounded and unbounded sequences

6 Subsequences

7 Monotonic sequences

8 Convergent subsequences

9 Cauchy sequences

10 Adjacent Suites
This course is a first introduction to real analysis. We’ll set the
scene with exploring basic properties of real numbers. Then
we’ll go on to define what it means for a sequence to converge,
and we’ll explore these ideas in detail, allowing us to give careful
justifications of some familiar results, as well as proving some
that you might not have seen before.
There are several resources that will help you as you study the course
Chapter 1
Reals Numbers:

What are the real number

Introduction: Real numbers: general definition and historical overview

We designate by

• N = {0, 1, 2, 3, ..., n, ...} the set of natural numbers.

Problem 01: given two natural numbers a and b, there does not always exist an element x of N

Such that a + x = b. By an algebraic process (summarization), we extend N in a set more

Vast Z where any equation of the preceding type admits a solution.

• Z = {..., −n, ..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., n, ...} the set of relative integers.

Problem 02: given two relative integers a and b, with a not zero. There is no element x of Z

checking ax = b only if a divides b. By summarization, we construct a body Q, containing Z where these

equations always admit solutions.

𝒂
• Q = {𝒃 ; 𝒂 ∈ 𝒁, 𝒃 ∈ 𝒁∗ } the set of rational numbers.

Problem 03: the x equation

𝒙𝟐 = 2 has no solution in Q. We then introduce a new set that of the real numbers R.

• An irrational number is a real number which is not rational, that is to say it cannot be written
𝒂
in the form of a fraction 𝒃, where a and b are two relative integers (with b not zero).

• The first irrational numbers discovered are the square roots of integers which are not

perfect squares, among others √𝟐

• A real number x is said to be “algebraic” if it is the solution of an equation p(x) = 0, where p is a polynomial

with rational coefficients.

• Note that any equation of the form x ; 𝒙𝟐 − p = 0 with p > 0 has a solution in R,

denoted √√𝒑 therefore all numbers of the form √𝒑 with p > 0 integer are algebraic.

• Integer and rational numbers are algebraic, as are all the roots of these numbers.

• A transcendent number is a real number which is not the root of any polynomial equation.

• Some universal constants of mathematics like e (the base of natural logarithms, called

also Euler number) or π are transcendent numbers.

N⊂Z⊂Q⊂R
 .

2 Axioms for arithmetic in ℝ:

One really important feature of ℝ is that we can do ‘arithmetic’. We have operations of

addition and multiplication. (Note that I didn’t mention sub- traction or division. Can
you think why?) Here is a careful statement of the key properties of addition and
multiplication.
All the rules of arithmetic follow from the first nine axioms.

A1) ∀ x, y and z ∈ ℝ,
x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z (+ is associative)

A2) ∀x and y ∈ ℝ,

x+y=y+x (+ is commutative)

A3) There is an element 0 ∈ ℝ such that, for all x ∈ ℝ,

x + 0 = 0+x=x (additive identity)

A4) ∀ x ∈ ℝ there existed − x ∈ ℝ such as

x + (−x) = (-x)+x= 0 (additive inverses)

The associativity (axiom A1) and the commutatively (axiom A2) of addition make it possible to write unequivocally
the sum of three numbers x, y and z in the form x + y + z and allow the use of the notation Σ to designate a sum
comprising n terms:

∑𝒏𝒌=𝟏 𝒂𝒌 = 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 + ⋯ … . +𝒂𝒏 .

The neutral element for addition (axiom A3) is unique because if 𝟎′ it had the same property as 0, we would have
𝟎′ = 𝟎′ + 0 = 0. Likewise, the additive inverse of a number (axiom A4) is uniquely defined because if - 𝒙′ had the same
property as −x, we would have

− 𝒙′ = ( −𝒙′ ) + 0 = (- 𝒙′ ) + x + (−x) = 0 + (−x) = −x.

Let us observe that −0 = (−0) + 0 = 0. Subtracting y from x is adding −y to x and we write

x + (−y) = x − y.

A5)∀ x, y and z ∈ ℝ, x∙ ( y ∙z ) = ( x∙ y ) ∙z(∙ is associative)

A6 ) ∀ x and y ∈ ℝ, X∙ y = y∙ X (∙ is commutative)

A7 ) There exists an element 1 ≠0 ∈ ℝ such that, for all x ∈ ℝ : X ∙1 =X (multiplicative identity)

A8 ) At each x ≠0 ∈ ℝ ,∃ 𝒙−𝟏 ∈ ℝ such as x 𝒙−𝟏 =𝒙−𝟏 𝒙 = 1. (Multiplicative inverses)

The associativity (axiom A5) and commutatively (axiom A6) of multiplication mean that we can unequivocally
write the product of three numbers x, y and z in the form xyz and allow the use of the notation Π for designate a
product comprising n terms:
𝒏
∏ 𝒂𝒌 = 𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 … … 𝒂𝒏
𝒌=𝟎

The neutral element for multiplication (axiom A7) is unique because if 𝟏′ it had the same property as 1, we would
have 𝟏′ = 𝟏′ 1 = 1. Likewise, the multiplicative inverse of a non-zero number (axiom A8) is uniquely defined because
if ( 𝒙−𝟏 )′ had the same property as 𝒙−𝟏 , we would have

(𝒙−𝟏 )′ = (𝒙−𝟏 )′ 𝟏= ( 𝒙−𝟏 )′ x 𝒙−𝟏 =1 𝒙−𝟏 =𝒙−𝟏

Observe that

𝟏−𝟏 = 𝟏−𝟏 1 = 1
𝒙
Dividing x by y ≠0 means multiplying x by 𝒚−𝟏 and we also write 𝒙𝒚−𝟏 = 𝒚 to designate the multiplicative inverse.

The operations of addition and multiplication are linked by the axiom of distributives
A9 ) ∀ x, y and z ∈ R, x (y + z) = x y + x z . (· distributes over +)
3 PROPRIETIES OF ARITHMETIC IN ℝ

The first consequence of this axiom is that, what ∀x ∈ ℝ,

0x = 0.

Indeed, 0x = (0 + 0) x = 0x + 0x and the result follows by subtracting 0x from each side of the equation.
Consequently, 0 has no multiplicative inverse: if 𝟎−𝟏 it existed, we would indeed have

1 = 0 𝟎−𝟏 = 0

What is excluded? Moreover, whatever x ∈ ℝ,

−x = (−1)x.

4 Ordering the real numbers

When we picture ℝ in our minds, typically it is not as a scattered collection of numbers. Rather, we often
picture them as lying along a number line, usually running from left to right, with 0 in the ‘middle’;
positive numbers on the right, increasing as we move away from 0; and negative numbers on the left,
getting smaller as we move left away from 0. Even in writing that description, I have made assumptions
about ℝ: I have assumed that we have notions of ‘positive’ and ‘negative’, and that we can compare the sizes
of two real numbers. This section is about formalizing those assumptions.
Here are our axioms for the usual ordering on ℝ .
:

A10 ) exactly one of x < y, x = y and x > y holds. (trichotomy)

A11) ∀ x, y and z ∈ ℝ, x > y and y > z ⇒x > z. (transitivity)

A12 ) ∀ x, y and z ∈ ℝ, x>y ⇒ x+ z > y + z.

A13 ) ∀ x, y and z ∈ ℝ, x > y and z>0 ⇒ xz > yz.

The usual properties of inequalities all follow from these four axioms

x>y is equivalent to x−y > 0.

Direct consequence of axiom A12.

∎x > y and z < 0 imply xz<yz.

Indeed

0 > z and x−y > 0 imply: 0 (x−y) > z (x−y) (axiomA13),

That is, 0 > x z−y z then y z > x z .

∎x > y and a ≥ b imply x+ a > y + b. Indeed: x + a > y + a and a + y ≥ b + y imply, by transitivity (axiom A11), x+ a >
b + y.

∎ x > y > 0 and a ≥ b > 0 imply ax > by. Indeed: ax > ay and ay ≥ by imply ax > by.

x > 0 implies −x < 0 and 𝒙−𝟏 > 0.

this axiom is also valid in ℚ the set ℝ is distinguished from ℚ By Axiom of the upper
bound which will be stated a little later

5 Upper and lower bounds

In the next few sections of the course, we going to explore the difference between Q and
R,as discussed in the last paragraph of the previous section. One helpful example to have in
mind is the square root of two √2. We know that is not in Q (you have probably seen a proof
of this elsewhere). But there is a positive real number that squares to give 2. One goal of these
sections of the course is to prove the existence of this positive real number
(which we call √2 ).
The key property, which R has and Q does not, is called completeness.
But before we get there, we need a few preliminary definitions.

Definition :. Let A be a nonempty subset of ℝ

∎We say that M ∈ ℝ is an upper bound of A if ∀ x ∈ A : x≤ M. In this case, A is
said to be upper bound. A is bounded ⇔ (∃ M ∈ ℝ, ∀ x ∈ A : x≤ M).

∎We say that M ∈ ℝ is an lower bound of A if ∀ x ∈ A : x≥ 𝒎. In this case, A is

said to be lower bound. A is bounded ⇔ (∃ M ∈ ℝ, ∀ x ∈ A : x≥ m)

∎A is said to be bounded if A is bounded above and below at the same time

A is bounded⟺ ∀(𝒎, 𝑴) ∈ ℝ𝟐 :m≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝑴

say that A has a greatest element (or a maximum) 𝜶 if the two following conditions are
satisfied: 𝜶 is an upper bound of A and 𝜶 ∈A. We denote it max(A) = 𝜶.
 ∎We say that A has a smallest element (or a minimum) 𝜷 if the following two
conditions are verified: 𝜷 is a lower bound of A and 𝜷 ∈A. We note min(A) = 𝜷.

∎If the set of upper bounds of A admits a smallest element then this one is
called " Supremum of A" and denoted Supremum sup A. By definition, sup A is the
smallest upper bound of A.
-If the set of lower bounds of A admits a larger element then this is called " infimum
of A" and denoted inf A. By definition, inf A is the largest lower bound of A
.Examp 1: • Let A = [0, 1[.

Upper bound(majorants) ,lower bound (minorants)

1-The upper bounds of A are exactly the elements of [1, +∞[.

2-The lower bounds of A are exactly the elements of ] -∞, 0].
3- sup A= 1 and max A ∄ . Indeed, the smallest of the upper bounds of A is 1 and 1 ∉ A.
4- min A = inf A = 0. Indeed, the largest of the lower bounds of A is 0 and 0 ∈A.
Example 2. • Let A =[𝒂, 𝒃]
1-min [a, b] = inf [a, b] = a, max [a, b] = sup [a, b] = b.
2-inf ]a, b[= a and a ∉ ]a, b[ therefore min ]a, b[ ∄;

3- sup ]a, b[= b and b ∉]a, b[ so max ]a, b[ ∄ .

4- inf ]0, +∞[= 0, and ]0, +∞[ ∄does not admit an upper bound (min ]0, =∞[ ∄,

max ]0, +∞[ ∄)

Properties Characteristic of the Supremum :Let M be an Supremum of E, Then we have:

(∀𝒙 ∈ 𝑬, 𝒙 ≤ 𝑴 (𝟏) 𝑴 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝑬

M= supE ⟺ {
∀𝓔 > 𝟎; ∃𝒙𝜺 ∈ 𝑬, 𝒙𝜺 > 𝑴 − 𝜺 (𝟐)𝑴 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝑬

Remark. If E has a supremum, then sup E is unique.

Properties Characteristic of the infimum Let m be an infimum of E, Then we have:

∀𝒙 ∈ 𝑬, 𝒙 ≥ 𝒎 (𝟏) 𝒎 𝒊𝒔 𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒇𝑬

m= inf E ⟺ {
∀𝓔 > 𝟎; ∃𝒙𝜺 ∈ 𝑬, 𝒙𝜺 < 𝒎 + 𝜺 (𝟐)𝒎 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝑬
A14) Axiom of the upper (respectively [resp.] lower) bound.

•Any nonempty subset bounded by ℝ admits an upper bound.

• Any non-empty and bounded subset of ℝ admits a lower
bound.

Remark. If S is empty or S is not bounded above then S does nothave a maximum.

Let S ⊆ R be non-empty and bounded above, so (by completeness) sup S exists.

Then S has a maximum if and only if sup S ∈ S.Also, if S has a

maximum then max S = sup S.

Proposition. Q is not complete (with the ordering inherited from R).

6 The modulus of a real number(Absolute value of a real )

Definition: Let x ∈ R. The modulus |x| of a is defined by:

𝒙 𝒔𝒊 𝒙≥𝟎
|x|={
−𝒙 𝒔𝒊 𝒙 < 𝟎
Properties :

1) ∀x∈ℝ , |x| > 0

2) ∀ x ∈ ℝ, |x|=0 ⇔x =0

3) ∀x∈R , | x |= | − x|

4) ∀x ,y ∈ ℝ, | xy |=|x|.|y|

5) ∀x ,y ∈ ℝ ,|x+y| ≤|x|+|y|

𝒙>𝒂
6 ) ∀x∈ ℝ , ∀ a ∈ ℝ+ ;|x| ≤a ⇒ − a ≤x ≤a ; |x|> a⇔ {
𝒙 < −𝒂

7) x ∈ ℝ, √𝒙𝟐 =|x|

8) ||x| − |y|| ≤|x − y|

𝒙+𝒚+|𝒙−𝒚| 𝒙+𝒚−|𝒙−𝒚|
9) ∀ x, y ∈ ℝ max( x,y )= ; min( x,y )=
𝟐 𝟐

7 Intervals

Definition For a, b ∈ ℝ tq: a < b on de fi nes :

[a, b]= {x ∈ ℝ, a ≤ x ≤ b}

[a, b [ = { x ∈ ℝ, a ≤ x < b}

] a, b [ ={ x ∈ ℝ , a < x < b}

] - ∞, a [ ={ x ∈ ℝ, x < a}

[ a , + ∞[={x ∈ ℝ,x ≥ a}

] −∞; +∞[= ℝ the intervals] - ∞,a],[a,+ ∞[,[a,b] are called closed intervals .

The intervals] a, b [, ] - ∞, a [ ; ] a,+ ∞[are called open intervals.

the intervals [ a,b [,] a,b ] are called half-open or half-closed intervals.

The real numbers a and b are called the ends of the interval
8 ) Archimedes' theorem

Theorem : ∀ x ∈ ℝ+ , ∃ n ∈ N ∗ , n ≥ x (for any positive real there exists a natural number larger than this real).

Note Archimedes' theorem means that ℕ is not increased (sup ℕ does not exist ; inf ℕ = 𝟎)

6) Properties of the Upper bounded and lower bounded :

Properties

1) A ⊂ B ,A and B bounded ⇒ supA ≤ supB and infA ≥ infB

2) A and B bounded ⇒ A ∪ B is bounded and sup(A ∪ B)= max ( supA , supB ) and inf ( A ∪ B ) = min ( infA , infB )

3) If A ∩ B≠ ∅⇒ A ∩ B bounded , sup(A ∩ B) ≤min( supA, supB ) and inf (A ∩ B)≥max( supA , supB )

4) sup ( − A)= − infA ;and inf ( − A)= − supA ; sup (A+B)= supA+supB and inf (A+B)= infA+infB

5) AB ={ a = xy ,x ∈ A, y ∈ B}} , sup(AB)= supA . SupB and inf ( AB)= infA . InfB

6) A+B = {a = x+ y,x ∈ Y-y ∈ B}; sup(A+B)= supA+supB and inf (A+B)= infA+infB

9 ) Integer part of a real

Definition : Let x ∈ ℝ we call integer part of x and we denote E(x) or [x] the integer n which verifies : n ≤ x < n +1 or
[ x] ≤ x < [ x]+1

then any real x can be written in only one way x =[x]+ α or :0 ≤ α < 1

[2.5]=2 since: 2.5=2+0.5 and [-2.5]=-3 since -2.5 =-3+0.5

Properties 1) ∀ x ∈ ℝ, ∀ n ∈ ℕ∗ :[ x+n]=[x]+n

2) ∀x ,y ∈ ℝ, [x]+[y] ≤ [ x+y ] < [x]+[y]+1

3) ∀ x ∈ ℝ − ℤ: [ − x]= − [x] − 1

4) ∀x ,y ∈ ℝ:[x] ≤ [y]

10 ) ℝ Density inℚ

Proposition: Take a, b ∈ R with a < b. Then

(i) there is x ∈ Q such that a < x < b (the rationals are dense in the reals); and
there is y ∈ R \ Q such that a < y < b (the irrationals are dense in the reals

Theorem: between two different reels there exists a rational

And between 2 different reels there exists an infinity of rational

ℝ is a complete ordered field.

This sums up the key properties we have identified as our assumptions about ℝ. From this, we
shall develop the theory of real analysis.

̅ : ̅̅̅̅
9) The set ℝ ℝ= ℝ ∪ {−∞; +∞}=[−∞; +∞]

̅̅̅admits an upper bound and a lower bound. All operations in ℝ

Any non-empty part of ℝ ̅ are of the form:

1) ∀x∈ ℝ ∶x+(+ ∞)=+∞

2) x +( - ∞)=-∞
3) (+ ∞)+(+ ∞)=+∞
4) (− ∞)+(− ∞)=−∞
5) ∀x∈ ; _ _ ℝ+∗ x (+ ∞)=+ ∞ ;x ( − ∞)= −∞
−
6) ∀ x ∈ ℝ∗ x (+ ∞)=- ∞ ; x ( − ∞)= +∞
7) (+ ∞).(+ ∞)=+ ∞ ; (- ∞).(- ∞)=+ ∞ ; (+ ∞).(- ∞)=-∞
8) ∀x∈ _ _ℝ − ∞< x < + ∞ ̅ =+∞ ; INF ℝ
sup ℝ ̅ =- ∞ ; therefore ̅̅̅̅
ℝ is bounded

̅
0 × ( + ∞), (+ ∞)+( − ∞) , ( − ∞) × 0 these are the indefinite cases there is no solution inℝ