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Comers vad “ARB armeralén 0% Cellocfvely~ kxrovon a Le Jasyonr— n Pobol.etre ttt bee) Diffe: OR mods” between os} and TCP/IP reference Refer Only Diver n ices bety ie ‘ e etween OSI and TCP/IP = (Model Paperstv, a2(b) | ApriuMay-t3, Set, atte) ate between OSI and TCPAP Reference Models Bo OSI and TcpjP network models are based on the ea of a stack of independent Protocols. The Protocols ofeach layer are completely hidden from the other layers, in both the models. , The layers upto the transport-layer in both the models Provides an end-to-end transport service (which is 2. The OSI model clearly differentiates between services, interfaces and pro} : tocols whereas the TCP/IP model does Not differentiate clearly, The OSI model Was’ designed prior to the protocols emergence. In case of TCP/IP, the model was designed after the protocols emergence. Itis easy to add new technologies in the OSI reference model but difficult to add in TCP/IP reference model, There are seven layers in the OSI model whereas the TCP/IP model has only four layers. The figure shows the layers in both the models. OSI Mode1 TCPAP Model Application yer }¢——+{ Application layer ] P Serene + Not presenti this model Transpor yer Network layer —_ Internet layer Data link layer Physical layer I* *|_Host-to-Network layer Figure: OS! and TCP/IP Reference Models The OSI model supports both modes of communication such as connection-oriented and connectionless in the network layer but only one mode i.e., connection- oriented communication in the transport layer. On the other hand, the TCP/IP model supports only one mode i.e., connectionless communication in the network layer ‘but both modes in the transport layer.Q12. Describe Wide Aroa Networks (WANs), Answer ‘Wide Area Networks WANS) ‘AWike Area Network (WAN) spans a veiy large area that comprises a country, a continent or even the whe word, “There are two types of WAN, the point-to-point WAN andthe switched WAN. A point-to-point WAN isthe simplest WAN that connects a computer a small LAN or to an Intemet Service Provider (ASP) as shown inthe figure (1. This type of WAN provides intemet access toa compute. Computer Figure (HE Point to polnt WAN A switched WAN is a complex WAN that connects the hess (or end systems) to the subnet, The subnet cons of ‘eansmission lines and switching elements. The router i a switching element that connects two or more transmission lest ‘so connects to another LAN or WAN. Unlike LAN, the transmission media is not shared in WAN so any computer eaa ed ata anytime. The transmission mechanism of WAN i based on the concept of packet store-and-forvard, ‘When dat arrives from the sender on an incoming line, router the switching element sores it in its buffer, choose 2 ‘sppropriateoutging line then forwards it over the output line. If two routers are nat directly connected then packet eed and sored at each intermedite routers along the path until he required output line is fee and then forwarded. The suboe ug ‘this concept is called a point to-piny,storend-forward or packet-switched subnet. The figure (2) shows a switched WAN. Host Host ot Silet (2 Seboa WAN se 7 Look for the SIA GROUP Loco We onto THLE COVER botore you buy™ nite iiteduction rth 1.7 ‘alte LANs thls hve symmeitoplopes, WANetyialy inv regular polape. Sever pote opolgin seine fr (3 ? taser (0) ig (eComplets tate (otreglar Figur (3: WAN Topelgies ‘Awrberposiilty of WAN isthe Wicless WAN that is beeoming more and more popula. In such WANS the router has atetenaa thal eps in sending and eceving dat‘G13, Explain. Local Area Notworks (LANs). ‘Answer t . Model Papeest a2) Local Area Networks (LANs) designed to allow personal computers or workstations in an organization to share resources (e.g. printers) and exchange information. ‘The tree distinguishing characteristics of LANS are, 1 Size | Lose Newert CAN apy med nwo aig sins in slg fis, bling cans LAN: LANs ae limited in size of upto a few kilometers. The advantage of limited sie is that inthe worst ease transmission time bounds are predictable. It is simpler in design which simplifies network management, ‘Transmission Technology » “The transmission technology wed in LANs often consist ofa single cable to whch all the machines are connected. “Traitonal LANs operated al speeds of 10 (0100 Mbps, Newer LANs may run atspeds upto hundreds of mégabitysee, / ont _NeiarleTopology . : . Tfevainar ay pooner pnb fr bales LAN. The vo mont connon pli abuser These ‘topologies are shown in the following figures. 1 a tpolonis are shown inthe following ATA ‘SPECTROM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS ————-—-— SIA GROUP ba n f a 18 : COMPUTER NETWORKS IJNTU-KAKINADA Internet can sily be termed as anetwctk of petro Latis intemet coratintes acollection of twoer more berberpebengeeperarspede permnpaes Se Sah a aeeanree Lama Pood % at ge all the computers are Tepes ale can ser Gam ever the bes at any time. Whon oo or mere machines ‘wast to send data simultanowasy, an sebirtion mavhaniem is needed t resolve this eens, Inring topless the compen sn of a ring ie. each pode has exactly Bo net topology any computer can send dats by asourvenode. andthe dam traverses through mans itermatate modesto resch tits Give a brief note on MAN. ubimate destination. Dat is wansmitet only 10 Answer # est set.‘mar ©... 8-8. -bhoie SScboacaatibian Aas. TS Q15. Explain about Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs). OR Give a brief note on MAN. . Answer : April-16, Sat-4, Q2(b) Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) A metropolitan area network is a network similar to LAN but larger than LAN and smaller than WAN, The area covered by a MAN is upto city which might be either privately owned bya group o publicly utilized. It is mainly designed for customers Who are spread over a city and need a high-speed connection to the Intemet. A MAN ean support both data and voice. An example of a MAN is the cable television network that provides high-speed data connection to the Internet. A MAN is a simple network with one or two cables to which all the computers are connected, It does not contain, any switching elements. A MAN is implemented by a standard called DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus) or IEE 802.6. DQDB has hwo unidirectional buses (or cables) to which all the computers are attached. This architecture is shown in the figure. Headend t Bus A drectna BusA ban Bus D drectn Figure: DODB Architecture ‘There is a device called head-end to monitor the dal 1n, The upper bus (Bus A) is used to send data to thes? that are at right side of the sender ant! the lower bus ed for computers that are at left side of the sender. greatly: sirmplities the1. Email Programs These allow users to type messages at their local nodes and then send them to someone on the network. It is a fast and easy way of transferring mail from one computer to another. Examples of electronic mail programs (clients) are: -Pegasus Mail + Outlook express Eudora Windows mail ~ Fox mail Opera Windows mail 2. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) This application facilitates the transfer of files from one computer to another, e.g., from a client to a server. There are two common processes involved in FTP -Downloading: This is the process of obtaining files from a server to a workstation or a client (for example when you download programs and music from a server). aInlaadina: Thie ie nhtainina af fila:‘Uploading: This is obtaining of files from a workstation to a server (for instance when you attach documents and upload them to a server, a good example being when you upload photos to Facebook). Examples of FTP programs are: -FTP in Unix FTP in Linux -FTP in Windows 3. Terminal Emulation (TELNET) This allows a workstation to access the server for an application program. This enables you to control the server and communicate with other servers on the network. The workstation appears as a down terminal that is directly attached to the server. The user feels like he/she is using the server directly. TELNET enables PCs and workstations to function as dumb terminals in sessions with hosts on inter-networks. 4. Groupware These applications are used to automate the administrative functions of a modern office for video conferencing and chatting. Theyfacilitate the work of groups for increased productivity; they can be used to communicate, co-operate, coordinate, solve problems, compete, and negotiate. -Video Conferencing: This is the process of conducting a conference between two or more participants at different sites by using computer networks to transmit audio and video data. For example, a point-to-point(two-person) video conferencing system works much like a video telephone. Each participant has a video camera, microphone, and speakers mounted on his or her computer. As the two participants speak to one another, their voices are carried over the network and delivered to the other speakers, and whatever images appear in front of the video camera appear in a window on the other participant's monitor. -Chatting: This is the real-time communication between two users via computer. Once a chat has been initiated, either user can enter text by typing on the keyboard and the entered text will appear on the other user’s monitor. The two must be online for a chat to be initiated. Most networks and online services offer a chat feature which enables users to chat as they go on with their work.Q21, Explain about the TCP/IP reference model in detail, Ans: April/May-13, Sot-3, Q4(s) TCP/IP Reference Model: The TCP/IP reference model was developed prior to the OSI model. The major design goals of this model were, . (i) To connect multiple networks together so that they appear.as a single network. (ii) To survive ‘after partial subnet hardware failures. (iii) _ To provide a flexible ‘architecture, Inlike pas only four Iny: 1. Host-to-network layer 2. ~ Internet layer . 3. Transport layer, 4. Application layer. Figure (1): TCP/IP Rat L Host-to-Network Layer: Host-to-network layer in TCP/ IP reference model is equivalent to the combination of ph and data link layer in OSI model. The TCP/IP r co i does not describe the functionality of this Ia specifies that a host must connect to a ne protocol to send IP packets over it, The mox any specific protocol to be used. It v: network to network. ‘ence Model ference model er. However it ‘work using some x del does not define ‘aries from host to host and 2 Internet Layer: The functionality of this layer is very ~ similar to the network layer in OSI model. The responsibility of this Jayer is to send IP packets from a source in one network independently to the destination potentially in a different network. The packets are routed independently each taking adifferent path between source and destination. So they may arrive at the receiver in a different order. If in-order delivery of packets is desired then its the job of higher layers to rearrange them in proper order. The internet layer defines the format of these packets and a conncctionless protocol called internet protocol.3. Transport Layer: The transport layer allows peer entities on the source and destination hosts to exchange data with each other. The layer defines two end-to-end protocols namely TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol). TCP is a reliable connection-oriented protocol and allows error-free transmission. At the source end, it segments the incoming byte stream into discrete messages and passes | them to the internet layer. At the receiving end it groups the received messages into the output stream. It also handles flow control so that the fast sender does not overwhelm the slow | Teceiver. UDP is an unreliable connectionless protocol. Unlike TCP, it does not handle message sequencing and flow control. | Itis widely used in applications where prompt-delivery is more important than accurate data, for example, speech and video. 4. Application Layer: The application layer defines all the higher-level protocols including TELNET, File Transfer _ Protocol (FTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and | Name Service (DNS). s | Figure (2) shows the initial protocals and network | defined in the TCP/IP model THLNET | rip sai? | DNA | Application layer TOP upP Franeport layer 0 | Internet bayer N ni eP ARPANET| SATNET | Packet | LAN | prostanpecwork layer = i radio | Figur rotocols and Networks in TCP/IP Reference ModalInformation Flow in OS! Information being transferred from a software application in one computer system to a software application in another must pass through the OSI layers. For example, if a software application in System A has information to transmit to a software application in System B, the application program in System A will pass its information to the application layer of System A. The application layer then passes the information to the preg@Afation yet, Mth Telays the data to the session layer, Edit with WPS Office and so on down to the physical layer. At the physical layer, the information is placed on the physical network medium and is sent across the medium to System B. The physical layer of System B removes the information from the physical medium, and then its physical layer passes the information up to the data link layer, which passes it to the network layer, and so on, until it reaches the application layer of System B. Finally, the application layer of System B passes the information to the recipient application program to complete the communication process. But protocols are defined such a way that the communication is being done between peers, so a virtual communication path is indicated in the diagram with dashed lines, Sender Recsver Application > Aplaton i Presentation Presentation i Session Session wm | Tengo Tanportprotoc Trent Network 4 ws) Network DataLink Datalink Physical Physical Raw Bits 4044404040104 = 2The actual communication process among OSI layers is explained below: . At the sender machine, Application layer accepts message from user and adds an application header (AH) to it, to form an application protocol data unit (APDU) and forwards it to Presentation layer. N Presentation layer adds a presentation header (PH) to APDU, to form a presentation protocol data unit (PPDU) and forwards it to Session layer. 2 . Session layer adds a session header (SH) to TPDU, to form a session protocol data unit (SPDU) and forwards it to Transport layer. => If necessary Transport layer divides SPDU into number of segments and adds a transport header (TH) to each segment, to form a transport protocol data unit (TPDU) and forwards it to Network layer. a For each TPDU, Network layer adds a network header (NH), to form a Packet and forwards the packets to Data link layer. = Data link layer divides the packets into smaller parts (if necessary) and adds a data link header (DH) and a data link trailer (DT) to each part, to form a Frame. The frames are then forwarded to Physical layer in the form of raw bits. s Physical layer encodes these bits into a digital signal and transmits that signal to the destination machine via the physical medium. ~ Physical layer on the destination machine receives this digital signal, decodes it back into raw bits, and forwards it to Data link layer. = Data link layer removes the DHs and DTs from each frame, combines them into packets and forwards them to Network laver 10. Network layer removes NH from each frame and forwards TPDUs to Transport layer. 11. Transport layer removes TH from each TPDU, combines the segments back into ‘SPDUs and forwards them to Session layer. 12. Session layer removes SHs from SPDUs and forwards PPDUs to Presentation layer. 13.Presentation layer removes PHs from PPDUs and forwards APDUs to Application layer. 14. Finally, Application layer removes AH and presents the message to user thus completes the communication.