CHAPTER-1

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Political science is the scientific study of politics which is a social science dealing with the
analysis and implementation of systems of governance and its impact on societies.

As a social science, contemporary political science started to take shape in the latter half of the
19th century and began to separate itself from political philosophy and history. Into the late
19th century, it was still uncommon that political science was considered a distinct field from
history. The term 'political science' was not always distinguished from political philosophy, and
the modern discipline has a clear set of antecedents including also moral philosophy, political
economy, political theology, history, and other fields concerned with normative determinations
of that ought to be and with deducing the characteristics and functions of the ideal state.

1.2 KAUTILYA
Kautilya has been a great luminary in Indian administrative history. He is the most important
thinker of ancient india. Kautilya was born in takshila. He received his education from nalanda
university. He was once insulted by the king nanda of magadh.he met Chandragupta maurya in
nalanda university, He thereupon promised to make Chandragupta maurya the king. He got
nanda murdered and installed his protégé Chandragupta maurya on the thorne of magadh.
Through his administrative skill and diplomacy, kautilya established suzerainty over the whole
northen india.

Kautilya wrote a famous classic book on public administration. It is a comprehensive work of

imperial administration and diplomacy. It is a practical and utilitarian. It advocates real politics
and statesmanship. It deals with hierarchy of officials, the merits and failings of bureaucracy,
divisions of the empire, field administration, land revenue, and taxation. It comprised 413
maxims and 6000 verses classified into 150 chapters.

Arthashashtra can be classified in 2 ways: first, as a wor throwing light on the state and society
at that time in india. Secondaly it is a treatise on state and government, having universal
validity. Although 'Arthashashtra' means 'the science and politics and public administration,
kautilya calls it, 'nitishashtra or Rajnitishashtra'.
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1.3 THEORIES

1. Position of the king

Kautilya reduced the position of a king to that of the servant of the state, or rather, of at
drudging slave [dasya]. The epic exhibits as an ideal that a king should even give up his dear
wife if asked to do so by his subjects; a popular and somewhat crude way of expressing the
king's position, but all the same enshrining the radical demand of hindu constitution from its
king to sink his individuality into his office with such principles the king virtually a constitutional
slave.

2. The theory of 'DANDA' [punishment]

Kautilya says, danda is the means of ensuring security and prosperity of the three sciences,
namely, the scared canon [tary], philosophy [armhiki], and economics [vana], in fact danda is
their root: the course of wordly affairs [lokayatra] depends upon danda, and therefore, he who
seeks this course should constantly be ready to apply danda. Kautliya says that the lawful
application of danda ensures the complete happiness of the individual, its unlawful or vicious
application causes universal disaffection.

3. The theory of government: The king

Kautilya, views on the theory of government under which he discuss three important subjects,
the king, the officials, and the mechanism of the administration, are equally important and
show a considerable development o the basis of the early athashastra on several on several
points. About the position og the king, kautilya remarks that the king makes on mars the
constituent elements of the state according as he is properly qualified or not.

4. Council of minister and Amartyas

Kautilya says that matters of state should be discussed by the council of ministers, whatever
majority decides, the king should carry out. The arthashastra say: When there is an
extraordinary matter the mantra-parishad should be called together and informed. In the
meeting whatever the majority decide to be done, should be done, should be done [by the
king].

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5. Principle of state policy
Kautilya writes about the king that when the king is alert, his servants like wise become alert,
kautilya further writes that king should perform his work with application of constant exertion,
for exertion leads to success. As regards the state relief of the people against providential
calamities.

Kautilya remarks that king shall show favor like a father to his people when are afflicated by
these visitations. Kautilya discuss the questions of ytthe kings keeping a watch over the
behavior of his own officials as well as those of the enemies.

6. Foreign policy
While discussing the policy of a weak king toward his powerful aggressor, kautilya asks the
weak king to take refuge with a still more powerful ruler, or else the weak king to take refuge
with a still more powerful ruler, or else seek shelter in an impregnably fort. Kautilya expolains
his plan for alignment of its constituents elements by the analogy of a wheel: within the sphere
of the prakirtis, he says-the aggressor shall conceive the kings separated from him [i.e., his
allies]as the circumference and those in between as the spokes and himself as the axle.

7. Administrative system
Kautilya lays emphasis on monarchical concerntration. Administrative and decision making
powers were regarded as finally resting in the king.

So far as the departmental structure is concerned, the director or the head of the
administrative department has under him the following five officers:-

Lekhaka Clerk
Rupadarsaka Inspector of coins
Sankhyayaka Accountant
Nivigrahaka In-charge of the balance
Uttardayaksha Supervisor

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 CHAPTER 2

PLATO

2.1 BACKGROUND
Plato was greatly influenced by the Peloponnesian war [between Athens and Spartans] and the
death of Socrates was [his master]. Athens lost to Sparta, despite having a democratic
government and his mentor [Socrates] was sentenced to death as he raised voice against the
poor administration and corrupt rule. Socrates was ordered to drink poison as a punishment
since he educated people to question the ill-doing of the government authorities. Due to this
incident, plato went in agony and started writing about the saying and beliefs of his master.

Plato was an ancient Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient
Greece. In Athens, Plato founded the Academy, a philosophical school where he taught the
philosophical doctrines that would later become known as Platonism. Plato (or Platon) was a
pen name derived, apparently, from the nickname given to him by his wrestling coach –
allegedly a reference to his physical broadness. According to Alexander of Miletus quoted by
Diogenes of Sinope his actual name was Aristocles, son of Ariston, of the deme Collytus
(Collytus being a district of Athens).

Plato was an innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic forms in philosophy. He raised
problems for what later became all the major areas of both theoretical philosophy and practical
philosophy. His most famous contribution is the Theory of forms, which has been interpreted as
advancing a solution to what is now known as the problem of universals. He is also the
namesake of Platonic love and the Platonic solids.

2.2 PLATO'S CONCEPT OF IDEAL STATE

Plato's philosophical views had many societal implications, especially on the idea of an ideal
state. Plato portrays an ideal state in his widely known work Republic.Plato at any rate could
imagine in the Republic an ideal, which goes beyond the limits of his time and even perhaps of
all ages. His concept of ideal state was recognized as utopian one which never exists. No
political thought can be detached from its environment in history. Athens had direct
democracy, individualism, open and somewhat chaotic society. The anthenian democracy was
on the verge of ruin and was ultimately responsible for socrates's death. Socrates was born
about 424BC, and met his death in 348BC.
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Salient features of the ideal state
 Gender equality
 Property
 Three classes
 Ban and act and poetry
 Justice in ideal state
 Education
 Philosopher ruler
 Children born of temporary unions
 Women in the ideal state
 Analogy
 Temporary marriage
 Division of human mind
 Political ideology

2.3 PLATO'S SCHEME OF EDUCATION

A writer, and the apologist and exponent of socrates' teaching, down to 386, plato now became
a philosopher and the head of a philosophic a school. Athens was by this time the University of
Greece 275 Really, Plato was the first ancient political philosopher to establish a university,
introduce a higher course, or even deal education as a concept . This emphasized on education
as an outcome of the Athens education system at the time. Plato was against the practice of
purchasing knowledge. Plato believes in a state run education system. The curriculum of the
platonic school, as we may gather from the sixth and seventh books of the Republic, was largely
mathematical, which we may ascribe to Pythagorean influence.

The aim of Plato was to train the philosophic ruler , who should rule by trained intelligence and
not by the letter of law. A large part of the Republic then addresses how the educational system
should be set up to produce these philosopher kings . According to Plato, in an ideal state,
everyone perform task according to the dominant qualities of their soul. To find the dominant
quality of soul, Plato deprived system of education. According to Plato, the aim of education is
to benefit both the individual and society.

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The platonic education system is a hybrid of Athens and Spartan education system. Athens had
a private education system and Sparta, where education system was controlled by the State.
Spartan education system is designed to support military spirit. So, many Spartan were unable
to read and write. He took the concept of intellectual education from Athens and the concept
of military education from Spartan. In this education system derived by Plato, education was
compulsory for both men and women. Plato believes that all people can live in peace if society
provides them with equal educational opportunities from an early age. There is free and
compulsory education by state to all three classes of ideal state. Children should attend school
not only if their parents want them to, but it should be mandatory Education is essential for
development of human soul and bedrock of the ideal state.

Criticism of plato's scheme of Education

a) Higher education is only for ruler class and trader class can only get primary education which
is partial and also not sufficient

b) This education system is more theoretical, less practical. Only 15 years for practical knowledge.

c) There is a question, how to know dominant trait?

d) Literature is mirror of the society but in this theory study of literature has been ignored.

e) This educational system is designed to fulfill the needs of state and there is less focus on
individual's development.

f) Similar syllable for both men and women is inappropriate.

2.3.1 TWO STAGES OF EDUCATION

A. Elementary education
Upto age of 20 years, Music and Gymnastics were part of the early training curriculum which
covers the early seventeen years of life. Gymnastics for training the body and music for training
the mind. At that time Music also included poetry, drama, history and oratory. Plato claims that
we should begin our education with music and then move on to gymnastics; mental education
should come first.

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B. Higher education
Those who passed the exam would receive an additional ten years of education. Aside from
mathematical and physical science, curriculam includes mathematics, geometry, astronomy,
logic, philosophy, higher doses of gymnastics and music. Plato emphasized the study of
numbers and geometry in higher education in order to sharpen student's mind.

2.4 PLATO'S THEORY OF EDUCATION

Plato was the first to use the word limitation in connection with poetry considered limitation
merely as mimicry servile copy of nature. Art reproduce physical reality, in short, art imitates
the imitation copies the copy. Images of art are copies of copies, the idea of everything is the
original and the thing itself is a copy. Idea is real.

2.5 PLATO'S IDEA OF JUSTICE

The republic is also called ''a treatise concerning justice. "Justice is an ambiguous and complex
concept. An ideal state possessed the four virtues of wisdom, discipline, courage and justice.
Justice denotes morality, duty, harmony, right conduct, morality, and fulfillment in both
individual and social life. Justice may denote individual virtue, the order of society as well as
individual rights. Plato show justice as an only remedy of Athens of his day to save it from decay
and ruin. Political selfishness, excessive individualism, division of oppressor and oppressed,
division of rich and poor were rampant in Athens.

A. Theory of Cephalus
Traditionalism [327-336 A]: The first conception of justice to be considered in book of Republic
is the one that underlies traditional morality. The exponent of this conception is first of all
Cephalus, a metic (or resident alien). To Cephalus, looking back over a long life, and thinking of
the old ways and opinions, justice seems to lie in speaking the truth and paying your debts (331
C). This definition based on traditional moral custom relates justice to honesty and goodness
like paying one's debts, loving on country, having good manners and speaking the truth.

Plato's Criticism: if someone reveals secrets of his country by speaking truth to enemies than
justice can't be established. The view point of Cephalus was criticized on the ground that there
may be cases in which this formula may involve the violation of the spirit of right and his
formula does not admit of being taken as a sound universal principle of life.
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 It is not right to restore deadly weapons to a man after he has gone insane. Definition of
Cephalus is found to be inadequate and it cannot withstand the challenge of new times and
lacking critical thinking. He refutes it by presenting a counter example. If we agree that justice is
related to goodness, to return a weapon that was borrowed from someone who, although once
sane, has turned into a madman does not seem to be just but involves a danger to both sides.

B.Theory of Polemarchus
Cephalus' son Polemarchus champions the old view of justice in a slightly altered from, which
makes it consist in the giving to each man of what is proper to him ( 332 B ). The use of the
word' proper' leads, in the course of the discussion, to the assumption that justice is an-art an
art which gives well to friends, and evil to enemies- and this assumption overturns the
definition adopted by Polemarchus. This is also a traditional maxim of Greek morality.

Plato's Criticism: Doing injustice to anyone can't be part of justice. Justice or

righteousness is after all not an art. And the contention of Polemarchus was condemned by
Plato on the ground that it is easy to speak of giving good to friends and evil to enemies; but
what if the friend is only a friend in seeming, and an enemy in reality, must one still rigidly
follow the definition, and do him good, or may one use discretion, and do him evil? And finally,
whatever may be said about doing good to friends, is it ever just to do evil to enemies? Men
who are injured deteriorate; and it can be just to make a man words than he was. Fed by these
consequences, Polemarchus is led to abandon the definition of justice as the art of giving good
to friends and evil to enemies; and Plato concludes the argument with the suggestion that the
definition must have been invented by a tyrant like Periander, or an absolute monarch like
Xerxes," with a great opinion of his own power"- a suggestion that prepares the way for the
definition of justice as " the interest of the stronger". So, to do evil to anybody, including one's
enemy was inconsistent with the most elementary conception of morality.

C.Theory of Thrasymachus: Radicalism (336A-354C) While Cephalus and his successor

in the argument have represented the traditional morality of ancient Greece, Thrasymachus
represents the new and critical views of the after century. He is treated by Plato as the
spokesman of Radical sophist, and as such he is made to take up two positions and driven from
each turn.

Thrasymachus: He defines justice as "Might is right and justice is the interest of the
stronge." Government makes laws to serve their own interests and whatever serves their
8
interest is justice. In the other words, might is right; a man ought to do what he can do, and
deserves what he can get. For while every man acts for himself and tries to get what he can, the
strongest is sure to get what he wants; and as in a State, the Government is the strongest ( or
else it would not be the government ), it will try to get, and it will get, whatever it wants for
itself. Thus, for Thrasymachus justice means personal interest of the ruling group in any state or
we can further define it as" other's good. Justice thus consists in whatever is for the ruler's
interest, for everybody other than the ruler, justice may be further defined according to a To
be" just" in the popular definition, as" an other's good" . popular sense, is to be a means is to
cat for the satisfaction of the ruler: to be' unjust,' in the popular sense, is to cat for the
satisfaction of oneself. Laws are made by the ruling party in its own interest. Those who violate
such laws are punished because violation of such laws is treated as violation of justice.

2.6 THE THEORY OF GLAUCON: Pragmatism (357-367E) The new point of view is
stated by Galucon, for the express purpose of being met and countered by the logic of Socrates.
Without adopting the position of Thrasymachus that justice is the will of the strongest when
directed towards his own interests. Glaucon contends, in the same spirit as Thrasymachus, that
justice is an artificial thing, the product of convention. While Thranymachus had grounded
justice on the instinct for domination, and defined as the interest of the stronger, glaucon
would ground it on the instinct of fear and define it as the necessity of the weaker. He still
follows the line of thought followed by thrasymachus, but he begins as it was at the other end,
and adopting as his basis the fears of the weak rather than the appetites of the strong, he
arrives at a definition the converse of that of thrasymachus.

Plato's Criticism: Plato's method of answering Glaucon's position is simpler and more
elemental. People were under the misconception that the state resulted from a social contract
between the ruler and the general public. Justice can't be established through power or fear. It
should be done naturally.

In summation, Plato realizes that all theories propounded by Cephalus, Thrasymachus and
Glaucon, contained one common element. That one common element was that all of them
treated justice as something external "an accomplishment, an importation, or a convention:
they have, none of them carried it into the soul or considered it in the place of its in
habitation." Plato proves that justice does not depend upon a chance convention or for its
validity upon external force. According to Plato, justice is something internal concept as it
resides in the human soul. It is now regarded as an inward grace and its understanding is shown
to involve a study of the inner man. It is, therefore, natural and no artificial. It is therefore, not
9
born of fear of the weak but of the longing of the human soul to perform a duty according to its
nature. Justice exists both in the State and the individual; but it exists on a larger scale and in
more visible fashion in the State.

Thus, after criticizing the conventional ideas of justice presented differently by Cephalus,
Polymarchus, Thrasymachus and Glaucon, Plato now gives us his own theory of justice. Human
organism according to Plato contains three elements Reason, Spirit and Appetite. An individual
is just when each of his or her soul performs its functions without interfering with those of
other elements.

2.7 PLATO DESCRIBES TWO LEVELS OF JUSTICE

Plato divided justice in two levels (Individual and Social) :

(a) Justice at Individual Level: Every soul has three elements ( reason, courage or spirit, and
appetite ). All these three components are not in equal proportion in every soul. Justice
maintains harmony among the three. Each part of the human soul or mind must be satisfied so
that there is harmony in every part. People who are harmonious can create a harmonious and
peaceful state. To establish justice at individual level, people should choose their profession on
the basis of dominant element of their soul. Justice, according to Plato, is the spirit that helps
the individual to fulfill his duties.

Men of Dominant trait Social class Work done

Gold Reason Ruler Rule and make laws
Silver Courage/ spirit Soldier Security
Copper Appetite Producer Production

(b) Justice at school level: Social justice is dependent on individual justice. A society where
there is individual justice can achieve social justice. Like the three elements in an individual,
there are three types of men in society as rational, spiritual and passionate. Plato classified
people in society and gave a threefold functional social stratification as philosophers, soldiers
and farmers. Every class. (three classes) will perform their respective work efficiently by
carrying on the activity which is best suited for him. Philosophers must rule the state as they
are wisest of all and I wisdom is the virtue of the ruler and justice is the virtue of wise. No one
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would interfere in the tasks performed by others in the society According to Plato a just state is
where society is divided into three classes, each performing task according to natural attributes
i.e, spiritual quality of soul and not interfering in other's task.

2.8 CRITICISM OF PLATO'S THEORY OF JUSTICE

The idea of justice as given by Plato is very much different from what is observed in the present
society.

a)Justice should have been a legal concept. He also neglected to differentiate

between moral and legal obligations. Society today is driven by legal rights and duties, People
are aware of their rights, duties and power. In the democratic system real power vests with the
citizens.

b) His theory of justice is based upon his own imagination of an ideal state, which is utopian and
hard to find in real world.

c) Plato put more emphasis on the duties rather than the rights enjoyed by the
people in a society. Both rights and duties are important and interrelated.

d) Division of society in different classes may cause class conflict.

e) Don't let to change profession. Select profession by identifying dominant element of your
soul. Suppression of other two elements. Now, every person can do any work or select any
occupation. There is no such classification in society based on personality traits.

f) Plato was deeply convinced of the natural inequality of men, which he considered a
justification for the establishment of a class system in his commonwealth . He gave powers to
the philosopher king but failed to realize the principle that absolute power corrupts absolutely.
Even the wisest king can become corrupt if given absolute powers.

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CONCLUSION
To monarchy as the ideal form of state, kautilya has accorded to the king "the highest place in
the body-politic". The swami is the chief executive head of the state and, is, thus "the
consumption of all other elements.

The Arthashastra's concluding passage claims that the treatise was written by the individual
who saved the kingdom from the nanda kings, yet it does not name this person. Chanakya, the
maurya prime minister, was instrumental in overthrowing the nanda dynasty.

Corresponding to these three elements in human nature, there are three classes in the social
organism- philosopher class or the rulling class which is the representative of reason;
auxiliaries, a class of warriors and the defenders of the country, is the representative of spirit;
and the appetite instinct of the community which consist of farmers, artisans and are the
lowest rung of the ladder.

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REFERENCES
 Dr.Gajendra aryal Aryal, Bikram puri, binod aryal, political theories and thoughts, pairavi
prakashan (2023)
 Sanjay khadka, political theory and thought, pairavi prakashan (2022)
 Atindra dahal, political theories and thoughts, lex and jurist publication (2018)
 https://www.slideshare.net/ManishNarwariya/kautilya-mostly-known-as-chanakya

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LETTER OF DECLARATION
I, rinku kumari sah hearby declare the term paper I prepared on the topic "comparative
reading of theories developed by plato and kautiliya" submitted for the terminal evaluation of
BALLB first year, under the faculty of law, purbanchal University is my original and credible
work which is an outcome of my research this paper is solemnly presented only with the
purpose for academic evaluation thus, I have no malice and commercial benefit. I also assure
you that I have not submitted my work elsewhere henceforth, all the data or scholars mention
in this paper are automatically cited and credited as per the guidelines of CHBEA.

I shall endure any penalty and punishment if found guilty of committing any unethical actions
that are condemned by the institution.

Rinku Kumara Sah

B.A.L.L.B 1st year

Roll no:27

Chakrabarti Habi Education Academy

College of law

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my thanks and gratitude to my teacher, prof. Bikram Puri Sir providing
me with the privilege to present a paper on the topic "Comparative reading of theories
developed by plato and kautiliya". It was an impeccable learning experience that helped me
grow and prosper more as a person academically.

And also, helped me to know about current situation of politics in Nepal related to respective
topic.

Lastly, I would also like to thank my family and friends who helped me finalize my paper within
a every timid and limited time frame.

II

TABLE OF CONTENT
Chapter-1

1.1.Introduction.……………………………………………............................................................................………………1

2.1. Kautilya………….....…………..………................................................……………...............................................1

1.3. Theories…………………………...................……………..……………….................................................…………...….2

1. Position of king.......................................................................................................................................2

2. The theory of 'DANDA' [punishment]……………….…….....................................................................………2

3. The theory of government: The king......................................................................................................2

4. Council of minister and Amartyas…………………………......................................................................………2

5. Principle of state policy………………..………………….......................................................................……………3

6. Foreign policy……………………….................................................………….....................…………………………...3

7. Administrative system…………………......................……................................................………..……………….3

Chapter -2

2.1. Background……………..………….....................................................................…………………………………….……4

2.2. Plato's concept of ideal state………………………..………….......................................................................…4

2.3. Platos's scheme of education………….…..…………….................................................…...................…………5

2.3.1 Two stages of education……………………………………................................................………….....................6

A. Elementary education………………………………………………...............................................................…………6

B. Higher education...................................................................................................................................7

2.4. Platos's theory of education…………………………..……....................................................................…………7

2.5 Plato's idea of justice…………………….....................................................................…………………………………7

A. Theory of Cephalus…….………….................................................………………………....…………...................….7

B. Theory of Polemarchus……………………….................................................………..…........................…………..8

C. Theory of Thrasymachus………………...................................................…………………..........................………8

2.6. Theory of Glaucon……………………….................................................………………………….......................……9

2.7. Platos describe Two level of Justice……………………....................................................................…………10

2.8. Criticism of plato theory of Justice…………………………........................................................................…11

Conclusion………………………................................................…………………………………..…....................……………12

References……………………………………………………….................................................……....................…………….13