R Ni ETHORKS se ee ComruTe! 28.2-23 Textbook ¢ a ® pore communications: and ord — forovzen (4 k Edn REF beok! ® cmprr NretVOrKS | Rar oe Pegoming In c) @ unix nerwors Pregmmming SS Rictend. me Bieens NSS me Ft one (ore gouree sal vane) — Tanenboum. Graphice! Networ’ Shimvlaton. ——— nc (Networx Interface a) | cas cond nm Ter (IP reference model the internet has been developed. Based oO Tt is also catled tetennel= model: IP Anrerner Pato): Protocol - TeP > —Trosmission Control ee ss ; His alse a Kind of pateco! stack becovs® it hos meg mony layens - 4 Senn Message o © = prrre, TP, SMTP, DS Tevet, DEP Message 4 port adress g- Lege! addressing - Te, Sgr ee | renee paragen Pe ———e apy or ayerne Was tO = Hee Tf / tine yr Teds te pocker/ Datagrrn Tuer Prysico! oadressing- joota Liot* png sie} frorocel staXK OY = Frome RDBote commun! cation « oFigunation F Protocols te is permanent ond cero!) osceSS address ress 13 temporary ond |S logical address. pee Rs fore | F. address Adaress (ou) arr) fet) required in date architectures ont models or layered 6 model provides co co~ TeP — 1 connection oriented and rejiable at teleiver in the concep, UDP- User rom tocol + of acknowiedg ment— fro, be Pro m His connection les ond oo the receiver, TCP is réiabie » Tene |S not grow. ube is fast acknow reagemen Trans port Pou. is meet press - to - process deiven 4 ie a) en wena a Logica! ‘ Preis ® porr odatcss (te Bi adses*) @ sretiot aaaress (eg - emell oalsress)) Tp is quite simiten td Upp in the sense anat iris cone. and unreliable - lee ~ Intemer contro! Message reais Sinseetraee Nevin Vimpiestsr. cfc) ech not quanemie Seccessfa TinamieiefeetanGrerne| campanian prrscol ja vsecummuiag!s emp, a4 is used fer err and yoy reponting Encapsterction and decapsulation in Iso ost 01-03-23 Modes . an osr - Oper system anterconnection . s0 -° Znternational organisation of srandandisation «Receiver, . (pose t tt (dove) t Yefane. sure, once, Tons), TELNET % Application | red c | Presentation 5 | Session 4 fel wor, Tronspent 2) Nerwork xP, TEMP ® Ethernet TOKEN usr Ring > pata unk fare Prysi ot “Tron s mission med t fodel in neswortng 2 sro imer-commy Ni Code architech ure remented PRUCHONY § Wher jg ane function of OS. fos; The OSI model allows the divense System veganaress of their softwonte gnd hand Wane neoriticos model Gnd connote IPI \ I ' las . ' woTE! “DST mode! if O \ a cenvic@> to the vse7 + application 14" provides presentation lage is used for “rans larien, Compression and encry prion: | Two type of compression, - 1088 Coreg] rossiess [zip] encryption - symnmerie: (sere Keg) cAsymmenie (robe Key) is usd for dialg qontrel andl synchonizadion - nd maintains) gessions betueen user, session layer jt esrablishe> > rewwore jayen is used For post -to- host desiveang. « | | Je menns | Transport layer ' Gear ie poss proces getty endl. pent | oadressing” ute trace the roure. between USED and serve? Vv : Be Peis af ree 1S paciet (0S: oadressing , routing and ien= netunrihg , trace! TH olse prerferms logical| | 1 t aE Wires) Ethernet > IEEE 862°3 Wireless Etrenoet —> IEEE gor \ Biverooth > TEEE,. 802-1 Function of Bata link is node=to- node delivery (hoP-fo- hop detivany J Th lane 3 w ecten In (ayer 2 switch] bridge - an layer | hub/repeaten dn an +ne as Cee 4 Physical layer is responsi bie for ee ‘ra@ bits - wit penform some funcHen” onto Every layer jn the ost model cHonaltties con be seen IN the tre ex Juin epee hendey cos Hellen: isting dala units This fun Enespouien | — a n \ Wes Pt, clea’ pn Ho] BG Gi ‘ HE - cookie 7 a 4 - pot adatenn nal a 13 — Logic oddity H2- Physica! adliod tL ~ fom bitD tn “he data INK loyer Only a fraiten is added at the end which penforms error erecting’14.63.23 yr of Addresses ie Be chic) |. Logical address (eq: 2. Tryst’ odaress. (eq: MAC aaaress) ETI 48 bits Be tert aaeres> : a create / Spode! oagress: (qj oral oatsress) : sy. v Related’ of Physical Nerweric sane) > st (oenm®) md wa (aetred Py (like wired Etherne™ JEEE 8023, oD nc onbigne s anton’ wires Ferret TER 602 v) 5 prumecn oc wer own porrs @Registereat_ Ports me> Nerwork Interface cond (o- 1023) (Wor - 49:15!) sene range of port num ® Ei port ne ens ane ered oy SRA oarignes and comtroned a) JANA a @ Registerea pore ase 0 srered SA LANA +o prever+ duplication: oracle > 1521 mysot > 2306 B oynamic/ Ememera (aot 40,15? = ¢5,835)— Thee ane to ie wd bg the cient procers -~ Mat odd is wn ey WM hero deci irat erp // ue qe com ae Se URL > URE faroeot * ‘Tea even’ ’ areas clossful Classless (wBeDe) (Me oes) wv s Bynarnie Con Figur or, Fixed Chal meet ‘4 K gyi? 172. 1G. fo aot tie 5. sete 7 ir, tag, °%ts decimo! dot— Prog ay. qiossfur 1Pe4 dares ing . T-Dotted- decimal Notation . a [ree ayer ye BYR eye! Bye BYE BYES | [ete S| je oC 14 ned eso BAe. I Sl lees. 0 | Faveror) female tee TT =a & i ae fees ee Le [1] ¢}fer23] 1 =) Br 4 >| et EI pre Te | ee eet clprat oT | oniaast + A,B,¢ Molficasr: D Reserved for fururt use *E else Unicast : one-to-one (some of different menverse) B-16 : oo toiti cage, Qne-to- mony (seme or aiff nerwor'’) ne pane Broadcost: one-te- at! (within Same ner) e-1 Weyror oa coche oF 2F eaditenddn is! combination of Aer Nor te and Host fel s is used to identify ao identify ane nenoork , Host id wen nerwor - é : Ph) oe (Pay daar shins > 2 ee ae “ salee a | 8-2 is eee ag 32 bit number senting. With consecutive ones wowed consecutive Zens! The concer QF masks wnill be applied te dass ABand ce ony: Dotted decimal Ginang- MAA BT Dy 955-000 Nritr@O---C% Mon ood OA 955: 255-0°0 pees Mess 2, 258,22,16-03.23 aig eae @) «> quy Reguuiecrnime ob ote eels eet : _——} . Tec | soap anaes [sees SSA prncmatene” 3 hie re com Pee cert rocket ey 740 Jeb or ott AF_INET > Aadeess famirg _Inteweh model. this one is based on 14 AF INETG 3 3PVG - >) int sooter ( tor Famirg » ior gyre Fae preroco') Lr tommection orsentiol | TP * Sock ~ STREAM © ap Seite, Zs) URL toc BORAM 3 one iret rm TEP wrelemteok comnvumntaalon~ » Comnanuricaion ertateloubarant ny Bota Tamper i tine eo pre eta Aire DAA ° 0 Protocol cat oe Bod\> Berkeley Softwone Distribution +s the System cay) PF bind L) Preans—the |S Fetered He-the striven ip and gen: x ig ony for Server: eee io cient parr vefinw the protocols « dye connect ¢) deFine> gowen ip and senven port num um ent ip aed pont pure + acee ptt) system cal) dhe Sevvor tries fo nous ne ort number and acepls the clierr ferert s Fed = gocer (AF. INET 5 got. STREAM 12 S++ syntax for teP For a queen Foming and ave" syre tre proroce! vaive is ales fixed 1+ wl! Pega te Ne fault value, as O- gieuct sockaddr is going 7° prvide serve? gocker aadless structure ee ay iets of Forming: Ter /IP Refenence Mode) OST Mode! or antenner Model femrericy ity) TerNe Ts, DNs ETP, SMTP, DHCP, SNMP 6 Application, Presentation message/ Doda. 4 |apptication lacey vor TroncPort —_ | geqment/ Datagram Packet} Patagrom ' Ethernet, Frame oKen Roy j i Token B¥8 raw bits TIS > Intennet anformafion senvice - er a t sTaviel Eire Transfer Promo! (retP) ARP > (Address Resolution Promncoal) > convents logical oddresy to Physica! ‘Gddress ARP (Reverse Aadrepn Resoivtion Protoiet) > oqccess oF recelens Side jn dtecta lin and datatinie lay converting physica? zo, togiest actdress +seme (amennet Goup eee DicP and RARP gow the game +ing Te: > Physical layer device is hub/ A repeater rece os a eee iD suitch/BAage one fayen2 device Ve: and bilge is Wi Rovter win openate Functions of Physico! ae Layer. i) pefines the chonactenistics pene eras medium: aigiral, signals - 2) “Transmission rate - (beats 3) Transmission mode - simplex , half -dupex, hoik Dupiex An half dupiex 5 the serdex A feceive? both Con stangmit and ceceive communication is unidirectiona? . ut not at the sume bq: Keyboard 2 a moni 1077 08 ory “Fire 2 Eq! Woikty tomeye - 4) Represemtarion oF bits — Dain line, coding |B) synchronization of bits. 6) Line configuration « converts Moc addres: repeater Lets Hub at teyor 1,2 and 3+ Line Coding is the technig,vt of convert ng dil a ae Q ~ nt—Proroce!) — helps in meres to address but PCP acts in application layer. is layer ( device. Data Link taqor- guiteh is implented at honawane level # 5° ta is Fasten than Bridge wnich Is impiented Ot gofranne level: Switch a dintieviye sdgqe : Fiexivie sanch also works at level ve Of the intenface between devices an data +o pen second (ops) ) full — duplex « Fun duptex/aupe Both sender and receiver en co transit and receive simuttaneods 1y *Ss ea the. wainea . Se (er a frame [rool Seats RS at). Ba orount | omios ,+hen apa e coefficient oF tre generator porye 4o the message: end (= 1)0'S to OOO! A ) e modulo 2 division soot Trorots WOO21.03.24 Mediven ess contrat (mac) (@rop - ond = wai ARG, Go-bace tt geiective - Repco Ane) siising a ‘roreeat “Pata Link ea Access cont! 2 pereiwen occess to “He GneriaaY meaium Eq. wire yairetess Ethernet (ae dQ Erhennd” (TEcE 2023) user sm [CD Bern) uses coh (Or @ Err Detector Evor coffection. - ” canis |. Forwond Error correction (Fec) a cyarte Redundancy Epon cfgomet a code cheat (eRe) 4 Be cmecksum- De Enor @mrertion “by | retransmission. Ege ARQ ga Repeat Reger) (RRerecor isa set of mi that govern? dota commu seston) Key eremcets of Prote q ceo na semantics — Hod alten a = Wher Syntax indicates t the the structure | Pormat of the cata Berantics means tne a . meaning of edch section of bits Pert— gir 6 Tien, tnd J leat) Dhen the data Srovid be stmt and how Froese sent i . and “These things haprens 9 uc layer SR ane catted Flows contol- \ ‘Senden Side -— : Sc for grop- ond = wait ARQ onty one Frome pil we sent a — For siding, wetiate: aaheS RSL Sho ha NARA , Selective aepes™ AAA) multiple fram con be gence for Gv b seen he peocess—toh- protocol wit retransmit fromes 3,4 ond > For seiective Repeat ARQ if & frumés are sent and fame % is i0 nee KARL iF 6 Frames one send and frame % is in ere err then onty that frame is to be retransmitted & me Logical and Physica Sprang Sve las of a networm is cane PPT f\ Te 1 ers topology - Csmr = Carrier Sense multfple Access - Cp — colliso® Detection cA — Conigoion Avoidance. Ny streare a 7 . the catcvlation for a frame JO0100 vsing gereraton = pory nomi . Bc) = want) i ‘ c I geceiver’s Side: ~ owt lal ° tae Het; 90100 900 trot}; 0 © 100001 . rod 1e@1006 ee ir old siiucont font o ; ol ae ee Pac Ont ut _ lio a ' . cor. ra 1 Oa ©0006 t1oy Se (90 Mea 110) oO ek no err cas oe]err — ore bit IS corruptect . Single bit ee hil Receiwn> > or more bits one corrupted . ° ererter geceiveds a «fe Burs ro <3 aad seat > 1 Buse enor of engin © 1D Ponty ORR, oe (BSD rani) Roomy 101100! t oro of 2 oT aa 6 6 z Bee Gis Gornpted then trene port be odd numbers oF bi a tren the recel 7 +o detecl— = +00 bHS on ceived Will able detec por iF bits ( i comupied, shen fhe receiver Will not be abe TO detect # Add one iF fre one odd number on TS ,add a 26 {F th . re oe EO 2D fonity ches eu ion gies! 1ool 1 : ; east i rotor Ol oo Olotool senden’s 5 pc Seam cole n He: y forsolt “OtNoorg orofdolt gtofotdl i fidigo! data TO digit@! signe is tated Line coding - oF analogy dare {> 9 signa! is caned sampling - 2 2 wo 20824 signe! ig modulation. ‘ is mosuletOP oh, * é eer ee aahke = oe ee signal ales TO complete — ne Beenie paws: Represented by fun pen second fs caned Freyvery * Unit? Hz 2 vaiue » Frequency + ig made up of mony Sc ecocsee epee aca le gine wave: im qnai6g, 4ransmigsion tne bandwidth indicot the aifFerce beeen highest ond lousent™ Frequenc components - 20. 4 prumbur of peniods completed Anareg signed has > Apmplitude, Phas m aa Aronsmission the tenm bit intenvar a einainrPrmetrdunmanetine “he digital Signe! tikes to comm ea a P me bir pattern is caned bit intenval » i The term pit rate is jvateor to the ter 4 + bi is equiv mo ever hee anateg transmission ; channel. uniF->bps- Digital signe’ yses 10 Pas P k Analog signa! uses band pass channel. unit > HZ ; ; ' (- . : } Bit rare = 2x OW * GS [E> no: oF signer Levels ] : enwR > signal +o noise ratio , area a” sign? power | ek ia ; avg noise power (eu iS [rmis is introduced chonnel capacity (¢) = Blog [by Claude Shannon. Gand width | AO. sox 109, (%) has gained Stengrh on lost— it etrength + Attenuation is Hee [oss of ennay Distortion is toss oF ee eee ae Impairmenr | | | eo : 2} Piierenchese isnetren “tre Signo! menvation pistortion Nos | Harelengrh = Propagation Sia XK Peniod Progagation speed | Fewenca « NRZ = Non - Return 70 2070 - Fo we2z there is no Signa? transition oF the middie of #t bit position -bit - valve - : “pit is 1 the next signe! is t invented .OK Wey, Jey, These, ig © sigan inversion POX bit t 06m, tener OC Mt 1 Ce tome There is ‘signa inversion the nex iso Polen Encoding -L + Re | 4) manche>tOr (nee-e ) Sor 24 2) or al > oifferential Han chesten (NRZ=1 Baise Za RZ UpP server and cient” so pe oP viene UDP senve? vo oO 1. socxetO, 1, socket { + bind 2. send to) 2 ind CO) Beer recy From ©)Pargy > ory fe Poimtes to choracter ennoy * Fe. Gach OF tne element of this Grray is a pins. array ray + $-] sewer 127.0-0+1 eo orgy wb) Bye Dit argvE2] + ~ ap caddies, pore member. joer addr is Used to conver the chonactenibed Ip oddress to bits otol is ascii to integer > used tp Conyenr pott m- From string to ine Rpeiise Hrvos careaniy take integer: ee Digtat 7 Anateg convensi on * ASK Fs _ PSK g QAM eens amplitude qncsvterion) = ASK + PSK Foe cce units por seconct. DpbPS (rr Indicates B signal eremen? is cavnying hoe =a) bits re vawe of r=4 if we use A NRZ-L and NR2-1 ond vatve of ry in case oF qranchester ond aliffenentionmanehestos Rz— 2» used for bit syn chron 2aH10n: AFSK For As, bps onc Enud Will be the some ond bavd wil a equivalent +o Hz value i-€ Yor onaieg —prans mission « he boud rate determin +he analog rons mission band wictth (2) Tn TDM, the link is alvided Taro mnvitiple time sluts- In synchronous TBM trent eat 62, 0 Hime, Stet for 8 amie ew it is ner sronseaittng S ‘w3m 4 a = Th FM the tinig tg divided into many Channels: Each device in FDy each— can transmit she signal bY eee seperate Channel «The TDM the link is Hme shandd amend difFerent inpot devi, arp there ane fous input clevice the TYPO? oF 1,2,3,4. sola SRITCtING | ~ ee itt Nensoreing » #ME connection teak 4 ae is avoid cresting Permanent connection, cence pH of saitcning ea te a create tempenan 4 beroeen lifFenent~ devices. The main objective hene Areredy ceavein g the cosh * “ype oF sultching 4. Grevit Switching (Physio! tayer) 2. idee surrching 3. Packer switching - (pata Cink Leen) ® ve e)) Datagram . (Antenne layer) 7; : eirevir saltching is oF +00 tyPeD D epace -pivision switch (uses Fam) a2 &Y'- Crossbar Switch - 2) Time - Division svitch (uses Tom) Tin space - bivision SWI, # cirevits in the Path one separct® From each other gpa wlth respech te spate! (spatiany > Huristaqe stitch *‘of output connections . ‘ of inpot connections and °° “weno: Be ae inpur connecnions ee ° azno- of iP for—stege 4 crsshan switch fp onge | a F gtoge Mino: of CSS tO in stoqe 2. stage 3 s i («xn) tye. of cosspoims L= «xn) a «(R5) fs erage 4 erage ? re RENE ne Ve « CY = gx9XG + 2 (Be 5 Ba De ieee ney, reduction * 42 3 . m ae ene aa-cty 2 37 Rocio wove > SKAZ — GHZ mics Wave > | ee 200, GHz G4. 23 Aigeritnrs CRE — ee greets Stor eat inp ge 8 con orey « grep 3: Inp* divisor & [I chon OMAY sep 4 * welsl greps? Ln tbl srep © for (I> 05 4d; itt) + ipWerel sc licioih” ormoy ier; itt): atid = bU) = 4% Wg is int annoy - rep fer step 8° poompyt> CRE for (isos 14 pitt): welt) {=0): fr (501 1S wistt)? #(¢ (i) ==4Uj)): efitd] 9 else > eCityepg cote qrction Goda) o 0! ye me weING TH GTESVE BE 4TH) emming cade m= 100 1101 rst 1 bet Lote tq Pee 85. 2, Bo: Ol perc tae Ate ein Ty ' Bo | Ot ° eee 2S, 6, F,.\0, I So e on aad J eee abet. Gt ° Teo 4-5,6,7 es ee) ° eee 2 9,10, 1! Loergp ° are AM pit is corrupted «So the one From hene tre receive? con under Stond which bit is Crapted - \e consinuer the harming code for 10011101 (™) m8 o> meets 84 4 aw 12 bs1010100 Qo111Q01 guar io! 7 i ; HeasecvOnagtece! ver ihe, pattenn. Sent +4 aed tne & Re i © gies | ] in + ts one needed if an acknow te, cl is lost (case- 4) enrerte cumnrening Framer pry oa and walt Res lug (ease-2) CKO fester: Bapinecre frome In srop- dre cesiniog prumpened _ cot is derayed and trang mission Remoce Oh trans » Combining data Feme, In Fun- duple ent Frome eo is caned Piggy bo xi and acknoe! age siding Window proto col ae Ge - back - BOEy Se cancer winde® size m € no. of BIS in Frame * re : fare pe tee icmsindow szeois,, 27-\ But pre receiver Window size is). Higher ond initial seyutnce 90 —> 9 Bt 4 2D Topote indicates Phe logical Gr a4 logical Grd physica’ omangemes+ of 0 neta A No- of nod =n E 8 oi ull duplex meade Links = Ne Bas nebo ’ be = A(n-1) eres” = Advonige of m@A topoINgY - ‘) pighly retiobie ~ ah lg 2h a fink breaks but ene one a ortennati weil 8 : ve pots © secunty:- AW ) secunnys = A tink Is Shaned bi 490, - WO devices . 13) epp 6dfie consumprion — i) Easier to identify eerieE pisoaven (Qe ey al » piffiey Jo accometore the arrangement pavastsg of sian § topology Cine = 9) 0 gedvetd cost * #) Fosin ap taentify We jst * a) fast of insranahon pisodvantag® a y af b> ge gown sre whole Connection is hampered @eirg 4opo10g Y a) aus T @ wes Toperogy (ine 9) mes a sa ¢ ‘Sap Boex bene cable. time - havanige — Disadvantsge 4 i Redveed cost * 1) Adding +00 many devices oil olyroke 1) gee of ineranstor’ porformonce i) TE Mair connection is Beared where sypem ig nampened standords one feqd- In date commnon ation, and nd nerwor wing Se Hhat— prauctd fom different” Menderee Ulm LEeOPe O {men 0 penate an ex Peoed De facto Standands sane those which h . Uonich have not been approved by Gen tamed, orpmen tio” bot they have become Standards -th rouge wide spread ee De jure Standond: J ndonds are +nose which hove been a pprmucd: bey same We! KNOwh eater a® A cevnet mose i qioss A hoe fouriee™ does it define 2 (wine: pefoui® mse of class A 1S : /8) aoss MOSIS = Decimal! 2B? sertill 900,...9 Wing oe: ae penseutve Dr consscurine x eee tt 955:0°° ° i ws ea o ong: 265°0°° Ne 9 Vee 040-0 eevive 16 consecu hve 965° 255°0 1@ cans : Roce Aes 265 7 a © 0000000 au’ Is B consecutive o's gor? supnet tin’ means dived NG o lenge nefGeghiAe mano, cuenerworss iE subnets) 60, bY gubnetting the host id firs qaill be decreasedt cy necasing tr nerid. bis wil FS jngasea ts Ne. of ere bels * (4-8) =6 ¢ ee isee roe mony Subren Cy aweens resem: cos & hos ninet define 9 doe Me cher ob orratl cue Ge “i Nor of subnets = Guenetina treans. incres 0 5 incre singe re no. F 1S inthe Masi 01 9B CS ond the subnet mesic © Giveo +m tp address 2 gunnet oddress .. ((s* odree>>) ' 255 -2b2 255° 224, What is the broadcast adden} (10s! oats) « RULE: To Find the Fiat We need tO perform Hiterise [6g1 To find the last address between IP addren and OMO EG: Broadcast oddress > Ny of addres’ = 31+) Pee assiess Ihv4 oadressing Ropertio pee pow of 2 (ey Ve 2) Tre address must be oY 3) masic is voriable prefix length © ® an cuossiess 1° add od dress s = compement OF subnet Mask in class 1Pv4~ address SHR: Bip to\a, SA ye Cee of 905°22 2F.39 FB. 14 GY. oO 64 we have to perform bitwise logicat oR complement of she Masi | Tee dee 35” Qo. 5B. 149d oo bloc, ee) wous , in decimal + 1) ressing » one of 44e hos is ae 128 © Coriore the Fist addres (wera aiwey a ae f add on) ) last odoress ( Broadcast ease) ond dee nos See idrehees witkin this ioe’ pete enone re Tt4 © 2" 2 s 2 = “ 2 (ay eo a «4 y cin) 2) ue) «e) ) i ‘ Boe mes of i if a : ' . ° ° oe ee Bie ° ‘ 2 ° ‘ ' ag 6 8 1 se $ ! eo a0 8. 8 ° a vege 4 = ° °o Qo 8 732 ‘ 1 r ' , 4 n= ag (mark) £44 weaa 7% Sauces Firs gddress= 905-3 2-37. 32/28 4 -@ 5 losr address+ 205 32 33 44/29 i Thost id bits ee, To qe tre fiat address we nove To mane “p right most— (a2-n) Be +o zem ' To get tre fask adreps we have +o make (32-n) bits fot. et 4 wo: of aagress= oN = 2 San ya (SS — @ preceiver receives a code 1001011) Ushen UH uses +e hamming fi eee cing algorithm the resvi+ is Q101~. Which bit 19 in error? What Is the CMTEcI” code + Cet ee De: Oe ea a) 1 i Correct coge = OR Ge Bese Gig Ribas { Oconee t WOO 1 Vy Bho, Ore oySuttich * Thenee ane 1% ints mag 1 has 4 suitches, Stage 2 has 2 Switcher ond sutras How mang eemsspoints ant needed to Ssarers Soe just one Crosshon G suite B svitcny 2 Siritcnen stoge! sac 2 a 5 ton = (18 20) ‘ 3 for singte Stage crossbar su? yo. of cross points needec 4 ri ae Nor of crmss patos needeA= (Gx2) + 2x (5x4) + (25) = gp +24 + 40 = 190- De 5 Yo reduction = 109 ioe aa Bey ae 9 8 Lhich of +e Browsing ig a muthoast 1Py4 oddress. 7 D) yFr10-20.19 Ww) 192.21. 23-29 y . . 19 | fi) 12. 19-21 IF DM) 2267141 | CLOR = Classieds ania Domain Fepesttom Routing - dass A is the bigger One ich HOLE (itigh Lever pate? Line cont!) Bier Frome. format which we data link contro!