A Textbook of Sports and Exercise Physiology

A Textbook of
SPORTS AND EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY

A Textbook of
SPORTS AND EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
Swapan Kumar Dey PhD

Scientific Officer
Sports Authority of India
Kolkata, West Bengal, India
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A Textbook of Sports and Exercise Physiology
First Edition: 2012
ISBN 978-93-5025-873-6
Printed at
Dedicated to
My parents, wife and son

Preface
Human physiology is the science of the mechanical, physical and biochemical functions of human in
good health, their organs and the cells of which they are composed. The principal level of focus of
physiology is at the level of organs and systems. These organs and systems work in a systematic manner
to accomplish all the functions of human body. For example, the air we inhale from the atmosphere to
our lungs and oxygen is carried through blood to the tissue where food particles are burned and
produced energy is utilized for various activities performed, and the carbon dioxide produced along
with energy are also carried out by blood to the lungs from where we exhale it out to the atmosphere.
Not only but also in the resting condition, this phenomenon continues even during sleep when the
individual is completely at rest physically as well as mentally. Exercise physiology is the study of the
functions of human body during various acute and chronic exercise conditions. These effects are
significant during both short and high-intensity exercises, as well as with prolonged strenuous exercises
performed in endurance sports like marathons, ultramarathons, road bicycle racing, channel swimming,
etc.
This book contains fifteen chapters, which represents the various aspects of exercise physiology with
special reference given to sports and games. Historical perspective of exercise physiology is the first
chapter, as it discusses how the sports physiology has evolved from physiology. The chapter mainly
highlights how Harvard Fatigue Laboratory worked on physiology and the importance of studying the
physiology of human movement with special interest in the effects of environmental stress. The chapter
also depicts the emergence of Scandinavian influence along with contemporary exercise and sports
physiology. Finally, it describes the role of exercise physiology in high performance sports.
Chapter 2 represents the basic units of life, i.e. the structure and functions of cell, tissue, organ and
the various systems of human body. All the organ systems are described with suitable diagrams. All
systems like cardiovascular, respirator y, muscular and endocrine system are represented in
Chapter 3, 4, 5 and 6, respectively. Moreover, how cardiovascular and respiratory systems transport
nutrients and respiratory gases to the active muscles and waste products away from the body. The
emphasis is given to how these systems respond to the effect of maximal and submaximal exercises.
These chapters also depict the effects of training with special reference to sports and games.
Chapter 7 represents the basic energy systems that provide the energy needed during rest and at
different levels of exercise. Diet, nutrition and supplements for the sports persons are described in
Chapter 8. The chapter deals with the use of food supplements to improve athletic performance and
also the food for athletes during, before and after competition. Finally, the importance of water balance
in the body during exercise in hot and humid conditions are discussed. In Chapters 9 and 10, the
discussion is particularly based on three different groups’ of people, i.e. young children, aged and
women athletes. The chapter starts with the process of growth and development and their effects on
athletic performance. The changes that occur in physical performance due to progress of age and how
physical activities can prolong the youthfulness are discussed. Finally, the gender difference and some
special physiological concerns of female athletes have been elaborated in this chapter.
The impact of the external environment on physical performance is depicted in Chapter 11. It
discusses how the body responses to heat and cold and the impact of low atmospheric pressure, i.e.
experience at higher altitudes. The symptoms, causes and recovery from the fatigue are elaborated in
Chapter 12. The attention is also paid on three important chapters of this book, which is related to the
sports and exercises are listed in Chapters 13, 14 and 15. The process of identification of talent is one
viii  A Textbook of Sports and Exercise Physiology
of the most important aspects in modern sports. After identifying the talent, another important factor
is grooming and finally to bring them upto the elite level. The process adopted by the Sports Authority
of India for their talent hunt program is also discussed elaborately. The focus has been shifted from
physiological functions to various anthropometric measurements. All the anthropometric measurements,
equipments and the measurement techniques are elaborately discussed in Chapter 14. Finally, the
abuse of drug, use of ergogenic aids, substances responsible for improvement of sports performance
illegally and what are their consequences, are discussed in details in the concluding chapter of this
book.
Exercise and sports physiology is a growing subject. This is an upcoming notion emerging in the
field of human physiology. However, application of sports science to achieve excellence in sports is well
established. The exercise physiology is introduced in the syllabus of many universities. But books in this
area are scanty. However, this book is designed for the student readers, with the goal of making their
learning easy and enjoyable. I am sure that the graduate and postgraduate students of physical education,
human physiology, sports coaching, sports sciences, coaches, trainers, scientist, etc. will be immensely
benefited by this book. The text of this book is written comprehensively but in simple sentences with
many examples, tables and diagrams. Care is taken, while writing the text for its practical application by
the coaches/trainers.
At the end of each chapter, a summary of the chapter is included which provides the insight of the
whole text. Besides summary, at the end of all chapters, the review questions are included to allow the
students to test their knowledge about the chapter’s contents. At the end of the book, a thorough
index is listed for easy reference. Many of you will read this book only because it is a required text for a
required course. But I hope that the information will entice you to continue to study in this relatively
new and exciting area. This is not only for those who pursues their career as exercise or sports physiologist
but also for anyone who wants to be physically active and lead healthy life.
Swapan Kumar Dey

Acknowledgments
I would like to extend my gratitude to a number of people for their generous help and assistance. First
and the foremost, I would like to thank Sri ASV Prasad, former Executive Director of Sports Authority
of India for his inspiration and valuable suggestion. I would further convey my thanks to Regional
Director, Sports Authority of India, Eastern Center, Kolkata, West Bengal and Dr G Kishore, Director,
Sports Authority of India, Southern Center, Bangaluru, Karnataka for their generous support and
encouragement. I am grateful to my esteemed organization, the Sports Authority of india for giving me
such an opportunity to work in this field.
I would also be thankful to Dr Parthasarathi Debray, Lecturer, Udaipur College, Tripura and Nabanita
Debnath, Former Research Scholar, Department of Physiology, Sports Authority of India, Kolkata,
West Bengal for their active cooperation and help to prepare this manuscript. Special thanks is also due
to Dr TK Ghosh, Reader, Department of Physiology, City College, Kolkata, West Bengal for his valuable
suggestions.
I have no words to express my sincere thanks to Sri Samir Kumar Dey for his generous encouragement
to write this book. I thankfully acknowledge Sri Tuhin Subhra Neogi, Scientific Assistant and Triparna
Banerjee, Department of Physiology, Sports Authority of India, Kolkata for their active cooperation
and help to prepare this manuscript. I am also grateful to my colleagues of the faculty of Sports Sciences,
Sports Authority of India, Kolkata, West Bengal for their continuous support.
And finally, I would like to thank my wife Sipra and son Sayan who have taken the entire burden
while I am writing, rewriting, editing, and finally proofing this book. Their patience and support can
never be compensated. This book would not have come into light without their tireless encouragement
and sincere cooperation.
Contents
1. Historical Perspective of Exercise Physiology ......................................................... 1

Brief History 1
Evolution of Exercise Physiology 2
The Emergence of Exercise Physiology 2
The Harvard Fatigue Laboratory 3
The Scandinavian Influence 3
Contemporary Exercise and Sports Physiology 4
Scope of Exercise Physiology 5
Exercise Physiology in General Population 6
Economic Benefits of Exercise 6
Role of Exercise Physiology in High Performance Sports 7
Current Trends in Exercise Physiology 7
Physiology in India 7
2. Cell, Tissue, Organ and System .............................................................................. 10

Cell Structure and Functions 10
Classification of Tissue and their Functions 14
Organs of Human Body 20
Organ Systems of Human Body and their Functions 26
3. Cardiovascular System ............................................................................................ 32

Formed Elements of Blood 32
Functions of Blood 34
Blood Groups (ABO System) 35
Lymphatic System 36
Heart and Circulation 37
Circulation of Blood through the Heart 38
Rhythmicity of Heart Muscle 40
Conducting System of Heart Muscle 40
Blood Vessels (Artery, Vein and Capillary) 41
Cardiac Cycle 42
Electrocardiogram (ECG) 43
Functional Capacity of Cardiovascular System 45
The Athlete’s Heart 54
Functional Versus Pathological Hypertrophy 54
4. Respiratory System .................................................................................................. 58

Structure of Human Respiratory Organ (Lungs) 58
Phases of Respiration (External and Internal Respiration) 60
Pulmonary Ventilation 60
The Respiratory Muscles 60
xii  A Textbook of Sports and Exercise Physiology
Mechanism of Breathing 61
Functional Aspect of Respiration 63
Lung Volume and Capacities 63
Expirograph (Spirometry) 64
Lung Function 65
Transport of Respiratory Gasses 65
Carbon Dioxide Transport 67
Factors Influencing Oxygen Delivery and Uptake 70
Second Wind 70
Stitch Phenomenon 70
Ventilatory Response during Rest and Exercise 71
Respiratory Regulation of Acid-Base Balance 72
5. Muscular System...................................................................................................... 75
Properties of Muscles 75
Classification of Muscle 76
Skeletal Muscle 78
Structure of Skeletal Muscle 80
The Contractile Process: Sliding Filament Theory 82
Basic Steps of Muscle Contraction Process According to the Sliding Filament Theory 84
Types of Muscle Action 85
Muscle Fiber 87
Fiber Type Conversions 88
Muscle Fiber Distribution and Performance 90
Skeletal Muscle Adaptation 90
6. Endocrine System .................................................................................................... 95

Overview of Endocrine System 95
Endocrine Glands: Their Secretion and Functions 97
Regulation of Hormone Secretion 101
Fight-or-Flight Response 102
Changes in Circulating Hormonal Concentrations 104
Hormone and Exercise 105
7. Energy Metabolism ................................................................................................ 116

Introduction to Energy Metabolism 116
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) 117
Respiratory Quotient (RQ) 118
Sources of Energy 118
ATP-CP 118
Aerobic and Anaerobic Metabolism (Carbohydrate Breakdown) 119
Fat Metabolism 123
Protein Metabolism 123
Energy Metabolism during Rest, Exercise and Recovery 125
Oxygen Debt 127
Production of Lactic Acid 129
Removal of Lactic Acid from Blood and Muscle 131
Anaerobic Threshold 131
Ventilatory Threshold 132
Lactate Threshold 132
Aerobic and Anaerobic Training Methods 133
Contents  xiii
Adaptation to Aerobic Training 136

Maximal Oxygen Consumption—The VO2 Max 136
In the Well-trained, Oxygen Delivery Limits VO2 Max 137
In the Untrained, Skeletal Muscle Capacity can be Limiting 138
How VO2 Max is Measured? 138
VO2 Max as a Predictor of Performance 140
VO2 Max in Athletes and Non-athletes 140
Effects of Aging on VO2 Max 140
Determining VO2 Max 141
8. Nutrition and Physical Performance .................................................................... 148

Classification of Foods 149
Classification and Functions of Carbohydrate, Fat and Protein 149
Classification and Functions of Vitamins and Minerals 152
Antioxidant Role of Specific Vitamins 155
Vitamins and Exercise Performance 156
Minerals and Exercise Performance 159
Food Requirements 160
Balanced Diets 160
Computation of Calorie and Nutrient Requirements 161
Body Water and Water Balance 161
Body Weight Control and Exercise 164
Timing of Nutritional Intake 166
Vegetarian Diet 167
Diets Affect Performance 167
Muscle Glycogen Loading or Supercompensation 167
9. Age, Sex and Physical Performance ..................................................................... 171

Growth, Development and the Young Athlete 171
Influence of Growth Factors on Physical Fitness 172
Growth and Development of the Tissues 173
Effect of Exercise on Growth 175
Physical Performance in Young Athletes 176
Training the Young Athlete 182
Growth and Maturation 184
Aging and Exercise 185
Sport Performance 190
Changes in Muscular Strength with Aging 190
Fiber Type and Aging 191
Muscle Endurance Capacity and Aging 191
10. Women Athletes...................................................................................................... 194

Physical and Physiological Differences between Men and Women 194
Gender Differences in Endurance Performance and Training 198
Physiological Adaptations to Exercise Training 202
Athletic Ability 202
Menstruation and Athletic Performance 203
Menarche 203
Menstrual Dysfunction 204
Pregnancy 205
Eating Disorders 206
xiv  A Textbook of Sports and Exercise Physiology
Amenorrhea 206
Menopause 207
11. Environment and Physical Performance.............................................................. 210

Regulation of Body Temperature 210
Mechanism of Heat Production 211
Mechanism of Heat Loss 211
Nervous System and Thermotaxis 213
Risks During Exercise in the Heat 215
Human Limitations in the Heat 215
Practical Recommendations for Fluid Replacement 217
Body Fluid Balance: Sweating 218
Exercise in the Heat 219
Exercise in the Cold 221
Factors Affecting Body Heat Loss 222
Cold Acclimatization 222
Physiological Responses to Exercise in the Cold 223
Risks during Exercise in the Cold 223
Performance at Altitude 224
Altitude Acclimatization 224
Time Required for Acclimatization 228
Endurance Capacity on Return to Sea Level 228
Altitude Training and Sea Level Performance 228
12. Physiological Basis of Fatigue and Recovery ...................................................... 234

Introduction to Fatigue and Recovery 234
Causes and Symptoms of Fatigue 235
Methods of Recovery 235
Treatment 236
Physiological Basis of Fatigue Lactic Acid 239
Sodium Bicarbonate 240
Active Recovery 241
Preventing Overtraining 241
Rest and Recovery after Exercise—Improve Sports Performance 243
Short and Long-Term Recovery 243
Adaptation to Exercise 243
Balance Exercise with Rest and Recovery 244
13. Identification of Talent in Sports .......................................................................... 247

Introduction to Talent Selection 247
Genetical/Hereditary Trait of Sports Talent 249
Talent Identification System of Different Countries 251
Developing Performance Excellence 253
Talent Identification in India 255
Schemes of Sports Authority of India 255
Monitoring of Performance 258
Common Tests for All the Games/Sports/Events 259
Model of Talent Identification and Monitoring 260
Steps for Talent Identification 260
Contents  xv
14. Sports Anthropometry ............................................................................................ 265

Introduction to Kinanthropometry 265
Anthropometry 267
Methods of Measurements 268
Anthropometric Instruments 269
Landmarks 271
Anthropometric Measurement 274
Human Physique 277
Health-Carter Somatotype Method 278
The Anthropometric Somatotype Method 279
Equations for a Decimal Anthropometric Somatotype 281
Body Composition 289
Estimation of Body Composition 289
Body Fat Analyzing—Comparing Methods for Measuring Body Fat 291
Ideal Body Fat Percentage 294
Weight Loss 294
How to Gain Weight 295
Reversibility of Body Composition in Sportsmen 296
15. Doping .................................................................................................................... 299

Historical Perspectives 299
Prohibited Classes of Substances and Prohibited Methods 300
Prohibited Method—Class-II 306
Classes of Prohibited Substances Subject to Certain Conditions—Class-III 307
List of Doping Substances 309
Prohibited Classes of Substances 309
Drug Abuse 313
Drug Testing 313
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) 321
Index ............................................................................................................................... 325

CHAPTER
1
Historical Perspective of Exercise
Physiology
 Brief History  Places where EPC should be able to Work?

 Evolution of Exercise Physiology  How does the Exercise Physiologist provide
 The Emergence of Exercise Physiology Professional Services?
 The Harvard Fatigue Laboratory  Exercise Physiology in General Population
 The Scandinavian Influence  Economic Benefits of Exercise
 Contemporary Exercise and Sports Physiology  Role of Exercise Physiology in High Performance
 Scope of Exercise Physiology Sports
 What is an Exercise Physiologist?  Current Trends in Exercise Physiology
 ASEP certified Exercise Physiologist (EPC)  Physiology in India
 Job of an EPC trained Person
BRIEF HISTORY the word ‘PHYSIOLOGY’ means the study of the

structural and functional aspects of the living
The word ‘PHYSIOLOGY’ was first used by the organisms. Or it may be define as Physiology is the
Greeks during 600 BC to describe a philosophical study of body function. In physiology, we study how
inquiry into the nature of things. Use of this word, our organ systems, tissues and cells work and how their
to refer the vital activities of healthy humans, began functions are integrated to regulate our internal
in 16th century. The ideas of Aristotle and Galen environments. In sports, we are restricting the
were the first efforts in physiology. Modern physiological study on human being only.
physiology took off from the works of William Although, the ancient Greeks made a fair start at
Harvey (1628). Curiosity, medical necessity and studying the function of the human body, not until
economic interest stimulated research on the the 1500s were any truly significant contributions
functional aspects of living things during the 19th made to understanding both the structure and
century and created a wider definition of physiology. function of the human body. A land mark text by
The efforts of Claude Bernard (1813–78, of France), Andres Vesalius, entitled Fabrica Humani Corporis
J Muller, J von Liebig and C Ludwig (1801–95 of (structure of the human body), published in 1543,
Germany) and Sir M Foster (of England) had change the direction of future studies.
produced the necessary insight for this wider Most early attempts at explaining physiology were
definition. It was implied that concepts of physical either incorrect or so vague that they could be
sciences are to be used along with experimental considered only speculation. Attempts to explain how
methods to investigate the causes and mechanisms a muscle generates force, for example, were usually
of the activities of all living things. As on today, limited to a description of its change in size and shape
2  A Textbook of Sports and Exercise Physiology
during action because observations were limited to Exercise physiology is the study how our bodies’
what could be seen with the eye. From such structures and functions are altered when we are
obser vations, Hieronymus Fabricius (1574) exposed to acute and chronic bouts to exercise.
suggested that a muscle’s contractile power resided Sports physiology further applies the concepts of
in its fibrous tendons, not in its “flesh”. exercise physiology to training the athletes and
enhancing the athlete’s sports performance. Thus,
EVOLUTION OF EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY spor ts physiology is derived from exercise
physiology. Exercise physiology has unfolded the
The first work on exercise physiology or sports sequence of events that occur when the human
physiology could be traced back to J Barcroft in body is trained beyond its ability to adapt and this
1914. He had made a publication on “The information guide how to framed and evaluation
respiratory function of the blood”. Later the of systematic training programs to reduce the under
studies of AV Hill from Oxford University gave or over training and here the sports physiology has
the modern look to the subject. In fact the concepts applied.
on energy metabolism developed by Hill are still
valid. His historical publications in 1927 include THE EMERGENCE OF EXERCISE
“Living machinery” and “Muscular movement in
man.” There was a person to introduce the concept
PHYSIOLOGY
of “Steady state of exercise”. Exercise physiology is relatively new into the
Exercise and sports physiology have evolved from world of science. Before the late 19th century,
anatomy and physiology and anatomy is the study of physiologists’ major goal was to gain information of
an organism’s structure, or morphology. From clinical value. The body’s response to exercise received
anatomy we learn the basic structure of various body almost no attention. Although the value of regular
parts and their interrelationships. Physiology is the physical activity was well known in the mid 1800s,
study of body functions. As we have mentioned the physiology of muscular activity gained little
earlier in physiology, we study of how our organ attention until the later part of that century. However,
systems, tissues and cells work and how their functions the first textbook on exercise physiology was
are integrated to regulate our internal environments. published in 1889 by Fernand LaGrange entitled
“Physiology of Bodily exercise”.
The early attempt to explain the bodies’
response to exercise was, in many ways, limited to
a lot of rambling theory and little fact. Although
some basic concepts of exercise biochemistry were
emerging at that time, LaGrange was quick to
admit that many details were still in the formative
stages. For example, he stated that “… energy
metabolism has become very complicated of late;
we may say that it is some what perplexed, and
that it is difficult to give in a few words a clear and
concise summary of it.”
During the late 1800s, many theories were
proposed to explain the source of energy for muscle
contraction. Muscles were known to generate
much heat during exercise, so some theories
suggested that this heat was used directly or
indirectly to cause muscle fibers to shorten. After
the turn of the century, Walter Fletcher and Sir
Fig.1.1. Rowing Ergometer Frederick Gowland Hopkins observed a close
Historical Perspective of Exercise Physiology  3
relationship between muscle action and lactate worked in the HFL between 1927 and its closure
formation. This observation led to the realization in 1947. Most of the physiologist went on to
that energy for muscle action is derived from the develop their own laboratories and to become
break down of muscle glycogen to lactic acid, noteworthy international figures in exercise
though the details of this reaction remained physiology. Thus, the HFL planted seeds of
obscure. Because the energy demands for muscle intellect around the world that resulted in an
action are high, this tissue served as an ideal model explosion of knowledge and interest in this new
to help unravel the synthesis of cellular metabolism. field.
In 1921, Archibald (AV) Hill was awarded the
Nobel Prize for his findings on energy metabolism. THE SCANDINAVIAN INFLUENCE
Although much of Hill’s research was conducted
with isolated frog muscle, he also conducted some Scandinavia is considered the birth place of exercise
of the first physiological studies on runners. Such physiology. Christensen and Hansen conducted
studies were possible through the technical several studies on nutrition and exercise
contributions of John Haldane, who develop the performance while Åstrand examined human
methods and equipment needed to measure performance. Saltin later conducted lots of
oxygen use during exercise. These and other research and was a leader in muscle metabolism.
investigators provided the basic framework for our Early contacts between D B Dill and August
understanding of whole body energy production, Krogh, a Danish Nobel prize winner, led to the
which became the focus of considerable research coming of three exceptional Danish physiologists
during the middle of this centur y and is to the Harvard fatigue laboratory in 1930s. Krogh
incorporated into computer-based system used to encouraged Erik Hohwii- Christensen, Erling
measure oxygen uptake in exercise physiology Asmussen, and Marius Nielsen to spend time at
laboratories today. Harvard studying exercise in the heat and at high
altitude. After returning to Scandinavia, each of
them established a separate line of research. In
THE HARVARD FATIGUE LABORATORY
1941, Christensen moved to Stockholm to become
No scientific laboratory has had more impact on the first physiology professor of the College of
the field of exercise physiology than the Harvard Physical Education. He introduced Per-Olof
Fatigue Laboratory (HFL), founded in 1927. Astrand to the field of exercise Physiology.
Creation of this laboratory is credited to the Astrand who conducted numerous studies
insightful planning of world famous biochemist related to physical fitness and endurance capacity
Lawrence J Henderson, who recognized the during 1950s and 1960s. Astrand and Christensen
importance of studying the physiology of human were also the mentors of Saltin, one of today’s
movement with special interest in the effects of leading contributors to our understanding of
environmental stress. muscle metabolism during exercise.
Despite little experience in applied human
1. Danish Influence: In 1909, the University of
physiology, Dill’s creative thinking and ability to
Copenhagen endowed the equivalent of a chair in
surround himself with young, talented scientists
Anatomy, Physiology, and Theory of Gymnastics.
created an environment that would lay the
The first Docent was Johannes Lindhard (1870–
foundation for modern exercise and environment
1947). He later teamed with August Krogh,
physiology. For example, HFL personnel examined
(1874–1949), an eminent scientist, specialized in
the physiology of endurance exercise and describe
physiological chemistry and research instrument
the physical requirements for success in events such
design and construction to conduct many of the
as distance running.
now classic experiment in exercise physiology.
The Harvard Fatigue Laborator y was an
Krogh and his wife Marie (1910) had proven
intellectual center that attracted young physiologist
through a series of ingenious decisive experiment
from many places. Scholars from 15 countries
that dif fusion is the mechanism by which
pulmonary gas exchange occurred—not by the late 1940s who analyzed respiratory gases for CO2
secretion of O2 from lung tissue into the blood and O2 in expired air. The method of analysis was
during exercise and exposure to altitude. The three developed in 1967 by Norwegian Scientist Per
other Danish Physiologists—Asmusen (1907 – Scholander (1905 – 1980). The another prominent
1991), Christenson, and Nielsen conducted Norwegian researcher was Hermensen (1933 –
pioneering studies in exercise physiology. They 1984) from the Institute of Work Physiology whose
published numerous research papers from 1930s many contribution are also the guidelines in today’s
to 1970s in this field. exercise physiology.
In Finland, Karvonen from the physiology
2. Swedish Influence: Modern exercise physiology
department of the Institute of Occupational
in Sweden can be treated to Per Henrik Ling (1776
Health, Helsinki was best known for a method to
– 1839), who in 1813 become the first Director
predict optimal exercise training heart rate. He also
of Stockholm’s Royal Central Institute of
conducted studies dealing with exercise
Gymnastia. His son, Hjalmar, also had a strong
performance and the role of exercise in longevity.
interest in medical gymnastics and physiology &
anatomy, in part due to his attendance at lecture
by physiologist Claude Bernad in Paris, in 1854. CONTEMPORARY EXERCISE AND
Per-Olf Åstrand is the most famous graduate of SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY
the college of Physical Education (1946); in 1952
Many advancement in Exercise physiology must
he presented his thesis to the Karolinaska Institute
be credited to improvements in technology. For
of Medical School. He taught in the Department
example, in 1960s, development of electronic
of Physiology in college of physical education from
analyzers to measure respiratory gases made
1946 to 1977.
studying energy metabolism much easier and more
Two Swedish scientists currently at the
productive than before. This technology and radio-
Karolinaska Institute, Jonas Bergstrom and Erik
telemetry used monitor heart rate and body
Hultman, performed important experiment with
temperature during exercise were developed as a
the needle biopsy procedure (muscle fibre typing)
result of the US space program. Until the late
that has provided a new vista from which to study
1960s, most exercise physiology studies focused
exercise physiology.
on the whole bodies response to exercise. The
3. Norwegian and Finish Influence: The new majority of investigations were measurements of
generation of exercise physiologists trained in the such variables as oxygen uptake, heart rate, body
Fig. 1.3. Measurement of O2 consumption by telemetric

Fig. 1.2. Scholander Microgas Analyzer metabolic gas analyzer
temperature and sweat rate. Cellular responses to application to the fitness, allied health, clinical
exercise received little attention. settings and athletic performance.
Now that we have an understanding of the
historical basis for the discipline of exercise What is an Exercise Physiologist?
physiology, from which sports physiology emerged, An exercise physiologist is a person who has
we can explore the scope of exercise and sports completed at least a bachelor’s degree in exercise
physiology. physiology (science). As certain individuals
completed graduate degrees in exercise physiology
SCOPE OF EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY (science) without an undergraduate degree in the
Exercise physiology is either an academic major same field, the title of an exercise physiologist could
with Bachelor through Doctor of Philosophy also apply to this academic preparation so long as
degrees in many colleges and universities across undergraduate prerequisites for such graduate
the United States including some of the states of degree programs have been completed.
India and other countries or an academic
ASEP Certified Exercise Physiologist (EPC)
concentration in exercise science with an academic
major in kinesiology, human performance, or one In the United States, ASEP certified exercise
of several other possible titles. While the academic physiologist (EPC) is an exercise physiologist who
major in exercise physiology generally requires has graduated from an ASEP accredited (or
more exercise physiology course work and hands- approved) program, and has successfully completed
on laboratory experiences than the academic the ASEP certification examination. However, in
concentration, the significant number of variations other countries like India, no such graduation
in academic programs has resulted in concern as course is existing.
to what constitutes the academic core course work
for the emerging exercise physiology profession. Job of an EPC trained Person
The variations in academic offerings are under The EPC is a broadly trained and competent
consideration by the (ASEP) particularly in United professional who can function in fitness, allied
States. American Society of Exercise Physiologists. health and wellness, clinical work settings, and
Accreditation Committee athletics that require the use of exercise for the
Many of the exercise physiology courses purposes of developing and maintaining good
encompass classes that concern how exercise, health and fitness, disease diagnosis, physiological
physical activity and a sedentary lifestyle each assessment, rehabilitation and athletic performance.
influence the human body. A large component of The knowledge and skills of an EPC include, but
this knowledge base is derived from introductory are not limited to the:
and advanced classes in exercise physiology.  knowledge of how human physiology changes
However, additional courses such as sports during different types and intensities of exercise
biomechanics, anatomy, kinesiology, exercise  knowledge of how the human body changes in
testing, exercise prescription, cardiopulmonary structure and function in response to exercise
rehabilitation, biochemistry, electrocardiography, training and regular physical activity
laboratory procedures, body composition, motor  knowledge of the most appropriate methods for
learning, research design, and statistics are integral fitness and physical performance evaluations,
to the knowledge and skill competencies of the including body composition, flexibility, muscu-
profession of exercise physiology. lar strength and power, maximal oxygen con-
Based on an understanding of the information sumption and metabolic thresholds, etc.
provided above, exercise physiology is more than  knowledge to provide professional advice on
a course topic, or a branch of physiology. Exercise appropriate modes and intensities of exercise for
physiology is an emerging profession that has specific outcomes
 skills to administer graded exercise tests, and of the Bachelor degree EPC. In addition, the
monitor blood pressure, heart rate, ratings of completion of the Master degree reveals the added
perceived exertion and cardiorespirator y knowledge, competency and research inquiry skills
responses during exercise that would allow the EPC to supervise other EPC
 skills to prescribe exercise training employees; direct exercise programs within the
 skills to conduct clinical or applied research clinical and fitness settings, and be more competent
involving exercise in whatever manner or form. in research. For many Master level individuals with
the EPC qualification, employment in many
Places where EPC should be able to Work teachers colleges/ universities are also possible.
The potential work competencies of all EPCs are
PhD Degree EPC
influenced by the level of their terminal degree. The
EPC could have either a Bachelor degree, Master The PhD degree EPC has completed the highest
degree, or Doctor of Philosophy degree; all with academic degree available. With the advanced
either a major or an emphasis in exercise physiology training, the employment opportunities in teaching
(science). The employment settings of the EPC and research within universities, research positions
become increasingly diverse with the PhD degree within medical schools and hospitals, and research
that results from first having fulfilled requirements positions within the private business sector (e.g.
for the BS/ BSc and MS/ MSc degrees. pharmaceutical companies, nutrition food and
beverage companies, and similar companies) are
Bachelors Degree EPC open.
The EPC with at least a Bachelor degree is suitably
How does the Exercise Physiologist
trained to work in the clinical and fitness industries.
provide Professional Services?
ASEP supports the development of a clinical
workplace where the EPC is an important In brief, by acknowledging that the exercise
component of patient care that develops and physiologist’s primary objective is to serve the
performs under the direction of a physician and public by optimizing human performance. It is by
support nursing staff, the exercise testing or sharing, guiding, counseling and educating clients,
training of patients from a diverse number of for example, as an exercise physiologist in:
clinical specialties such as but not limited to  Sports Progams
cardiology, nutrition, pulmonology, endocrinology,  Sports director

nephrology, physical therapy, occupational therapy,  Strength coach
orthopedics, immunology, pediatrics, geriatrics and  Director/manager of state and national teams
hematology. The EPC can function in the use of  College/University Programs
exercise for the diagnosis, prevention and  Professor
rehabilitation of diseases, and in the research of  Researcher
diseases or disease processes that can be influenced  Administrator
by exercise. EPCs can also work in the fitness  Community Practice
industry, where they can function as a program  Manage health/wellness programs
director, program coordinator, research technician,  Direct corporate fitness/wellness programs
and exercise technician involved with the  Health/fitness club instructor
assessment of physical fitness parameters and the  Health/fitness director in correctional
prescription and supervision of exercise sessions. services and in police organizations
 Clinical Practice
Master Degree EPC  Test/supervise cardiopulmonary patients
 Evaluate/supervise special populations
The progression to the successful completion of a
 Diabetics
Master degree enables the EPC to become more
 Obesity
employable in each of the employment conditions
 Rheumatoid arthritis
 Dyslipoproteinemia for their daily work, which was beneficial to them.

 Cystic fibrosis Participation in regular physical activity would be
 Hypertension useful in making a person fit for the stress of life and
 Children with heart disease thus, provide a cut in medical expenditure.
 Low functional capacity
 Pregnancy ROLE OF EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY IN
 Exercise technologies in cardiology suites
HIGH PERFORMANCE SPORTS
 Work hardening
 Occupation rehabilitation Selection of Talents
 Government/Military Services
 Fitness director/manager in military, including
Physiological concepts are quite useful in the
 Air force
selection of sports talents. Genetic characters are
 Army
the major determinants for a person’s success in
 Careers in military services
sports. Presence of these genetic characters, such
 Business as muscle fiber composition, body built, and others,
 Sports management
could be identified using physiological tests and
 Consultant
evalution. Even the suitability of a person for a
 Private Practice specific event could be identified at an early age.
 Personal health/fitness consultant
Monitoring Training Schedule
 Sports biomechanics
 Sports Nutrition Programs The purpose of training is to develop adaptational
 Exercise nutritionist changes in the body for tolerating high degree of
 Exercise counselor stress produced due to sporting activities. It is
 International Programs/Practice important to evaluate whether these changes are
 Health/fitness promotion at all taking place in the body. This can be done by
 Sports consultant studying the physiological status of the athlete at
Affiliation with international organizations. different stages of the training. In case, the expected
changes are not found, the training schedule should
EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY IN GENERAL be modified. In modification of training schedule
also knowledge of exercise physiology is helpful. A
POPULATION
number of research studies have established the
Study of Exercise Physiology has tremendous nature of training required to produce certain type
implication for improving the health and well-being of changes in the body. So, evaluation/assessment
of general population. This field of specialization of various physiological profiles of an athlete
helps in identifying the health related problems and indicate the trainer/coaches to formulate the
their treatment through exercise therapy. systematic and scientific training program for
Rehabilitation of cardiac patients need specific improvent of sports performance.
exercise therapy. Exercise therapy in orthopedic
problems, respiratory problems, etc. are also Evaluation of Physiological Performance
important areas where undergoing the research. For the above purposes periodical evaluation of
physiological performance is required. Knowledge
ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF EXERCISE of physiology also helps in recognizing the effects
It is clear that medical expenditure of individuals is of pharmacological preparations on the human
increasing with the advent of mechanized society. body. This evaluation will also indicate the strength
Man is becoming dependent on technological and weaknesses of an athlete in terms of their
development and thus, reducing the physical activity physiological qualities.
CURRENT TRENDS IN EXERCISE and Delhi. Many colleges and number of University
in West Bengal are awarding the Bachelor, Master
PHYSIOLOGY and PhD Degree respectively. Recently, the Punjabi
The present day exercise physiology has developed University is also giving Bachelor and Master Degree
tremendous diversity in its field. The research work in Exerciese Physiology. Research work in also
is being done at a micro-level, i.e. even to change solving undergoing in DRDO/DIPAS partievlarly
the genetical characters by modulating genetic on Army personal.
information of DNA. The following are the recent
research trends in exercise physiology: SUMMARY
1. Muscle metabolism and its modulation through
training and other methods. Lactate 1. Physiology means the study of the structural and
metabolism, involvement of amino acids and functional aspects of the living organisms, or it
contribution in fatigue, etc. may be define as Physiology is the study of body
2. Muscle fiber composition and its manipulation function. In physiology, we study how our organ
through training and nerve transfer. systems, tissues and cells work and how their
3. Effects of pharmacological preparations on functions are integrated to regulate our internal
performance and metabolism. environments. Exercise physiology is the study
Through these research works, many of the of how our bodies’ structures and functions are
conventional beliefs are being proved as simply altered when we are exposed to acute and
wrong. Lactic acid was considered as a harmful chronic bouts to exercise. Sports physiology
product in the body. Research has shown that lactic fur ther applies the concepts of exercise
acid production is essential for maintaining the physiology to training the athletes and
glycolysis process. Even lactic acid can be useful as enhancing the athlete’s sports performance.
a fuel for sparing the vital glycogen store during Thus, sports physiology is derived from exercise
long distance running. Such research works are physiology.
changing the sports scenario everyday. 2. Exercise physiology is a relatively new into the
world of science. Before the late 19th century,
physiologists’ major goal was to gain
PHYSIOLOGY IN INDIA information of clinical value. The body’s
In India, the subject of human physiology was taught response to exercise received almost no
as a pre-clinical part of medical education. Later in attention. Although the value of regular physical
the year 1913 Calcutta University gave first MSc activity was well known in the mid 1800s, the
degree in non-medical physiology. However, study physiology of muscular activity gained little
of physiology related to exercise was started during attention until the later part of that century.
1950’s. Specialized teaching in work physiology was 3. The Har vard Fatigue Laborator y was an
started in 1970 and sports physiology during intellectual center that attracted young
1981. Netaji Subhas National Institute of Sports physiologist from many places. Scholars from
has started teaching and research in physiology 15 countries worked in the HFL between 1927
during the year 1981. However, full fledged Faculty and its closure in 1947. Most went on to develop
of sports sciences was started from 1983; first as a their own laboratories and to become
research wing and then as teaching faculty. noteworthy international figures in exercise
Later in this decade Sports Authority of India physiology. Thus, the HFL planted seeds of
established its Scientific Wing as Exercise Physiology intellect around the world that resulted in an
in one of the branch with the basic aims to provide explosion of knowledge and interest in this new
the scientific inputs to athletes and coaches, teaching, field.
the subjects to the coaches and the research in this 4. Early contacts between DB Dill and August
field. Sports physiologists are working in its four Krogh, a Danish Nobel prize winner, led to the
major regional center at Kolkata, Bangalore, Patiala coming of three exceptional Danish
physiologists to the Harvard fatigue laboratory physiological per formance is required.

in the 1930s. After returning to Scandinavia, Knowledge of physiology also helps in
each man established a separate line of research. recognizing the effects of pharmacological
In 1941, Christensen moved to Stockholm to preparations on the human body.
become the first physiology professor of the 8. The present day exercise physiology has
College of Physical Education. He introduced developed tremendous diversity in its field. The
Per-Olof Åstrand to the field of exercise research work is being done at a micro-level,
Physiology. Åstrand who conducted numerous i.e. even to change the genetical characters by
studies related to physical fitness and endurance modulating genetic information of DNA. In
capacity during the 1950s and 1960s. India the subject physiology was taught as a
5. Modern exercise physiology in Sweden can be preclinical part of medical education. Later in
treated to Per Henrik Ling who in 1813 the year 1913 Calcutta University gave first MSc
becomes the first Director of Stockholm’s Royal degree in non-medical physiology. However,
Central Institute of Gymnastia. Per-olf Astrand study of physiology related to exercise was
is the most famous graduate of the college of started during 1950’s.
Physical Education (1946). The method of
analysis was developed in 1967 by Norwegian REVIEW QUESTIONS
Scientist Per Scholander (1905 – 1980).
Another prominent Norwegian researcher was 1. What do you mean by physiology? Define
Hermensen (1933 – 1984) from the Institute Exercise physiology? What is Sports physiology?
of Work Physiology whose many contributions 2. Discuss the evolution of Exercise physiology?
are the guidelines in today’s exercise physiology. 3. Who is the founder of Harvard Fatigue
6. Exercise physiology is either an academic major Laboratory? Write some of the areas of research
with Bachelor through Doctor of Philosophy in this laboratory.
degrees in many colleges and universities across 4. Write down the emergence of Scandinavian
the United States including India and other influence in exercise physiology.
countries or an academic concentration in 5. Who were the physiologists collaborated in
exercise science with an academic major in describing the muscle fiber characteristics in
kinesiology, human performance, or one of human?
several other possible titles. Many of the exercise 6. What is an exercise physiologist? Discuss the
physiology courses encompass classes that scope of exercise physiology.
concern how exercise, physical activity and a 7. How does the exercise physiologist provide
sedentary lifestyle each influence the human professional services? Discuss the role of
body. Exercise Physiology in general population.
7. Physiological concepts are quite useful in the 8. What is the role of Exercise Physiology in high
selection of sports talents. The purpose of performance sports?
training is to develop adaptational changes in 9. Discuss about the current trends in Exercise
the body for tolerating high degree of stress Physiology.
produced due to sporting activities. For the 10. Write about the development of exercise
above purposes periodical evaluation of physiology in India.
CHAPTER
2
Cell, TTissue,
issue, Or gan and System
Organ
 Cell Structure and Functions  Skeletal System

 Classification of Tissue and their Functions  Muscular System
 Organs of Human Body  Circulatory System
 Human Brain  Nervous System
 Human Lungs  Respiratory System
 Human Heart  Digestive System
 Human Stomach  Excretory System
 Human Liver  Endocrine System
 Human Kidney  Reproductive System
 Organ Systems of Human Body and their Functions
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS prokaryotes, bacteria and archaea, but these are
similar in the overall structures of their cells. Most
The smallest unit of protoplasm, capable of carry functions of organelles, such as mitochondria,
out independent existence is the cell. The word chloroplasts and the Golgi apparatus, are taken over
cell (in Latin- Cella = a store room, a chamber) by the prokar yotic cell’s plasma membrane.
was first introduced in the biology by Robert Hook Prokaryotic cells have three architectural regions:
(1635–1703). The cell is the basic unit of life. Its appendages called flagella and pili — proteins
study constitutes a separate branch of biological attached to the cell surface; a cell envelope -
sciences called cytology, which is now referred as consisting of a capsule, a cell wall, and a plasma
cell biology. The cell biology, in fact, deals with the membrane; and a cytoplasmic region that contains
study of cells from morphological, biochemical, the cell genome (DNA) ribosomes and various sorts
physiological, developmental, genetical, patholo- of inclusions. Other differences include: The plasma
gical and evolutionary point of views. membrane (a phospholipid bilayer) separates the
interior of the cell from its environment and serves
Definition: The cell is the structural and functional
as a filter and communications beacon.
unit of the living matter and is capable of carrying
Most prokaryotes have a cell wall [some excep-
on the process of life independently. Cells are
tions are Mycoplasma (bacteria) and Thermoplasma
basically of two types such as—prokaryotic and
(archaea)]. This wall consists of peptidoglycan in
eukaryotic.
bacteria and acts as an additional barrier against
Prokaryotic cells: Prokaryotes differ from eukaryotes exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from
since they lack a nuclear membrane and a cell “exploding” (cytolysis) from osmotic pressure
nucleus. Prokar yotes also lack most of the against a hypotonic environment. A cell wall is also
intracellular organelles and structures that are seen present in some eukaryotes like plants (cellulose)
in eukar yotic cells. There are two kinds of and fungi, but has a different chemical composition.
Cell, Tissue, Organ and System  11
A prokaryotic chromosome is usually a circular are certain structural characteristic features, which
molecule (an exception is that of the bacterium are common to them all. Each cell can be broadly
Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme disease). divided into two principal units- i) cytoplasm and
Even without a real nucleus, the DNA is condensed ii) nucleus
in a nucleoid . Prokar yotes can carr y extra- (i) Cytoplasm: Cytoplasm is the protoplasm,
chromosomal DNA elements called plasmids, which surrounds the nucleus and is bounded
which are usually circular. Plasmids can carry peripherally by the call membrane. The cytoplasm
additional functions, such as antibiotic resistance. is capable of performing different kinds of work
directed by the nucleus. Specialization of cytoplasm
Eukaryotic cells: Eukaryotic cells are about 10 times
for special functions, the appearance as well as the
the size of a typical prokaryote and can be as much
protoplasmic constituents are also changed from
as 1000 times greater in volume. The major
cell to cell. Under the microscope, the cytoplasm
difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is
can be classified into two groups: (a) cytoplasmic
that eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound
inclusions, (b) cytoplasmic organelles.
compartments in which specific metabolic activities
(a) Cytoplasmic inclusions: This is not the living
take place. Most important among these is the
metabolic machineries of the body, but, certain
presence of a cell nucleus, a membrane-delineated
structures are present in the cytoplasm of the cell.
compartment that houses the eukaryotic cell’s DNA.
These are-
It is this nucleus that gives the eukaryote its name,
I. Stored foods (carbohydrate, protein and fat)
which means “true nucleus.” Other differences
II. Secretion granules
include: The plasma membrane resembles that of
III. Pigments
prokaryotes in function, with minor differences in
IV. Crystals etc.
the set up. Cell walls may or may not be present.
(b) Cytoplasmic organelles: Under the electron
The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more
microscopic studies, certain organelles have got
linear molecules, called chromosomes, which are
membranous structures. This can be classified as
associated with histone proteins. All chromosomal
follows-
DNA is stored in the cell nucleus, separated from
1. Membranous organelles- (a) plasma membrane,
the cytoplasm by a membrane. Some eukaryotic
(b) endoplasmic reticulum (E.R.), (c) golgi
organelles also contain some DNA.
apparatus, (d) mitochondria, (e) lysosomes
The structure of a cell: In multicellular organs, the 2. Cytoplasmic ribonucleic acid (RNA)- ribosome
cells are not of same size and shape only due to the 3. Centrosomes
presence of differentiation of functions. But there 4. Various fibrils, filaments and tubules.
Fig. 2.1: A generalized animal cell showing finer details as observed through an electron microscope
Membranous Organelles Functions:

a) Plasma membrane: The plasma membrane or i. Smooth surfaced endoplasmic reticulum is
plasmalemma or cell membrane is the outer most responsible for synthesis of steroid hormone
in the interstitial cells of the testes.
covering of the cell and is a flexible, responsive
and dynamic structure. This membrane isolates the ii. In the gastric mucosa, it is concerned with
individual cell from its neighbors and takes part in the secretion of hydrochloric acid.
iii. In the skeletal muscle it concerned with the
the maintenance of the internal environment by
active transport of ions and nutrients. The electron binding of the Ca++ ions and also conducting
microscope shows that the membrane as a impulses in the substances of muscle cells.
iv. In the liver cells both types of reticulum are
trilaminar structure. This basic trilaminar structure
of all cell membrane is generally described as unit concerned with the synthesis of protein and
membrane. The cell membrane consists of double carbohydrate.
layer of lipid molecules, which are sandwiched c) Golgi Apparatus: The structure look like a
within the two densely stained protein layers. Lipid network of fine threads or irregular granular
layer is mostly phospholipid of which the head end material. It is usually located near the nucleus and
contains the water-soluble, positively charged, polar in the gland cells found between the nucleus and
phosphate group i.e., Hydrophilic while the tail apex of the cell. Three main structures can be
end contains the water-insoluble, negatively obser ved in Golgi apparatus under electron
charged, nonpolar lipid group i.e., Hydrophobic. microscope. These are: (a) flattened vesicles, (b)
Thus, the non-polar groups of lipid molecule face secretory vesicles and (c) micro – vesicles. Flattened
each other but the protein molecules that form vesicles are the most prominent vesicles. The
the inner and outer layers of the unit membrane secretory vesicles are not normally visible until these
are adsorbed on the polar groups. are bounded off from the distended peripheral end
Functions: of flattened vesicles (Fig. 2.2).
i. The main function of plasma membrane is Functions:
to transport of materials across it. i. The Golgi complex is mainly concerned with
ii. Helps in the protection of cell. the formation and packaging of material for
iii. Excrete waste products. export from the cell across the plasma
iv. Takes in food and membrane by a process of reverse pinocytosis.
v. Receive stimuli from the out side. ii. This is probably concerned with the synthetic
b) Endoplasmic reticulum: These consist of network process of the cell, specially—secretions.
of tubules, three dimensional and bounded by a thin iii. Golgi apparatus independently synthesizes
polysaccharide part of glucoprotein secretion.
membrane (80Å in thickness). The elements of the
endoplasmic reticulum may connect intermittently d) Mitochondria: These are relatively solid bodies,
with the plasma membrane at one hand and on the granular, rod shaped or filamentous in form and
other hand with the outer nuclear membrane. Two remain scattered throughout the cytoplasm of the
types of endoplasmic reticulum have been cell. They are surrounded by a trilaminar double
recognized; such as (i) rough surfaced (granular) membrane, the inner one of which remains folded
and (ii) smooth surfaced (agranular) reticulum. and forms a number of partitions, the cristae
i. Rough surfaced (granular): This reticulum mitochondriales. These cristae may be complete,
is studded with osmeophilic granules—the septate or incomplete (Fig 2.31).
ribosome lining in rows in contact with the Functions:
membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum. i. In presence of oxygen, the TCA cycle runs
ii. Smooth surfaced (agranular): This type of within the mitochondria with the catalyzing
endoplasmic reticulum does not possess help of another set of enzymes—respiratory
osmeophilic granules—the ribosomes at the enzymes. These enzymes present in the mi-
outer border of the membrane. tochondria help in oxidative phosphorylation
Fig. 2.2: Structure of Golgi apparatus
Fig. 2.3: Mitochondrion and its internal structures
and are the site for formation of ATP, which cellular contents and for this reason it is sometimes
is the high energy—producing substance in described dramatically as “Suicide Bag”.
the cell. Functions:
ii. The mitochondria supply 95 percent of cells i. The general function of the lysosomes is in
energy and are called “power house of the the intracellular digestion and this reason, it
cell”. is sometimes described as digestive apparatus
L ysosomes: The lysosomes have been discovered of the cell.
and are recognized as a separate cytoplasmic ii. Another function is cell necrosis or autolysis.
organelle. The size of the lysosomes varies from When the cell is damaged, the lysosomal
0.25 μ to 0.50 μ. These are membranous vesicles digestive enzymes are released and digest off
having a spherical and bag like structure and are cellular elements.
filled with hydrolytic enzymes. The lysosomes are iii. Phagocytosis is also one of the remarkable
function of lysosomes.
present in all animal cells except in erythrocytes.
iv. The rupture of lysosome is the stimulus for
Under certain conditions, it may digest its own
cell division and alteration of the behavior of
lysosome may be one of the causes of in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) while cytoplasm
cancerous growth. is rich in ribonucleic acid (RNA).
a. Nuclear membrane: The nucleus is surrounded
Ribosome: Ribosomes are ribonucleoprotein in
by a thin membrane is called nuclear membrane.
nature and are found scattered throughout the
It is also a unit membrane surrounding the
cytoplasm either singly or in groups (polyribosomes
nucleus, there is a lipoprotein nuclear envelope,
or polysomes) and range in size from 100 to 150
which is, doubled layer. The membrane having
Å in diameter. They are so rich in RNA that they
pores, which permits molecules from the nucleus
may contain as much as 60 percent of total RNA
to the cytoplasm.
in the entire cell. These ribonucleoptoteins are
b. Nucleolus: Inside the nucleus there is usually
concerned with protein synthesis and their presence
single or 2 to 5 smaller bodies, which are known
gives the membrane a strong basophilia. Cells
as nucleolus, lie among nuclear sap. The
responsible for the secretion of proteins have an
nucleolus comprises the irregular network or
abundance of granular reticulum.
rows of fine granules are called nucleonema. The
Functions: nucleolus contains still smaller nucleus known
i. Ribosomes synthesize protein. as nucleololus.
ii. Ribosomes also synthesize canals of the c. Chromatin: The numerous particles of irregular
reticulum work as passageways through shape but smaller than nucleoli are found in the
which proteins move on way to Golgi nucleolus. This material is generally described
apparatus. So robosomes are called “Protein as chromatin. Chromatin contains different
Factories”. genes, which determine the heredity of the cell.
Centr osome: Centrosome consists of another
Centrosome: Function: The nuclear membrane performs various
specialized part of clear cytoplasm, the centro- important functions for the nucleus:
sphere, containing in its interior two or more i. The nuclear membranes allow free exchange
deeply staining particles—the centrioles lying close of ions between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
to the nucleus in the resting cell. The centriole is ii. The main function of nucleolus is the
an empty cylinder, which is 3 to 5μ long, the biogenesis of ribosomes.
compact walls of thin parallel nine tubular iii. It stores all the proteins of ribosomes and
structures longitudinally arranged. Each tubule also rRNA, which is transcribed by rDNA of
consists, in turn, of three subunits or triplets. A nucleolar organizer.
system of radiating lines, made up of microtubules,
grows out from each of the two newly formed CLASSIFICATION OF TISSUE AND THEIR
centrioles, the whole structure is called aster and FUNCTIONS
diverging fibers from the two asters meet at the
equator of cell forms the achromatic spindle. Definition: A tissue may be defined as an aggregate
Function: of same type of cells combined by sub-serving the
same general function independently and united
i. Centriole is closely related to spindle
formation during mitosis. by varying amounts of intracellular substance.
ii. Centriole controls polarization of spindle Example- blood, bones, cartilage, muscle, nervous
tissue etc. The human body is composed of the
fibers.
iii. Centrioles serve as foci for the production of following elementary tissues:
new centrioles and basal bodies. 1. Epithelial T issue
Tissue
Nucleus: The nucleus is generally a round body General character:
occupying the center of the cell. Its shape, size, i. It forms a limiting and a lining membrane,
position and number usually differ. The nucleus the epithelial membrane and as such covers
may contain many lobes. The nucleus is very rich the free surface.
Fig. 2.4: Schematic diagram of classification of various tissues in human body
ii. The supporting loose vascular connective tissue,

lamina propria which transport metabolic
requirements from blood vessels to this layer.
iii. There is generally a basement membrane
upon which cells are set.
iv. The cells remain closed together with one
type of cementing substance named
mucoprotein which containing hyaluronic
acid and calcium salts.
Classification of Epithelial Tissue: According to
shape and layers of cells the epithelial tissue is
classified into two types: such as- simple and
compound.
Fig. 2.5: Simple Pavement epithelium
a) Simple Epithelial Rissue: The various types of
simple epithelial tissues which are as follows: II. Cubical (cuboidal): They are composed of a
I. Pavement (squamous): It is composed of a single single layer of cubical cells having same dimensions
layer of large flat cells placed on a thin basement on each side and placed upon a basement
membrane. It is found in the alveoli, serous membrane. They are found in the terminal
membrane, Bowman’s capsule, Henle’s loop, inner respiratory bronchioles, digestive gland, salivary
lining of heart and blood vessels etc. gland, thyroid, covering of ovary etc.
Functions: Functions:
i. It has got a dialyzing or filtering function. i. It forms a protective layer on the surface.
ii. It helps for the easy passes of liquid and gases ii. It often ser ves some other important
through it. functions, such as secretion, storage etc.
III. Columnar (cylindrical): They are composed I. Transitional: It consists of three or four layers of
of a single layer of cells of which the height is more pyriform and polyhedral cells and occupies the
than their breadth, arranged on a basement intermediate position between the layer of simple
membrane. It is found in stomach, small and large and stratified epithelium. They are found in the
intestine, alveoli, ducts of many glands etc. pelvis of kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra
Functions: etc.
i. One type of columnar cells named Goblet Functions:
cells, which is responsible for the secretion i. It prevents reabsorption of the excreted
of mucus. material back to the system.
ii. It also helps for absorption in small intestine. ii. It also prevents in drawing of water from
IV. Ciliated: These cells are generally columnar in blood and tissue by the higher osmotic
shape but at places may be cubical. The free surface pressure of urine.
has got hair-like processes on each cell, called cilia II. Stratified squamous cornified: It is composed
or flagella. They are found in the respiratory of many layers of the cells. Usually the superficial
passages, central nervous system, fallopian tube of layers are horny due to the deposition of keratin.
ovary, uterus etc. It is found in the skin, hair, nails, horns etc.
Functions: Function: This type of epithelium is always found
i. They maintain the flow of mucus or liquid in those places, which are constantly exposed to
in one direction. atmosphere, mechanical pressure, friction and injury.
ii. They help to maintain the circulation of III. Stratified squamous non-cornified: They are
cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricles and composed of spherical layers and the upper layer is
central canal of the spinal cord. not keratinized. It is found in the cornea, mouth,
V. Glandular: They are generally cubical, short pharynx, esophagus, etc.
columnar or polyhedral in shape and consist of one Function: It affords mechanical protection.
layer. They are generally found in mammary gland,
IV. Stratified columnar: It is rare and found only
sweat gland, thyroid, alveoli etc.
in a few places, covering small areas, e.g. fornix of
Function: They serve the very important function conjunctiva, some parts of pharynx, epiglottis etc.
of manufacturing the new substances and pass them
V. Stratified columnar ciliated: This also is found
out into their respective secretions.
only in small areas, e.g. nasal surface of the soft
b) Compound Epithelial Tissue: Various types of palate, some parts of larynx etc.
compound epithelial tissues are as following:
2. Connective Tissue
General character:
i. They are all developed from the mesoderm.
ii. The intercellular substance is prominent and
may be considerable in amount. This is a
great contrast with the epithelial tissues.
iii. The intercellular ground substance may
contain different types of fibrous elements.
Types: The following varieties have been
described: (1) Areolar tissue, (2) Adipose tissue,
(3) White fibrous tissue, (4) Yellow elastic tissue,
(5) Reticular tissue, (6) Blood and hemopoietic
tissue, (7) Cartilage, (8) Jelly-like tissue, (9)
Osseous tissue (bone) and (10) Reticulo-
Fig. 2.6: Transitional epithelium
endothelial tissue.
I. Areolar Tissue: It is distributed in the in bundles. They are found in tendons, ligaments,
subcutaneous, sub mueosus and sub serous tissues, articular capsule, dura matter, etc.
between muscles, vessels and nerves, in the interior Functions:
of organs binding the different parts. It is i. It connects the different tissues and different
composed of fibers and cells. The variety of cells parts of the body to afford mechanical
such as- fibroblasts, histiocytes, basophil cells, protection against stretch and pressure.
plasma cells, pigment cells and mast cells etc. ii. It is made up of a protein known as collagen;
Function: digestible with pepsin and from this gelatin
i. The proteolytic enzymes present in this tissue is easily obtained by boiling with a little
which destroy the digestible ingested hydrochloric acid.
materials. IV. Yellow Elastic Tissue: They are another variety
ii. It takes a great part in replacement fibrosis of fibrous tissue. It is thicker, yellowish in color
during repair of inflammation. and forms a network. It is found in areolar tissue,
II. Adipose Tissue: The adipose or loose tissue is hollow viscera, bronchial walls etc.
characterized by containing free fat inside the fat Functions:
cells. The cells are generally large, rounded or oval i. They serve the purpose of a strong elastic
in shape. They are found in fat depots, viz., rope due to the presence of a protein, elastin,
momentum, subcutaneous tissue, mesentery, sub which is responsible for this elastic property.
pericardial tissue, etc. ii. In the form of ligaments it holds the
Functions: connected parts firmly together and at the
i. It remains under the surface gives shape to same time allows considerable latitude of
the limbs and body. movement.
ii. It takes part in the regulation of body V. Reticular Tissue: They are similar to areolar tissue,
temperature. the reticular fibers resemble with white fibrous tissue.
III. White Fibrous Tissue: It is made up of shining They are thinner, freely branching and found in
white fibers. They are thin, non-branching and run lymph nodes, liver, spleen, bone marrow, etc.
Functions:
i. They form the basement membrane of many
epithelia (e.g., reticulo-endothelial system).
ii. They form the framework of many organs,
supporting their essential cellular elements.
Fig. 2.7: Adipose tissue Fig. 2.8: Yellow elastic tissue

VI. Blood and Hemopoietic Tissue: Blood cells type of bone cells such as—osteoblast, osteocyte
are considered to be the special type of connective and osteoclast.
tissue. The hemopoietic tissues are mainly of two Functions:
types such as- myeloid and lymphatic tissue. i. It performs a mechanical function in forming
Myeloid tissue produces erythrocytes, leucocytes the skeletal support and shape to the body.
and platelets. The lymphatic tissue is found in ii. It affords protection to the vital organs of
lymph node, spleen, thymus and tonsil. the cranial, thoracic cavities, blood vessels,
Functions: nerves, etc.
i. They can supply the lymphocytes to the IX. Reticulo-endothelial Tissue: This possesses various
blood and lymph stream. types connective tissue cells which are widely
ii. They can serve as a great defense against distributed in the body, the phagocytic cells, which
bacterial infection. are found in bone marrow, liver capillaries, lymph
VII. Cartilage: It is a connective tissue which is nodes, etc.
more or less translucent, firm in texture and to Functions: It is important for defense of body
some extent elastic. It is found in bones, external against foreign particles and microorganisms.
ear, Eustachian tube, epiglottis, larynx, trachea, etc.
Cartilage is divided into classes such as- hyaline Muscular Tissue
cartilage, fibro cartilage and elastic cartilage.
General character:
Functions:
i. Muscular tissue has the ability to contract
i. It helps to maintain shape and rigidity of
when excited.
structure combined with certain amount of
ii. The property of conductivity is also well
elasticity.
developed in muscular tissue.
ii. It forms primar y medium of bone and
iii. The energy required for prolonged muscular
maintains flexibility of the substances
work is obtained through metabolism of the
between bones.
food and for constant supply of food an
VIII. Osseous Tissue or Bone: This tissue, which efficient blood circulation is required.
constitutes the skeleton, is the hardest of all iv. Muscle fiber is attributed to a muscle cell to
connective tissue. It is made up of bone cells and its elongated shape, which is adopted for the
intracellular ground substances. There are three contractile function.
A B C
Figs 2.9A to C: (A) Skeletal muscle, (B) Cardiac muscle and (C) Visceral muscle
Classification of muscular tissue: There are

different types of muscular tissue such as- skeletal,
cardiac and visceral muscle.
a. Skeletal Muscle: The skeletal muscle fibers are
multinucleated cylindrical structures having a
clear display of longitudinal and cross-striations,
i.e. striated and voluntary in nature. These
muscles mostly in all instances are attached to
osseous tissue (bones).
b. Cardiac Muscle: The cardiac muscles fibers are
uninucleus, striated, bifurcate, come in contact
with that of the neighboring fibers and thus
forms a three dimensional network and
involuntary in nature. They are found mainly
in heart and also present in small amounts in
the great vessels ending in or opening from the
heart.
c. Visceral Muscle : The visceral muscle is also Fig. 2.10: Nerve cell
known as the plain, non-striated, smooth
involuntary muscle. It is called non-striated vi. Muscles are agents of the brain by means of
because it has got no cross-striations. The which we maintain our independence and
contraction of this muscle is not controlled give over expression to our inner thoughts
by volition or will. These muscles are present and feelings.
all hollow viscera such as—gastro-intestinal
tract, ducts of the glands, blood vessels, Nervous Tissue
respiratory, urogenital and lymphatic systems General characters:
of the body. i. This is a highly specialized tissue for reception,
discharge of stimuli and its transmission.
Functions of the Muscular Tissue ii. It is made up of ner ve cells and their
i. Locomotion of the body, changes in position processes, called the nerve fibers.
of the body, development of muscular skills iii. Receptive processes are known as dendrones
involved in various activities. or dendrites and the discharging process is
ii. Production of body heat and fluid balance is known as axon.
a concomitant contribution of muscle to the iv. A nerve cell body or perikaryon with all its
whole body. process is called a neuron.
iii. Muscles help in maintaining the posture of v. Besides these, there are neurological cells,
the body. which support the nerve cells.
iv. As muscles are dependent on the circulatory Classification of nerve fibers: There are two types
system, they reciprocate by helping to protect of nerve fibers (according to the structure) such
blood vessels and assist in maintaining the as- medullated and non-medullated nerve fibers.
circulation of body by forceful contraction a. Medullated: It is composed of three elements,
and relaxation of the heart. i.e. axis cylinder, myelin sheath or medullary
v. As muscles help in respiration, they sheath and neurolemma. The axis cylinder is
contribute to the provision for oxygen and central and is the direct continuation of the
eliminate carbon dioxide maintaining the vital protoplasm of the nerve cells. It remains covered
acid-base balance of the body. by a thin tubular sheath the axolemma, which
is possibly the modified surface membrane of iv. To play an essential role in the regeneration
the corresponding nerve cells. of the damage of peripheral nerves.
b. Non-medullated: These are composed of two
elements only—the central axis cylinder and the ORGANS OF HUMAN BODY
neurolemma. Non-myelinated nerve fibers differ
An organ is a group of more commonly two or
from myelinated nerve fibers in great reduction
more tissues, which is basically functions
or absence of the myelin sheath, the fiber being
independently in some instances, in particular
directly invested with the neurolemma. In the
patterns to form larger functional units.
peripheral nerve trunks in the fibers are grouped
into separate bundles. The individual nerve Human Brain
fibers are held together by loose connective
tissue, called endoneurium. System: Nervous system
Functions: Location: Inside the skull

i. The function of the nerve tissue is mainly P hysical description: Pale gray, the size of a
the reception, discharge of stimuli and small cauliflower and the texture of pate. The
transmission. brain is made of many parts, each of which has a
ii. The function of the medullary sheath is to specific function. It can be divided into four
insulate the nerve fibers and thus to prevent areas: the cer ebr
cerebr um
um, the diencephalons
ebrum diencephalons, the
the spread of the nerve impulse to the brainstem and the cer ebellum
cerebellum
ebellum.
adjacent fiber. i) Cerebrum: The cerebrum is the largest part of
iii. The other functions are to supply the the brain. It is located on top of rest of the brain,
nutrition (partly) to the nerve fiber. rather like a mushroom cap covering its stalk. It
has a heavily folded grey surface, the pattern of
Fig. 2.11: Various organs and their location in the human body
which is different from one person to the next.  The space between brain and the meninges is
Some of the grooves in its surface mark out filled with a clear fluid, which cushions your
different functional regions. brain, provides it with energy and protects it
The front section of a cerebrum, the frontal against infection.
lobe, is involved in speech, thought, emotion and  The skull encases your brain in a bony shell,
skilled movements. Behind this is the parietal lobe cerebrospinal fluid and meninges.
which perceives and interprets sensations like Function: To control the body and house your
touch, temperature and pain. Behind this, at the mind. Information, in the form of nerve impulses,
center back of the cerebrum, is a region called the travels to and from brain along the spinal cord.
occipital lobe which detects and interprets visual This allows the brain to monitor and regulate
images. Either side of the cerebrum is the temporal unconscious body processes, such as digestion and
lobes which are involved in hearing and storing breathing and to coordinate most voluntary
memory. The cerebrum is split down the middle movements of the body. It is also the site of your
into two halves, called hemispheres that consciousness, allowing you to think, learn and
communicate with each other. create something.
ii) Cerebellum: Cerebellum is the second largest
part of the brain. It is located underneath the back Human Lungs
of your cerebrum. It is involved in coordinating
System: Respiratory system.
the muscles to allow precise movements and
control of balance and posture of an individual. Location: In the chest, inside the rib cage.
iii) Diencephalon: Diencephalon is located beneath Physical description: Large, rounded, light,
the middle of cerebrum and on top of the brain- spongy, inflatable organs. Lungs are a pair of large
stem. It contains two important structures called sponge-like organs that almost fill the chest cavity.
the thalamus and the hypothalamus. Thalamus acts The left lung is slightly smaller than the right lung,
as a relay station for incoming sensory nerve to make space for the heart.
impulses, sending them on to appropriate regions When you breathe in, you inhale air in through
of the brain for processing. It is responsible for your nose and mouth and down a tube called the
letting your brain know what’s happening outside trachea. Trachea divides into two tubes called the
of your body. primary bronchi. One enters each lung. From
The hypothalamus plays a vital role in keeping there, the bronchi progressively branch into smaller
conditions inside the body constant. It does this airways, which eventually lead to tiny air sacs called
by regulating body temperature, thirst and hunger, alveoli. This intricate network of airways looks like
amongst other things. And by controlling the an upside-down tree.
release of hormones from the nearby pituitary Function: To deliver oxygen to and remove carbon
gland. dioxide from your blood the following activity
iv) Brainstem: Brainstem is responsible for performed by the lungs.
regulating many life support mechanisms, such as i) Exchanging gases: Alveoli are surrounded by
heart rate, blood pressure, digestion and breathing, minute blood vessels, as this is where gases diffuse
etc. It also regulates when the individual sleep and from the lungs into blood and from blood into
wake reticular system. the lungs. Oxygen passes from alveoli into blood
and carbon dioxide, which is produced when cells
Brain Protection break down nutrients, passes from your blood into
Brain is one of the most important organ, but it is alveoli.
made of soft delicate tissue that would be injured The total surface area of alveoli is about the
by even the slightest pressure. As a result, it is well size of a tennis court. However, if you’re not
protected: doing vigorous exercise, you only use about
 Three tough membranes called meninges
surround the brain.
one-twentieth of your lungs’ gas-exchanging As blood flows through a valve from one chamber
surface. into another the valve closes, preventing blood
ii) Br eathing in and out: Normally an individual
Breathing flowing backwards. As the valves snap shut, they
breathe in and out about 500 ml of air 16–18 times make a thumping, ‘heart beat’ noise.
a minute. The nervous system automatically F u n c t i o n : To pump oxygen-rich blood
increases the rate and depth of breathing if the body throughout the body and oxygen-poor (CO 2
needs more oxygen, for example, when you’re reach) blood to the lungs. Blood carries oxygen
doing exercise. and many other substances around your body.
Air is forced in and out of the lungs by Oxygen from blood reacts with sugar
movements of diaphragm and other breathing (carbohydrate) in the cells to make energy. The
muscles. When you breathe in, your breathing waste product of this process, carbon dioxide, is
muscles contract, pulling your ribs up and out. The carried away from cells in the blood.
space within the chest increases and reduces the air Heart is a single organ, but it acts as a double
pressure inside lungs. As a result, air flows into the pump. The first pump carries oxygen-poor blood
lungs. When the you breathe out, the respiratory to lungs, where it unloads carbon dioxide and picks
muscles relax and ribs move down and in. The space up oxygen. It then delivers oxygen-rich blood back
within the chest cavity decreases again, the pressure to the heart. The second pump delivers oxygen-
inside the lungs increases, and air flows out. rich blood to every part of your body. Blood
needing more oxygen is sent back to the heart to
Human Heart begin the cycle again. In a day the heart transports
System: Cardiovascular System. all your blood around your body about 1000 times.
Location: Between lungs inside the chest cavity. The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs
and the left ventricle pumps blood all around the
Physical description: It is made up of cardiac
body. The muscular walls of the left ventricle are
muscle, which only exists in the heart. Unlike other
thicker than those of the right ventricle, making it
types of muscle, cardiac muscle never gets tired.
a much more powerful pump. For this reason, it is
The heart is divided into four hollow chambers.
easiest to feel your heart beating on the left side of
The upper two chambers are called atria or auricle.
the chest.
They are joined to two lower chambers called
ventricles. The ventricle is separated by inter Pacemaker
ventricular septum. These are the pumps of your
heart. One-way valves between the chambers keep Unlike skeletal muscle cells that need to be
blood flowing through heart in the right direction. stimulated by nerve impulses to contract, cardiac
Fig. 2.12: Structure of human heart

muscle cells can contract all by themselves. Physical description: A ‘J’-shaped elastic sac which
However, if left to their own devices, cardiac muscle is the widest part of the digestive system.
cells in different areas of the heart would beat at Function: Storing food, breaking food down and
different rates. Muscle cells in ventricles would beat mixing it with juices enzyme secreted by the
more slowly than those in atria. Without some kind stomach lining
of unifying function, heart would be an inefficient,
i) Storage of food: Stomach has a short-term food-
uncoordinated pump. So, the heart has a tiny group
storage facility. This allows consuming a large meal
of cells known as the sinoatrial node (SA-node)
quickly and then digesting it over an extended
that is responsible for coordinating heart beat rate
period of time. When full, the stomach can hold
across your heart. It starts each heartbeat and sets
around one liter of chewed up food. Swallowed
the heartbeat pace for the whole heart. Damage
food is propelled down to the esophagus into the
to the sinoatrial node can result in a slower heart
stomach. Food is enclosed in the stomach by two
rate. When this is a problem, an operation is often
circular muscles, known as sphincters.
performed to install an artificial pacemaker, which
takes over the role of the sinoatrial node. ii) Chemical brbreakdown:
eakdown: As soon as food enters
into the stomach, the stomach lining releases
Heart Rate enzymes that start breaking down proteins in the
food. The stomach lining also secretes hydrochloric
Without nervous system control, the heart would
acid, which creates the ideal conditions for the
beat around 100 times per minute. However, when protein-digesting enzymes to work. The potent
you are relaxed, your parasympathetic nervous hydrochloric acid kills bacteria, protecting your
system sets a resting heart beat rate of about 72
body from harmful microbes which can enter your
beats per minute, (resting heart rate is usually body through food.
between 72 to 80 beats per minute in women and The stomach also protects itself from being
66 to 74 beats per minute in men). digested by its own enzymes, or burnt by the
During exercise or feel anxious the heart beats corrosive hydrochloric acid, by secreting sticky,
more quickly, increasing the flow of oxygenated
neutralizing mucus that clings to the stomach walls.
blood to your muscles. This is triggered by your If this layer becomes damaged in any way it can
sympathetic nervous system. The heart rate also result in painful and unpleasant stomach ulcers.
increases in response to hormones like adrenalin.
On average, the maximum heart rate is 220 beats iii) Physical br breakdown:
eakdown: Waves of muscular
contraction along with the stomach wall, known
per minute minus your age. So, a 40-year old would
have a maximum heart rate of 180 beats per as peristalsis, break food down into smaller pieces,
minute. mix it with fluids secreted from stomach lining and
move it through the stomach. This creates a
Oxygen Supply to the Heart mixture that resembles thick cream.
Although the heart is continually filled with blood, iv) Release of food into small intestine: When
this blood doesn’t provide your heart with oxygen. food has been broken down sufficiently, small
The blood supply that provides oxygen and amounts are squirted out of stomach into your
nutrients to the heart is self is provided by blood small intestine for further processing. This normally
vessels that wrap around the outside of the heart. occurs within four hours of eating a meal, but can
take six or even more hours if your meal has a high
Human Stomach fat content.
System: Digestive System.
Human Liver
Location: Between a muscular tube called the
System: Digestive System.
esophagus and the small intestine in the abdominal
part of human body. Location: Under the diaphragm (abdominal
region), more to the right side of the body.
Physical description: Wedge-shaped, spongy I. Balancing blood: For body to work properly,
organ. The liver is a largest internal organ. A big the conditions inside it, such as water, pH and salt
blood vessel, called the portal vein, carries nutrient- levels, need to be kept constant. Kidneys play a vital
rich blood from the small intestine directly to the role in keeping blood composition constant. They
liver. filter your blood to remove excess water and waste
Function: To get rid of toxins, to regulate the products, which are secreted from kidneys as urine.
blood sugar levels and to produce bile. One quarter of your blood supply passes
through kidneys every minute. It enters into the
i) Chemical pr ocessing factor
processing factory:
y: Hepatic cells
kidney and is distributed to minute filtration units
make-up about 60 percent of liver tissue. These
known as nephrons. Each of your kidneys contains
specialized liver cells carry out more chemical
more than one million nephrons. The main
processes than any other group of cells in the body.
substances of nephrons filter out of blood are:
They change most of the nutrients you consume
 Water.
into forms your body cells can use. They -
 Nitrogen-containing compounds like urea that
i. Convert sugars and store and release them
are produced when the body breaks down
as needed, thereby regulating the blood sugar
proteins.
level.
 Salts.
ii. Breakdown fats and produce cholesterol.
 Acids.
iii. Remove ammonia from the body and
 Alkalis.
produce blood proteins, including blood
Nephrons filter these substances out of blood
clotting factors.
and then reabsorb some of them back into blood.
Other functions of the hepatic cells are to -
i. Detoxify drugs and alcohol.
ii. Produce bile, which breaks down fats in the
food which you eat.
ii) Security guar
guard:
d: A second important group of
liver cells are the Kupffer cells. They
i. Remove damaged red blood cells.
ii. Destroy microbes and cell debris.
iii) Essential for life: As the liver fulfils so many vital
functions, one would die within 24 hours if
it stopped working. A common sign of a
damaged liver is jaundice, a yellowness of your eyes
and skin. This happens when bilirubin, a yellow
breakdown product of your red blood cells, builds up
in blood.
Human Kidney
System: Urinary System.
Location: At the bottom of ribcage and towards
the back side of the body.
Physical description: Fist sized, dark red and
kidney bean-shaped.
Function: To make urine from waste products and
excess water found in the blood. Fig. 2.13: Human skeletal system
(image courtsey of A McGann)
This keeps blood composition constant. Excess ii) When kidneys dysfunction: Human being can
water and waste products are then secreted as urine. live healthily with one functioning kidney.
Kidneys vary the amount of a substance that is However, when about 90 percent of kidney
reabsorbed into the blood or secreted as urine. This function has been lost, a person can only survive
determines the volume and composition of urine. by having dialysis. Dialysis works by using a
For example, when you drink a lot of water, your machine that replicates the blood-cleaning function
kidneys produce a lot of urine to stop the water of healthy kidneys. In the most extreme cases of
levels in your body getting too high. But, if you kidney failure, survival depends on the person
don’t drink much, your kidneys only produce a receiving a donor organ.
small amount of concentrated urine, keeping as iii) Ef fects of exer
Effects cise for
exercise mation of urine:
formation
much water as possible in the body. In 24 hours, Exercise always reduces urine volume. The initial
your kidneys filter around 150 liters of blood and effects are not due to adrenaline secretion or renal
produce roughly 1.5 liters of urine. vasoconstriction. Emotional states also produce
i) Regulating blood pr pressur
essure:
essur e: When the kidney similar result. It is suggested that both exercise and
detect that blood pressure is dropping, they secrete emotion, acting upon the hypothalamus—pituitary
an enzyme called rennin from the juxtaglomerular mechanism, increase the secretion of anti-diuretic
apparatus of the kidney. This enzyme triggers a hormone (ADH) and thus urine output is reduced.
chain of events that makes your kidneys reabsorb After severe exercise the urine volume is further
more salt and water, leading to an increase in blood reduced and becomes more acidic in reaction.
pressure.
Fig. 2.14: Human muscular system Fig. 2.15: Human circulatory system
(image courtsey of G. Huang) (image courtsey of G. Huang)
ORGAN SYSTEMS OF HUMAN BODY bones in the body, being supported by muscles
and ligaments.
AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Organ systems are composed of two or more

different organs that work together to provide a
common function or when several organs functions
interrelatedly they form organ system. There are
10 major organ systems in the human body, they
are as follows:
Skeletal System
The human skeleton consists of both fused and
individual bones supported and supplemented by
ligaments, tendons, muscles and cartilage. It serves
as a scaffold which supports organs, anchors
muscles, and protects organs such as the brain,
lungs and heart. The longest and heaviest bone in
the body is the ‘femur’ and the smallest is the
‘stapes’ bone in the middle ear. In an adult, the
skeleton comprises around 20 percent of the total
body weight.
Fused bones include those of the pelvis and the
cranium. Not all bones are interconnected directly.
There are six bones in the middle ear called the
ossicles (three on each side) that articulate only
with each other. The hyoid bone, which is located
in the neck and serves as the point of attachment Fig. 2.16: Human nervous system
for the tongue, does not articulate with any other (image courtsey of G Huang)
Fig. 2.17: Human respiratory system (image courtsey of G Huang)

Major Role: The main role of the skeletal system

is to provide support for the body, to protect
delicate internal organs and to provide attachment
sites for the organs.
Major Or gans: Bones, cartilage, tendons and
Organs:
ligaments.
Muscular System
Major Role: The main role of the muscular system
is to provide movement. Muscles work in pairs to
move limbs and provide the organism with
mobility. Muscles also control the movement of
materials through some organs, such as the
stomach and intestine and the heart and circulatory
system.
Major Or gans: Skeletal muscles and smooth
Organs:
muscles throughout the body.
Circulatory System
It is well organized transport system of the body Fig. 2.18: Human digestive system
by which the blood being circulated with in a closed The ner vous system directs behavior and
system under different pressure gradients, created movement and along with the endocrine system,
by the pumping mechanism where heart act as the controls physiological processes such as digestion,
central pump. circulation, etc. The system operates through two
Major Role: The main role of the circulatory main systems: (a) the central or somatic nervous
system is to transport nutrients, gases (such as system and (b) the autonomic nervous system.
oxygen and Carbondioxide), hormones and wastes Major Or gans: Neuron, receptor, brain, ganglia,
Organs:
through the body needs for their proper function.
etc.
Major Or gans: The cardiovascular system includes
Organs:
(i) heart, (ii) arteries, (iii) capillaries and (iv) veins. Respiratory System
They all differ in structures as well as in functions.
In humans the respirator
espiratoryy system consists of the
The system is functioning in two ways, i.e. by
airways, the lungs and the respiratory muscles that
maintaining an efficient circulation, so that the
mediate the movement of air into and out of the
blood supply to every part of the body in rest and
body. Within the alveolar system of the lungs,
activity may be assured and by maintaining an
molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are
optimum blood pressure which is essential for
passively exchanged, by diffusion, between
capillary exchange.
the gaseous environment and the blood. Thus,
Nervous System the respiratory system facilitates oxygenation of the
blood with a concomitant removal of carbon
The ner vous system is the most important dioxide and other gaseous metabolic wastes from
organization which controls and integrates the the circulation. The system also helps to maintain
different bodily functions and likewise maintains a the acid-base balance of the body through the
stability of the external environment despite efficient removal of carbon dioxide from the blood.
extreme changes in the external environment.
Major Role: The main role of the respiratory
Major Role: The main role of the nervous system system is to provide gas exchange between the
is to relay electrical impulses through the body. blood and the environment. Primarily, oxygen is
Fig. 2.19: Human excretory system (image courtsey of G Huang)
Fig. 2.20: Human endocrine system (image courtsey of G Huang)

absorbed from the atmosphere into the body and excretory organs and the system is called excretory
carbon dioxide is expelled from the body. system. Thus, excretion may be defined as the
Major Or gans: Nose, trachea and lungs.
Organs: process of removal of nitrogenous waste products
like ammonia, urea, uric acid, etc. along with excess
Digestive System of water, salts and pigments out of the body.
Major Role: The human digestive system serves Major Role: The main role of the excretory system
the following functions: (a) ingestion of food; (b) is to filter out cellular wastes, toxins and excess
digestion of food; (c) secretion of various digestive water or nutrients from the circulatory system.
juices; (d) absorption of water, salts, vitamins and Major Or gans: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder
Organs:
end products of food digestion, etc. for growth and urethra.
and maintenance.
Major Or gans: The major organs of digestive
Organs: Endocrine System
system are: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and The endocrine system is an integrated system of small
large intestines and liver. organs that involve the release of extracellular signaling
molecules known as hormones. The endocrine system
Excretory System
is instrumental in regulating metabolism, growth,
Excretion is the process by which living organisms development and puberty, tissue function and also plays
get rid of their metabolic waste products. These if a part in determining various vital functions of the
retained in the body are toxic. The organs body. The field of medicine that deals with disorders
associated with the process of excretion are called of endocrine glands is endocrinology, a branch of the
wider field of internal medicine.
Fig. 2.21: Human reproductive system (female and male)

Major Role: The Endocrine system is an information 2. Cells are of two types—Prokar yotes and
signal system much like the nervous system. However, Eukaryotes. Prokaryotes differ from eukaryotes
the ner vous system uses ner ves to conduct since they lack a nuclear membrane and a cell
information, whereas the endocrine system mainly nucleus. Prokaryotes also lack most of the
uses blood vessels as information channels. Glands intracellular organelles and structures that are
located in many regions of the body release into the seen in eukaryotic cells. The major difference
bloodstream of specific chemical messengers called between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is that
hormones. Hormones regulate the many and varied eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound
functions of an organism, e.g. growth and compartments in which specific metabolic
development, tissue function and metabolism, as well activities take place. Most important among
as sending messages and acting on them. these is the presence of a cell nucleus, a
Major Or gans: Many glands exist in the body that
Organs: membrane-delineated compartment that houses
secretes endocrine hormones. Among these are the the eukaryotic cell’s DNA.
hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal 3. The plasma membrane or plasmalemma or cell
glands, etc are important. membrane is the outer most covering of the cell
and is a flexible, responsive and dynamic
Reproductive System structure. The elements of the endoplasmic
reticulum may connect intermittently with the
The r epr oductive system is a system of organs
eproductive
plasma membrane at one hand and on the other
within an organism which work together for the
hand with the outer nuclear membrane.
purpose of reproduction. Many non-living
Mitochondria are relatively solid bodies,
substances such as fluids, hormones and
granular, rod shaped or filamentous in form and
pheromones are also important accessories to the
remain scattered throughout the cytoplasm of
reproductive system. Unlike most organ systems,
the cell. They are surrounded by a trilaminar
the sexes of differentiated species often have
double membrane, the inner one of which
significant differences. These differences allow for
remains folded and forms a number of
a combination of genetic material between two
par titions, the cristae mitochondriales.
individuals, which allows for the possibility of
Ribosomes are ribonucleoprotein in nature and
greater genetic fitness of the offspring.
are also found scattered throughout the
Major Role: The main role of the reproductive cytoplasm either singly or in groups.
system is to manufacture cells that allow 4. A tissue may be defined as an aggregate of same
reproduction. In the male, sperms are created to type of cells combined by sub-serving the same
inseminate egg cells produced in the female. general function independently and united by
Major Or gans: The major organs of the human
Organs: varying amounts of intracellular substance.
reproductive system include the external genitalia (penis Example—blood, bones, cartilage, muscle,
and vagina) as well as a number of internal organs nervous tissue, etc. The organs mainly made up
including the gamete producing gonads (testicles and of similar type of tissue combine together and
ovaries). Diseases of the human reproductive system accomplished the same function. Brain, heart,
are very common and widespread, particularly lung, kidney, etc. are some of example of organs.
communicable sexually transmitted diseases. Female 5. The brain is made of many parts, each of which
(top): ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina and mammary has a specific function. It can be divided into
glands. Male (bottom): testes, vas deterens seminal four areas: the cer ebr
cerebr um
um, the diencephalons
ebrum diencephalons,
vesicles and penis. the brainstem and the cer ebellum
cerebellum
ebellum. The
cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It is
SUMMARY located on top of rest of the brain, rather like a
mushroom cap covering its stalk. It has a heavily
1. The cell is the structural and functional unit of
folded gray surface, the pattern of which is
the living matter and is capable of carrying on
different from one person to the next. Some of
the process of life independently.
the grooves in its surface mark out different a common function or when several organs
functional regions. Cerebellum is the second functions interrelatedly, they form organ system.
largest part of the brain. It is locate underneath There are ten major organ systems in the human
the back of the cerebrum. It is involved in body. They are Skeletal System, muscular
coordinating the muscles to allow precise system, circulatory system, nervous system,
movements and control of balance and posture respiratory system, digestive system, excretory
of an individual. system, endocrine system and reproductive
6. Human lung is a large, rounded, light, spongy, system.
inflatable organ. Lungs are a pair of large
sponge-like organs that almost fill the chest REVIEW QUESTIONS
cavity. The left lung is slightly smaller than the
right lung, to make space for the heart. To 1. What is the structural and functional unit of
deliver oxygen to and remove carbon dioxide life?
from blood performed by the lungs. Heart is 2. What are the differences between Prokaryotes
made up of cardiac muscle, which only exists in and Eukaryotes cell?
the heart. Unlike other types of muscle, cardiac 3. Write the name of important cytoplasmic
muscle never gets fatigue. The heart is divided organelles of Eukaryotic cell.
into four hollow chambers. The upper two 4. Why mitochondria are called ‘the power
chambers are called auricles. They are joined to house’ of cell?
two lower chambers called ventricles. The 5. Define cell. What do you mean by Prokaryotic
ventricle is separated by inter ventricular septum. and Eukaryotic cell?
These are the pumps of heart. To pump oxygen- 6. Draw a neat label diagram of Eukaryotic cell.
rich blood throughout the body and oxygen- Write down the important functions of cell
poor (CO2 reach) blood to the lungs. Blood organelles.
carries oxygen and many other substances 7. Draw a structure of mitochondria and write
around the body. Oxygen from blood reacts its various functions.
with sugar in cells to make energy in the cell. 8. What is tissue? Write the classification with
The waste product of this process, carbon example of various tissues in human body.
dioxide, is carried away from the cell in the 9. Discuss the general characteristics and
blood. Another vital organ is present in human important functions of various tissues in
body is stomach. Stomach is a short-term food- human body.
storage facility. This allows consuming a large 10. What is neuron? Draw a label diagram of
meal quickly and then digesting it over an neuron. Differentiate between medullated and
extended period of time. Two pears shaped, dark non-medullated neuron.
brown colored kidney are located in the back 11. Define organ and system. Write down the
of upper abdominal area in the human body. name of important organs in human body and
They excrete waste product/metabolites from their location.
human body. 12. What are the major roles of various organs of
7. Organ systems are composed of two or more human body? How digestive system,
different organs that work together to provide respiratory system and cardiovascular system
are related to each other?
CHAPTER
3
Cardiovascular System
 Formed Elements of Blood  Effect of Training on Cardiac Output

 Functions of Blood  Stroke Volume
 Blood Groups (ABO System)  Effect of Training on Stroke Volume
 Lymphatic System  Heart Rate
 Heart and Circulation  Steady State Heart Rate
 Circulation of Blood through the Heart  Factors Affecting Heart Rate
 Rhythmicity of Heart Muscle  Effects of Training on Heart Rate
 Conducting System of Heart Muscle  Blood Pressure
 Blood Vessels (Artery, Vein and Capillary)  Selected Factors Affecting Blood Pressure
 Cardiac Cycle  Effect of Training on Blood Pressure
 Electrocardiogram (ECG)  The Athlete’s Heart
 Functional Capacity of Cardiovascular System  Functional Versus Pathological Hypertrophy
 Cardiac Output
FORMED ELEMENTS OF BLOOD Composition of Blood
Blood is a mobile connective tissue composed of Blood is a highly complex fluid which is composed
corpuscles and a colorless fluid, the plasma. The of two parts—a liquid, called the plasma and
corpuscles are amoeboid in shaped and are of two different types of cells which remain suspended in
types. The pro-leukocyte corpuscles are small, but the plasma. The cells are called the blood
having proportionately large nuclei, which occupy corpuscles. The plasma constitutes about 55% and
the main space of the cells. The other type of the cells about 45% of the total volume of human
corpuscles, the phagocytes, are large, engulf bacteria, blood. The general composition of the whole
other harmful microbes and foreign bodies. blood is as follows:
Definition: Blood is an opaque, slightly alkaline, Hemoglobin: Hemoglobin is an iron containing red
reddish colored, salty taste and viscous fluid pigment of blood. It is protein in nature and
connective tissue.
consists of haem (4%) and globin (96%). Haem is
Blood volume: In normal condition an adult human an iron containing part, whereas globin is a simple
(having normal body weight) contains about 5 to protein.
6 liters of blood. Hemoglobin is found in red blood cells of all
Reaction of blood: Blood is slightly alkaline in vertebrates. In normal condition 100 ml of human
nature (pH of the blood is 7.4). blood contains about 14.5 gm of hemoglobin in
Color of the blood: Color of human blood is red. adult male (13.5 gm incase of female). When it
It is due to presence of respiratory pigment called falls below the normal level the condition is called
hemoglobin. anemia.
Cardiovascular System  33
Fig. 3.1: Schematic representation of composition of human blood
Plasma: Plasma is the pale yellow colored fiberless

inter cellular alkaline fluid in which blood cells
remains suspended.
The total amount of plasma (55%) of total
blood, consists of 92 percent water and 8 percent
solid substances. The solid remain dissolved in the
plasma and are mainly of two types:
i. Inorganic constituents: The main inorganic
constituents are Sodium, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, iron, copper etc.
ii. Organic constituents: The main organic
constituents are Proteins, Fat, Non-protein Fig. 3.2: Red blood corpuscle (RBC)
nitrogenous substances (NPN) and other
contains granules of different sizes and some cells
organic substances.
do not contain granules. The leucocytes are
Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCS): The red blood cells nucleated cells are in round or kidney shaped or
of human being are non-nucleated, bi-concave, lobed. The number of WBC is 5000 to 8000 per
circular disc shaped red colored cells of the blood. cubic millimeter in adult human blood.
The cytoplasm contains respiratory pigment called Types of WBC: White blood corpuscles are generally
hemoglobin and hence the cell looks red. The size of two types, i.e. 1. Granulocytes and
of each matured red cell is 7.2 µm in diameter and 2. Agranulocytes. Granulocytes again subdivided
2.2 µm in peripheral thickness. The total number into different classes and Agranulocytes are of two
of RBC is present in adult males blood is about types, i.e. Lymphocytes and Monocytes.
5 million/mm3 of blood and in adult females it is 1. Granulocytes: The granulocytes having granular
about 4.5 million/mm3 of blood. cytoplasm. They are formed in the bone marrow
The red blood cells are formed from the red from the time of birth onwards. Three types of
bone marrow and the process of formation of RBC granulocytes are as follows:
in bone marrow is called erythropoiesis. The a. Neutrophils: Neutrophils is about 10–12 µ in
average life span of RBC is 120 days. At the old diameter. Neutrophils are granular leucocytes,
age the red cells broken by the friction of the which contain 2 to 7 lobed nucleus and fine
capillary walls and the broken pieces are removed cytoplasmic granules. The youngest cell has a
by the macro phases and other phagocytic cells single nucleus. The number of lobes increases
present in the spleen, liver, etc. with the degree of maturity of the cell. Due
White Blood Corpuscles (WBCS): The white blood to presence of lobes in the nuclei these cells
cells are large in size, different shaped and nucleated are called polymorphs. The number of
colorless cells of the blood. The diameters of the neutrophil is 60 to 70 percent of total
WBC are bigger than the RBC and range from leucocytes. The average life span of neutrophil
8 µm to 18 µm. The cytoplasm of some of cells is 10 to 14 days.
Functions of WBC:
i. Protection: Neutrophil and lymphocytes
protect the body against the invasion of
germs and bacteria by their phagocytic nature
(phagocytosis).
ii. Synthesis: Basophils produce heparin
A B C
(anticoagulant) and some WBC produce
trephons
tr ephons (chemical substance for nutrition
and growth of tissue).
iii. Anti-allergy: The granulocytes, specially the
eosinophil cells are very rich in histamine. They
defend against allergic conditions in which
D E F histamine like bodies are produced in excess.
Fig. 3.3: White blood corpuscle (A = Neutrophils, iv. Repair: Lymphocytes may be converted
B = Eosinophils, C = Basophils, D&E = Lymphocytes, into fibroblasts in an area of inflammation
F = Monocytes)
and thus help the process of repair.
b. Eosinophils: Eosinophils is about 10–12 µ in Trr ombocytes: The platelets are small
Platelets or T
diameter. Eosinophils are granular leucocytes, colorless non-nucleated, oval or disc shaped
which contain 2 to 3 lobed nucleus and coarse cytoplasmic fragments found in the circulating
cytoplasmic granules. The number of mammalian blood. A matured platelet is a non-
eosinophil is 2 to 4 percent of total leucocytes. nucleated round or oval biconcave cytoplasmic
They are amoeboid but not phagocytic. The disk. It measures about 2 to 5 µm in diameter.
average life span of eosinophil is 8 to 12 days. The adult human blood contains about 2.5 to 4.5
c. Basophils: The size of Basophil is about 8 to lacs of platelet per cubic millimeter of blood. It
10 µ. Basophils are also granular leucocytes, formed from the megakaryocytic cell of the bone
which contain bilobed kidney shaped nucleus marrow. The life span of platelets is 5 to 9 days.
and coarse cytoplasmic granules. The number
of basophil is 0 to 1.0 percent of total FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD
leucocytes. They are actively amoeboid but
i. Transport of nutrients: Digested food,
are less so than the other varities of
vitamins and water are transported from
granulocytes. The average life span of alimentary canal to different parts of the body.
basophil is 12 to 15 days. ii. Transport of respiratory gases: Blood carries
2. Agranulocytes: oxygen from lung to the tissues and carbon
a. Lymphocytes: Lymphocytes are non-granular dioxide from tissues to the lungs.
and mononuclear leucocytes. According to iii. Transport hormones: Blood carries hormones
the size they are of two types—small and large from the endocrine glands to the target
lymphocyte (7.5 µ and 12 µ respectively). organs for their effects.
The number of lymphocytes is 25 percent of iv. Drainage of waste products : It carries
total leucocytes. The average life span of metabolic wastes like urea, uric acid, hippuric
lymphocyte is about 3 days. acid, etc to the excretory organs (e.g.,
kidneys) for excretion.
b. Monocytes: Monocytes are the biggest cell
v. Maintenance of water balance: Blood helps to
in the blood. They are non-granular,
maintain the normal water content of the
mononuclear leucocytes containing frosted
body.
cytoplasm. About 16 to 18 μ in diameter,
vi. Maintenance of acid base balance: Blood
the nucleus is round or oval when cells are
contains hemoglobin buffer, bicarbonate
young. The number of monoytes is 2 to 5
buffer, phosphate buffer, etc. which regulate
percent of total leucocytes. The average life
the acid base balance of the body.
span of lymphocyte is 2 to 4 days.
vii. Maintenance of body temperature: It regulates iii. It helps in maintaining normal blood volume.
body temperature in warm-blooded animals. Serum:
Ser um: It is the pale straw colored fluid formed
It transports heat from the deeper parts of from the plasma after clotting blood. It contains
the body to the surface for dissipation. only serum albumin.
viii. Protective function: The leucocytes kill the
germs and bacteria by their phagocytic
BLOOD GROUPS (ABO SYSTEM)
activity. Gamma globulin of plasma protein
forms antibody, which also protects the body. Intravenous administration of blood to help
ix. Acts as protein reserve: The plasma protein replenish excess blood loss due to hemorrhage or
acts as protein reser ve because during otherwise, is known as blood transfusion. It is a
emergency tissue proteins are synthesized most effective therapeutic tool when applied
from plasma protein. properly. Karl Landstainer in 1900 AD was first
x. Regulates blood loss: The platelets in presence realized the importance of blood group. Because
of fibrinogen and prothrombin helps to clot it is necessary for blood transfusion, identifying a
the blood (coagulation) and thus, prevents person according to the blood group and find
excess bleeding. defects in blood group. According to Landstainer,
Blood Coagulation: The process by which the that human being can be divided into several
shedding of blood from the ruptured blood vessels groups. The salient facts about blood grouping are
(wound) loses its fluidity in a few minutes and sets summarized below:
into a semisolid jelly-like mass is known as Agglutinogen: Some substance, which present on
coagulation. Normal coagulation time is measured the surface of the red blood cells and responsible
according to the method of Lee and White; it is 6 for the clumping of red blood cells is called
to 17 minutes in glass tube and 19 to 60 minutes agglutinogen.
in siliconized tube. Normal average bleeding time There are two types of agglutinogen-
in 3.25 minutes, the range being 2–5 minutes. It Agglutinogen A and Agglutinogen B
is usually determined by Duk’s method.
Agglutinin: The plasma (serum) contains two types
The phenomenon of coagulation is of enormous
of protein substances called agglutinin. Types: a
physiological importance. Its purpose is to stop
or anti-A Agglutinin and b or anti-B Agglutinin
haemorrhage. When bleeding occurs, the shed
The human beings may be put in to four
blood coagulates and the bleeding vessels become
different groups according to the nature of the
plugged off by the clot. The retraction of the clot
agglutinogen possessed by their corpuscles. These
compreses the ruputred vessels further and in this
groups are called O, A, B and AB. The main four
way bleeding stopped.
groups are as follows:
Mechanism:
Blood groups Agglutinogen Agglutinin
Normally in circulating blood:
(In RBC) (In serum)
Platelets + Prothrombin + Fibrinogen → No clot.
A (42%) A β
After shedding of blood:
B (9%) B α
i. Broken platelets or damage tissues AB (3%) A and B Nil
clotting factors
Thromboplastin O (46%) Nil α and β
thromboplastin Ca
ii. Prothrombin Transfusion of Blood: The process by which the
Thrombin blood of one-person flows through a sterilized tube
thrombin and needle into the veins of the patient is termed
iii. Fibrinogen Fibrin (clot)
as blood transfusion. People who give their blood
Function of blood coagulation: for transfusion is called donor and who receives
i. It stops hemorrhage. blood transfusion is called recipient.
ii. It blocks the entry of germs through wounds.
The reactions between red cells and plasma of Function of immunity: It is concerned with
the four different blood groups are summarized detection, elimination of foreign substances,
in the following table. microbial organisms, dead tissues and fight against
abnormal or mutant cells (cancer cells).
Donor’s group Recipient-groups and
The microbial proteins or foreign particles
corpuscles serum Agglutinins
entering the body are called antigens and the
Agglutinogens
AB B A O immune bodies against these antigens are called
o α β αβ antibodies.
O – – – – AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome):
A – + – + This is a very fatal disease, which is caused by the
B – – + + infection of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
A B – + + + It is transmitted through blood transfusion,
‘+’ means agglutination, and ‘–’ means no agglutination. contaminated needles and sexual contact. The virus
Universal Donor: A man posses O-group blood can attacks cells of immune system and ultimately
give blood to all without any reaction (agglutination) causes death of an individual.
due to absence of agglutinogen but can receive M and N factors: Besides the ABO system, other
blood only from a person having the ‘O’ group. supplementar y agglutinogem have been
This group of people is called Universal Donor. identified. They are known as M and N factors.
Universal Recipient: A man posses AB-group can This will provide three other independent groups
take blood from all without any reaction M, N and MN. These groups are of no importance
(agglutination) due to absence of agglutinin but for blood transfusion but have got medicolegal
can donate blood to the person only having the importance.
blood group ‘AB’. This group of people is called
Universal Recipient. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Rh-factor: The another important agglutinogen has
A system of vessels and nodes accessory to the
been demonstrated in human RBC by Landstainer
blood vascular system, conveying lymph is called
and Wiener (1940). It is the agglutinogen of the
Rhesus monkey and is present in 85 percent of lymphatic system. It consists of lymph, lymphatic
white people. Amongst Indians the proportion is vessels and lymphatic glands.
even larger, about 95 percent or more. There is Lymph: The alkaline clear, pale yellow color watery
no corresponding agglutinin in the human plasma. modified tissue fluid found in the lymphatic vessels
There are six Rh agglutinogen – C,c;s D,d; E,e. is called lymph.
Among these ‘D’ and ‘d’ are the commonest. Function of lymph:
Group D and Dd (collectively called D group) will i. It transports nutrients and oxygen and supply
be Rh positive (Rh+ev) and d will be rh negative them to tissue cells where the blood cannot
(rh–ev). As ‘D’ is Mendelian dominant and ‘d’ is reach directly.
recessive. The clinical importance of Rh factor is ii. It absorbs fat from the intestine.
immense. If Rh+ve blood be transfused to a Rh–ve iii. Lymph drains away excess tissue fluid and
patient, an Anti-Rh factor will develop in the metabolites.
patients blood in about 12 days. If a second iv. Lymphocyte and monocyte present in the
transfusion of same blood be given to such a patient lymph protect the body against foreign
after this period, haemoagglutination of the doner’s particles.
corpuscles will take place.
Spleen: It is the largest lymphatic organ in human
Immunity: The ability of an organism to resist the body. It is an irregular somewhat flattened and
harmful effect of a foreign protein body and fight elongated body of dark red color. It is located along
against disease is called immunity. the posterior margin of stomach in the abdominal.
Fig. 3.4: Heart and various arteries and veins originated and ended in the heart
HEART AND CIRCULATION ventricles. Thus, the whole heart consists of

four chambers viz. a right atrium, a right
Definition: The hollow muscular pumping organ ventricle, a left atrium and a left ventricle.
ever pulsatile and responsible for the circulation of The septum present in between the atria is
blood in the body is called the heart. called the intra-atrial septum and between
Location: It lies in the central portion of the chest the ventricles is called the intraventricular
cavity, in between the two lungs, directly behind septum.
the sternum and above the diaphragm. It remains iii. The opening between the atria (auricles)
slightly titled to the left side of the body. and the ventricles of both sides are called
the atrioventricular apertures. They are
Structure: The human heart is a conical hollow
guarded by atrioventricular valves (A-V
organ and made up of cardiac muscle. It remains
valves). Valve is the structure, which allows
covered by a protective double walled membranous
the blood to flow in one direction only and
sac called pericardium. The adult heart measures
prevents back flow of blood, e.g. from atria
about 12 cm from base (upper broadest part) to
to ventricles. The A-V valves present
the apex (lower conical part), 8 to 9 cm transversely
between the right atrium and the right
at the broadest part and 6 cm anteroposteriorly.
ventricle, has three leaflets and are called
Its weight varies from 230 to 330 gm.
the tricuspid valves. The left A-V valves
Internal Structure: have two leaflets and are called the bicuspid
i. The human heart is divided by a longitudinal valves or mitral valves.
partition (septum) into the right and the left iv. The right atrium receives two great veins
halves. Each half is further divided into two. (vena cava) called the superior and inferior
ii. Chambers: The upper two chambers of two vena cava. The left atrium receives four
halves are called atria or auricle and the lower pulmonary veins (a pair arising from each
two thick walled chambers are called lung).
Fig. 3.5: Blood in the heart during (A) Diastolic and (B) Systolic phase
v. The pulmonary artery and the aorta, the great iii. After contraction of the right ventricle, expels
artery, originate from the right and the left the blood into the lungs through the
ventricles respectively. The bases of these pulmonary artery for oxygenation.
arteries are guarded by the valves commonly iv. In the lungs the venous blood (less
known as semilunar valves. The valves at the oxygenated blood) is converted into arterial
base of pulmonary artery and aorta are called blood (oxygenated blood) after taking
pulmonary valves and aortic valves oxygen from the lungs alveoli and giving up
respectively. Co2.
v. This arterial blood returns from the lungs
CIRCULATION OF BLOOD THROUGH THE through the four pulmonary veins into the
HEART left atrium.
vi. From left atrium the oxygenated (arterial)
William Harvey first demonstrated Circulation of blood passes into the left ventricle by opening
blood in human. Circulation of blood through the the bicuspid or mitral valves present at the
heart is unidirectional due to the presence of valves left atrio-ventricular opening.
in the several openings of the heart. Due to vii. At last during ventricular contraction the
continuous contraction (systole) and relaxation arterial blood from the left ventricle passes
(diastole) of the heart, the blood circulates within into the aorta by opening the aortic valves
it as well as throughout the body. present at the base of the aorta.
Steps of circulation: viii. The aorta divides and subdivides to form a
i. At first the venous blood (less O2 and more network of extremely fine vessels called
CO2 containing blood) from the upper and capillaries within the tissues present in
lower part of the body comes through the different parts of the body. The arterial
superior vena cava and inferior vena cava blood supplies oxygen and nutrition to the
respectively into the right atrium. tissues and takes carbon dioxide from the
ii. From the right atrium the venous blood tissues.
passes into the right ventricle by opening the ix. In this way the arterial blood is converted to
tricuspid valves which is located at the venous blood once again which returns to
junction of right auricle and ventricle. the heart through the veins.
Fig. 3.6: Internal view of human heart and its circulatory path
Fig. 3.7: Conduction of impulse through heart

Circular Path of Blood Circulation within Heart the atria (Fig. 3.7). The spread of electrical impulse
and Body through the SA node is very slow (0.05 m/sec.)
Vena cava → Right Atrium → Right Ventricle → but the same through the junctional tissues that
Pulmonary Artery → Lungs → Pulmonary Veins connect the node to the atrial musculature or to
the AV node is higher (1m/sec.).
→ Left Atrium → Left Ventricle → Aorta → Capillaries
b) Conduction over AV node: The SA node sends
RHYTHMICITY OF HEART MUSCLE impulses along certain pathways, causing the atria to
contract when the electrical signal reaches them. The
In a healthy adult person, the heart beats, i.e. impulse then arrives at another node, called the atrio-
contraction and relaxation of the heart take place ventricular node, or AV node. There is also a considerable
rhythmically 70 to 80 times (72 times in average delay of 0.07 to 0.1 sec. in transmission of impulse in
for adult man) per minute. the AV node before excitation spread over the ventricle.
Rhythmicity is the characteristic property of the This AV nodal delay allows the atrial systole to complete
heart muscle. It depends on the rate of initiation before the ventricle is excited. This delay is observed
of cardiac impulse from the Sino-atrial node maximally at the junctional region between the atrium
(SA node). SA node initiates impulse 70 to 80 times and atrio-ventricular node. The conduction velocity of
per minute and similarly the heart also beats 70 to impulse at this region in about 0.05m/sec
80 times per minute. Thus, SA node is known as
c) Conduction over bundle of His: Beyond the atrio-
Pacemaker.
ventricular region, the impulse is transmitted along
The other junctional tissues present within the
the bundle branch at a higher velocity (4 to 5m/
heart are atrio-ventricular node (A-V node),
sec.). The impulse from the bundle of His passes
Bundle of His and Purkinje fibers. These tissues
quickly through the right and left bundle branches
have the ability to initiate and to conduct the
and ultimately reaches the Purkinje fibers and
cardiac impulse.
ventricular muscle fibers as well.
CONDUCTING SYSTEM OF d) Conduction through purkinje system: The

impulse after passing through the right and the
HEART MUSCLE left bundle branches, passes into the Purkinje fibers
a) Conduction over atrial muscle: Cardiac impulse and also its multiple ramifications with in the sub-
originated at the SA node is transmitted over both endocardial surfaces of both the ventricles.
Fig. 3.8: Path of cardiax im pulse in the heart.
A B
Fig. 3.8(A and B): Cross section of (A) Artery and (B) Vein
Arterioles: These are the smallest tubes of arterial

system. Their walls are relatively rich in smooth
muscle fibers. Arterioles also serve as distributors,
carrying blood from arteries to capillaries. These
also act as resistance vessels and help in maintaining
normal blood pressure.
b) Veins:
i. A vein carries blood towards heart.
ii. All the veins except pulmonary veins carry
deoxygenated blood.
Fig 3.9: Comparative thiekness of different layrs in artery iii. Veins have thin, less muscular walls.
and vein iv. Small veins are called venules. These are
e) Conduction through ventricular muscle: In human, formed from capillaries and join to form veins.
the mid portion of the intraventricular septum is v. Veins are collecting vessels. These collect
activated normally in a left to right direction, so the blood from various parts of the body and
depolarization of the ventricular muscle begins at the empty in the heart.
left side of the septum. After mid-septal activation vi. Veins are superficially situated and can be seen
from the left to the right direction the impulse comes from the surface of skin.
down the septum to the apex of the heart and next vii. Blood flows smoothly through them.
portion of the myocardium. viii. The veins have internal valves to prevent back
flow of blood.
BLOOD VESSELS (ARTERY, VEIN AND The wall of veins like arteries is composed of the
CAPILLARY) same three layers, but (a) the muscle layer is thin,
Arteries:
a) Ar teries: (b) have a wide lumen, (c) their tunica adventitia is
i. Arteries carry blood away from heart. without nerve fibers, (d) veins collapse when cut.
ii. All arteries except pulmonary artery carry
c) Capillaries: Capillaries are microscopic vessels
oxygenated blood. Pulmonary arteries carry
that carry blood from arterioles to small veins or
deoxygenated blood from right ventricle to
venules. The wall of capillaries is formed of a single
lung.
layer of endothelial cells. These lie in contact with
iii. Arteries have thick, elastic and muscular walls.
the body tissues. These supply food and oxygen to
iv. Arteries branch into small arteries, arterioles
and end in capillaries. the tissue cells and remove injurious wastes. The
v. Arteries are distributing vessels. These carry leucocytes squeeze out through the capillary walls
blood from heart to various body organs. into the surrounding tissue to attack the invading
vi. Arteries are deeply situated in the body. bacteria. The phenomenon of squeezing out of
vii. These carry blood under pressure and blood leucocytes is called diapedasis.
flows with jerks. Sinusoids: Sinusoids and sinusoidal capillaries are
viii. Their lumen is without valves. not true capillaries and they have got relatively large
Structure of artery: The wall of an artery consists of calibre (30 μ) with irregula and tortuous walls.
following three coats or tunics such as: Continuous endothalial lining is absent. There is
i. Tunica adventitia: It is the outermost layer. It also some incomplete lining of Phageytic cells. Due
is made up of white fibrous connective tissue to absence of basal laminga, the blood gets direct
that carries small vessels and nerves to nourish contact with the tissue cells.
the arterial wall. Heart sounds: Each heartbeat is accompanied by
ii. Tunica media: It is the middle thick coat. It two heart sounds. With a stethoscope, these sounds
is formed of smooth muscle fibers and
are heard as ‘lubb’ and ‘dup’.
connective tissue.
iii. Tunica intima: It is the inner thin and delicate i. The lubb (first sound) sound is lower and
lining of endothelial cells. lasts longer. It is produced by the contraction
of ventricular muscles and the vibrations set pump about 70 ml bloods. This volume is termed
up by the closure of tricuspid and bicuspid as stroke volume. It means heart pumps about 72
valves. It is also called systolic sound. × 70 ml or 5040 ml blood per minute (5 liters
ii. The dub sound (second sound) is caused by approximately). This is called cardiac output (CO).
the closure of semilunar valves of the aorta This can be calculated by-
and pulmonary trunk. It is diastolic sound. CO = HR × SV
It is short and sharp. (Cardiac output) (Heart rate) (Stroke volume)
iii. Heart murmur is the abnormal sound
produced either by incomplete closing of CARDIAC CYCLE
valves (valvular in sufficiency) or by their
Definition: Changes that occur in the heart during
narrowing (stenosis).
one beat are repeated in the same order in the next
Pulse rate: The beating of the heart is also felt in the beat. This cyclical repetition of the various changes
arteries as regular jerks, called pulse. Each ventricular in heart, from beat to beat is called cardiac cycle.
systole starts a new pulse. It produces as a wave of
Cardiac cycle time: This is the time required for
expansion throughout the arteries disappearing in the
one complete cardiac cycle. The normal time is
capillaries. The pulse rate is same as the heart rate.
0.8 sec. Every event in the cycle will be repeated
Pulse can be felt wherever an artery lies near
at the interval of 0.8 sec.
the surface, such as radial artery at the wrist;
temporal artery in front of ear; common carotid Various events in the cardiac cycle: In the cardiac
artery in the neck, facial artery on the corners of cycle there are four main events such as- Atrial
mouth, the brachial artery at the bend of elbow systole, Atrial diastole, Ventricular systole and
Ventricular diastole.
and poptiteal artery in the leg near ankle bone.
The sequence of events in cardiac cycle:
The Heart Beat i. The atrial systole is the first event (0.1 sec).
It initiates the cardiac cycle, because the
Working of heart includes rhythmic contraction
and relaxations of auricles and ventricles. The pacemaker SA node is situated here. Due to
contraction phase is called systole and the relaxation higher atrial pressure, the first half of atrial
phase is diastole. A heart beat includes one systole systole is stronger than that of the last half.
and one diastole. The auricles and ventricles do ii. After systole, the atrial diastole begins (0.7
not contract simultaneously. The heart beat is sec). This atrial systole and atrial diastole
completed in following stages: follow each other and constitute the atrial
cycle (0.8 sec).
Stages 1: Simultaneous contraction of both the
iii. Just after the atrial systole, the ventricular
auricles pushing the blood into ventricles, which
systole (0.3 sec) begins and is immediately
are in relaxing, phase.
followed by its diastole (0.5 sec). These two
Stages 2: Simultaneous contraction of ventricles events repeat alternately and make-up the
forcing blood into the aorta and the pulmonary ventricular cycle (0.8 sec).
trunks. Along with it the auricles start relaxing. iv. At the onset of ventricular systole, the AV
Stages 3: In this stage both ventricles and auricles valves close producing the first sound. The
are relaxed as in diastole. This stage is called the semilunar valves open a little later. The
general pause or joint diastole. During this stage interval between the closing of the AV valves
blood enters into the auricles from the great veins and opening of the semilunar valves is called
(superior and inferior vena cava). At the end of the isometric contraction period (0.05 sec).
this phase the next heartbeat starts with the During this period ventricles contract as
contraction of auricles. closed cavities and intraventricular pressure
The normal heart beats of young adult is about steeply rises.
70 to 74 times a minute. This is also called heart v. After this phase, comes the ejection period—
rate or pulse rate. At each heart beat ventricles when blood is pumped out of the ventricles.
The first part of this period, when the outflow rapid filling phase (0.113 sec). The maximum
is very rapid, is called the maximum ejection filling takes place during this brief period.
period (0.11 sec). The second part, when the ix. The intermediates part of filling is very slow
rate of flow slows down, is known as the and as known as diastasis or slow inflow phase
reduced ejection period (0.14 sec). Here, (0.16 sec).
ventricular systole ends and diastole begins. x. The last part of diastole corresponds with the
vi. At the beginning of ventricular diastole, the atrial systole. Due to active contraction of
semilunar valves close producing the second the atria, filling becomes very rapid.
sound. There is a brief interval between the xi. The last rapid filling phase (0.1 sec) is
beginning of diastole and the closure of the responsible for the last part of ventricular
semilunar valves-knows as the protodiastolic filling. Due to rapid rush of blood, another
period (0.04 sec). So that, second sound sound is produced is called fourth sound of
occurs actually after this period. The AV heart.
valves open a little after the closing of the xii. Ventricular diastole ends and systole
semilunar valves. The interval between these commences again. In this way the cardiac
two is called the isometric relaxation period cycle continues.
(0.08).
vii. During these period ventricles relax as closed ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG)
cavities and intraventricular pressure steeply
falls. At the end of this period, the A graphic record of the electrical variations
intraventricular pressure goes below that of produced during a heart beat or cardiac cycle is
the atria and the AV valves open. Arterial called electrocardiogram. The electrical variations
blood rushes into the ventricles producing include depolarization and repolarization of the
the third sound. auricle and ventricle bringing about their
viii. Third sound begins the first part of filling contraction and relaxation. The instrument used
which is very rapid and as known as the first to observe the working of heart is called as
Fig. 3.10: Sequence of events during cardiac cycle

electrocardiograph. Electric current produced by In the above figure, P wave indicates the impulse
the heart is picked up by the electrodes attached of contraction generated by SA node which causes
in different position on the body, viz. two arms, atrial depolarization. The interval PQ represents
left leg and chest passed through a galvanometer atrial contraction. This takes 0.1 second. QRS wave
fitted in the electrocardiograph. indicates spread of impulse of contraction from AV
Electrocardiographic leads used both clinically node to the wall of ventricles causing ventricular
and experimentaly. When the connections are made depolarization. The RS and QRS complex and ST
between two parts of the body, then this specific interval shows contraction of ventricles. T wave
arrangement of each pair of connections is indicates the relaxation of ventricles. The QRST
designated as lead. The different leads that are complex takes about 0.3 seconds. So, ECG is
conventionally used are (i) standard limb leads formed of both depolarization and repolarization
(I, II and III) (ii) Cheat leads (v1, v2, v3 v3, v4, v5, of the heart muscle.
v6) and (iii) Augmented unipolar limb leads (avR, Any abnormality in the working of heart changes
avL and avF). the wave pattern of ECG. A cardiologist or
A typical electrocardiogram of a healthy person physician can find out the defect in the heart by
shows five waves (fig. 3.10). These are called P, Q, examining the ECG. Thus, ECG is of emmense
R, S and T. The P, R and T waves which are above diagnostic value in cardiac diseases.
the base line of ECG are known as positive waves. Often electrocardiograms are obtained during
The Q and S waves that lie below the base line are exercise. These are valuable diagnostic tests. As
called negative waves. The Q, R and S waves are exercise intensity increases, the heart must beat
sharp whereas P and T waves are blunt. The part faster and work harder to deliver more blood to
of the base line between any two deflections is active muscles for adequate energy. If the heart is
called interval. diseased, an indication may show upon the
Fig. 3.11: Normal electrographic patterns

electrocardiogram as the heart increases its rate of (16ml of oxygen per 100ml of blood), that of the
work. Exercise ECGs have also been invaluable arterial blood leaving the lungs is 20 volumes
tools for reasearch in exercise physiology because percent (20ml of oxygen per 100ml of blood) and
they provide a convenient method for tracking the oxygen consumption of the body 200ml per
cardiac changes during acute and chronic exercise. minute, the amount of oxygen used per minute
equals the amount of oxygen taken up by the lungs
FUNCTIONAL CAPACITY OF per minute. From the above data we can see that
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM each 100 ml of blood flowing through the lungs
picks-up 4 ml of oxygen. And since the total
Cardiac Output amount of oxygen absorbed into the blood from
the lungs each minute is 200 ml, a total of fifty
Definition: Cardiac output is defined as the volume
100 ml portions of blood must flow through the
of blood pumped by the heart in one minute. This
lungs each minute to absorb this amount of oxygen.
is generally expressed as liters per minute and
Thus, the cardiac output is:
milliliters per minute. It is the product of heart rate
and stroke volume (the amount of blood pumped 00
× 100 = 5,000 ml.
with each beat of the heart). For example, if heart 20  16
rate equals 72 beats/min and stroke volume equals
70 ml of blood, then cardiac output is equal to 5,040 Factors effecting cardiac output:
ml per minute or 5.04 liters per minute (72 × 70). i. Metabolic rate: The output is directly
Cardiac output can also be calculated from the proportional to the metabolic rate.
amount of oxygen consume per minute and the ii. Body surface area: The output is also directly
amount of oxygen taken up by the blood as it flows proportional to the body surface area.
through the lungs. These relationships are iii. Body weight: Like metabolic rate the
expressed by the Fick Principle, which is as follows- output is directly proportional to the body
weight.
Oxygen consumed per minute iv. Muscular Exercise: In many exercise the
by the body (ml/min) × 100 output may be increased 6-10 times the
Cardiac output = ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Arterial O2 content – venous O2 normal value.
content (ml O2 per 100 ml of blood) v. Posture: The minute volume is greater in the
For example, if the oxygen content of the venous recumbent posture than in standing, because
blood entering the lungs is 16 volume percent gravity retards venous return in the later.
Fig. 3.12: Cardiac output in trained and untrained person during exercise
Cardiac output during rest: During rest in the Cardiac output during maximal exercise:
supine position, the normal cardiac output in adults
During maximum exercise, it should be emphasized
is approximately 5 liters per minute. This is
that since heart rate in strenuous exercise increase
generally achieved with a heart rate of 70 beats per
approximately the same in both athletes and non-
minute for the untrained person and 45 beats per
athletes, the greater changes in cardiac output
minute for endurance trained person. Since the
attained by the trained athletes is due to their
trained person’s cardiac output at rest is also about
greater ability for increasing the stroke volume of
5 liters, then the decrease in heart rate must be
the heart.
offset by an increase in stroke volume if the cardiac
The heart rate values in the cardiae output
output is to remain normal.
formula, the calculated stroke volume for the
Rest car diac output = h e a r t r a t e × s t r o k e
cardiac untrained person would be around 100 ml of blood
volume per beat, where as the stroke volume for trained
Untrained, 5000 ml = 70 beats per minute × person would be approximately 200 ml per beat.
71.4 ml
Trained, 5000 ml = 45 beats per minute × Effect of Training on Cardiac Output
111.1 ml
The stroke volume and heart rate are the two
Substituting the heart rate value in the cardiac components of cardiac output and stroke volume
output formula, the calculated stroke volume for is increase and heart rate is decrease due to training.
the untrained person would be around 71.4 ml of When at rest or during submaximal exercise at
blood per beat, whereas the stroke volume for the standardized work rates, cardiac output does not
trained person would be about 111.1 ml per beat. change much following endurance training.
In this connection it should be mentioned that However, cardiac output increases considerably at
since blood generally pools in the lower portions maximum rates of work. This results primarily from
of the body under the influence of the gravity when the increase in maximal stroke volume because
assuming a sitting or standing position, this results (HRmax) Maximume heart rate changes little, if any.
in a drop in venous return to the heart and thus, a
1 to 2 liters per minute reduction in cardiac out- Stroke Volume
put is occurred. Since the heart rate is usually During systole, a certain volume of blood is ejected
decreased, it is generally believed that this reduction from the left ventricle. This amount is the stroke
is due entirely to a decrease in stroke volume. volume (SV) of the heart, or the volume of blood
Cardiac output during sub-maximal exercise:
During sub maximal exercise (40 to 60 percent of
maximal capacity), cardiac output in trained
athletes may be increased to 40 liters per minute,
whereas untrained subjects may attain outputs of
about 20 liters per minute. At this level of work, it
is known that this 5 to 7 folds increase in cardiac
output is due to increase in both heart rate and
stroke volume.
At levels beyond 40 to 60 percent of maximum,
increase in cardiac output are mainly functions of
heart rate increases.
Exer cise car
Exercise diac output = hear
cardiac heartt rate × str oke
stroke
volume
Untrained 20,000 ml = 200 beats per minute
× 100 ml
Fig. 3.13: Changes in cardiac output before and
Trained 40,000 ml = 200 beats per
after endurance training
minutes × 200 ml
pumped per stroke (contraction). For example, More blood entering the ventricle increases the
consider the amount of blood in the ventricle stretching of the ventricular walls.
before and after contraction. At the end of diastole, It is also well known that the posterior and septal
just before contraction, the ventricle has walls of the left ventricle hypertrophy accur with
completing filling. The volume of blood it now endurance training. Increased ventricular muscle
contains is called the end diastolic volume (EDV). mass can cause more forceful contraction. This
At the end of systole, just after contraction, the increase contractility would cause the end – systolic
ventricle has completed its ejection phase. The volume (ESV) to decrease because more blood
volume of blood remaining in the ventricle is called would be forced out of the heart during the more
the end systolic volume (EVS). Stroke volume is powerful contractions, leaving less blood in the left
the volume of blood that was ejected, and is merely ventricle after systole.
the difference between the amounts originally there Increased contractility coupled with the
and the amount remaining in the ventricle after increased elastic recoil that results from greater
contraction. So, stroke volume is simply the diastolic filling increase the ejection fraction in the
difference between the EDV and ESV. The normal trained heart. More blood enters the left ventricle,
value of the stroke volume of sedentary young adult and a greater percentage of what enters is forced
is about 70 ml. out with each contraction, so stroke volume is
EDV (100 ml.) – ESV (30 ml.) = SV (70 ml) increased.
Stroke volume in exercise: The stroke volume Heart Rate

increases with increasing rates of work but only up
to exercise intensities between 40 percent and The cardiac muscle has got the unique property of
60 percent of maximal capacity. When the body is rhythmicity, i.e. rhythmic contraction and
in upright position, stroke volume almost doubles relaxation. The impulse causes the rhythmic
from resting to maximal values. For example, in contraction and relaxation of heart muscle is
active but untrained individuals, it increases from originate with in the heart muscle itself, in the right
about 50 to 60 ml at rest to 100 to 120 ml. at atrium known as the S-A node and as a result blood
maximal exercise. In highly trained endurance circulates throughout the body from the heart and
athletes, stroke volume can increase from 80 to return from the body to the heart respectively. This
110 ml at rest to 160 to 200 ml at maximal exercise. rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the heart is
During supine exercise, such as swimming, stroke
volume also increases, but usually by only about
20 to 40 percent, not nearly as much as in an
upright position.
Effect of Training on Stroke Volume
Endurance training increases the stroke volume.

Stroke volume at rest is substantially higher after
an endurance training program than it is before
training. This training induce increase is also seen
during both standardized sub maximal exercise and
maximal exercise.
After training, the left ventricle fills more
completely during diastole than it does in an
untrained heart. It is well known that the blood
plasma volume increases with training, which
means more blood is available to enter the ventricle, Fig. 3.14: Changing in stroke volume with
causing an increased end-diastolic volume (EDV). increasing rate of work
known as heart rate. Normally in human sedentary individual’s maximum heart rate can be calculated
adult male’s heart rate is 72 beats per minute. by the following equation:
It is one of the simplest and most informative HRmax = 220 – age in years
state of the cardiovascular parameters. It involves Subtracting the age from 220 provides an
simply taking the subject’s pulse, usually at the approximation of average maximum heart rate.
radial or carotide site. However, this is only estimation—individual values
may vary considerably from this average value.
Resting heart rate: Resting heart rate averages 60
to 80 beats per minute. In middle aged, Steady State Heart Rate
unconditioned, sedentary individuals the resting
heart rate can exceed ever 100 beats per minute. When the rate of work is held constant at
In highly conditioned endurance trained athletes, submaximal levels of exercise, heart rate increases
resting heart rates in the range of 36 to 40 beats fairly rapidly until it reaches a plateau. This plateau
per minute have been reported. The resting heart is the steady state heart rate, and it is the optimal
rates typically decrease with the age. It is also heart rate for meeting the circulatory demands at
affected by environmental factors; for example, it that specific rate of work. For each subsequent
increases with extremes in temperature and altitude. increase in intensity, heart rate will reach in new
steady state value within 1 to 2 minutes. However,
Measuring the resting heart rate of a person is the more intense the exercise, the longer it takes
completely mentally and physically in resting to achieve this steady state value.
cordition i.e. lying on the bed in the early morning. The concept of steady state heart rate forms the
Maximum heart rate: The maximum heart rate basis for several tests that have been developed to
(HRmax) is the highest heart rate value one achieves estimate physical fitness. In one such test,
in an all-out effort to the point of exhaustion. This individuals are placed on an exercise device, such
as a cycle ergometer and are exercised at two or
is a highly reliable that remains constant from
three standardized rates of work. Those in better
day-to-day and changes only slightly from year to
physical condition, based on their cardio-
year. Estimates of maximum heart rate can be made
respiratory endurance capacity, will have lower
based on age because maximum heart rate shows
steady state heart rates at a given rate of work than
a slight but steady decrease of about 1 beat per
those who are less fit. Thus, steady state heart rate
year beginning at 10 to 15 years of age. An
is a valid predictor of cardio-respiratory efficiency—
a lower rate reflects a more efficient heart.
Factors affecting Heart Rate

Various factors have influenced the resting heart
rate such as posture, age, sex, emotions,
environment, exercise, etc.
i. Posture: The body position has a definite
effect upon the heart rate. Generally the rate
is lowest in the recumbent followed by the
sitting and standing. It appears that the typical
response from the recumbent to the standing
position is an increase of around 10 to 12
beats per minute. This is due to the influence
of gravity, which lowers the volume of blood
returning to the heart when one goes from a
reclining position to a sitting or standing
Fig. 3.15: Changes in heart rate with
position.
increasing rates of work
ii. Age: The resting hear t rate drops greatly increase the heart rate. In addition,
progressively from birth to adolescence but for any standard temperature and workload,
in old age it again increases slightly. Also the increase in heart rate will be significantly
maximum heart rate decreases gradually with greater if the air is still and the humidity is
the advancement of age. high.
iii. Sex: The adult female’s resting heart rate is vi. Body size: In the animal in general, it seems
some 5 to 10 beats per minute faster than to be a biological rule that the heart rate varies
that of the adult male under any given inversely with the size of the species. For
situation. The average resting heart rate is example, the Canar y has a rate of
approximately 76–78 beats per minute for approximately 1000 beats per minute,
adult females. The male has a greater heart whereas that an elephant is about 25 beats
volume than the female. This heart size per minute. However, no consistent
difference is apparently the cause for the relationship between size and the heart rate
5 to 10 beats per minute faster resting heart in adult humans has been demonstrated.
rate in women. Although the maximum heart Ingestion of food the resting heart rate is
rate in both men and women at a given age higher while digestive process is in progress
is very similar, the heart rate of women during than in the post absorptive state. This is also
submaximal work has been found to be true in exercise. A given exercise load elicits
considerably higher. a greater heart rate after a meal, one of many
iv. Emotion: Emotional stress accelerates the reasons that melted against heavy exercise
resting as well as the exercise heart rate. immediately after a meal.
Although an increased heart rate is most easily vii. Body temperature: With increase in body
obser ved during rest in people as an temperature above normal, the heart rate
anticipatory reaction, emotion may also result increases. Conversely with decrease in
in an excessive cardio respiratory adjustment temperature, the rate slows until a
temperature of about 26ºC is reached.
during light exercise. On the other hand,
viii. Smoking: It has been observe that smoking
emotion probably has little effect on the
even one cigarette significantly increases the
maximal heart rate as well.
resting heart rate, in either the sitting or the
v. Environmental factors: The influence of
standing position.
environmental factors on heart functions is
that a high temperature and altitude may Heart rate response to exercise: The heart rate
response is directly proportional and linear to the
intensity of exercise. As intensity of exercise
increases, the heart rate will continue to increase
until exercise reaches at maximal intensity. Based
on the intensity of exercise in two different work
load, i.e. submaximal and maximal, heart rate
response is vary.
Heart rate response to submaximal exercise: The
heart rate response is linear at the beginning of
the exercise (at certain work load) and if the
intensity of exercise is not been increased further
the heart rate also will not be increased. If the
intensity of exercise is submaximal the heart rate
become steady though the exercise being
continued for longer period.
Fig. 3.16: Steady state heart rate response during Heart rate response to maximal exercise: At maximal
submaximal exercise intensity, the heart rates will plateau, indicating that
the individual is reaching his or her maximal level. These decreases indicate that the heart becomes
Above this the individual will not able to continue more efficient through training. In carrying out
the exercise or activity. its necessar y functions, a conditioned heart
performs less work than an unconditioned heart.
Effects of Training on Heart Rate
Maximum heart rate (HRmax): At maximal rate of
Resting heart rate: The heart rate at rest decreases exercise, HR max usually remains relatively
markedly as a result of endurance training. The unchanged following endurance training.
sedentary individual with an initial resting heart However, the untrained people who have
rate of 80 beats per minute, the heart rate will maximum heart rate more than 180 beats/min.
decrease by approximately 1 beat per minute each HRmax slightly reduced following training.
week for the first few weeks of training. So after During exercise, the heart rate combines with
10 weeks of moderate endurance training, the the stroke volume to provide an appropriate cardiac
resting heart rate should drop from 80 to 70 beats output for the rate of work performed. At maximal
per minute. Highly conditioned endurance or near maximal rate of work, the body might adjust
athletes often have resting heart rates of average the heart rate to provide the optimal combination
42 to 45 beats per minute, and some have even of heart rate and stroke volume to maximize the
values lower than 36 to 38 beats per minute has cardiac output. If the heart is too fast, diastole,
been reported. the period of ventricular filling is reduced and the
stroke volume might be compromised. For
Sub maximal heart rate: During submaximal example, if your HRmax is 180 beats per minute,
exercise, greater aerobic conditioning results in your heart beats three times per second. Each
proportionally lower heart rate at a specified rate cardiac cycle thus, last for only 0.33 seconds.
of work. The figure shows that the heart rate of an Diastole is as short as 0.150 seconds or less. This
individual exercising on a treadmill both in before allows very little time for your ventricle to fill. As a
and after training. At each specified work rate, consequence, your stroke volume could decrease.
indicated by the speed at which the subject is However, if your heart rate slows, the ventricles
walking and running, the post training heart rate would have longer to fill. Perhaps this is why highly
is lower than the heart rate before training. trained endurance athletes tend to have lower
Following a six months endurance training HRmax values – their hearts have adapted to training
program of moderate intensity, heart rate decreases by drastically increasing their stroke volumes so
of 20 to 40 beats per minute are common at a lower HRmax values can provide optimum cardiac
standardized submaximal rate of work. output.
Fig. 3.17: Changes in submaximal heart rate with endurance training

Recovery heart rate: During exercise the heart rate pressure of the brachial artery is measured. The
must increase to meet the demands of active instrument used is known as Sphygmomanometer.
muscles. When the exercise bout is finished, There are three methods such as oscillatory,
the heart does not initially return to its resting level. palpatory and ausculatory. Four terms are in
Instead, it remains elevated for a while, slowly common uses which are as follows:
returning to its resting rate. The time its take for Systolic pressure: Maximum pressure on blood
heart rate to return to its resting rate is called the vessels during contraction (systole) of heart. The
heart rate recovery period. Following a period of normal value of systolic pressure is: 110 to 120 mm
training the heart rate returns to its resting level Hg for young adult.
much more quickly after exercise than it does prior
Diastolic pressure: Minimum pressure on blood
to training.
vessels during relaxation (diastole) of heart. The
The heart rate recovery period is shortened by
normal value of diastolic pressure is: 70 to 80 mm
endurance training; this measurement can be used
Hg for young adult.
as an index of cardiorespiratory fitness. In general,
a more fit person recover faster after a standardized Pulse pressure: It is the difference between systolic
rate of work than a less fit person. and diastolic pressure. The normal value of pulse
pressure is 40 mm Hg.
Blood Pressure Mean pressure: It is the average value of total
Blood Pressure: It is a lateral pressure exerted by systolic and diastolic pressure. The normal value
blood on the walls of blood vessels while flowing of mean pressure is 90 to 100 mm Hg.
through, is known as blood pressure. Exercise Responses: During exercise, blood
pressure increases linearly as a result of an increase
Measurement of Blood Pressure in cardiac output. The exercise affects on systolic
Blood pressure may be determined either by blood pressure is much more than diastolic or mean
indirect (Sphygmomanometer) or direct (catheter) pressure. This is due to the fact that during exercise
methods. The indirect method is the more the resistance to blood flow is decreased. The
common one used in physical education and decreased resistance is the result of vasodilatation
exercise physiology. In this method commonly the taking place in the arterioles or the working
Fig. 3.18: Changes in recovery heart rate with endurance training

muscles. For example, resistance to blood flow can blood pressure compared to heart rate response as
be determined by using the following formula: well as the parallel increase in both systolic and
diastolic pressures during isometric work. Some
Mean arterial pressure
Resistance = researchers have found small increases in heart rate,
Cardiac output
cardiac output, blood pressure and muscle blood
Rest Conditions flow to a steady state when isometric contractions
Cardiac output = 4.5 liters/min are less than 15 percent of the maximum force.
Mean arterial pressure = 93 mm Hg Generally, exercises of this type can be maintained
Resistance to blood flow = 20.67 mm Hg/liter/min indefinitely. However, when isometric contractions
are greater than 15 percent of maximum the blood
Exercise Conditions pressure increase accordingly.
Cardiac output = 35 liters/min All of the above variables increase continuously
Mean arterial pressure = 126 mm Hg until fatigue occurs. Isometric exercise causes a
Resistance to blood flow = 3.60 mm Hg/liter/min much greater increase in blood pressure than did
On the other hand, more blood will be able to the dynamic exercise. Apparently, the body tolerates
move from the arteries into the muscle capillaries the increased blood flow of dynamic, rhythmic type
with only slight changes in diastolic pressure. There activities such as running or jogging better than
is an over 5-fold decrease in resistance between increased blood pressure by isometrie exercise. It
rest and exercise. This is definitely an advantage is commonly believed among exercise physiologists
during exercise. Changes in mean pressure will also that the increase in pressure from isometric type
be minimized since any mean arterial pressure exercise is brought about, in part, by a nerve reflex
increases (with increasing cardiac output) will be originating in the exercising muscles and also by
offset with the decreased resistance. an increase in intrathoracic pressure (caused from
The type of exercise influences the increase in making an expiratory effort against a closed glottis
blood pressure. For example, typical changes during and thus, restricting venous return to the heart).
an isometric handgrip contraction (where resistance It is interesting to note that when works
is equal to 30 percent of the maximum voluntary dynamically with small muscles such as the arms
force) and an exhausting progressive treadmill instead of the legs, a greater than normal increase
exercise (dynamic). The tremendous increase in in blood pressure is also generally observed. This
Fig. 3.19: Blood pressure response to both leg and arm cycling at the same absolute rate of 02 consumption
(Adapted from Wilmore and Costill, 1994)
is especially true when one works with the arms response by the cardiovascular system generally
such as in snow shoveling or digging or in work overshoots the mark until the arterial pressure is
above the waist such as in painting or doing usually 10 or 15 mm Hg higher.
carpenter-type work. Because of the uncommonly It should be pointed out that in changing
high blood pressure produced by isometric or from supine to erect posture; there is a
dynamic arm work performed above the waist as momentary fall in blood pressure caused by the
in snow-shoveling or digging, this type of work is diminished venous return. But this is normally
not recommended for older people and people with overcome very quickly.
cardiovascular disease. e. Diurnal variation: Blood pressure tends to
rise from a low point during sleep to high point
Selected Factors Affecting Blood Pressure (15–20 mm Hg higher) after the evening meal.
There are several factors that affect blood pressure f. Ingestion of food: After a large meal, there is
besides exercise and training such as- age, sex, normally a considerable rise in systolic pressure
emotion, posture etc. and sometimes a fall in diastolic pressure.
a. Age: There is an influence of age on the systolic g. Obesity: The systolic pressure is usually high in
and diastolic blood pressure. Normally, the obese person. In most of the over weight person,
blood pressure increases gradually throughout the blood pressure is found to be high.
life. The normal systolic blood pressure for
Effect of Training on Blood Pressure
adults in western industrialized societies is
around 140 mm Hg, while the diastolic pressure Following endurance training, arterial blood
is around 90 mm Hg. The average blood pressure changes very little during standardized
pressure tends to be lower in underdeveloped submaximal exercise or at maximal work rates. But
countries than in western societies. On an resting blood pressure is generally lowered in
individual basis, it should be pointed out that people who are border line or moderately
pressure values above 140 mm Hg do not hypertensive before training. This reduction occurs
necessarily indicate and abnormal state of high in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure.
blood pressure since the physiological range of Although resistance type exercise can cause large
normal for some individuals may occasionally increases in both systolic and diastolic blood
reach into the range of abnormal for the total pressure during lifting of heavy weight, chronic
population. In fact, in older people, systolic exposure to these high pressures does not result in
values of 160 to 170 mm Hg are accepted as elevations of resting blood pressure. Hypertension
normal if there is not much sympotom reported. is not common in high level weight lifter, or in
b. Sex: Both the systolic and diastolic blood strength and power athletes. In fact, the
pressure values in women prior to menopause cardiovascular system can respond to resistance
tend to be about 5 to 10 mm Hg lower than training by lowering resting blood pressure.
that of the male. However, after menopause the It should be mentioned that training also affects
female values are generally found to be slightly blood pressure. For example prolonged work in
higher then their counter parts of similar age. the untrained subject leads to a progressive fall in
c. Emotion: It is well known that emotional state systolic pressure, which indicates nearing
such as- excitement, fear and anxiety increase exhaustion. At the same time, training retards this
the arterial blood pressure. In fact, the slightest phenomenon so that heavy work can be continued
emotional involvement may cause falsely high for a much longer period of time without a great
results in blood pressure determinations. deal of change in an individual blood pressure.
d. Posture: As is the case of the heart rate, the blood Endurance type of training also improves the blood
pressure is also affected by posture. When a pressure recovery process following exercise: the
reclining subject stands up, the hydrostatic pressure better trained the individual, the sooner blood
increase demands greater arterial pressure and the pressure returns to the pre-exercise level.
THE ATHLETE’S HEART straining-type exercise, have normal ventricular

volume but the ventricular wall is thickened.
A modest increase in size or hypertrophy is a Undoubtedly, this represents compensation for the
fundamental adjustment of the healthy heart to added workload resistance training imposes on the
regular exercise training. There is greater synthesis left ventricle.
of cellular protein as the individual muscle fibers The consequences of these apparent differences
thicken and the contractile elements within each in training response on long-term cardiovascular
fiber increase in number. This increase in size with health are unknown. However, there is no
training is transient and heart size returns to pre
compelling scientific evidence that arduous exercise
training levels when training intensity decreases.
training can harm a normal heart.
The ultrasonic technique of echocardiography
has evaluated the structural characteristics of the FUNCTIONAL VERSUS PATHOLOGICAL
hearts of athletes and determined if different HYPERTROPHY
patterns of cardiac hypertrophy and enlargement
are associated with different types of physical Cardiac hypertrophy in response to chronic
conditioning. The structural characteristics of the pathologic states such as hypertension has
hear t of apparently healthy athletes dif fer sometimes been confused with the moderate
considerably from those of untrained individuals. compensatory growth of the myocardium and
Also, the pattern of these differences is related to enlargement of the left ventricular cavity with
the nature of the exercise conditioning. endurance training. Although the stress of exercise
For example, the left ventricular volume is 181 requires that myocardial fibers generate increased
ml and mass is 308 gm for the swimmers, and 160 tension, which is a critical requirement for initiating
ml and 302 gm for the runner. The non-athletic compensatory hypertrophy, the application of this
controls averaged 101 ml for ventricular volume overload differs considerably from that of the
and 211 gm for ventricular mass. Despite their large chronic pressure overload imposed by vascular
internal ventricular dimensions, ventricular wall disease. During exercise training, the myocardial
thickness is normal for the endurance athletes. overload is only temporar y, so there is a
The athletes involved in resistance exercise ‘recuperative’ time during non-exercise periods.
training such as weight lifters, shot putters and Also if compensatory heart growth does occur with
wrestlers, who are regularly subjected to acute training, it is not accompanied by a dilution and
episodes of elevated arterial pressure caused by weakening of the left ventricle, a frequent response
Table 3.1: Table represents the comparison of various structural parameters of heart
of different athletes and their normal counterparts (Adapted from the book)
Dimension College College World Class College World Class Normal

Runner Swimmers Runners Wrestlers Shot Putters (n = 16)
(n = 15) (n = 15) (n = 10) (n = 12) (n = 4)
LVID 54 51 48-59 48 43-52 46
LVV, ml 160 181 154 110 122 101
SV, ml 116 — 113 75 68 —
LV wall, mm 11.3 10.6 10.8 13.7 13.8 10.3
Septum, mm 10.9 10.7 10.9 13.0 13.5 10.3
LV mass, gm 302 308 283 330 348 211
LVID: left ventricular internal dimension

LVV: left ventricular volume
SV: stroke volume
LV well: left ventricular wall
LV mass: left ventricular mass
to chronic hypertension. Whereas the hearts of elite of blood in the body is called the heart. It
athletes are usually larger than the hearts of their lies in the central portion of the chest cavity,
untrained counterparts, heart size is generally in between the two lungs, directly behind
within the upper range of normal limits in relation the sternum and above the diaphragm. It
to various measures of body size or to the increase remains slightly titled to the left side of the
in end-diastolic volume. The ‘athlete’s heart’ is not body. The human heart is a conical hollow
a dysfunctional organ. To the contrary for the organ and made up of cardiac muscle. It
endurance athlete, its functional capacity is superior remains covered by a protective double
in terms of stroke volume and maximum cardiac walled membranous sac called pericardium.
output. The human heart is having four chamber—
they are right atrium , left atrium, right
SUMMARY ventricle and left ventricle.
5. Circulation of blood through the heart is
1. Blood is an opaque, slightly alkaline, reddish
unidirectional due to the presence of valves
colored, salty taste, and viscous fluid
in the several openings of the heart. Due to
connective tissue. Hemoglobin is found in red
continuous contraction (systole) and
blood cells of all vertebrates. In normal
relaxation (diastole) of the heart, the blood
condition 100 ml of human blood contains
circulates within it as well as throughout the
about 14.5 gm of hemoglobin in adult male. body. Rhythmicity is the characteristic
The red blood cells of human being are non- property of the heart muscle. It depends on
nucleated, bi-concave, circular disc shaped red the rate of initiation of cardiac impulse from
colored cells of the blood. The white blood the Sino-atrial node (SA node). SA node
cells are large in size, different shaped and initiates impulse 70 to 80 times per minute
nucleated colorless cells of the blood. The and similarly the heart also beats 70 to 80
platelets are small colorless non-nucleated, times per minute. Thus SA node is known as
oval or disk shaped cytoplasmic fragments Pacemaker.
found in the circulating mammalian blood. 6. Changes that occur in the heart during one
2. Blood coagulation is the process by which the beat are repeated in the same order in the next
shedding of blood from the reputed blood beat. This cyclical repetition of the various
vessels (wound) loses its fluidity in a few changes in heart, from beat to beat is called
minutes and sets into a semisolid jelly-like mass cardiac cycle. The time required for one
is known as coagulation. Normal coagulation complete cardiac cycle in normal condition is
time is measured according to the method of 0.8 sec. Every event in the cycle will be
Lee and White; it is 6 to 17 minutes in glass repeated at the interval of 0.8 sec. In the
tube and 19 to 60 minutes in siliconized tube. cardiac cycle there are four main events such
3. Karl Landstainer in 1900 AD was first realized as- Atrial systole, Atrial diastole, Ventricular
the importance of blood group. Because it is systole and Ventricular diastole.
necessary for blood transfusion, identifying a 7. A graphic record of the electrical variations
person according to the blood group and find produced during a heart beat or cardiac cycle
defects in blood group. According to is called electrocardiogram. The electrical
Landstainer, that human being can be divided variations include depolarization and
into several groups. The human beings may repolarization of the auricle and ventricle
be put into four different groups according bringing about their contraction and
to the nature of the agglutinogen possessed relaxation. A typical electrocardiogram of a
by their corpuscles. These groups are called healthy person shows five waves. These are
O, A, B and AB. called P, Q, R, S and T. The P,R and T waves
4. The hollow muscular pumping organ ever which are above the base line of ECG are
pulsatile and responsible for the circulation known as positive waves. The Q and S waves
that lie below the base line are called negative endurance training. However, the untrained
waves. people who have maximum heart rate more
8. Cardiac output is defined as the volume of than 180 beats/min. HRmax slightly reduced
blood pumped by the heart in one minute. following training. When the exercise bout is
This is generally expressed liters per minute finished, the heart does not initially return to
and milliliters per minute. It is the product of its resting level. Instead, it remains elevated for
heart rate and stroke volume (the amount of a while, slowly returning to its resting rate. The
blood pumped with each beat of the heart). time its take for heart rate to return to its resting
The normal value of the cardiac output is rate is called the heart rate recovery period.
about 5 liter per minute. During sub maximal 13. Blood pressure is a lateral pressure exerted
exercise (40 to 60 percent of maximal by blood on the walls of blood vessels while
capacity), cardiac output in trained athletes flowing through, is known as blood pressure.
may be increased to 40 liters per minute, During exercise, blood pressure increases
whereas untrained subjects may attain outputs linearly as a result of an increase in cardiac
of about 20 liters per minute. At this level of output. The exercise affects on systolic blood
work, it is known that this 5 to 7 folds increase is pressure much more than diastolic or mean
in cardiac output is due to increase in both pressure. This is due to the fact that during
heart rate and stroke volume. exercise the resistance to blood flow is
9. During systole, a certain volume of blood is decreased. The decreased resistance is the
ejected from the left ventricle. This amount is result of vasodilatation taking place in the
the stroke volume (SV) of the heart, or the arterioles or the working muscles.
volume of blood pumped per stroke 14. Following endurance training, arterial blood
(contraction). For example, consider the pressure changes ver y little during
amount of blood in the ventricle before and standardized submaximal exercise or at
after contraction. stroke volume increases with maximal work rates. But resting blood
increasing rates of work but only up to exercise pressure is generally lowered in people who
intensities between 40 and 60 percent of are border line or moderately hypertensive
maximal capacity. before training. This reduction occurs in both
10. This rhythmic contraction and relaxation of systolic and diastolic blood pressure.
the heart is known as heart rate. Normally in
human sedentary adult male’s heart rate is 72 REVIEW QUESTIONS
beats per minute. Resting heart rate averages 1. What stimulates the wave of contraction in
70 to 80 beats per minute. The maximum atria and which the blood moves?
heart rate (HRmax) is the highest heart rate 2. Draw a simple diagram of the internal
value one achieves in an all-out effort to the structure of human heart to show the veins
point of exhaustion. An individual’s maximum entering it. Label the veins and chambers.
heart rate can be calculated by the following 3. What are the difference between arteries and
equation: HRmax = 220 – age in years. veins?
11. When the rate of work is held constant at 4. What is blood? Describe its components.
submaximal levels of exercise, heart rate 5. Write down various function of human blood.
increases fairly rapidly until it reaches a plateau. 6. What is electrocardiogram? Write about its
This plateau is the steady state heart rate and significance.
it is the optimal heart rate for meeting the 7. Describe the structure of human heart.
circulatory demands at that specific rate of 8. How does the blood flow through the heart
work. during the different phases of the cardiac cycle?
12. At maximal rate of exercise, HRmax usually 9. Make a line sketch to show blood circulation
remains relatively unchanged following in human body.
10. What is the difference between systole and 14. Define blood group. What do you mean by
diastole, and how does this relate to systolic universal donor and universal recipient?
blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure? 15. What are the factors affecting heart rate?
11. Describe how heart rate, stroke volume, Discuss about the steady state heart rate.
cardiac output and blood pressure respond to 16. What are the effects of training on the
sub-maximal and maximal exercise. following? (a) Resting heart rate, (b) Sub-
12. How do you determine the maximum heart maximal heart rate, (c) Maximal Heart rate
rate? What are alternative methods using and (d) Recovery heart rate.
indirect estimates? 17. What is ‘Athletes heart’? Discuss about
13. Differentiate between muscular endurance the Functional versus pathological hyper-
and cardiovascular endurance. trophy.
CHAPTER
4
Respirator
Respiratoryy System
 Structure of Human Respiratory Organ (Lungs)  Lung Function

 Phases of Respiration (External and Internal  Transport of Respiratory Gasses
Respiration)  Carbon Dioxide Transport
 Pulmonary Ventilation  Factors Influencing Oxygen Delivery and Uptake
 The Respiratory Muscles  Second Wind
 Mechanism of Breathing  Stitch Phenomenon
 Functional Aspect of Respiration  Ventilatory Response during Rest and Exercise
 Lung Volume and Capacities  Respiratory Regulation of Acid-Base Balance
 Expirograph (Spirometry)
Respirator y syst em: The respiratory system

system: STRUCTURE OF HUMAN RESPIRATORY
formed by the organs which are concerned for the
ORGAN (LUNGS)
exchange of gases between the environment and
living organism is called respiratory system. The The respiratory system consists of the following
transportation of gases involves four different structures:
processes. These are as follows: 1. The air conducting passage: The air passage
i. Breathing is the movement of air into and mainly consists of nostril, nasal cavity, bronchi and
out of the lungs. bronchioles. The air from the atmosphere enters
ii. Diffusion is the exchange of gases between through the nostril, which open through the
the lungs and the blood. internal areas into the pharynx. From the pharynx
iii. Transport of gases (O2 and CO2) through the air passes through the cartilaginous chamber
known as larynx.
blood and
This structure is also associated with the
iv. Exchange of gases from blood to active tissue
production of sound. The main air conducting
and vice verse.
passage is known as trachea. It is about 12 cm long
The first two processes are referred to as and 15 to 18 mm diameter cartilaginous and
external respiration because they involve moving membranous windpipe. It begins from the lower
gases from outside the body into the lungs and part of the larynx and ends by separating into right
then the blood. Once the gases are in the blood and left bronchi. The right bronchus is little larger
they must travel to the tissues, the fourth step of than the left. Within lung the right bronchus is
respiration occurs. This gas exchange between the divided into three bronchioles, whereas the left
blood and the tissues where food particals are bronchus is divided into two bronchioles. These
burned and produce energy is called internal bronchioles are subdivided into a number of
respiration. respiratory terminal bronchioles.
Respiratory System  59
Fig. 4.1: Structure of human lungs
pleural cavity between these membranes is filled

with a fluid called pleural fluid.
The pleural fluid resists friction of the
membrane during breathing. The membranes
show elasticity. In the lungs the bronchioles
terminate into the blind sacs known as alveoli.
Alveolus is the physiological unit of the lung. They
are lined by a thin layer of squamous epithelium
cell. Each alveolus is surrounded by a network of
capillaries. Oxygen and carbon dioxide readily
diffuse through the thin and moist walls of the
alveoli.
Fig. 4.2: Ventilation and perfusion of respiratory wall and
pulmonary capillary in the alveolar air with blood gas barrier 3. Associated respiratory organs: The thorax, which
contains the lungs, is bounded by the rib cage. On
Schematic representation of airway passage: the lower side of the thorax lungs are attached with
Nostril → Trachea → Primar y bronchus → a dome-shaped sheet of skeletal muscle, the
Seconday bronchus → Tertiary bronchioles → diaphragm. In between the ribs intercostal muscles
Terminal Bronchiole → Atrium → Alveolus. are present. They are of two types: external
2. Lungs: Lungs are essential organs for respiration. intercostal and internal intercostal muscle. These
The lungs are paired, spongy structure, which are muscles are called muscles of respiration.
situated in the thoracic cavity just above the Functions of respiration: The following
diaphragm and lateral to the heart. The right lung functions are performed by the respiratory system:
consists of three lobes and the left lung is divided i. Transfer of O2 from the alveoli to the venous
into two lobes. The membrane, which covers the blood and CO2 from venous blood to the
lungs, is called pleura. There are two such lungs.
membranes covering (double layered) of lungs, the ii. Maintain the arterial pressure of CO2 at 40
outer membrane is called parietal pleura and an mm Hg which is essential for many vital
inner membrane is called visceral pleura. Space i.e., functions of the body.
Fig. 4.3: Intercostals muscle and movements of ribs during inspiration and expiration
iii. It regulate the acid-base balance (PH of increase the dimension and thus, the volume of
blood) of the body. the thoracic cage and this decrease the pressure in
iv. Excretion of certain volatile of gasses from the the lungs and draws air in.
body. Expiration: Normal expiration is a passive process.
v. Pumping action.
The inspiratory muscles relax and the elastic tissue
of the lungs recoils returning the thoracic cage to
PHASES OF RESPIRATION (EXTERNAL
its smaller, normal dimension. This increases the
AND INTERNAL RESPIRATION) pressure in the lungs and forces air out.
a. External respiration: External respiration is the
physical process of interchange of gases between Respiratory Quotient or RQ
the organism and its environment. Oxygen Definition: It is the ratio of the volume of carbon
enters into the body of the organism from the dioxide evolved to the volume of oxygen taken in
surrounding by diffusion while carbon dioxide during the process of respiration. Therefore, RQ
dif fuses out from the organism to the is represented as CO2/O2. It depends on the
environment around. Various respiratory organs nature, amount of O2 present in the respiratory
like trachea, bronchi, lungs, etc. take part for substrate and extent of which the respiratory
this purpose. substrate is broken down. Example-RQ of
b. Internal respiration: Internal respiration is the carbohydrate is 1 whereas in fat is 0.7.
physical process of interchange of gases between
the body fluid and tissue cells. In this phase O2 THE RESPIRATORY MUSCLES
enters into the tissue cells by diffusion and is
utilized for oxidative process in the cells. This is The respiratory muscles play an important role in
also called tissue oxidation or tissue respiration. respiration. Two types of muscles are involved
It produces CO2, which diffuses out from the during respiration such as muscles of inspiration
tissue cells. and muscles of expiration.
Muscles Used in Inspiration

PULMONARY VENTILATION
a. Diaphragm: The diaphragm is believed to be
Pulmonary ventilation is the process by which air
the most important single muscle of inspiration.
is moved into and out of the lungs. During resting conditions, it makes a dome over
Inspiration: It is an active process through which the liver and stomach. When it contracts,
the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles it causes the bottom of the thorax to
flatten (increases the vertical dimension of the expiration is aided by contraction of the expiratory
thorax). In other words, the domed area is muscles, thus making it an active process.
lowered. a. Abdominal muscles: The abdominals are the
b. External intercostal muscles: During strenuous most important muscles of expiration during
work when heavy breathing is required, the heavy work. When these muscles contract, they
external intercostal muscles are brought into play not only flex the trunk, but they also press down
much more extensively. They raise the ribs and the lower ribs. These, in turn, help raise the
sternum in order to create additional pressure inside the abdomen.
enlargement of the anteroposterior and lateral b. Diaphragm: The diaphragm is then forced
diameters of the chest cavity. upward into the thoracic region, thus reducing
c. Scalene: During exercise, the large volume of the overall size of the thoracic area and aiding
inspired air is also aided by contraction of other in expiration.
inspiratory muscle. For instance, contraction of c. Internal intercostals muscles: In addition to the
the scalene muscle helps to raise the first two abdominals, the internal intercostal muscles are
ribs. also brought into play during heavy breathing.
d. Sternocleidomastoid: The other inspiratory During the contraction of above muscles they
muscle involves during exercise and contraction will pull the ribs down, thus bringing them closure
of the sternocleidomastoid muscle helps to raise
to each other. Hence, the combined action of the
the sternum.
abdominals and the internal intercostal muscles aid
e. Extensor muscles: It should also be pointed out
in reducing the size of the thorax and thus facilitate
that the extensor muscles of the back and neck
the role of expiration.
help to facilitate inspiratory breathing during
vigorous work.
MECHANISM OF BREATHING
f. Trapezius: The large trapezius muscle also helps
to facilitate inspirator y breathing during a. Intra alveolar pressure: The respiratory muscles
vigorous work. cause pulmonary ventilation by alternatively
compressing and distending the lungs, which
Muscles Used in Expiration in turn causes the pressure in the alveoli to raise
During normal resting conditions, expiration is and fall. During inspiration the intra-alveolar
primarily due to the elastic recoil of the inspiratory pressure become slightly negative with respect
muscles (diaphragm and external intercostals to atmospheric pressure (-3 mm Hg) and causes
muscles) as they return to their resting positions. air to flow inside. During expiration the intra-
This means that during normal resting conditions, alveolar pressure rises and causes air to flow out.
expiration plays a passive role while inspiration plays During maximum inspiratory and expiratory
more active role. However, during exercise, effort the intra-alveolar pressure reduced
Major Respiratory Muscles Involved during Rest and Exercise
Respiratory Muscle acting Action Muscle acting

phase during rest during exercise
Inspiration i. Diaphragm i. Flattens i. Diaphragm
ii. External Intercostals ii. Raises Ribs ii. External Intercostals
iii. Elevates first and second ribs iii. Scaleni
iv. Elevates Sternum iv. Strenocleidomestoid
Expiration None i. Lowers Ribs i. Internal Intercostals
None ii. Depresses Lower Ribs ii. Abdominal
and Forces Diaphragm
into Thorax.
A B
Figs 4.4(A and B): Contraction of diaphragm muscle during (a) inspiration and (b) expiration
(-80 mm Hg) and increased (100 mm Hg) This collapsing force of the millions of
respectively. alveoli produces a summated effect resulting
b. Fluid pressure in the intra-pleural cavity: The in tendency of the whole lung to recoil away
normal pressure of the fluid in the intra-pleural from the chest wall.
space is between –10 and –12 mm Hg. This d. The diaphragm and the abdominal muscles:
negative pressure acts as a force to hold the Inspiration is an active process by which the air
visceral pleura of the lungs tightly against the is taken from the atmosphere into the lungs.
par tial pleura of the chest wall. Due to Normal inspiration is caused principally by the
enlargement and shortening of the chest cavity contraction of diaphragm. This muscle is belled
this negative pressure causes the lungs also to shaped so that contraction of any of its muscle
large and short. fibers pulls it downward to cause inspiration.
The cause of the very negative intra-pleural Expiration is the passive process by which the
fluid pressure is the continual tendency of the air is given out from lungs to the atmosphere.
pleural capillaries to absorb fluid from the intra- During expiration the relaxation of intercostal
pleural space. This is particularly true of the and diaphragm muscles take place. The
visceral pleural capillaries, because these are part diaphragm and the thoracic wall return to its
of the pulmonary circulatory system and have a former position.
very low capillary pressure (about 7 mm Hg) e. Muscles that raise and lowers the chest cage:
that causes rapid absorption of fluid. Three dif ferent group of muscles cause
c. Recoil tendency of the lungs and inter-pulmonary inspiration by elevating the entire chest cage.
pressure: The lungs have a continual tendency The sternocleidomastoid muscles lift upward on
to collapse and therefore, to recoil away from the sternum; the anterior serrati lift many of the
the chest wall. This tendency is caused by two ribs; and the scalene lift the 1st two ribs.
different factors: To cause expiration, the abdominal recti, in
i. Elastic fiber-constantly stretched and addition to helping to compress the abdominal
shortened. contents upward against the diaphragm, also pull
ii. Surface tension: Due to intra-molecular downwards the lower ribs, thereby decreasing the
attraction of the surface layer of the fluid of anteroposterior (AP) diameters of the chest. Thus,
alveoli; they have got a tendency to collapse. these muscles act as muscles of expiration both by
depressing the ribs cage and by compressing the LUNG VOLUME AND CAPACITIES
abdominal contents upward. The various lung volume that reflect one’s ability
The ribs during expiration are angled downward to increase the depth of breathing. To obtain these
and the external intercostals are stretched in a measurements, the subject breathes through
forward and downward direction. As they contract Expirograph, which is shown below (Fig. 4.6).
they pull the upper ribs forward in relation to the Lung volumes are basically divided into static and
lower ribs and this caused leverage on the ribs to dynamic lung volumes.
rise then upward. Conversely, in the inspiratory a. Static lung volume: The bell of Spirometer shown
position, the internal intercostal muscles are in the figure (4.6) falls and subsequently rises
stressed and their contraction pulls the upper ribs as air is inhaled and exhaled to record the
backward in relation to the lower ribs. This causes ventilator y volume and breathing rate.
leverage in the opposite direction and lowers the The volume of air moved during either the
chest cage. Inspiratory or Expiratory phase of each breathe
is termed Tidal Volume. Such volumes are called
FUNCTIONAL ASPECT OF RESPIRATION static lung volume.
i. Gaseous exchange: Process of respiration b. Dynamic lung volume: In appraising the adequacy
supplies oxygen from the atmosphere to the of pulmonar y ventilation, the important
tissue and removes carbon dioxide from the consideration is the ability to sustain high levels
body to the atmosphere. of air flow rather than the quantity of air moved
ii. Excretory functions: In addition to the carbon in a single breathes which is termed as dynamic
dioxide some volatile metabolic waste lung volume.
products such as acetone, ammonia, oils,
alcohol, water vapor, etc. are also excreted Factors affecting Lung Volumes and Capacities
through expiration. Several factors affect lung volumes and capacities,
iii. Regulates water balance: During expiration a some that can be controlled and some that
large amount of water (about 700 ml) is lost can not. These factors include: age gendr height
as water vapor. body surface area, smoking, altctude etc.
iv. Regulates acid-base balance: The normal pH A person who is born and lives at sea level will
of the body is 7.4. Any change of pH alters have a smaller lung capacity than a person who
the rate and depth of respiration. spends their life at a high altitude. This is because
v. Regulates body temperature: Certain amount the atmosphere is less dense at higher altitude and
of heat is lost during expiration. therefore, the same volume of air contains fewer
vi. Controls metabolic functions: For metabolism molecules of all gases, including oxygen.
oxygen is the most important constituent, In response to higher altitude, the body’s
which is taken during inspiration. diffusing capacity increases in order to be able to
Fig. 4.5: External and internal intercostals muscles

Factors Larger volumes Smaller volumes

Gender Males have greater lung volumes Females have smaller lung volumes
and capacities. and capacities.
Age Age up to maturity increase lung As increase in age (after 40 yrs. of age)
volumes and capacity linearly. lung functions decreases.
Body height Body height has got linear relation Shorter people have got smaller lung
with lung volumes and capacities volumes and capacities.
i.e., taller people have larger volumes.
Body sur face ar
surface ea
area Body surface area has also got linear People having smaller body surface
relationship with lung volumes and area have smaller lung volumes and
capacities, i.e. the people have bigger capacities.
surface area have larger volumes.
Smoking habit Non-smokers show higher values Smoking has got deleterious effects
of lung volumes and capacities. on lungs. So, smokers have lower
lung volumes and capacities.
Lung disease The people do not suffering from Respiratory diseases like asthma,
any respiratory disease having bigger emphysema and bronchitis reduces
lung volumes and capacities. the lung volumes and capacities.
Spor ts training
Sports Physical training improves the lung Sedentary nature of life does not
volumes and capacities, e.g. athletes improve lung function parameters,
e.g. non-athletes
High altitude People living at high altitudes have People living at low altitudes have less
bigger lung volumes and capacities. lung volumes and capacities as compare
to people live at high altitude.
process more air. When someone from sea level which consists of an inverted belljar over a double-
travels up to the higher parts of the earth (e.g. the walled chamber with water in between two wall
Andes, Mexico City, Tibet and the Himalayas) they and the details expirograph arise given below:
will often develop a condition called altitude
sickness because their lungs cannot process enough EXPIROGRAPH (SPIROMETRY)
oxygen for their body’s needs. The lung functions are studied by Spirometer/
On the other hand cigarette smoking is inversely Expirograph machine. The Spirometer bell,
related to the lung volumes and capacity along with balanced by a counter-weight, moved through
the flow rates. Cigerette smoke containing more pulley within the water container when a subject
than 200 chemical identified and the carbon breathes into this closed system. The displacement
monoxide has got the most deletorious effects on of the Spirometer is recorded on a kymograph. A
the respiratory system. special type of recorder pen very sensitive and having
Taller height and larger surface area of the body low friction is used. The kymograph has two
are linearly related with lung volumes and capacities. different speeds of 60 mm and 1200 mm per
As male have reported more lung volumes and minute. The soda-lime canister is placed inside the
capacities as compared to female because of their machine which is generally removed during the
body height and bigger surface area. experiments in order to reduce the resistance to air
Measurement of lung function: Pulmonar y flow. A corrogated breathing rubber tube is about
ventilation constitute the first part of respiratory 40 cm long and a smooth inner lining and an inside
process and ventilation has the dimensions of both diameter of 3.2 cm is fixed with the machine. A
volume and time. Ventilation occurs as a result of valve is fixed with the one end of the tube where
a pressure difference between the alveolar and oral mouth piece is tight while other end is attached with
ends of the airways. This ventilation can be the machine. The subject breathe through mouth
measured with a machine called ‘siprometers’ piece and Spiro metric bell moves up and down
TRANSPORT OF RESPIRATORY GASSES

Gasses in our body are dissolved in fluids, such as
plasma. They are dissolve in liquids in proportion
to their partial pressure depending also on their
solubilities in the specific fluids and on the
temperature. But the solubility and the temperature
in the blood is constant. However, the most critical
factor for gas exchange between the alveoli and
the blood is the pressure gradient.
Transport of Oxygen
The oxygen content of the arterial and venous blood
and relevant data are given in the following table:
O2 content Oxy-Hb O2 in Sol PO2
Arterial blood 19.3 19 0.3 100 mm Hg
Mixed venous
Fig. 4.6: A modified Toshniwal Expirograph machine blood 14.2 14 0.2 40 mm Hg
About 98 percent of oxygen is present in the

along with the pen recorder and produce graph from blood in chemical combination with hemoglobin
which different parameters are calculated. and only 0.3 ml in arterial blood (about 2%) is in
physical solution in water of the plasma. However,
LUNG FUNCTION this small quantity in physical solution is responsible
for tension of oxygen in the plasma. It is the oxygen
The abbreviations of lung volumes and lung capacities tension in the blood, which is responsible for
those are commonly used in the Spirometric transfer of this gas from alveolar air to the venous
measurements along with average values of men and blood across the alveolo-capillary membrane and
women are given in the table below: also for transfer of this gas from arterial blood to
Fig. 4.7: Forced expiratory spirogram for the measurement of various lung function parameters
Symbols Term used Definitions Average values (ml)

Men Women
VT Tidal volume Volume of gas inspired or expired 600 500
during each respiratory cycle.
VC Vital capacity Maximal amount of gas that can be 4800 3500
expelled from the lungs following
a maximal inspiration
IC Inspiratory Maximal amount of gas that can be 3600 2500
capacity inspired from resting expiratory level.
IRV Inspiratory reserve Maximal volume of gas that can be 3000 1900
volume inspired from end tidal inspiration.
ERV Expiratory reserve Maximal volume of gas that can be 1200 800
volume expired from resting expiratory level.
FVC Forced vital Volume of gas expired after full 4800 3500
capacity inspiration, expiration being as
rapid and complete as possible.
FEV1 Forced expiratory This is the volume of air that can be 4500 2900
volume (1 sec) exhaled out within first 1 seconds of
maximum expiration.
FEV1% Percentage of forced This is the ratio between FEV1 and 90–95% 90–95%
expiratory volume FVC and expressed in percentage.
(1 sec)
FEVT Forced expiratory Volume of gas exhaled over given 2.5–3.0 sec. 2.5–3.0 sec.
volume, qualified time interval during the performance
by time interval (sec) of a forced vital capacity.
PEF25-75% Forced mid The volume of air per unit of time 295 L/min 275 L/min
expiratory flow exhaled during the middle half
of the expired volume of the forced
expiratory spirogram.
MVVF Maximum voluntary Volume of air which a subject can 120–130 L/min 110-120 L/min
ventilation breath with voluntary maximal
(uncontrolled) ventilatory effort per unit of time.
PEFR Peak expiratory This is the maximal flow, which 450 L/min 350 L/min
flow rate can be sustained for a period of
10 milliseconds during a forced
expiration starting from total lung
capacity.
tissue fluid across the capillary membrane. Further, The amount of O2 of the hemoglobin will
it is the tension of oxygen in plasma, which controls combine with forming oxyhemoglobin is
the amount of oxy-hemoglobin present in the dependent upon the tension of oxygen in the
blood. medium where hemoglobin is placed. If the O2
Hemoglobin is remarkable in that it can tension is high a large amount of oxyhemoglobin
combine with oxygen forming a loose chemical will be formed whereas on a medium of low O2
compound known as oxyhemoglobin, which differs tension the oxyhemoglobin will breakdown
from oxide of hemoglobin known as liberating O2, itself being converted into reduced
methemoglobin in the fact that the O 2 in hemoglobin.
methemoglobin is firmly fixed with the O2 capacity: One gram of hemoglobin when fully
hemoglobin molecule. saturated will combine with 1.34 ml of O2. Since
the blood contains approximately 15 grams of Hb capillaries with an oxygen tension of 100 mm
per 100 ml—the oxygen content of the blood when Hg and with hemoglobin 98 percent saturated
fully saturated will be about 15 × 1.34 = 20ml. with oxygen. So the O2 diffuses from the plasma
This is called O2 capacity of the blood. Naturally to the tissue fluid due to tension gradient
the O2 capacity depends upon the amount of between the two fluids. As O 2 diffuses the
hemoglobin in blood. amount of O 2 in solution decreases and the
O2 content: It is usually determined by Van Slyke’s tension of O2 in the arterial blood falls. This
manometric apparatus in which 1ml of blood is results in desaturation of hemoglobin, which
treated anaerobically with potassium ferricyanide gives oxygen firstly to the plasma from where it
solution in the chamber of the apparatus. The goes to the tissue space—the guiding force being
pressure exerted by the liberated oxygen after the tension gradient. The reaction is very rapid
absorption of CO2 on a manometer attached with and so the blood leaves the tissues with oxygen
the apparatus is noted and is used for calculation in tension equilibrium with tissue fluid that is
of the oxygen content. 40 mm Hg and consequent 75 percent saturation
If the blood is first agitated with air so that the of hemoglobin with oxygen.
Hb gets fully saturated with O2 the result will
indicate O2 capacity. Percentage saturation of Hb CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT
with O2 = (O2 content × 100)/O2 capacity. Carbon dioxide is carried in blood (i) in physical
Oxygen exchange in the lungs: The tension of O2 in solution and (ii) as chemical compounds.
the alveolar air is 100 mm Hg and that of the
i) Carbon dioxide in physical solution: Roughly
dissolved O2 in the plasma of the mixed venous
about 5 percent of CO2 is carried in physical
blood is only 40 mm Hg.
solution in blood. In solution, CO2 exist mostly
Due to the tension gradient, O 2 diffuses
as H2CO3 according to the following equation—
rapidly from the alveolar air to the mixed venous
blood increasing the quantity and also tension CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO2–
of O2 in the plasma in the venous blood. Rise of Since the reaction is reversible it is clear that
O2 tension of the mixed venous blood is followed H2CO3 always remains in equilibrium with small
by rapid increase in O 2 saturation of the amount of molecular O2 gas, which is responsible
hemoglobin. The oxygenated blood leaves the for CO2 tension of blood.
pulmonary capillaries in tension equilibrium with The ingress of CO2 into the blood in the tissue
alveolar air, that is, with O2 tension of 100 mm capillaries is not accompanied by any significant in
Hg and with hemoglobin 98 percent saturated H + concentration because of the ef fective
with oxygen. ‘buffering’ action of the blood and of hemoglobin
1. The gaseous composition of blood is different in par ticular. The buf fering proper ty of
in different veins of the body. O2 content of hemoglobin is due to imidaxole group of histidine
blood of veins draining metabolically active linked with haem, which contains an ionizable H+
tissues (e.g. muscles, heart) is low whereas the ion. On oxygenation, histidine parts with its H+
O2 content of blood of veins from skin and brain ion thus act as an acid. On reduction the H+ ion is
is rather high. The term mixed venous blood mostly linked with N and thus acts as a weaker
indicates sample of venous blood from the right acid. Reduced Hb, therefore, is potentially H+ ion
heart or pulmonary artery. acceptor. 1mMol of reduced Hb can accept 0.7
2. The actual gas exchange in the lungs take place mMol of H+ ion without any change of blood
between the gases dissolved in alveolar fluid and reaction. It has been suggested that the H+ of the
plasma water. –NH 2 radical of haem linked valine is also
Oxygen transport in the tissues: Oxygen tension oxylabile like that of histidine and thus confers
in the tissue fluid is low and is about 40 mm Hg upon hemoglobin its remarkable buf fering
during ‘rest’. The arterial blood enters the tissue property. This explains why venous blood with
Fig. 4.8: Carriage of O2 and CO2 in the tissue and in the lungs
reduced Hb contains more CO2 than arterial c. Some CO2 buffered as Na2CO3
blood at a given PCO2 and the dissociation curve d. Some CO2 as carbaminoprotein
of CO2 for venous blood is situated at higher level. Since formation of HCO3 is accompanied by
formation of almost equivalent quantities of
i) CO2 as bicarbonate: It is clear that more than 80
NaHCO3 the ratio H2CO3/NaHCO3 is but little
percent of the CO2 is carried as bicarbonate in the
distributed and the pH of the blood remains almost
blood and that the major fraction of the carbonate
unaffected.
is present in plasma. However, most of the
bicarbonate found in plasma are primarily formed 2. In the RBC: CO2 diffuses rapidly and the reaction
within the RBC and then shifted to plasma. CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3– takes place
13,000 times quicker than in plasma because of
1. CO2 transport in the tissues: Tension of CO2 in
the presence of the specific enzyme carbonic
the tissue fluid is 46 mm Hg (at rest) and that in
anhydrase.
arterial end of the capillary is 40 mm Hg, CO2
therefore, diffuses from the tissue space to the 3. Carriage of CO2 as carbamino compound: CO2
capillary due to tension gradient. combine directly with free amino group of the
The H+ ion and HCO3– ion formed are disposed globin and forms carbamino compounds which
off as follows: may be represented as follows:-
H+ + NaPr ↔ Na+ + HPr Hb-NH2 + CO2 ↔ Hb-NHCOO + H+
Na + HCO3– ↔ NaHCO3
+ This occurs:-
CO2 + NH2-Pr ↔ Pr-NHCOO– + H+ i. independent of carbonic anhydrase and
(Carbamino) therefore, the reaction is not inhibited by
H+ + Na2HPo4 ↔ NaH2Po4 + Na+ cyanides.
Na+ + HCO3– ↔ NaHCO3 ii. CO2 is not initially changed to H2CO3
When equilibrium is established the plasma iii. At a very rapid rate in the tissues where
changes may be summarized: hemoglobin is desaturated.
a. Some free molecular CO2 in solution-, which is Carbamino compounds are also formed by
responsible for CO2 tension. direct union of CO2 with plasma proteins but since
b. Some CO2 in solution in H2O as H2CO3 the concentration of hemoglobin within the RBC
Fig. 4.9: Schematic representation of the steps of chloride shift
is high a larger fraction of carbamino compounds As already explained the HCO3– from within
are carried within the RBC than in the plasma. the RBC is exchanged for Cl – of the plasma
Further an increase in PCO2 does not increase according to the law of Donan’s equilibrium
the formation of carbamino compounds since (Chloride shift). The chloride shift mechanism
increase PCO2 means increased H+ concentration prevents accumulation of large amount of HCO3–
that leads to formation Hb NH3+. This does not within the RBC and thus, prevents shifting of its
react with CO2 directly. pH to the alkaline side.
Oxygenation of hemoglobin inhibits carbamino In the lungs: CO2 diffuses from plasma (Peo2 =
compound formation because oxy-hemoglobin by 46 mm Hg) to the alveolar air (Peo2 = 40 mm Hg)
virtue of its greater acidity liberates H+, which
blocks carbamino compound formation. Reduced
Hb, on the other hand, favors formation of
carbamino compound.
In the tissues oxy-Hb is also being converted
simultaneously to reduce Hb, which is a weaker
acid in comparison with the former and has got a
weaker hold on the base (K) available within the
RBC. If oxy-Hb is represented symbolically by
HbO2 its ‘salt’ with potassium may be symbolized
as KhbO2. With the ingress of CO2 and reduction
oxy-Hb the following changes occur-
CO2 + H2O ↔ H+ + HCO3 + KhbO2 ↔ HHb
+ KHCO3 + O2 (liberated)
The KHCO3, of course, ionizes to K+ + HCO3–.
Large quantities of carbamino-hemoglobin are also
formed which ionizes liberating H+, which are
neutralized by imidazole group of histidine and
β-amino group of valine of the globin polypeptide Fig. 4.10: Schematic representation of interrelation
chains. between carriage of O2 and CO2
and so the H2CO3 breaks down liberating further these areas can impair oxygen delivery and restrict
amount of CO2. our abilities to meet oxidative demands.
Simultaneously oxy-hemoglobin is formed
which being a stronger acid snatches off K within SECOND WIND
the RBC from its combination with acid ions and
During the first minute of exercise, the load may
form KhbO2. Reversed chloride shift occurs and
appear very strenuous. One may experience
the HCO3– ion enters the RBC and is broken down
dyspnea, but this distress eventually subsides and
liberating further amount of CO2, which passes
one experiences a second wind. The factors eliciting
from RBC to plasma and then to the lungs.
the distress may be an accumulation of metabolites
KHHb + HCO3– + O2 ↔ H2CO3 + KhbO2
in the activated muscles and in the blood because

H2CO3   H2O + CO2

CA the oxygen transport is inadequate to satisfy the
Oxygenation of hemoglobin also breaks down requirement.
carbamino compound liberating further quantity So, a phenomenon usually assoiciated with
of CO2. ventilation is called “second wind”. It is generally
characterized by a sudden transition from a rather
FACTORS INFLUENCING OXYGEN ill-defined feeling of distress or fatigue during the
DELIVERY AND UPTAKE early portion of prolonged exercise to a more
comfortable, less stressful feeling later in the
The rates of oxygen delivery and uptake depend exercise. This apparent distress is—dyspnea, rapid
on three major variables: and shallow breathing, chest pain, headache and
i. The oxygen content of blood pain in various muscles. It is generally found at
ii. The amount of blood flow different times during exercise in between 2 and
iii. The local conditions 18 min during a 20 min treadmill run.
At beginning of the exercise, each of these However by what mechanism this changed
variables must be adjusted to ensure increased environment is brought to consciousness is not
oxygen delivery to our active muscles. Under the known. During heavy exercise there is actually a
normal circumstances hemoglobin is 98 percent hypoventilation at the commencement of the
saturated with oxygen. Any reduction in the activity caused by a time lag in the chemical
blood’s normal oxygen carrying capacity would regulation of the respiration. The issue then
hinder oxygen delivery and reduced cellular uptake becomes a matter of a length/tension in
of oxygen. appropriateness in the intercostal muscles. When
An exercise causes increased blood flow through the second wind occurs, the respiration is increased
the muscles. As more blood carries oxygen through and adjusted according to the requirement.
the muscles, less oxygen must be removed from
each 100 ml of blood. Thus, increased blood flow STITCH PHENOMENON
improves oxygen delivery and uptake. It appears that the respiratory muscles are forced
Many local changes in the muscle during to work anaerobically during the initial phases of
exercise affect oxygen delivery and uptake. For the exercise if there is a time lag in the redistribution
example, muscle activity increases muscle acidity of blood. A stitch in the site can then develop. This
because of lactate production. Also, muscle is an exercise-related transient abdominal pain,
temperature and carbon dioxide concentration which probably is caused by diaphragmatic ischemia
both increase because of increased metabolism. All and stress on the visceral ligaments. It is most
of these oxygen unloading from the hemoglobin common in untrained persons and is particularly
molecule, facilitating oxygen delivery and uptake to occur if heavy exercise is performed shortly after
by the muscles. a large meal, when the circulatory adjustment at
During maximal exercise, however, when we the commencement of exercise is slower. As the
push our bodies to the limit, changes in any of blood supply to the respirator y muscles is
improved, the pain disappears. This theory is not of 16 per minute. During maximal exercise, the
entirely satisfactory. The stitch is more common ventilation may reach to 120 to 175 liters per
when running than in cycling and swimming. An minute, with a frequency of 40 to 50 and a tidal
alternative trigger of this stitch could be a volume of approximately 3 to 3.5 liters.
mechanical stimulation of pain receptors in the In well-trained athlete, it may go over 200 liters/
abdominal region. A bouncing effect on the min which is more than 30 times the resting value.
abdominal organs is certainly evident in jogging Such an increase is brought about by a tremendous
and running. However, it is puzzling that this type increase in the breathing rate and in the tidal
of problem does not follow a strict and volume.
reproducible course. It was previously believed that
the pain was caused by an emptying of the blood VENTILATORY RESPONSE DURING REST
depots in the spleen and the contraction-taking
AND EXERCISE
place in the spleen. In humans, the spleen serves
no such depot function, however, furthermore, At rest:
persons who have had their spleen removed can Normal range of VE = Tidal volume × Breathing
still experience such pain. Well-trained athletes who frequency
have warmed up adequately before a muscular 4 to 15 l/min. = 400 – 600 ml × 10 – 23 breaths/
effort seldom experience such pain. min.
Pulmonary Ventilation During Exercise:
The pulmonary ventilation refers to the movement 70 to 135 l/min = 2000–3000 ml × 35–45
of air into and out of the lungs. The amount of air breaths/min.
ventilated per minute is the product of the frequency
(f) of breathing and the amount of air moved per Ventilatory Responses to Sub-maximal and
Maximal Exercise
breath, i.e. tidal volume. VE = TV × f. In a 65 kg
man, VE at rest is around 7.0 liters/min. Changes before exercise:: In anticipation of the
with a tidal volume of 0.45 liters and a frequency ensuing exercise bout stimulate the cerebral cortex
Fig. 4.11: The ventilatory response to light, moderate, and heavy exercise
of the brain which results in ventilation to be This can impair energy metabolism and reduce
increased before the exercise bout. muscle contractile force. Although the body’s
regulation of acid base balance involves more than
Changes during exer cise: Pulmonary ventilation
exercise:
control of respiration, and the respiratory system
is increase very rapidly with in only a few seconds
plays a crucial role in rapid adjustment of the body’s
of start of exercise. This is related to stimulation
acid-base status during and immediately after
arising from the joints resulting from the
exercise.
movements generated by the working muscles. In
Whenever H+ levels start to rise, the inspiratory
sub-maximal exercise, the rapid rise in ventilation
center responds by increasing respiration.
soon stops and is replaced by a slower rise tend to
Removing carbon dioxide is an essential means for
reach a steady state value. The arterial pressure of
reducing the H+ concentrations. Carbon dioxide
oxygen and carbon dioxide are maintained
is primarily transported bound to bicarbonate.
relatively constant during this type of exercise. The
Once it reaches the lungs, carbon dioxide is formed
ventilation in maximal exercise continues to
again and exhaled.
increase until the exercise is terminated. These
Wherever H+ levels begins to rise, whether from
changes are thought to be stimulated by chemical
carbon dioxide or lactate accumulation,
stimuli mainly from the CO 2 in the blood
bicarbonate ion can buffer the H + to prevent
producing during exercise. During prolonged
acidosis.
exercise in a hot and humid environment,
ventilation ‘drifts’ upward due to influence of rising
SUMMARY
body temperature on the respiratory control center.
i. The system formed by the organs which are
Changes during rrecover
ecover y: A sudden decrease in
ecovery:
concerned for the exchange of gases between
pulmonary ventilation immediately after cessation
the environment and living organism is called
of the exercise is due to the stop of motor activity
respiratory system. The transportation of
from the muscles and various joints. The gradual
gases involves four different processes. These
decrease in pulmonary ventilation towards resting
are as follows:
condition is probably related to the decrease in
 Breathing is the movement of air into and
chemical influence resulting in the muscular tissue.
out of the lungs.
Greater the intensity of effort the longer it takes
 Diffusion is the exchange of gases between
for ventilation to return to its resting level.
the lungs and the blood.
Ventilator
entilatoryy Equivalent: It is the ratio between  Transport of gases (O2 and CO2) through
the volume of air ventilated and the amount of O2 blood and
consumed by the tissues indicates breathing  Exchange of gases from blood to active
economy. This ratio is reffered to as the ventilatory tissue and vice versa.
equivalent for oxygen (VE/VO2). In this resting The first two processes are referred to as
condition the value can range from 23 to 28 liter external respiration because they involve
of air Per Liter of O2 consumed. The value change moving gases from out side the body into
ver y little during mild exercise but at near the lungs and then the blood. Once the gases
maximum exercise the value can be more than 30 are in the blood they must travel to the
liter of air per liter of O2 consumed. The value tissues, the fourth step of respiration occurs.
remain constant over a wide range of exercise levels This gas exchange between the blood and
and it only change at near maximal exercise. the tissues is called internal respiration.
ii. External respiration is the physical process
RESPIRATORY REGULATION OF ACID- of interchange of gases between the organism
and its environment. Internal respiration is
BASE BALANCE
the physical process of interchange of gases
The intense muscular activity often results in the between the body fluid and tissue cells.
production and accumulation of lactate and H+. Pulmonary ventilation is the process by which
air is moved into and out of the lungs. The capillary membrane and also for transfer of
respiratory muscles play an important role in this gas from arterial blood to tissue fluid
respiration. Two types of muscles are involved across the capillary membrane. Further, it is
during respiration such as- muscle used for the tension of oxygen in plasma, which
inspiration and muscle used for expiration. controls the amount of oxy-hemoglobin
iii. The respiratory muscles cause pulmonary present in the blood. Carbon dioxide is carried
ventilation by alternatively compressing and in blood (i) in physical solution and (ii) as
distending the lungs, which in turn causes chemical compounds. Tension of CO2 in the
the pressure in the alveoli to raise and fall. tissue fluid is 46 mm Hg. (at rest) and that in
During expiration the intra-alveolar pressure arterial end of the capillary is 40 mm Hg. CO2,
rises and causes air to flow out. The intra therefore, diffuses from the tissue space to the
pleural pressure and recoil tendency of the capillary due to tension gradient.
lungs are also takes part in the breathing viii. During the first minute of exercise, the load
process. The diaphragm, abdominal muscle may appear ver y strenuous. One may
and intercostals muscle have got vital role in experience dyspnea, but this distress
the process of breathing. eventually subsides, and one experiences a
iv. Functions of respiration are gaseous exchange, second wind. It appears that the respiratory
excretory functions, regulate water balance, muscles are forced to work anaerobically
regulates body temperature; regulate acid-base during the initial phases of the exercise if there
balance and controls metabolic functions. is a time lag in the redistribution of blood. A
v. The various lung volumes that reflect one’s stitch in the side can then develop. This is an
ability to increase the depth of breathing. To exercise-related transient abdominal pain,
obtain these measurements, the subject which probably is caused by diaphragmatic
breathes through expirograph; The lung ischemia and stress on the visceral ligaments.
volumes are basically divided into static and ix. The pulmonary ventilation refers to the
dynamic lung volumes. Tidal volume is called movement of air into and out of the lungs.
static lung volume. The quantity of air moved Pulmonary ventilation is increase very rapidly
in a single breathes which is termed as with in only a few seconds of start of exercise.
dynamic lung volume. This is related to stimulation arising from the
vi. The lung functions are studied by joints resulting from the movements
Spirometer/Expirograph machine. The generated by the working muscles. In sub-
subject breathe through mouth piece and maximal exercise, the rapid rise in ventilation
Spiro metric bell moves up and down along soon stops and is replaced by a slower rise
with the pen recorder and produce graph tend to reach a steady state value. The gradual
from which dif ferent parameters are decrease in pulmonary ventilation towards
calculated. Tidal volume (VT), vital capacity resting condition is probably related to the
(VC), inspiratory capacity (IC), inspiratory decrease in chemical influence resulting in
reserve volume (IRV), expiratory reserve the muscular tissue.
volume (ERV), forced vital capacity (FVC),
forced expiratory volume (1 sec) (FEV1),
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Percentage of forced expiratory volume 1. Describe the anatomical structures involved
(1 sec) (FEV1%), forced expiratory time in pulmonary ventilation.
(FET), maximum voluntar y ventilation 2. Why vigorous exercise sometimes results in
(MVV), peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR) etc. muscular pain?
can be calculated. 3. How does hemoglobin help in the transports
vii. The oxygen tension in the blood, which is of oxygen from lung to tissue?
responsible for transfer of this gas from alveolar 4. Write the role of diaphragm and intercostals
air to the venous blood across the alveolo- muscles in the breathing process?
5. How is carbon dioxide taken up from tissue expiratory muscles (c) Trachea and bronchioles;
and transported to lungs? (d) Alveolar air and inspired air.
6. How is oxygen transported in the blood and 13. Define Ventilatory break point and anaerobic
released in the tissue? threshold. What is the importance in sports
7. What is the partial pressure? How does it help training?
in gaseous exchange during respiration? 14. What do you mean by external and internal
8. Explain the terms: (a) Tidal volume; (b) Vital respiration? Discuss the role of muscle action
capacity and (c) residual volume in relation during forceful inhalation.
to respiration. 15. Distinguish between lung volumes and
9. Describe the respiratory system of men. capacities. What are the factors affecting lung
10. Describe the mechanism of breathing in man. volumes and capacities?
11. How does the exchange of gases occur in 16. Write notes on Second wind and Stitch
respiration between blood and alveolar air? phenomenon.
12. Distinguish between: (a) External and Internal 17. Discuss about the Ventilatory response during
respiration; (b) Inspirator y muscle and rest and exercise.
CHAPTER
5
Muscular System
 Properties of Muscles  Types of Muscle Action

 Classification of Muscle  Muscle Fiber
 Skeletal Muscle  Fiber Type Conversions
 Muscles of the Head and Neck  Muscle Fiber Distribution and Sports Performance
 Muscles of the Trunk  Skeletal Muscle Adaptation
 Muscles of the Upper Extremity  Endurance Training
 Muscles of the Lower Extremity  Chemical Changes in the Muscle
 Structure of Skeletal Muscle  Strength Training
 The Contractile Process: Sliding Filament Theory  Speed Training
 Basic Steps of Muscle Contraction Process  Muscle Hypertrophy
according to the Sliding Filament Theory  Muscle Hyperplasia
Intr oduction: Muscles are classified according to

Introduction: it goes back to its original length. But this
their structure and functions. Structurally muscles elastic return is a little slower. Muscle does
are classified into two classification, i.e. (I) Striated, not immediately come back to its original
(II) Non-Striated. position. It takes a little longer time. This is
Again Striated muscles are subdivided into two- called extension remainder.
(a) Skeletal, (b) Cardiac. On the other hand ii. Excitability: It is an important property of
muscles are classified into two categories depending muscle. With an adequate stimulus, muscles
on their functions. They are the (i) voluntary are excitable. The stimulus may be
(Skeletal muscle) and (ii) involuntary muscles mechanical, thermal, chemical or electrical.
(Cardiac and Smooth muscles). For facilities of accurate adjustment, electrical
i. Voluntary stimulus is used in laboratory experiments.
ii. Involuntary iii. Contractility: It is another impor tant
property of muscle. With excited, the muscle
PROPERTIES OF MUSCLES contracts. This is immediately followed by
relaxation. A single induction shock will
The basic properties of muscles are as follows: produce a single contraction (twitch). If the
i. Extensibility and Elasticity: Muscle extends stimulus be strong, it may cause stronger
when stretched. When the tension is released, contraction.
CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCLE
A. Difference between skeletal and smooth muscles:
Characteristics Skeletal Smooth
1. Histology i. Size and Shape Cylindrical; 1–40 mm long Elongated, fusiform,
10–100 µ in diameter length 0.2 mm (appx),
width- 6 µ (central position)
ii. Striations Transverse, longitudinal Absence of striations
iii. Nucleus Multiple, just under the Single, at the center with
sarcolemma distinct nucleoli.
iv. Sarcotubular Present, T-systems are at Present but not so
System junctions of A-I band. characterized
Terminal cisterna is
prominent
v. Cell-to-cell Nil Through nexus
conduction
2. Properties i. Rhythmicity Nil Present
ii. Conductivity Very fast Slower
iii. Contractility Simple muscle curve Slow and worm-like.
with characteristic All periods of the curve
features longer
iv. Refractory period Short-within latent period Longer
a. Tetanus Possible Not so
b. Fatigue Possible Possible but difficult to
demonstrate
v. Tonicity Tone depends on nerves Independent of nerve.
3. Composition i. Protein Maximum Less
ii. Glycogen Less More
iii. Carnosine Maximum Less
4. Metabolism Blood supply and O2 Moderate Less
consumption
5. Distribution Skeletal (Bieeps, Trieeps etc.) Hollow viscera, capsules,
skin, etc.
6. Control Under the will, so voluntary Not so, involuntary
7. Nerve Supply Somatic with special nerve Autonomic with ganglia and
endings free nerve terminals
B. Difference between skeletal and cardiac muscles:

Characteristics Skeletal Cardiac
1. Histology i. Size and Shape Cylindrical; 1–40 mm long, Short cylindrical, rectangular
10–100 µ in diameter in longitudinal section,
polyhedral in transverse
section
ii. Nucleus Multiple, just under the Single and central position
sarcolemma
iii. Sarcotubular System Present, T-systems are Present, but without terminal
at junctions of A-I band cisternae. T-system is more
Terminal cisternae is prominent and present
prominent at Z-line
Contd...
Muscular System  77
Contd...
Characteristics Skeletal Cardiac
iv. Branch Nil Multiple branches in all
directions-three dimensional
networks without cytoplasmic
continuity
v. Cell-to-cell Nil Through specialized areas
conduction of intercalated disc
2. Properties i. Rhythmicity Nil Present and characteristic
ii. Conductivity Very fast Slower, different in different
parts
iii. All-or-none law True for single fiber True for the whole heart,
because of functional
syncytium
iv. Contractility Simple muscle curve with Characteristic muscle curve
characteristic features contraction is longer than
relaxation.
v. Refractory period Short-within latent period Longest, whole contraction
a Tetanus Possible period is absolute refractory
Possible
b. Fatigue Possible Impossible
None. Long refractory
period ensures recovery
vi. Tonicity Tone depends on nerves Independent of nerve
3. Composition i. Protein Maximum Less
ii. Glycogen Less More
iii. Carnosine Maximum Less
iv. Fats Mostly neutral fats More phosphatids and
cholesterol than in others.
v. Inorganic Na/K-1/5. Na/K-1/2, i.e. more Na.
4. Action of ions i. Sodium Excitation Initiates and maintains
heartbeat.
ii. Calcium Present mostly in Increases strength of
sarcoplasmic reticulum contraction and duration
and stimulates ATP-ase of systole
activity during muscular
contraction.
iii. Potassium Reduces excitability and Inhibits contraction and
hastens fatigue. produces relaxation
5. Metabolism i. Carbohydrates
a. Lactic acid Oxidized less easily Completely and more
than glucose and often readily than glucose
incomplete.
b. Glycogen Reduced in starvation and Increased
Diabetes Mellitus
ii. Blood supply and Moderate High
O2 consumption
6. Distribution Skeletal (Bieeps, Triceps etc.) Only in heart
7. Control Under the will, so voluntary Not so, involuntary
8. Nerve Supply Somatic with special nerve Autonomic with ganglia
endings. and free nerve terminals
SKELETAL MUSCLE the mastoid process); brachioradialis (origin on

the brachium or arm, insertion on the radius).
There are more than 600 muscles in the body,  Action
Action: abductor (to abduct a structure);
which together account for about 40 percent of a adductor (to adduct a structure); flexor (to flex
person’s body weight. a structure); extensor (to extend a structure);
Most skeletal muscles have names that describe elevator (to lift or elevate a structure); masseter
some feature of the muscle. Often several criteria
(a chewer).
are combined into one name. Associating the
Listed below are some significant and obvious
muscle’s characteristics with its name will help to
muscles arranged in groups according to location
learn and remember them. The following are some
and/or function.
terms relating to muscle features that are used in
1. Muscles of the Head and Neck
naming muscles.
2. Muscles of the Trunk
 Size: vastus (huge); maximus (large); longus
3. Muscles of the Upper Extremity
(long); minimus (small); brevis (short).
4. Muscles of the Lower Extremity
 Shape
Shape: deltoid (triangular); rhomboid (like a
rhombus with equal and parallel sides);
Muscles of the Head and Neck
latissimus (wide); teres (round); trapezius (like
a trapezoid, a four-sided figure with two sides Humans have well-developed muscles in the face
parallel). that permit a large variety of facial expressions.
 Dir ection of fibers
Direction fibers: rectus (straight); transverse Because the muscles are used to show surprise,
(across); oblique (diagonally); orbicularis disgust, anger, fear and other emotions, they are
(circular). an important means of nonverbal communication.
 Location: pectoralis (chest); gluteus (buttock Muscles of facial expression include frontalis,
or rump); brachii (arm); supra- (above); infra- orbicularis oris, orbicularis oculi, buccinator and
(below); sub- (under or beneath); lateralis zygomaticus. These muscles of facial expressions
(lateral). are identified in the illustration below.
 Number of origins
origins: biceps (two heads); triceps There are four pairs of muscles that are
(three heads); quadriceps (four heads). responsible for chewing movements or mastication.
 Origin and inser tion
insertion
tion: sternocleidomastoideus All of these muscles connect to the mandible and
(origin on the sternum and clavicle, insertion on they are some of the strongest muscles in the body.
Fig. 5.1: Various muscles of the head and neck

Two of the important also muscles, temporalis and layers and the fascia that envelops them. The
masseter are identified in the illustration above. abdominal wall muscles are identified in the
There are numerous muscles associated with the illustration below.
throat, the hyoid bone and the vertebral column; The pelvic outlet is formed by two muscular
only two of the more obvious and superficial neck sheets and their associated fascia.
muscles are identified in the illustration. They are
sternocleidomastoid and trapezius. Muscles of the Upper Extremity
The muscles of the upper extremity include those
Muscles of the Trunk
that attach the scapula to the thorax and generally
The muscles of the trunk include those that move move the scapula, those that attach the humerus to
the vertebral column, the muscles that form the the scapula and generally move the arm, and those
thoracic and abdominal walls, and those that cover that are located in the arm or forearm that move
the pelvic outlet. the forearm, wrist and hand. The illustration below
The erector spinae group of muscles on each shows some of the muscles of the upper extremity.
side of the vertebral column is a large muscle mass Muscles that move the shoulder and arm include
that extends from the sacrum to the skull. These the trapezius and serratus anterior. The pectoralis
muscles are primarily responsible for extending major, latissimus dorsi, deltoid, and rotator cuff
the vertebral column to maintain erect posture.
muscles connect to the humerus and move the arm.
The deep back muscles occupy the space between
The muscles that move the forearm are located
the spinous and transverse processes of adjacent
along the humerus, which include the triceps
vertebrae.
brachii, biceps brachii, brachialis and
The muscles of the thoracic wall are involved
brachioradialis. The twenty or more muscles that
primarily in the process of breathing. The
cause most wrist, hand and finger movements are
intercostal muscles are located in spaces between
the ribs. They contract during forced expiration. located along the forearm.
External intercostal muscles contract to elevate the
Muscles of the Lower Extremity
ribs during the inspiration phase of breathing. The
diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that forms a The muscles that move the thigh have their origins
partition between the thorax and the abdomen. It on some part of the pelvic girdle and their insertions
has three openings in it for structures that have to on the femur. The largest muscle mass belongs to
pass from the thorax to the abdomen. the posterior group, the gluteal muscles, which, as
The abdomen, unlike the thorax and pelvis, has a group, abduct the thigh. The iliopsoas, an
no bony reinforcements or protection. The wall anterior muscle, flexes the thigh. The muscles in
consists entirely of four muscle pairs, arranged in the medial compartment adduct the thigh.
Fig. 5.2: Various muscles of the trunk

Fig. 5.3: Muscles of the upper extremities
STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

A skeletal muscle consists of about 40 percent of
the total body weight. As the name implies, they
are attached to the bony skeleton and are
responsible for limb movement, etc. The units of
skeletal muscle are long cylindrical muscle fibers,
which vary in length from 1–40 mm, and in
diameter from 10–100 microns (1 micron is equal
to 0.001 mm). Although the number of muscle
fibers per muscle may vary somewhat depending
upon the size and function of each muscle, it
appears that by the time an embryo reaches a fetus
stage of between 4 and 5 months of age, the actual
number of muscle fibers per muscle is already
Fig. 5.4: Muscles of the lower extremities
established. Thus, the capability for an individual
obtaining muscularity is apparently set genetically
at the time of conception.
The illustration above shows some of the Each muscle fiber is composed of many smaller
muscles of the lower extremity. Muscles that units called myofibrils, which lie parallel in the
move the leg are located in the thigh region. The sarcoplasm muscle cell fluid similar to
quadriceps femoris muscle group straightens the the intracellular fluid of other cells. Myofibrils are
leg at the knee. The hamstrings are antagonists to the contractile elements of the muscles, and they
the quadriceps femoris muscle group, which are range from 1–2 microns in diameter. Each muscle
used to flex the leg at the knee.The muscles located fiber is surrounded by a thin elastic noncellular
in the leg that move the ankle and foot are divided membrane called the sarcolemma. The muscle
into anterior, posterior, and lateral compartments. fibers are contained in bundles by sheaths of
The tibialis anterior, which dorsiflexes the foot, is connective tissue (epimysium). The various
antagonistic to the gastrocnemius and soleus connective tissue sheaths spread throughout the
muscles, which plantar flex the foot. whole muscle and they are structurally blended
Fig. 5.5: The ultra structure of human skeletal muscles
Fig. 5.6: Light and dark band of skeletal muscle fibers
with the tendons, by which the muscle is connected molecules of troponin. Along with the actin
to the bones of the particular joint it moves. filaments the cross bridges play an important part
Under the electron microscope, the myofibrils in the contraction mechanism, as will be seen
appear as alternate light (I band) and dark (A band) subsequently. The light bands (I) arise where there
areas. Each myofibril consists of fine protein threads is only one protein, whereas the dark bands (A)
(myofilaments) called actin and myosin. The actin arise where both actin and myosin strands are
filament contains two important proteins called found.
troponin and tropomyosin, while the myosin The area in the center of each A band is a less
filaments contain small protein projections called dense region called the H zone. Each I band is
cross bridges. Tropomyosin is a long, narrow halved by a dark line called the Z line or Z
molecule located on the surface of the actin membrane. The Z lines land stability to the entire
filament with its ends fixed firmly in globular structure. They may also play a major part in the
relaying of nerve impulses from the sarcolemma A. Rest: During rest, it is believed that the myosin
to the myofibrils. Thus, every myofibril is made cross bridges remain extended as a result of the
up of units that encompass all elements between electrostatic forces that exist at both ends of the
two Z lines. Each unit is called a sarcomere and is bridges and both charges are negative. The high-
approximately 2 microns in length. The sarcomeres energy ionized compound molecule called
repeat themselves in a specific pattern in each adenosine tri-phosphate- (ATP), which is present
myofibril. at the end of the cross bridge with a negative charge
along with a fixed negative charged at the base of
THE CONTRACTILE PROCESS: SLIDING the cross bridge. The two ends repel each other,
thus allowing the bridges to stay extended. Because
FILAMENT THEORY
the active sites on the actin protein filaments also
Research utilizing the electron microscope has led possess a negative charge, the cross bridges do not
scientist to hypothesize the currently accepted hook up to them during rest. During this period,
“sliding filament” theory of muscular contraction. this arrangement is referred to as an uncharged
During contraction the actin or thin filament is ATP cross bridge complex. It is generally believed
believed to slide over the myosin or thick filament that during rest, in the absence of calcium (Ca++),
toward the center of the sarcomere, thus these electrostatic charges in all of the afore-
shortening the muscle. The exact element mentioned examples are due to the specific
involved in causing the sliding action of the structure of actin, tropomyosin and troponin
filament during contraction has not been which, in turn, prevents the myosin cross bridge
completely elucidates. It has been postulated that from interacting with actin.
there is an interaction or “hook-up” between the B. Contraction: The following steps appear to be
two by way of “cross bridges” which allows the the normal process by which the bridges connect
actin filaments to slide over the myosin filaments. to the actin filaments so that contraction may occur.
This “hook-up” between actin and myosin forms When the action potential (or stimulus delivered
a protein complex called actomyosin (A + M → by a motor nerve fiber or electric shock) signal
AM). There are three different phases of muscular passes through the T system, Ca++ is released from
contraction which are as follows: the sarcoplasmic reticulum near the transverse
Fig. 5.7: Electron microscopic structure of skeletal muscle fibers

tubules in the form of free Ca++. The Ca++ diffuses to word the center of the sarcomere, releases it and
to the active sites on the actin and myosin filaments then hooks onto the next active site. Thus, the actin
and by some reaction involving tropomyosin, the filaments slides along over the myosin filaments by
Ca++ is quickly taken up by the troponin molecules a “ratchet” mechanism, the actin molecule first
on the actin filaments. It is believed that the locking with one cross bridge, then with the next
chemical reactions involved in this process create (Fig. 5.9). Obviously, tension is developed during
electrostatic forces between the myosin ATP cross this movement since each actin filament is connected
bridges and the actin protein filaments which to the Z line. It should be pointed out that any one
cause them to attract each other and form myosin cross bridge may “ hook-up” and “break”
actomyosin and thereby promote the sliding with the actin filaments a hundred or more times
process. In other words, because Ca++, with two during a period of one second. At the same time,
positive charges, are attracted to the negative however, within any one sarcomere the amount of
charges of the myosin ATP cross bridges and the tension buildup and the shortening that takes place
active sides on the actin protein filaments, an is generally somewhat small. On the other hand it
electrostatic bond between actin and myosin is should be remembered that a high level of tension
developed (thus, the uncharged ATP cross bridge and shortening of intact muscle is due to several
complex is transformed into a charged ATP cross hundred sarcomeres contracting simultaneously.
bridge complex) and is thus responsible for the Although the provision of energy for muscular
formation of actomyosin complex. contraction is a complex process, it would appear
At the same time, the two positive charges of the that at each cross bridge site where the protein of
++
Ca neutralized the two negative charges of the the two filaments are in contact, myosin acts as an
myosin ATP cross bridges and the actin filaments. enzyme (called myosin ATP-ase) to split a phosphate
At this point, the cross bridges which are now group from ATP and ADP and thus provide the
“hooked “ up to the actin or thin filaments collapsed energy for contraction. Once ATP is replenished
and pulls the actin filaments towards the middle of and the negative charges are restored, the cross
the sarcomere, thus causing the muscle to shorten. bridges are re-extended and the whole processes is
It has been postulated a single bridge hooks onto repeated with new active sites on the thin protein
an active site, pulls the thin filaments a short distance filaments. Apparently, muscle contraction cannot
take place (such as during rest) without this chemical
bond between this actin and myosin. That is neither
protein by itself is contractile. Neither the myosin
nor the actin filaments decrease in length during
normal contraction.
C. Relaxation: Following the cessation of the
nervous impulses over the motor nerve innervating
the muscle, the sarcoplasmic reticulum removes
Ca++ from the troponin molecules on the actin
filaments and stores it in the outer vesicles (Fig.
5.10). Once Ca++ has been withdrawn from the
troponin, the actin filament is now no longer active.
In addition, the myosins ATP cross bridge
complexes are also now no longer able to form an
electrostatic bond with the active sites of the actin
filament. Since the myosin ATPase activity is now
turned off, no more molecules of ATP can be split
Fig. 5.8: Muscular contraction – resting and for energy. Thus, by way of elastic recoil, the muscle
contracted phase filaments return to and remain in a relaxed state.
Fig. 5.9: Mechanism of muscular contraction (movement of actin and myosin filament)
After ATP has been broken down into ADP

and phosphoric acid, it is essential that these
substances be reconverted into ATP for reuse at
a later period. Hence, this is done by the
metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. For
example, the metabolism of one molecule of
glucose with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and
water releases 680, 000 calories of energy. The
energy from this reaction is used to synthesize 38
molecule of ATP. Following contraction, the
increase metabolism in a given muscle fiber restocks
the chemical stores that are consumed during the
contractile process.
BASIC STEPS OF MUSCLE

Fig. 5.10: Calcium binding site, troponin and tropomyosin
CONTRACTION PROCESS ACCORDING
at relaxed and contracted phase of skeletal muscle TO THE SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY
Energy for muscular Contraction I. Rest:
The energy for muscular contraction is provided a. No nerve impulse
by the splitting of ATP (adenosine tri-phosphate) b. Myosin uncharged ATP cross bridges remain
to ADP (adenosine di-phosphate) and phosphoric extended
acid (ATP ↔ ADP + Pi + energy for contraction). c. Ca++ remains store in sarcoplasmic reticulum
Thus, when one molecule of ATP splits to from d. Specific structure of actin, tropomyosin, and
one molecule of ADP and a molecule of phosphoric troponin prevents myosin and actin from
acid, approximately 8000 calories of energy interacting
released. It appears that it is this energy which II. Contraction:
creates that force between myosin and actin a. Nerve impulse to muscle results in an action
filaments that cause muscle contraction. potential
b. Action potential causes Ca++ to be released from In many activities, such as running and jumping,
sarcoplasmic reticulum all three types of actions may occur in the execution
c. Ca++ diffuses to active sites on actin and myosin of a smooth, coordinated movement.
where it is taken up by troponin Concentric (Isotonic) action: A muscle’s principal
d. Myosin ATP cross bridges becomes charged action, shortening, is referred to as a concentric
e. Actin and myosin interact to form actomyosin action. Human are most familiars with this type of
(A + M → AM) action. Concentric actions are considered dynamic
f. Myosin ATPase splits a phosphate group from action.
ATP and ADP All lifting exercises require Isotonic contractions.
g. Energy for muscle contraction is provided from This happens when the muscle shortens as it
the splitting of phosphate from ATP and ADP contracts. An example of isotonic contraction can
(ATP → ADP + Pi + energy) → myosin ATPase be seen when we flex the bicep muscle. Stand with
h. Muscle contracts by the actin sliding over the one arm straight and the palm of the hand facing
myosin up. Roughly measure the length from the start of
the biceps muscle to the point where it meets the
III. Relaxation:
shoulder. Now curl the hand towards the shoulder,
a. Nerve impulse stops
the biceps muscle shortens as it contracts. When
b. Sarcoplasmic reticulum removes Ca++ from
you reach the end point take another rough
troponin
measurement of the biceps again, it will be much
c. Myosin ATP cross bridge becomes uncharged
shorter.
d. Actomyosin dissociates into actin and myosin Another example is the triceps muscle (opposite
e. ATP is resynthesized of biceps). Do the same experiments again this time
f. Muscle is now back to its resting state measure the triceps and start at the curled position.
The triceps shortens as the arm straightens.
TYPES OF MUSCLE ACTION
Other examples ar aree as follows:
Muscle movement can generally be categorized  lifting objects above the head - front shoulder
into four different types of actions: (anterior deltoid) shortens
i. Concentric (Isotonic))  lifting object up from lying position - chest
ii. Static (Isometric) muscle shortens
iii. Eccentric  lifting body up from squat position - quadriceps
iv. Isokinetic muscle shortens as legs extend
Fig. 5.11: Concentric Isotonic contraction

 doing a sit up recycled, producing force, but the external force is

 throwing a ball too great for the actin filaments to be moved. They
 swinging a bat remain in their normal position, so shortening can
not occur.
In fact, Isotonic contractions are the most
Some bodybuilders makeup their own exercises
common, many exercises and activities involve this
using Isometric contraction in order to develop
type of contraction.
strength. An example is when someone attempts
Static (Isometric) action: Muscle can also act to curl one arm upwards but is held by using equal
without moving. When this happens, the muscle resistance from the other arm.
generates force but its length remains unchanged • attempting to lift an immoveable object
(static). This is called a static action. This has also • holding a weight at arm’s length
been termed as isometric action. This occurs, for • some wrestling movements
example, when you try to lift an object that is The above examples are advanced forms of
heavier than the force generated by your muscle, exercise and should not be attempted when losing
or when you support the weight of an object by weight.
holding it steadily with your elbow flexed. In both Eccentric action: Muscles may even exert force
cases, you fill your muscle tense but they can not while lengthening. This movement is an eccentric
move the weight so they do not shorten. In this action. In this case joint movement occurs and this
action the myosin cross bridge formed and is also a dynamic action. An example of this is the
Fig. 5.12: Isometric (Static) contraction
Fig. 5.13: Eccentric contraction

action of the biceps brachii when your elbow is termed fast oxidative glycolytic. Type IIb fibers
extended to lower a heavy weight. In this case, the possess the greatest anaerobic capability and are
actin filaments are pulled further away from the termed fast glycolytic. In the last decade, with the
center of the sarcomere, essentially stretching it. improvement of muscle-staining techniques,
An example is when someone manages to pull additional subtypes within each fiber type have been
your arm straight while at the same time you are reported by various scientists at beginning of
try to keep the arm locked in one position. In other nineties. Subtypes of type I oxidative fibers have
words, the load is too heavy. been labeled type I and type Ic. Type Ic fibers are
thought to have less oxidative capacity than type I
Other examples ar
aree as follows:
fibers. There have also been five different fiber
• running downhill
subtypes identified for type II fibers. These fibers,
• walking downstairs
IIc, IIac, IIa, IIab and IIb, represent a continuum
• landing on the ground from a jump
of aerobic and anaerobic characteristics.
This type of contraction is not always recom-
It is believed that genetics largely determine
mended.
muscle fiber type distribution and that it is set at
birth or early in life. The average individual (man
Isokinetic
or woman) has an equal proportion of both slow
Similar to the Isotonic contraction, the Isokinetic and fast twitch fibers. The composition of muscle
contraction causes the muscle to shorten as it gains fiber types (percentage of type I to type II) is
tension. The difference is Isokinetic requires a consistent among the major muscle groups in the
constant speed over the entire range of motion, body.
therefore, this type of contraction require special On the average, most muscles are composed of
equipment to exercise properly. An example is an roughly 50 percent. Type I fibers and 25 percent
arm stroke when swimming, the even resistance Type IIa fibers. The remaining 25percent are
from the water offers a constant speed at maximal mostly Type IIb, with Type IIc fibers making up
contractions. only 1percent to 3percent of the muscles.
In elite athletes, the predominance of a particular
MUSCLE FIBER fiber type appears to correspond to the metabolic
All motor units function in a similar manner requirements of their respective sport.
although they may have different contractile and
metabolic characteristics. Some motor units are
more suited for aerobic metabolism, whereas others
are more appropriate for anaerobic activity. Two
distinct fiber types have been identified and
classified by their contractile and metabolic
characteristics. These have been termed slow-twitch
and fast-twitch fibers, also referred to as type I and
type II fibers, respectively. These fibers possess
certain distinguishable characteristics that make
them suited either for prolonged, low to moderate
intensity activity (slow-twitch fibers) or short-
duration, high-intensity activity (fast twitch fibers).
For many years, muscle fiber classification was
limited to these two classifications (type I and type
II), with type II fibers being further subdivided
into two distinct divisions: IIa and IIb. Type IIa
fibers have a well-developed capacity for both Fig. 5.14: Percentage of Type I fiber in distance runners,
aerobic and anaerobic metabolism are commonly middle distance runners and sprinters
Characteristics of Type I and T

Type ype II Muscle Fibers (T
Type ype IIa and T
(Type ype IIb):
Type
Type I (Slow Twitch) Type IIa (Fast Twitch) Type IIb (Fast Twitch)
Force production Low Intermediate High
Contraction speed Slow Fast Fast
Myofibrillar ATPase activity Low High High
Fatigue resistance High Moderate Low
Glycolytic capacity Low High High
Oxidative capacity High Medium Low
Capillary density High Intermediate Low
Mitochondrial density High Intermediate Low
Myoglobin content High Intermediate Low
Endurance capability High Moderate Low
Glycogen storage capability No difference No difference No difference
Endurance athletes have a large percentage of to be associated with aerobic exercise training.
type I fibers, whereas highly anaerobic athletes Kraemer, Patton, and thier colleagues (1995) have
(e.g., sprinters) have a predominance of type II also demonstrated that skeletal muscle fiber subtype
fibers. Elite endurance athletes may have 90percent transformations from IIb to IIa in subjects
of their skeletal muscle made up of type I fibers, performing high-intensity resistance training and
providing a large advantage for success in aerobic in subjects performing a combined high-intensity
performance. Similarly, athletes with exceptional resistance training and endurance training program.
explosive power and speed would have a Subjects who were performing only endurance
predominance of type II fibers. exercises also tended to increase the proportion of
type IIa fibers but significantly elevated their type
FIBER TYPE CONVERSIONS IIc fibers. This would be expected considering that
the type IIc fibers are the most oxidative of the
The proportion of type I to type II muscle fibers type II subtypes.
appear to be genetically determined and their Fiber subtype transformations appear to occur
expression set early in life. A number of studies have rapidly (within 2 weeks) during participation in
examined whether conditioning programs can alter physical conditioning programs. These adaptations,
the proportion of type I to type II muscle fibers. however, may be transient. During periods of
Some studies have suggested that aerobic training inactivity or detraining, a transformation of fast-
may be able to increase the percentage of type I twitch fiber subtypes from type IIa back to type
fibers, while others have reported increases in type IIb is observed. A return to training will result in a
II fiber proportion after sprint training. However, fiber-type transformation back to its trained state
the overwhelming majority of investigations have in a relatively shorter period of time. These studies
been unable to see any alterations in fiber-type highlight the dynamic nature of skeletal fiber
composition as a consequence of conditioning transformations.
programs. It is generally believed that only fiber type
transformations within a fiber type can be Effect of Concurrent Training on Muscle
Growth and Muscle Fiber Characteristics
accomplished through training.
Scientists have reported that high intensity Many endurance athletes are concerned that the
resistance training appears to be a potent stimulus inclusion of a resistance training program would
in causing a transformation of the type IIb to type cause physiological changes to the muscle that
IIa fiber subtype. Most of the type IIb fibers have would be detrimental to endurance performance
been reported to be converted to type IIa fibers (e.g. muscle hyper trophy, decrease in
after 20 weeks of resistance training. This is similar mitochondrial volume and capillary density). In
to the type II fiber conversions previously thought some studies examining this particular question,
no significant alterations in muscle size or muscle comparison, a group of subjects performing both
fiber composition were reported in endurance- endurance and resistance training showed no
trained subjects performing resistance exercise for significant changes in muscle fiber area after 6-
the first time. It should be noted, however, that weeks of training. However, after 12 weeks of
these studies were 10 to 12 weeks in duration. It is training, significant increases were observed in the
generally understood that muscle hypertrophy muscle fiber area of type II fibers only. This study,
occurs approximately 6 to 8 weeks after the although showing significant increases in muscle
initiation of a resistance-training program in fiber area, did suggest that combining both
previously untrained individuals. It is possible that endurance and strength training might suppressed
the time course for muscle adaptations in some of the adaptations observed when performing
individuals with limited resistance training only strength training. Figure below demonstrated
experiences may be longer when concurrently that significant increases in both type I and type II
performing another mode of training. Based on
fibers were seen in both strength and combined
available evidence, it appears that 10 to 12 weeks
strength and endurance trained groups. A
of resistance training added to the exercise program
significant reduction in the type I fiber was seen in
of endurance-trained subjects do not cause any
a group of subject performing only endurance
significant changes to muscle fiber composition or
training. This indicated that benefit of resistance
to fiber cross-sectional area. The effect of training
training for the endurance trained individuals.
durations exceeding 3 months is not known.
Subject who performed only strength training
However, by manipulating acute program variables,
or performed both strength and endurance training
the coach and athlete can specially focus on the
physiological adaptations that are beneficial to the so similar type II fiber subtype transformations
endurance athlete. (IIa ← IIb) after training in contrast, subjects who
The effect of concurrent training on muscle performed only endurance training had a die to
adaptations in other population groups may be muscle fiber subtype transformations from fibers
different. In previously untrained subjects, 6 weeks that were more glycolytic to fiber subtypes that
of resistance training resulted in a significant were more oxidative in nature (IIc ← IIa ← IIb).
increase in the muscle fiber area of both type I and In other words, the inclusion of a high intensity
type II fibers in a group that performed only resistance-training program appears to reduce the
strength training. These muscles continued to magnitude of the type II fiber transformation to
hypertrophy even after 12 weeks of training. In more oxidative fibers.
Fig. 5.15: Comparison of effects of strength training, endurance training and concurrent training on muscle fiber type
MUSCLE FIBER DISTRIBUTION AND changes in the proportion of ST and FT fibers in a

muscle. The only way that a ST fiber can be
SPORTS PERFORMANCE functionally changed to FT fibers or vice versa
The human skeletal muscles have a mixture of both would be to actually remove the original motor
slow (ST) and fast (FT) twitch fibers. While the nerve from one fiber type and transplant it to the
range of fiber mixture is relatively wide (ranging other fiber or vice versa.
from 40–87% for FT and 13–60% for ST), biopsy However, an individual who has a high
research has shown that there are specific muscles percentage of FT fiber in the leg muscles may be a
that are regarded as having predominantly either world-class sprinter but not necessarily. While
ST or FT fibers. For instance, the soleus, muscle fiber composition is apparently important,
semitendinous, vastus lateralis, rectus abdominis, there are many other factors that enter into making
and rectus femoris are just a few that contain a championship performance. Factors such as
large percentage of ST fibers (Type I). At the same dedication, motivation, training, skill, body build,
time, the brachii, deltoid, gastrocnemious and coaching and in some cases, plain old luck that
latissimus dorsi are a few that have high levels of may actually overshadow an apparent physiological
FT (Type II) fibers. advantage such as fiber type. This is especially true
Investigations have also shown a rather at the lower levels of competition, whereas at the
interesting relationship between specific fiber types national and international levels, inheritance of fiber
and certain athletic abilities. For example, world- types probably plays a more important role in
class sprinters are characterized by high percentage determining championship performance.
(up to around 74%) of FT fibers in their leg
muscles, while at the same time, world-class SKELETAL MUSCLE ADAPTATION
distance runners possess a much higher level of ST
fibers (up to around 74%) in their leg muscles than Human body has immense capacity to adapt itself
normal proportion for untrained subjects. Biopsy with wide variation in load and environmental
studies also showed that swimmers, bicyclists (road) conditions. Muscles shows adaptative changes due
and canoeists, when compared to untrained to short-term and long-term training. Natures of
subjects, tend to possess a high percentage these changes depend on the type of training
(between 60–70%) of ST fibers in the thigh and undertaken.
shoulder muscles for untrained subjects is around Skeletal muscle is dynamic in its response to
35 and 45 percent, respectively. training and adapt to a wide range of functional
While it would appear that muscle fiber demands. When skeletal muscle is forced to at work
composition may play an important part in intensities exceeding to 60 to 70 percent of its
determining championship performance, an maximal force generating capacity, adaptations
important question that needs to be answered is occur that may result in an increasing muscle size
what effect does training have on an individuals and strength.
inherited muscle fiber population. Various studies The initial increases seen in muscle strength after
have shown that only the capacities and size of the resistance training have been attributed primarily
fibers increase as the result of training and not the to the neurological adaptation further increases in
number or twitch contraction times. In other skeletal muscle strength appear to be the result of
words, with endurance training, both fiber types a growth in muscle size. An increase in the size of
become better suited for producing ATP for pre-existing muscle fiber (hypertrophy) or an
aerobic work, while at the same time, fiber types increase in the number of fiber within the muscle
can still be clearly identified and separated on the (hyperplasia) may result in skeletal muscle growth.
basis of twitch contraction times since FT fibers
Endurance Training
remain FT fibers and are not changed into ST
fibers. While training may cause an increase in size Blood supply: Number of capillaries per muscle
and capacities, in short, it does not bring about fiber increase with endurance training. The quantity
of blood flow is also increases. In untrained persons Speed Training

exercise does not make open all the capillaries Basic speed is not a trainable element. Speed of
existed in the muscle. In short-term training these running is normally increased through strength
capillaries opens up to meet the requirement. In
execution. Data regarding changes due to speed
long-term adaptation the capillaries branch out and training is only limited. The store of ATP and CP
increase the density. may increase and there may be more dependence
on anaerobic glycolysis.
Chemical Changes in the Muscle
Endurance training leads to the changes in type Muscle Hypertrophy
IIb fibers in favor of type IIa fiber, so the number Increase in muscle size is generally seen after 6 to
of type IIa fiber increases. Glycogen content of 8 weeks of heavy resistance training. However,
the muscle cell increases. No change or slight some evidence suggests that muscle growth may
increases in myoglobin content of the muscle has occur even earlier. Increases in muscle size have
been indicated. been attributed to increases in the cross sectional
Number of mitochondria in the muscle cell area of existing muscle fiber. This process of fiber
increase with endurance training. This increase growth appears to be related to .the increase
in turn increases the amount of oxidative synthesis of contractile proteins (actin and myosin
enzymes. Fatty acid oxidation is increased with filaments) and to the increase formation of
endurance training which delays the critical sarcomere within the fiber. The synthesis of these
accumulation of lactic acid. filaments, which constitute the contractile element
of muscle fiber, may be related to the repeated
Strength Training
trauma to the fibers from high intensity resistance
Strength training is mainly aimed at increasing the training. During recovery from the cellular damage
muscle mass. However, no short-term physiological caused by such training, an over compensation of
adaptation is possible even if there is increase in proteins synthesis may occur, resulting in the noted
muscle strength. It is a common experience that anabolic effects.
the muscle bulk increases with strength training. Muscles hypertrophy in both type I and type II
This increase in muscle bulk is not due to the fibers after resistance training programs. However,
increase in the number of muscle fibers. The mean the type II fiber appears to undergo a great relative
cross-sectional area of the existing fibers increase hypertrophy. Since both type I and type II fibers
considerably and this particular increase is mainly are recruited during maximal contraction the
among the fast twitch fibers. This is called as the greater hypertrophy seen in the type II fiber may
‘Hypertrophy of the muscle’. Also hypertrophy is be related to the greater activation high threshold
more in male than in female. The myofibrils also units than normally activated during daily activity.
split longitudinally in two or more myofibrils in Increases in fiber size do not appear to be
the same muscle fiber. accompanied by increases in mitochondrial number
In long-term strength training the percentage or in the capillary to fiber ratio. This lowering of
of type IIa fibers increase by changing the the mitochondrial and capillary volume density in
characteristics of Type IIb fibers. Number of the fibers may not hinder strength or power
capillaries per muscle fiber does not change; a per formance, but it may have impor tant
capillary per unit of muscle area is markedly reduced implications for endurance capability in those
in lifters. Body builder show comparatively higher muscles. This change might alter the oxygen
number of capillaries. kinetics within the muscle by delaying transport
Number of mitochondria reduces and enzymes of oxygen from the vasculature to the exercising
related to anaerobic energy production increases. muscle. It is noted that endurance training
Amount of stored ATP and CP increases. Decrease decreases fiber size while causing increases to both
in myoglobin content was found in many strength mitochondrial and capillary density, thus potentially
trained athletes. improving the aerobic capacity of the muscle. In
contrast the sarcoplasmic reticulum and transverse into two- (a) Skeletal (b) Cardiac. On the
tubule volume density increases in proportion to other hand muscles are classified into two
the change in myofibrillar volume, thus categories depending on their functions. They
maintaining or improving contraction capabilities are the (i) voluntary (Skeletal muscle) and (ii)
of the muscle. involuntary muscles (Cardiac and Smooth
muscles).
Muscle Hyperplasia 2. There are more than 600 muscles in the body,
which together account for about 40 percent
It has been generally known that muscle fiber
of a person’s body weight. Humans have well-
number is fixed from birth and that skeletal muscle
developed muscles in the face that permit a
growth is a result of hypertrophy of existing muscle
large variety of facial expressions. The muscles
fibers. However, a number of studies have
of the trunk include those that move the
suggested that high intensity resistance training
vertebral column, the muscles that form the
may cause muscle hyperplasia.
thoracic and abdominal walls, and those that
For animals, muscle hyperplasia may be an cover the pelvic outlet. The muscles of the
impor tant compensator y mechanism for upper extremity include those that attach the
combating muscle overload. It has been reported scapula to the thorax and generally move
that bodybuilders had a greater number of muscle the scapula, those that attach the humerus to
fibers than trained control subjects. This suggested the scapula and generally move the arm, and
that the greater number of fibers seen in the those that are located in the arm or forearm
bodybuilders was attributable to years of high that move the forearm, wrist and hand.
intensity resistance training. 3. The muscles that move the thigh have their
If muscle hyperplasia does occur, it is thought origins on some part of the pelvic girdle and
to be either through the development of new fibers their insertions on the femur. The largest
from satellite cells. Satellite cells (located between muscle mass belongs to the posterior group,
the basement membrane and the plasma the gluteal muscles, which, as a group, abduct
membrane) are thought to proliferate and grow the thigh. The iliopsoas, an anterior muscle,
to a myoblast and eventually myotubes that may flexes the thigh. The muscles in the medial
develop into the new muscle fibers. The myotube compartment adduct the thigh.
that may also fuse with existing muscle fibers and 4. The units of skeletal muscle are long cylindrical
remain incomplete along its length, leading to the muscle fibers, which vary in length from 1 to
wrong impression of a split fiber. With longitudinal 40 mm, and in diameter from 10 to 100
splitting, a hypertrophied muscle fiber that has microns (1 micron is equal to 0.001 mm).
reached some predetermined maximal ceiling of Under the electron microscope, the myofibrils
growth is thought to split into two or more smaller appear as alternate light (I band) and dark (A
daughter cells through a process of lateral budding. band) areas. Each myofibril consists of fine
There does not appear to be any convincing protein threads (myofilaments) called actin and
support for the occurrence of muscle hyperplasia myosin.
in humans. However, conflicting results still make 5. During contraction the actin or thin filament
this issue controversial and its potential appealing. is believed to slide over the myosin or thick
If hyperplasia does exist, it most probably occurs filament toward the center of the sarcomere,
in a small portion of type II fibers when they reach thus shortening the muscle. The exact element
their predetermined genetic growth limit. involved in causing the sliding action of the
filament during contraction has not been
SUMMARY completely elucidates. It has been postulated
that there is an interaction or “hook-up”
1. Structurally muscles are classified into two between the two by way of “cross bridges”
classification, i.e. (I) Striated (II) Non- which allows the actin filaments to slide over
Striated. Again Striated muscles are subdivided the myosin filaments.
6. The energy for muscular contraction is whether conditioning programs can alter the
provided by the splitting of ATP to ADP and proportion of type I to type II muscle fibers.
phosphoric acid (ATP ↔ ADP + Pi + energy 10. The human skeletal muscles have a mixture
for contraction). Thus, when one molecule of slow (ST) and fast (FT) twitch fibers. While
of ATP splits to from one molecule of ADP the range of fiber mixture is relatively wide
and a molecule of phosphoric acid, (ranging from 40 to 87% for FT and 13 to
approximately 8000 calories of energy 60% for ST), biopsy research has shown that
released. It appears that it is this energy that there are specific muscles that are regarded as
creates that force between myosin and actin having predominantly either ST or FT fibers.
filaments that cause muscle contraction. World-class sprinters are characterized by high
7. Muscle movement can generally be percentage (up to around 74%) of FT fibers
categorized into three types of actions: in their leg muscles, while at the same time,
Concentric (Isotonic)) , Static (Isometric), world-class distance runners possess a much
Eccentric and Isokinetic. In many activities, higher level of ST fibers (up to around 74%)
such as running and jumping, all three types in their leg muscles than normal proportion
of actions may occur in the execution of a for untrained subjects.
smooth, coordinated movement. 11. Skeletal muscle is dynamic in its response to
8. Concentric (Isotonic) Action: A muscle’s principal training and adapt to a wide range of functional
action, shortening, is referred to as a concentric demands. When skeletal muscle is forced to at
work intensities exceeding to 60 to 70 percent
action. Human are most familiars with this type
of its maximal force generating capacity,
of action. Muscle can also act without moving.
adaptations occur that may result in an
When this happens, the muscle generates force
increasing muscle size and strength. Number
but its length remains unchanged (static). This
of capillaries per muscle fiber increase with
is called a static action. Muscles may even exert
endurance training. The quantity of blood flow
force while lengthening. This movement is an
also increases. In untrained persons exercise
eccentric action. In this case joint movement
does not make open all the capillaries existed
occurs and this is also a dynamic action. Similar
in the muscle. In short-term training these
to the isotonic contraction, the Isokinetic capillaries opens up to meet the requirement.
contraction causes the muscle to shorten as it In long-term adaptation the capillaries branches
gains tension. The difference is Isokinetic out and increase the density.
requires a constant speed over the entire range 12. Muscles hypertrophy in both type I and type
of motion, therefore, this type of contraction II fibers after resistance programs. However,
require special equipment to exercise the type II fiber appears to undergo a great
properly. relative hypertrophy. Since both type I and
9. Two distinct muscular fiber types have been type II fibers are recruited during maximal
identified and classified by their contractile and contraction the greater hypertrophy seen in
metabolic characteristics. These have been the type II fiber may be related to the greater
termed slow-twitch and fast-twitch fibers, also activation high threshold units than normally
referred to as type I and type II fiber, activated during daily activity.
respectively. These fibers possess certain
distinguishable characteristics that make them
REVIEW QUESTIONS
suited either for prolonged, low to moderate
intensity activity (slow-twitch fibers) or short- 1. Classified the muscle according to their
duration, high-intensity activity (fast twitch structure and functions. Write down basic
fibers). The proportion of type I to type II properties of muscle.
muscle fibers appear to be genetically 2. What are the similarity and difference among
determined and their expression set early in skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle and smooth
life. A number of studies have examined muscle?
3. Write down some groups of muscle of Head 9. What are the effects of training on conversion
and Neck, Lower extremity, Muscles of trunk, of muscle fiber typing? Discuss with suitable
and Upper extremity. example.
4. Draw a neat label diagram of the ultra 10. Write down about the relationship of muscle
structure of skeletal muscle and describe each fiber distribution and athletic performance.
component. 11. What is the pattern of muscle fiber recruitment
5. Discuss the basic steps of muscular contraction during (a) high jump; (b) running a 10 km
according to the ‘Sliding Filament theory’. race, and (c) running a marathon?
6. Describe the different types of muscle actions 12. Differentiate and give examples of concentric,
with suitable diagram and example. static, and eccentric actions.
7. What are the basic characteristics of slow and 13. What are the effects of aerobic and anaerobic
fast twitch muscle fibers? training of muscle fiber?
8. What is the role of genetics in determining the 14. Write brief notes on (i) muscle hypertrophy
proportions of muscle fiber types and the and (ii) muscle hyperplasia.
potential for success in selected sports activities?
CHAPTER
6
Endocrine System
 Overview of Endocrine System  Changes in Circulating Hormonal Concentrations

 Endocrine Glands: their Secretion and Functions  Hormone and Exercise
 Regulation of Hormone Secretion  Testosterone
 Fight-or-Flight Response  Growth Hormone
 Biology of the Stress Response  Insulin
 Physiology of the Stress Response  Cortisol
 Psychology of the Stress Response  Catecholamines
 Behavioral Manifestations of Fight-or-Flight  Thyroid Hormone
 Negative Effects of the Stress Response in
Humans
A hor mone (from Greek [ρμ½ - “impetus”) is a

hormone interact with organs in the body to help combat
chemical released by one or more cells that affects various stresses. The primary role of hormones is
cells in other parts of the organism. Only a small to help combat various stresses and to maintain
amount of hormone is required to alter cell internal equilibrium (homeostasis). Most
metabolism. It is essentially a chemical messenger hormones are synthesized in endocrine glands
that transports a signal from one cell to another. located throughout the body. Upon stimulation,
All multicellular organisms produce hormones; the glands secrete their hormones into the
plant hormones are also called phytohormones. surrounding extracellular space. The hormones
Hormones in animals are often transported in the then diffuse into the circulatory system and are
blood. Cells respond to a hormone when they transported to their respective target areas to
express a specific receptor for that hormone. The perform their designated function. It can exert their
hormone binds to the receptor protein, resulting influence on specific target tissues or cells through
in the activation of a signal transduction mechanism the unique interaction between a hormone and the
that ultimately leads to cell type-specific responses. receptors, on the cell membrane or with in the cell,
Endocrine hormone molecules are secreted that are specific to that hormone.
(released) directly into the bloodstream, while
exocrine hormones (or ectohormones) are secreted OVERVIEW OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
directly into a duct, and from the duct they either
flow into the bloodstream or they flow from cell The endocrine system is a group of glands that
to cell by diffusion in a process known as paracrine work together and secrete many types of different
signalling. hormones that regulate the body functions. The
Definition of Hor mone: Hormones are
Hormone: field of study that deals with disorders of
chemical substances that circulate in the blood and endocrine glands is endocrinology, a branch of the
Fig. 6.1: Location of all the endocrine gland in human body
Fig. 6.2: Different parts of pituitary glands and the various stimulating hormone secreted by the gland
wider field of internal medicine. The endocrine uptake to increase its concentration in the
system is an information signal system much like circulation.
the nervous system. Hormones regulate many Hormones can stimulate the production of
functions of an organism, including mood, enzymes or activate inactive enzymes. They can also
growth and development, tissue function and combine with an enzyme to alter its space (allosteric
metabolism. modulation), which will cause either an increase
Hormones influence the rate of specific cellular or decrease in the effectiveness of the enzyme.
reactions by changing the rate of protein synthesis Generally hormones are of two types: they are
or enzyme activity and by including secretion of (i) steroid hormones and (ii) non-steroid hormones.
other hormones. In addition, hormone can Steroid hormones have a chemical structure similar
facilitate or inhibit uptake of substance by cells. to cholesterol, and most are derived from it. For
For example, insulin facilitates the uptake of glucose this reason, they are lipid soluble and non steroid
into the cell, and epinephrine inhibits glucose hormones are not lipid soluble.
Endocrine System  97
ENDOCRINE GLANDS: THEIR SECRETION AND FUNCTIONS
Table 6.1: Endocrine glands, their secretions, functions, control factors, effects of hypo
and hyper secretion and the effects of exercise on hormone output
Host Gland Hormone Hormone Control of Effects of hypo Exercise

effects hormone and hyper effects on
secretion secretion hormone
secretion
1. Hypothalamus Thyrotropin Stimulates
Releasing Factor anterior pituitary
(TRF) to secrete TSH
Corticotropin Stimulates anterior
Releasing Factor
(CRF)
pituitary to secrete
ACTH
Somatostatin Inhibits secretion
of GH from
anterior pituitary
FSH Releasing Stimulates
Factor (FSHRF) anterior pituitary
to secrete FSH
LH Releasing Stimulates
Factor (LHRF) anterior pituitary
to secrete LH
Prolactin Stimulates anterior
Releasing pituitary to secrete
Factor (PRF) hormone prolactin
Growth Hormone Controls the
Releasing Factor release of growth
(GHRF) hormone from
anterior pituitary
2. Pituitary Gland
A. Anterior Growth Hormone (i) Stimulates tissue Hypothalamic Hypo: Dwarfism Increases
Pituitary (GH, Somatotropin) growth releasing in children With
(ii) Mobilizes factor increasing
fatty acids for (GHRF) Hyper: exercise
energy (i) Gigantism in
(iii) Inhibits children
carbohydrate (ii) Acromegaly
metabolism in adults
Thyroid Stimulates Hypothalamic Hypo: Increases
Stimulating production and TSH-releasing (i) Cretinism in With
Hormone (TSH) release of factor; children: stunted increasing
thyroxine from thyroxine growth, mental exercise
thyroid gland retardation
(ii) Myxoedema
in adults: low
BMR,
constipation, dry
skin, puffy eyes,
edema, lethargy
Contd...
Contd...

secretion
Hyper:
(i) Graves’ disease:
autoimmune
disease-elevated
BMR, weight
loss, irregular
heart beat
(ii) Heart disease
Adrenocortico- Stimulates Hypothalam- Hypo: Rarely Unknown
trophic Hormone production and ic ACTH- seen
(ACTH) release of releasing
cortisol, factor, Hyper:
aldosterone and cortisol Cushing’s
adrenal hormones disease
Lutinizing LH stimulates for Hypothalam- Hypo: failure of No change
Hormone the production of ic LH sexual
(LH) progesterone by releasing maturation
ovaries. factor;
Female Hyper: none
progesterone;
Follicle Stimulating FSH stimulates Hypothalamic Hypo: failure No change
Hormone (FSH) for the FSH releasing of sexual
production of factor; female maturation
estrogen by estrogen and
ovaries and Male- Hyper: none
testosterone by testosterone.
male testes
Prolactin (PRL) (i) Inhibits Hypothalamic Hypo: Poor milk Increases
testosterone PRL- production in with
(ii) Mobilizes inhibiting nursing women increasing
fatty acids factor exercise
Hyper:
(i) Cessation of
menses in
females
(ii) Importance
in males
galactorrhea,
Endorphins (i) Blocks pain Stress- Unknown Increases
(ii) Promotes physical/ with long
euphoria emotional duration
(iii) Affects on (may be exercise
feeding intensity
iv) Affects on related)
female menstrual
cycle
Contd...
Contd...

Secretion
B. Posterior Oxytocin (i) Stimulates Neural Not known

Pituitary contraction of impulse
uterine muscles from the
(ii) Stimulates the hypothalamus
release of milk
from mammary
gland
Antidiuretic (i) Stimulates water Neural ADH promotes
Hormone (ADH) reabsorption by impulse water
or Vasopressin distal and collecting from the conservation by
tubules hypothalamus increasing
(ii) Reduces water water
loss in urine permeability of
the kidney and
collecting ducts
3. Thyroid Gland Thyroxin (i) Increases cell Increased or Increase the
metabolism and decreased water plasma thyroxine
energy production excretion level in maximum
(ii) Regulates exercise but
growth and remain same
sexual maturity during submaxi-
mal exercise
Calcitonin Decreases Hypo: Causes Not known
calcium ion simple goitre
concentration in
blood Hyper: Causes
exopthalamic
goitre
4. Parathyroid Parathyroid (i) Increases blood Hypo: Increased PTH
Gland Hormone (PTH) calcium and lowers i) Causes nerve level
blood potassium and muscle
(ii) Accelerates abnormality
excretion of ii) Tetanus like
phosphate condition
Hyper: Causes
hyper calcemia
5. Pancreas Insulin (i) Controls Hypo: Causes iusulin level
(Islets of metabolism and diabetes mellitus decreases during
Langerhans) transport of long duration
glucose (sugar aerobic exercise
and fats) into cell
(ii) Promotes protein
synthesis
Glucagon (i) Controls Gradual rise
breakdown of during the
glycogen in liver period of
(ii) Increase lipid aerobic
metabolism exercises
Contd...
Contd...
Host Gland Hormone Hormone Control of Effects of Hypo Exercise

secretion
(iii) Effect on
carbohydrate
opposite that of
insulin
6. Adrenal Gland
A. Adrenal Cortex Glucocorticoids (i) Accelerates Hypo: Causes Increase
(Cortisol and tissue protein loss of beging of
Corticosterone) mobilization and gluconeogenesis the exercise
gluconeogenesis and more and decreased
from proteins. oxidation of gradually
(ii) Raises blood glucose during the
glucose level prolonged
(iii) Promotes fat Hyper: Causes exercise
utilization impaired
(iv) Helps to carbohydrate
overcome metabolism
norepinephrine’s
vasoconstricting
effect.
Mineralocorticoids (i) Increases Hypo: Causes Increased
(aldosterone) sodium retention loss of sodium during long
(ii) Increases ions duration
potassium exercise
elimination Hyper: Leads to
(iii) Increases impaired salt
water retention balance
Androgens In women it Increased
(Androsterone and causes such
others similar to masculine trails
testosterone) as beard, deep
voice and
regression of
certain female
reproductive
organs.
B. Adrenal Medulla Epinephrine (i) Increases blood Exercise, Increased
(Adrenaline) pressure, blood changes in during
sugar and heart body position prolonged
rate psycholegical exercise
(ii) Inhibits stress
gastrointestinal
tract secretion
iii) Hastens blood
coagulation
iv) Decreases
glycogen in liver
Norepinephrine i) Influences Increased
(Noradrenaline) vasoconstriction during
ii) Resembles action prolonged
exercise
REGULATION OF HORMONE SECRETION mitters and neuropeptides lends an organized,

directed function to the overall system. The
The hypothalamus, like rest of the brain, consists connection of the hypothalamus to many other
of interconnecting nerve cells (neurons) that are regions of the brain, including the cerebral cortex,
nourished by a rich supply of blood. To understand allows intellectual and functional signals, as well as
hypothalamic function it is necessary to define the external signals, including physical and emotional
various forms of neurosecretion. First, there is stresses, to be funneled into the hypothalamus to
neurotransmission, which occurs throughout the the endocrine system. From the endocrine system
brain and is the process by which one nerve cell these signals are able to exert their effects
communicates with another via a synapse, a small throughout the body.
gap between the ends (nerve terminals) of neurons. The hypothalamus produces and secretes not
Nerve terminals are often called pre-synaptic or only neurotransmitters and neuropeptides but also
postsynaptic in reference to the direction in which several neurohormones that alter anterior pituitary
an impulse is traveling, with the pre-synaptic gland function and two hormones, vasopressin and
neuron transmitting an impulse to the postsynaptic oxytocin, that act on distant target organs. The
neuron. Transmission of an electrical impulse neurons that produce and secrete neurohormones
requires the secretion of a chemical substance that are true endocrine cells in that they produce
diffuses across the synapse from the pre-synaptic hormones that are incorporated into secretory
membrane of one neuron to the postsynaptic granules that are then carried through the axons
membrane of another neuron. The chemical and stored in nerve terminals located in the median
substance that is secreted is called a eminence or posterior pituitary gland. In response
neurotransmitter. The process of synthesis and to neural stimuli, the contents of the secretory
secretion of neurotransmitters is similar to that of granules are extruded from the nerve terminals into
protein hormone synthesis, with the exception that a capillary network. In the case of hormones that
the neurotransmitters are contained within affect pituitary function, the contents of the
neurosecretory granules that are produced in the secretor y granules are carried through the
cell body and migrate through the axon (a hypophyseal-portal circulation and are delivered
projection of the neuron) to the nerve terminal, directly into the anterior pituitary gland.
from which they are discharged into the synaptic These hypothalamic neurohormones are known
space. as releasing hormones because their major function
There are four classic neurotransmitters: is to stimulate the secretion of hormones
epinephrine, nor-epinephrine, serotonin and originating in the anterior pituitary gland. They
acetylcholine. A large number of additional consist of simple peptides ranging in size from only
neurotransmitters have been discovered, of which three amino acids (thyrotropin-releasing hormone)
an important group is the neuropeptides. The to 44 amino acids (growth hormone-releasing
neuropeptides function not only as hormone). One hypothalamic hormone,
neurotransmitters but also as neuromodulators. somatostatin, has an inhibitory action, primarily
As neuromodulators, they do not act directly as inhibiting the secretion of growth hormone,
neurotransmitters but rather increase or decrease although it can also inhibit the secretion of other
the action of neurotransmitters. Well known hormones. The neurotransmitter dopamine,
examples are the opioids (e.g. enkephalins), so produced in the hypothalamus, also has an
named because they are endogenous (produced in inhibitory action, inhibiting the secretion of the
the human body) peptides (short chains of amino anterior pituitary hormone prolactin. The cell
acids) with a strong affinity for the receptors that bodies of the neurons that produce these
bind opiate drugs, such as morphine and heroin. neurohormones are not evenly distributed
The brain and indeed the entire central nervous throughout the hypothalamus. Instead, they are
system consist of an interconnected network of grouped together in paired clusters of cell bodies
neurons. The secretion of specific neurotrans- known as nuclei.
A classic model for neurohormonal activity is associated with specific physiological actions in the
the posterior lobe of the pituitar y gland system, both directly and indirectly through the
(neurohypophysis). Its secretor y products, release of epinephrine (adrenaline) and to a lesser
vasopressin and oxytocin, are produced and extent norepinephrine from the medulla of the
packaged into neurosecretory granules in specific adrenal glands. The release is triggered by
groups of nerve cells in the hypothalamus (the acetylcholine released from preganglionic
supra-optic nuclei and the Para ventricular nuclei). sympathetic nerves. The other major factor in the
The granules are carried through the axons that acute stress response is the hypothalamic-pituitary-
extend through the infundibular stalk and end in adrenal axis.
and form the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
In response to nerve signals, the secretory granules Physiology of the Stress Response
are extruded into a capillary network that feeds These catecholamine hormones facilitate
directly into the general circulation. immediate physical reactions associated with a
preparation for violent muscular action. These
FIGHT-OR-FLIGHT RESPONSE include the following:
fight-or
The “fight-or -flight rresponse
fight-or-flight esponse
esponse”, also called the • Acceleration of heart and lung action
fight-or
“fight-or -flight-or
fight-or-flight-or -fr
-flight-or-fr eeze rresponse
-freeze esponse
esponse”, the “fright,, • Paling or flushing, or alternating between both
fight or flight rresponse
esponse hyperar
esponse”, “hyperar ousal
hyperarousal
ousal” or the • Inhibition of stomach and upper-intestinal
acute str
“acute ess rresponse
stress esponse
esponse”, was first described by action (digestion slows down or stops)
Walter Cannon in 1929. His theory states that • General effect on the sphincters of the body
animals react to threats with a general discharge of • Constriction of blood vessels in many parts of
the sympathetic nervous system, priming the the body
animal for fighting or fleeing. This response was • Liberation of nutrients (particularly fat and
later recognized as the first stage of a general glucose) for muscular action
adaptation syndrome that regulates stress responses • Dilation of blood vessels for muscles
among vertebrates and other organisms. • Inhibition of the lacrimal gland (responsible for
tear production) and salivation
Biology of the Stress Response • Dilation of pupil (mydriasis)
• Relaxation of bladder
Normally, when a person is in a serene,
• Evacuation of colon
unstimulated state, the “firing” of neurons in the
locus coeruleus is minimal. A novel stimulus (which • Inhibition of erection
could include a perception of danger or an • Auditory exclusion (loss of hearing)
environmental stressor such as elevated sound levels • Tunnel vision (loss of peripheral vision)
or over-illumination), once perceived, is relayed • Acceleration of instantaneous reflexes
from the sensory cortex of the brain through the • Shaking.
hypothalamus to the brainstem.
Psychology of the Stress Response
That route of signaling increases the rate of
noradrenergic activity in the locus coeruleus, and A typical example of the stress response is a grazing
the person becomes alert and attentive to the zebra, calmly maintaining homeostasis. If the zebra
environment. Similarly, an abundance of sees a lion closing in for the kill, the stress response
catecholamines at neuroreceptor sites facilitates is activated. The escape requires intense muscular
reliance on spontaneous or intuitive behaviors often effort, supported by all of the body’s systems. The
related to combat or escape. sympathetic nervous system’s activation provides
If a stimulus is perceived as a threat, a more for these needs. A similar example involving fight
intense and prolonged discharge of the locus is of a cat about to be attacked by a dog. The cat
coruleus activates the sympathetic division of the shows accelerated heartbeat, piloerection (hair
autonomic nervous system. This activation is standing on end, normally for conservation of
heat), and pupil dilation, all signs of sympathetic situations, such as being confronted by a predator.
arousal. In current times, these responses persist, but fight
Though Cannon, who first proposed the idea and flight responses have assumed a wider range
of fight-or-flight, provided considerable evidence of behaviors. For example, the fight response may
of these responses in various animals, it be manifested in angry, argumentative behavior,
subsequently became apparent that his theory of and the flight response may be manifested through
response was too simplistic. Animals respond to social withdrawal, substance abuse and even
threats in many complex ways. Rats, for instance, television viewing.
try to escape when threatened, but will fight when Males and females tend to deal with stressful
cornered. Some animals stand perfectly still so that situations differently. Males are more likely to
predators will not see them. Many animals freeze respond to an emergency situation with aggression
or play dead when touched in the hope that the (fight), while females are more likely to flee (flight),
predator will lose interest. turn to others for help, or attempt to defuse the
Others have more exotic self-protection situation – ‘tend and befriend’. During stressful
methods. Some species of fish change color swiftly, times, a mother is especially likely to show protective
to camouflage themselves. These responses are responses toward her offspring and affiliate with
triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, but others for shared social responses to threat.
in order to fit the model of fight or flight, the idea
of flight must be broadened to include escaping Negative Effects of the Stress Response
capture in either a physical way or in a sensory way. in Humans
Thus, flight can be disappearing to another location The stress response halts or slows down various
or just disappearing in place, and often both fight processes such as sexual responses and digestive
and flight are combined in a given situation. systems to focus on the stressor situation and
The fight or flight actions also have polarity - typically causes negative effects like, constipation,
the individual can fight or fly against or away from anorexia, erectile dysfunction, difficulty urinating,
something that is threatening, such as a hungry and difficulty maintaining sexual arousal. These are
lion, or fight or fly for or towards something that functions which are controlled by the
is needed, such as the safety of the shore of a raging parasympathetic nervous system and therefore,
river. suppressed by sympathetic arousal.
A threat from another animal does not always Prolonged stress responses may result in chronic
result in immediate fight or flight. There may be a suppression of the immune system, leaving the
period of heightened awareness, during which each body open to infections, however there is a short
animal interprets behavioral signals from the other. boost of the immune system shortly after the fight
Signs such as paling, piloerection, immobility, or flight response has been activated. This is due
sounds, and body language communicate the status to an ancient need to fight the infections in a
and intentions of each animal. There may be a sort wound that one may have received during
of negotiation, after which fight or flight may interaction with a predator.
ensue, but which might also result in playing, Stress responses are sometimes a result of mental
mating, or nothing at all. An example of this is disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder, in
kittens playing: each kitten shows the signs of which the individual shows a stress response when
sympathetic arousal, but they never inflict real remembering a past trauma and panic disorder, in
damage. which the stress response is activated by the
catastrophic misinterpretations of bodily sensations.
Behavioral Manifestations of Fight-or-Flight For hormones to function properly, their
In prehistoric times when the fight or flight secretion rate must be precisely controlled. A signal
response evolved, fight was manifested in needs to be received that triggers the necessary
aggressive, combative behavior and flight was steps for hormone secretion. The initial step is the
manifested by fleeing potentially threatening detection of an actual or threatened homeostatic
imbalance. This imbalance must be able to activate psychological stresses appear to be potent
a secretory apparatus (e.g. the endocrine gland), stimulators in elevating the secretory patterns of
resulting in hormone secretion. The circulating hormones. Fluid volume shifts, changes in
hormones interact with its target organ or tissue clearance rates, and venous pooling of blood are
and exert its effect. Once the hormonal effect has additional mechanisms that may increase circulating
occurred, the hormonal signal has to be turned concentration of hormones. Regardless of the
off and the hormone needs to be removed from mechanism, there is an increased potential for
the circulation. Finally, the secretory apparatus interaction with the receptor of the target tissue,
must replenish the hormone in its secretory cells. leading to the desired cellular response.
The secretion of most hormones is regulated Receptors are found in all types of cells within
by negative feedback, meaning that some the body and each hormone reacts with its specific
consequence of the hormone secretion acts receptor. The interaction of the hormone to its
directly or indirectly on the secretory apparatus receptor has been called the lock and key therapy.
to inhibit further secretion. This type of secretory The receptor is the lock and the hormone is the
mechanism is self-limiting. Positive feedback key. There is some cross reactivity, meaning that
mechanisms are rare in endocrine regulation. there may be more than one hormone that can
During this type of regulation, some consequence bind with the receptor. When this occurs, the
of the hormonal secretion causes an augmented resulting biological actions are different from those
secretory drive. Rather than being self-limiting, induced by the primary hormone.
the stimulus for triggering hormonal secretion It is the hormone-receptor complex that results
becomes stronger. An example of positive in a message being delivered to the cell muscles
feedback is the release of oxytocin from the for the cell nucleus for either inhibition or
posterior pituitary gland caused by dilation of the facilitation of protein synthesis. The number of
uterine cervix during childbirth. The oxytocin receptors available for interactions with circulating
causes a greater dilation that in turn creates a hormones is considered another mechanism in
greater stimulus for further oxytocin release. initiating cellular action. Hormonal receptors are
dynamic in that they also respond to physiological
CHANGES IN CIRCULATING HORMONAL demand. They may increase in number to meet
the demand of a rise in the circulating
CONCENTRATIONS
concentration of hormones. Such an increase in
Increases in the concentration of hormones can receptor number is termed up-regulation. Similarly,
be attributed to a number of different physiological the number of receptors can be decreased if
mechanisms. Exercise or other physical or adaptation is no longer possible or to prevent an
Fig. 6.3: Schematic representation of regulation of hormone secretion

over-response by persistently increasing hormone testosterone is produced in the testes, while small
levels. This adaptation is called down-regulation. amounts are produced in the adrenal glands. The
This type of control on the part of the receptor is physiological roles of testosterone are as follows:
as dramatic as the changes in hormonal secretory i. Increase in protein synthesis, resulting in
patterns. muscle growth
ii. Development and maturation of male sex
HORMONE AND EXERCISE organs
iii. Development of secondar y sexual
Exercise has been shown to be a potent stimulus characteristics:
to the endocrine system. The hormonal responses a. Increase in body hair
to an acute exercise session suggest that hormones b. Development of masculine voice
may be involved in the recovery and remodeling c. Development of male pattern baldness
processes that occur after exercise. The exercise d. Development of libido
stimulus has an important role in the hormonal e. Control of spermatogenesis
secretion pattern. Variables such as intensity of f. Aggressive behavior
exercise, volume of exercise, rest intervals, choice iv. Interaction in secretion of sebaceous glands,
of exercise, and recovery status of the muscle appear contributing to acne
to influence the hormonal response. v. Possible role in glycogen synthesis
The mechanisms of hormonal interaction with
the remodeling of muscle tissue are based on several Acute exer cise rresponse:
exercise esponse: A single training session
factors. The acute increase in hormonal of resistance exercise has been demonstrated to
concentration caused by the exercise stimulus significantly increase the peripheral concentration
allows for a greater interaction between the of testosterone above resting levels in males.
hormone and its receptors. Since the adaptations However, this may also depend on length of
to exercise (particularly resistance exercise) are training experience. For example, the male
anabolic in nature, the recovery mechanisms weightlifters with more than two years of training
involve tissue repair and remodeling. In instances experience had a significantly greater testosterone
when training intensity or volume exceeds an response to an exercise session than less than two
individual’s ability to recover, a possible situation years of lifting experience. Exercise response
of overtraining or overwork can occur, resulting patterns of testosterone also appear to be related
in a greater catabolic effect. The hormonal response to the design of the exercise program. Testosterone
will either repair or remodel muscle tissue or concentration is significantly higher when rest
perhaps impede this process. periods between sets are reduced and intensity of
The hormonal mechanisms may respond exercise is reduced.
dif ferently between trained and untrained There appears to be a biphasic response of
individuals. Fur thermore, some hormonal testosterone to an acute bout of aerobic exercise,
mechanisms may not be operational in both males which depends upon the duration of exercise.
and females (e.g., testosterone). In addition, the Testosterone levels will continue to elevate as
effect of program design, genetic predisposition, exercise is prolonged and then begin to decline
fitness level, training experience and adaptation toward baseline levels before exercise is completed.
potential all seems to affect the endocrine An increase in testosterone concentrations
mechanism for marinating hormone secretion. during an acute bout of anaerobic exercise also
depends on the duration of exercise. For example
Testosterone after intermittent anaerobic exercise in male
runners testosterone concentrations increases
Testosterone is an androgen, a steroid hormone
significantly.
that has masculinizing effects. It is also anabolic
because of its role in the maintenance and growth Long-ter
Long-termm rresponse
esponse to exer cise: It has been
exercise:
of muscle and bone tissue. Most of the circulating noted that high resting concentrations of
testosterone may enhance or facilitate the building response. When more moderate exercise intensity
of lean tissue. This has primarily been the reason is employed (10 RM), a significant increase in GH
for the widespread use of anabolic steroids by is observed. This increase is significantly greater
power athletes and bodybuilders. For example, after than that seen after a resistance-training program
two years of resistance training, elite weightlifters of higher intensity (5 RM).
are able to significantly increase their resting The volume of training also appears to a potent
testosterone concentrations while also improving stimulus in the GH response to exercise. The
their strength. It is possible that changes in resting greater fatigue (greater blood lactate concentra-
testosterone concentrations may be a reflection of tions) observed in the high-volume training
an advanced strategy to increase force capability in program most likely contributed to the elevated
subjects who have little potential for change in GH response.
muscle hypertrophy. The GH response to resistance exercise in
Low resting levels of testosterone are females appears to be sensitive to changes in acute
frequently observed in endurance-trained athletes. program variables (e.g. rest, intensity, volume of
The depressed level of testosterone seen in these training).
athletes may be insufficient to stimulate skeletal Elevations in GH concentrations are typically
muscle growth and also make it difficult to reported during aerobic exercise and these
counteract the catabolic effects of glucocorticoids elevations are positively related to both the duration
on skeletal muscle. and intensity of exercise. It has been suggested that
exercise above the lactate threshold needs to be
Growth Hormone for a minimum duration, but the blood lactate
Growth hormone (GH) is a polypeptide hormone levels cannot predict the amplitude and duration
secreted from the anterior pituitary gland. Its of the GH response.
secretion and releases are controlled by Long-ter
Long-term m adaptations to exer cise: Significant
exercise:
neurotransmitters of the central nervous system. increases in the GH to exercise have been seen after
Physiological stimuli such as sleep, diet and stress resistance training programs. However, resistance
(including exercise) can all stimulate a GH training does not appear to alter resting GH
response. The actions of GH are mediated to a concentrations. A year of exercise training at
certain extent by secondary hormone known as exercise intensity above the lactate threshold has
insulin-like growth factors (IGF). The basic been shown to amplify the pulsatile release of GH
physiological actions of GH are as follows: at rest. A reduction in the GH response to exercise
i. Increase in protein synthesis may occur within 3 weeks of training. However,
ii. Increase in amino acid transport across cell these changes may be related to a lower relative
membrane intensity used for the post exercise period. When
iii. Growth and development of bones trained subjects exercise at the same relative
iv. Reduction of glucose utilization intensity, according for improvements in
v. Decrease in glycogen synthesis performance, a greater GH response to the exercise
vi. Increase in utilization of fatty acids stimulus is occur.
vii. Increase in lipolysis
viii. Metabolic sparing of glucose and amino acids Optimizing hGH Therapy with Diet and
ix. Collagen synthesis Exercise
x. Stimulation of cartilage growth The importance of diet and exercise in optimizing
Acute rresponse
esponse to exer cise: The acute GH
exercise: growth hormone levels applies to those who select
response to a resistance exercise session is related growth hormone therapies as well as those who
to specific component variables of the training don’t. Irregular insulin levels and lack of exercise
program. Both volume and intensity of training are known to contribute to accelerated symptoms
appear to be important factors in eliciting a GH of aging like heart disease, obesity and diabetes.
The diet and exercise recommendations for with GH therapy may not result in weight loss,
boosting hGH help to control the endogenous but it will result in better measurements. When
factors of disease and aging as well as enhancing we increase muscle mass, we increase our overall
the effectiveness of hGH therapies. metabolism thereby contributing to our ability to
Many athletes who train heavily are known to burm more body fat and calories. Supporting the
maintain youthful levels of growth hormone right growth of muscle tissue with diet and exercise is
in their 50’s, 60’s and 70’s. There are several an integral part of optimizing GH therapy. It has
reports of increased strength, stamina, and muscle because found the best results clinically when
mass with young athletes, but there is not enough patients eat fruit or other healthy carbohydrates
data to draw any definitive conclusions or make about an hour after taking Symbiotropin.
recommendations for this application. However, The best carbohydrates to use as a replacement
test results with athletes whose initial lGF-1 were are those that will breakdown to glucose more
near optimal contributed to the conclusions that
slowly. we may refer to a glycemic index for specific
GH will not become over-stimulated in people who
values of certain foods, but as a rule consume
have close to optimal GH levels. Even the 8percent
complex carbohydrates combined with fiber and
increases in IGF-1 that have been observed with
good fats.
athletes on Symbiotropin can make a tremendous
difference in the competitive edge of a body builder Optimum GH Enhancing Routine
or track field athlete.
Growth hormone levels increase significantly Certain supplements, like chromium picolinate,
when insulin levels are low, about four hours after have been shown to have a regulatory effect on
a meal. It is at this point that the fat burning insulin thereby enhancing GH release. The
potential of GH tends to be at its daytime peak. following products may be used to enhance any
But the largest burst of GH is released during the GH protocol, but they may be especially important
early hours of sleep-hence, the evening eating for diabetics or hypoglycemic, who may have a
habits are crucial to maximizing this night-time resistance to GH therapy.
secretion. By avoiding food during the last Chromium Picolinate: A trace mineral that helps
four hours before bedtime we may enhance insulin to fit into the cell better thereby overcoming
circadian growth hormone release, and fat burning insulin resistance and lowering circulating insulin
potential. and blood sugar. These processes are important in
Exercise is a potent growth hormone stimulator. reducing fat storage, burning existing fat and
Many athletes choose to use natural secretagogues promoting muscle growth. Research on chromium
before a work-out, no matter what time of day, in
picolinate shows that it is consistently effective at
order to enhance the bump in GH that comes from
doing all of the above, even in sedentar y
exercises like high-intensity running and weight
individuals. Suggested dose: 200 to 600 mcg/day.
lifting. For those of us who are not athlete,
increasing growth hormone levels with injections Vanadium: A trace mineral that has an insulin
or secretagogues often leads to the improved mimicking effect. Assists in utilization of blood
strength and energy that it takes to increase the glucose and subsequent management of insulin.
intensity and subsequent GH release, of the Clinical experience shows that the vanadyl complex
exercises that we’re already doing. It’s a two way is better absorbed and can be used in lower doses
street, growth hormone enhances exercise and than other, more poorly absorbed forms like
exercise enhances growth hormone. vanadyl sulfate. Recommended dose: 200 to 500
mcg/day.
Growth Hormone Significantly Improves Body
Gymnema Sylvestre: This herb is used widely in
Composition
India to treat blood sugar abnormalities. It contains
Depending on a person’s initial body composition a molecule that is so similar to glucose that it sits
and exercise habits, losing fat and gaining muscle on sugar receptors, which helps to inhibit the
Fig. 6.4: Schematic diagram of the role of GH for improvements of body composition
adrenal function in ways that help to manage insulin

and blood sugar. Clinical experience has shown an
improved response in Symbiotropin therapy for
diabetics who use Proteusterone at night. As an
endocrine supplement, this product is designed to
enhance any individual hormone therapy, and is
used by many athletes to improve muscle growth
and stamina. Suggested use: 1 to 3 tablets/day.
Studies show that there are specific exercises that
are particularly effective at stimulating GH release.
it is important to point out that any exercise will
help to enhance the effects of growth hormone.
The following exercises are used specifically help
to increase GH release and have a rate of
ef fectiveness that, for the most par t, is
proportionate to the intensity of the exercise.
All weight-training exercises are effective
Fig. 6.5: Optimum GH enhanding routine promoters of GH release, but those that involve
the use of high-resistance and major muscle groups
release of glucose into the bloodstream and
tend to be the most effective. Applying maximum
control insulin response. It is used as an aid in
effort to fewer repetitions of squats, leg presses,
weight control and an inhibitor of sugar cravings,
dead lifts, overhead presses, bench presses, standing
when applied directly to the tongue it will block
curls and leg curls will optimize the results. In
the ability to taste anything sweet. Suggested use:
addition, go to MLC for one repetation of each of
standardized extract, 500 to 1000 mg before
these exercises, no more than once a week to create
meals.
an additional boost of GH release. If you are not
Proteusterone: This herbal complex has a large part experienced with weight training, go to your
of its action in the support of liver, pancreatic, and physician to determine your physical condition and
Table 6.2: Dentencity of exercise and HGh secretion of different mode of exercise.
Exercise Intensity Hgh secretion

Running (Women) High 266% increase in trough level
75% increase in daily secretion
Running (Men) Moderate 0% - Moderate
Stationary Bike (both sexes) High 166% increase
Stationary Bike (both sexes) Moderate 166% increase
Weight Training (both sexes) 85% MLC* 400% increase
Weight Training (both sexes) 70% MLC* 300% increase
Weight Training (both sexes) Moderate - High Immediate and Sustained increase
Treadmill (both sexes) High Increased GH Pulse
*MLC = Maximal Lift Capacity, the maximum amount of weight able to be lifted once.
work with a qualified personal trainer who can teach A single bout of exercise enhances insulin sensitivity
you proper technique. and skeletal muscle responsiveness to glucose
uptake in exercise muscles. Thus, exercise-induced
Insulin increased insulin sensitivity of glucose uptake serves
Insulin is a protein hormone secreted by the β- to replenish depleted glycogen stores during the
cells of the islets of Langerhans within the pancreas. post exercise meal.
The basic physiological actions of the hormone are Ef fect of T
Effect raining: Training appears to increase
Training:
as follows: the sensitivity to insulin of both the skeletal muscle
i. Regulate glucose metabolism in all tissues and the liver. Thus, less insulin is required to
except the brain. regulate blood glucose in trained individuals.
ii. Facilitate an increase in the rate of glucose Trained individuals also appear to have a less
uptake into both muscles tissue and fat cells. pronounced insulin reduction during exercise than
Glucose that is not used is converted into untrained individuals.
glycogen. If glycogen stores are full, excess
Insulin and Glucagon: These two hormones
carbohydrates are stored as triglycerides in
adipose tissue. respond to the same stimuli but exert opposite
actions relative to the mobilization of liver glucose
iii. Increase the rate of amino acid uptake by
skeletal muscle and other tissue. and adipose tissue free fally acid (FFA). In fact, it
iv. Role in muscle remodeling may become is the ratio of glucagon to insulin that provides
control over the mobilization of this fuel. Insulin
more prevalent when functioning to decrease
the rate of protein degradation within muscle to be the primary hormone involved in the uptake
tissue. and storage of glucose and FFA, and glucagon to
cause the mobilization of those fuel from storage,
v. Provide the muscle with sufficient nutrients
to stimulate muscle growth. as well as increase gluconeogenesis.
Insulin is directly involved in the uptake of
Exer cise Response: Exercise appears to decrease
Exercise glucose into tissue, and that glucose uptake by
the circulating concentrations of insulin. This is muscle can increase seven- to twenty fold during
likely the result of the inhibitor y effect of exercise. Insulin concentration decrease during
catacholamines on the β-cells of the pancreas. The exercise of increasing intensity; this of course is an
reduction of insulin appears to be a function of appropriate response. If exercise were associated
the duration of exercise. As exercise duration with an increase in insulin, the plasma glucose
lengthens, a greater decrease in insulin would be taken up into all tissues (including
concentrations is seen. Insulin levels also decrease adipose tissue) at a faster rate, leading to an
during both mild and moderate exercise intensities. immediate hypoglycemia. The lower insulin
concentration during exercise favors the The observation that plasma insulin decreases
mobilization of glucose from the liver and FFA with prolonged submaximal exercise raises another
from adipose tissue, both of which are necessary questions. How can exercising muscle take up
to maintain the plasma glucose concentration. glucose seven to twenty times faster than at rest if
With plasma insulin decrease with long term the insulin concentration is decreasing. Glucose
exercise, it should be no surprise that the plasma delivery is the product of muscle blood flow and
glucagons concentration increases. This increase the blood glucose concentration. Therefore, during
in plasma glucagons favors the mobilization of FFA exercise more glucose and insulin are delivered to
from adipose tissue and glucose from the liver, as muscle than at rest, and because the muscle is using
well as an increase in gluconeogenesis. Overall, the glucose at a higher rate, a gradient for its facilitated
reciprocal responses of insulin and glucagons favor diffusion is created.
the maintenance of the plasma glucose
Cortisol
concentration at a time when the muscle is using
plasma glucose at a high rate. An endurance Cortisol, a steroid hormone synthesized and
training program the glucagons response to a fixed released from the adrenal cortex of the adrenal
exercise task is diminished to the point that there gland, is the primary glucocorticoid hormone
is no increase during exercise. In effect, endurance found in humans. Its synthesis is stimulated by
training allows the plasma glucose concentration adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), which is
to be maintained with little or no change in insulin secreted by the anterior pituitary. The physiological
and glucagons. This is related in part to an increase functions of Cortisol are as following:
in glucagons sensitivity in the liver, a decrease in i. Conversion of amino acids to carbohydrates
glucose uptake by muscle, and an increase in the ii. Increase in proteolytic enzymes
muscle’s use of fat as a fuel. iii. Inhibition of protein synthesis
These findings raise several questions. If the iv. Increase in protein degradation in muscle
plasma glucose concentration is relatively constant v. Stimulation of gluconeogenesis
during exercise, and the plasma glucose vi. Increase in blood glucose concentrations
concentration is a primary stimulus for insulin and vii. Facilitation of lipolysis
glucagons secretion, what cause the insulin secretion Exer cise rresponse:
Exercise esponse: The acute response of cortisol
to decrease and glucagons secretion to increase? to a resistance training session appears to be related
There is no question that changes in the plasma to the volume of training. When volume of training
glucose concentration provide an important level increases, a significant increase in cortisol is
of control over the secretion of glucagon and insulin. observed. The elevated cortisol levels in elite weight
However, when the plasma glucose concentration lifters may reflect an ability of these athletes to push
is relatively constant, the sympathetic nervous system them maximally during each training session.
can modify the secretion of insulin and glucagon.
Response to training: Prolonged aerobic exercise
Epinephrine and norepinephrine stimulate the
appears to be a potent stimulator of the
adrenergic receptors on the beta cells of the pancreas
adrenocortical system. Increases in cortisol appear
to decrease insulin secretion during exercise when to be proportional to the intensity of exercise.
the plasma glucose concentration is normal. Further However, when exercise is greater than 70 percent
epinephrine (E) and norepinephrine (NE) stimulate of VO2 max the cortisol level increases consistently.
β-adrenergic receptors on the alpha cells of the Significant increases in cortisol concentrations also
pancreas to increase glucagon secretion when the occur during short bout (1 min) of exercise as long
plasma glucose concentration is normal. Endurance as the exercise is performed at maximal intensity.
training decrease the sympathetic nervous system Training appears to lower the cortisol response
response to a fixed exercise bout, resulting in less during prolonged endurance exercise. These
stimulation of adrenergic receptors on the pancreas, changes appear to reflect a better maintenance of
and less change in insulin and glucagons secretion. blood glucose levels in these individuals.
Catecholamines onto the surface of the tissue under consideration.

The catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine, The plasma level of NE is usually taken as an index
dopamine) are secreted by the adrenal medulla of of overall sympathetic nerve activity, but there is
evidence that muscle sympathetic nerve activity
the adrenal gland and are controlled entirely by
sympathetic nervous input. Catecholamines are during exercise may be a better indicator than that
stimulated by hypoglycemia, physical or of plasma NE. Epinephrine, released from the
adrenal medulla, is viewed as the primar y
physiological trauma, circulatory failure, stress,
exercise, illness, hypoxia, cold exposure, etc. The catecholamine in the mobilization of glucose from
direct and indirect actions of catacholamines on the liver.
Plasma E and NE to increase linearly with
muscle function are as follows:
i. Increase in force production duration of exercise. These changes are related to
ii. Increase in contraction rate cardiovascular adjustments to exercise, as well as
to the mobilization of fuel. These responses favor
iii. Increase in blood pressure
iv. Increase in energy availability the mobilization of glucose and FFA to maintain
v. Augmentation of secretion rates of other the plasma glucose concentration. While it is
sometimes difficult to separate the effect of E from
hormones
NE, E seems to be more responsive to changes in
Exer cise rresponse:
Exercise esponse: Catecholamines concentration the plasma glucose concentration. A low plasma
appears to be elevated during both endurance and glucose concentration stimulates a receptor in the
resistance training exercises. Short-duration sprints hypothalamus to increase E secretion while having
(several seconds) of maximal intensity appear only a modest effect on plasma NE. In contrast,
suf ficient to elevate both epinephrine and when the blood pressure is changed, as during an
norepinephrine concentrations. increased heat load, the primary catecholamine
During exercise at sub maximal intensities, there involved is Norepinephrine. Epinephrine binds to
may be a different catecholamines response that β-adrenergic receptors on the liver and stimulates
appears to depend on the duration of exercise. the breakdown of liver glycogen to form glucose
During such exercise, increases in norepinephrine for release into the plasma. For example, when arm
concentrations are seen within 15 min without any exercise is added to existing leg exercise, the adrenal
increase in epinephrine. As exercise duration medulla secretes a large amount of E. This causes
increases, epinephrine concentrations may then the liver to release more glucose than muscles are
increase above resting level. This most likely reflects using, and the blood glucose concentration actually
a greater need for substrate mobilization during increases. If β-adrenergic receptors are blocked with
exercise of longer duration. propanolol (a β-adrenergic receptor blocking
drug), the plasma glucose concentration is more
Response to training: Training does not appear
difficult to maintain during exercise, especially if
to alter resting catecholamines concentrations.
the subject has fasted. In addition, since the
However, trained individuals do appear to have a
propanolol blocks β-adrenergic receptors on
greater capacity to secrete epinephrine and perhaps
adipose tissue cells, less FFA are released and the
norepinephrine as well.
muscles have to rely more on the limited
Epinephrine and Nor epinephrine: Epinephrine
Norepinephrine: carbohydrate supply for fuel.
and Norepinephrine are also involved in the Endurance training causes a very rapid decrease
mobilization of glucose from the liver, FFA from in the plasma E and NE responses to a fixed exercise
adipose tissue, and may interfere with the uptake bout. Within three weeks the concentration of both
of glucose by tissue. Although plasma NE can catecholamines is greatly reduced. Paralleling this
increase ten- to twenty fold during exercise and rapid decrease in E and NE with endurance exercise
can achieve a plasma concentration that can exert training is a reduction in glucose mobilization. In
a physiological effect, the primary means by which spite of this, the plasma glucose concentration is
NE acts is when released from sympathetic neurons maintained because there is also a reduction in
glucose uptake by muscle at the same fixed i. Increase the basal metabolic rate (BMR)
workload following endurance training. ii. Potentiate the glucose uptake caused by
Interestingly, during a very stressful event, a trained insulin
individual has a greater capacity to secrete E than iii. Increase in liver glycogen depletion during
an untrained individual. In addition, when exercise over secretion of thyroid hormone.
is performed at the same relative workload (%VO2 iv. Stimulates all aspects of lipid metabolism.
max) after training, the plasma NE concentration v. High level of thyroid hormone has a catabolic
is higher. This suggests that physical training, which effect on skeletal muscle.
stimulates the sympathetic nervous system on a
Exer cise rresponse:
Exercise esponse: The response of both T3 and
regular basis, increases its capacity to respond to
T4 to acute exercise has been reported to increase
extreme challenges.
from resting levels at varying intensities. However,
the influence of acute exercise may not be
Thyroid Hormone
detectable until several days after the exercise
The thyroid gland secrets three hormones. session.
Calcitonin is secreted by parafollicular cells and is
Response to training: During prolonged periods
involved with the regulation of calcium balance.
of high intensity training (specially resistance
The thyroid gland also secrets thyroxine (T4) and
triidothyronine (T3). These hormones are made training), decreases in resting levels of T3 and T4
up of both iodide and the amino acids tyrosine. has been reported. However, the thyroid hormone
acts as a possible hormone indicator of
Secretion of these hormones is stimulated by
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) released by overtraining.
the anterior pituitary gland. The primary functions Thyr oxin: The discussion of substrate mobilization
Thyroxin:
of the thyroid hormones are as follows: during exercise must include thyroxin, a hormone
Fig. 6.6: Schematic diagram of ADH regulate the water balance in the body
whose concentration doesn’t change dramatically in the body to help combat various stresses.
from resting to the exercise state. The thyroid Hormones influence the rate of specific
hormones T3 and T4 are important in establishing cellular reactions by changing the rate of
the overall metabolic rate, and in allowing other protein synthesis or enzyme activity and by
hormones to exert their full effect (permissive including secretion of other hormones.
hormone). Thyroxin accomplishes this latter 2. The hypothalamus produces and secretes not
function by influencing either the number of only neurotransmitters and neuropeptides but
receptors on the surface of a cell (for other hormones also several neurohormones that alter anterior
to interact with), or the affinity of the receptor for pituitary gland function and two hormones,
the hormones. For example, without thyroxin, vasopressin and oxytocin, that act on distant
epinephrine has little effect on the mobilization of target organs. The neurons that produce and
free fatty acid from adipose tissue. During exercise secrete neurohormones are true endocrine
there is an increase in “free” thyroxin due to change cells in that they produce hormones that are
in the binding characteristics of the transport incorporated into secretary granules that are
protein. T3 and T4 are removed from the plasma by then carried through the axons and stored in
tissues during exercise at a greater rate than at rest. ner ve terminals located in the median
In turn, TSH secretion from the anterior pituitary eminence or posterior pituitary gland. These
is increased to stimulate the secretion of T3 and T4 hypothalamic neurohormones are known as
from the thyroid gland to maintain the plasma level.
releasing hormones because their major
A low thyroxin (hypothyroid) state would interfere
function is to stimulate the secretion of
with the ability of other hormones to mobilize fuel
hormones originating in the anterior pituitary
for exercise.
gland and control the functions of endocrine
Antidiur etic Hor
Antidiuretic mone (ADH): The two
Hormone
system.
primary hormones involved into regulation of fluid
3. Walter Cannon in 1929 states that animals
balance are aldostrone and ADH. When plasma
react to threats with a general discharge of
volumes decreased, the enzyme renir from kidney
the sympathetic nervous system, priming the
converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I.
animal for fighting or fleeing. This response
Which later become angiotensin II, which increase
was later recognized as the first stage of a
peripheral resistance, raising the blood pressure.
Aldosterone release and Na+ reabsorption start in general adaptation syndrome that regulates
the kidney which cause water retension these stress responses among vertebrates and other
increasing the plasma volumes. ADH is released in organisms. The catecholamine hormones
response to increase plasma osmolality, the facilitate immediate physical reactions
hypothalamus triggers ADH release. ADH meets associated with a preparation for violent
on the kidneys promoting water conservation and muscular action.
blood osmolalithy decreases. 4. Increases in the concentration of hormones
can be attributed to a number of different
physiological mechanisms. Exercise or other
physical or psychological stresses appear to be
SUMMARY potent stimulators in elevating the secretary
1. The endocrine system is a group of glands that patterns of hormones. Fluid volume shifts,
work together and secrete many types of changes in clearance rates, and venous pooling
different hormones that regulate the body. of blood are additional mechanisms that may
Hormones regulate many functions of an increase circulating concentration of
organism, including mood, growth and hormones. Regardless of the mechanism,
development, tissue function and metabolism. there is an increased potential for interaction
Hormones are chemical substances that with the receptor of the target tissue, leading
circulate in the blood and interact with organs to the desired cellular response.
5. Exercise has been shown to be a potent 8. Exercise is a potent growth hormone

stimulus to the endocrine system. The stimulator. Many athletes choose to use
hormonal responses to an acute exercise natural secretagogues before a work-out, no
session suggest that hormones may be matter what time of day, in order to enhance
involved in the recovery and remodeling the bump in GH that comes from exercises
processes that occur after exercise. The like high-intensity running and weight lifting.
exercise stimulus has an important role in the For those of us who are not athletic, increasing
hormonal secretion pattern. Variables such as growth hormone levels with injections or
intensity of exercise, volume of exercise, rest secretagogues often leads to the improved
intervals, choice of exercise, and recovery strength and energy that it takes to increase
status of the muscle appear to influence the the intensity, and subsequent GH release, of
hormonal response. the exercises that we’re already doing. It’s a
6. Testosterone is an androgen, a steroid two way street, growth hormone enhances
hormone that has masculinizing effects. It is exercise and exercise enhances growth
also anabolic because of its role in the hormone.
maintenance and growth of muscle and bone 9. Insulin is a protein hormone secreted by the
tissue. A single training session of resistance β-cells of the islets of Langerhans within
exercise has been demonstrated to significantly the pancreas. Exercise appears to decrease the
increase the peripheral concentration of circulating concentrations of insulin. This is
testosterone above resting levels in males. likely the result of the inhibitory effect of
Long-term response to exercise has been catecholamines on the β-cells of the pancreas.
noted that high resting concentrations of The reduction of insulin appears to be a
testosterone may enhance or facilitate the function of the duration of exercise. Training
building of lean tissue. This has primarily been appears to increase the sensitivity to insulin of
the reason for the widespread use of anabolic both the skeletal muscle and the liver. Trained
steroids by power athletes and bodybuilders. individuals also appear to have a less
pronounced insulin reduction during exercise
7. Growth hormone (GH) is a polypeptide
than untrained individuals.
hormone secreted from the anterior pituitary
10. Catecholamines concentration appears to be
gland. Its secretion and releases are controlled
elevated during both endurance and
by neurotransmitters of the central nervous
resistance training exercises. Short-duration
system. The acute GH response to a resistance
sprints of maximal intensity appear sufficient
exercise session is related to specific
to elevate both epinephrine and
component variables of the training program.
norepinephrine concentrations. Training
The volume of training also appears to a potent
does not appear to alter resting
stimulus in the GH response to exercise. The
catecholamines concentrations. However,
greater fatigue (greater blood lactate
trained individuals do appear to have a greater
concentrations) observed in the high-volume
capacity to secrete epinephrine and perhaps
training program most likely contributed to
norepinephrine as well.
the elevated GH response. The GH response
to resistance exercise in females appears to be
sensitive to changes in acute program variables
REVIEW QUESTIONS
(e.g. rest, intensity, volume of training). A year 1. Write the name of different glands and their
of exercise training at exercise intensity above locations in the human body.
the lactate threshold has been shown to 2. What is an endocrine gland, and what are the
amplify the pulsatile release of GH at rest. A functions of hormones? Briefly outline the
reduction in the GH response to exercise may major endocrine glands, their hormones and
occur within 3 weeks of training. the specific action of these hormones.
3. Discuss in brief the major role of 10. Which glands are known as gland of
hypothalamus in regulation of hormone emergency? How adrenal medulla and
secretion. sympathetic nervous system function as closely
4. What is a hormone? What do you mean by integrated system?
endocrine gland? Which hormone deficiency 11. What are the seven principal hormones
can cause diabetes insipidus? produced by the anterior pituitary? What
5. Name the hormones secreted by the follicles function does it serve?
of thyroid. Give two symptoms of 12. What hormones are produced when the
hypothyroidism and name the disease. body’s blood glucose level drop below
6. What do you mean by stress hormone? Discuss normal? How do these hormones act to return
the psycho-physiological response of stress the level to normal? What hormone is
hormone. produced when the body’s blood glucose
7. What is the role of testosterone in athletic levels become elevated? How does this
performance? Discuss with suitable example. hormone act to return the level to normal?
8. ‘Growth Hormone Significantly Improves 13. Describe the hormonal regulation of
Body Composition’ Discuss with suitable metabolism during exercise. What hormones
example. are involved, and how do they influence the
9. What is catecholamine? Discuss the response of availability of carbohydrates and fats for
various exercise and training on these hormones. energy?
CHAPTER
7
Energy Metabolism
 Introduction to Energy Metabolism  Ventilatory Threshold

 Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)  Lactate Threshold
 Respiratory Quotient (RQ)  Aerobic and Anaerobic Training Methods
 Sources of Energy  Adaptation to Aerobic Training
 (ATP-CP) System  Maximal Oxygen Consumption—The VO2 Max
 Aerobic and Anaerobic Metabolism (Carbohydrate  In the Well-trained, Oxygen Delivery Limits VO2
Breakdown) Max
 Anaerobic Metabolism  In the Untrained, Skeletal Muscle Capacity can
 Aerobic Metabolism be Limiting factor
 Fat Metabolism  How VO2 Max is Measured
 Protein Metabolism  VO2 Max as a Predictor of Performance
 Energy Metabolism during Rest, Exercise and  VO2 Max in Athletes and Non Athletes
Recovery  Effects of Aging on VO2 Max
 Oxygen Debt  Determining VO2 Max
 Excess Post Exercise O 2 Consumption  Cooper 12 Minute Run
(EPOC)  Queens College Step Test
 Replenishment of Energy Stores during  Harvard Step Test
Recovery  Beep Test (Multistage Fitness Test, Bleep Test,
 Production of Lactic Acid 20 m Shuttle run)
 Removal of Lactic Acid from Blood and Muscle  PRT 1.5 Mile Run Test
 Anaerobic Threshold
INTRODUCTION TO ENERGY quantities during complex, enzymatically-

controlled reactions that occur in the relatively
METABOLISM cool, watery medium of the cell. This process
The human body must be continually supplied with reduces the loss of energy as heat and provides for
chemical energy to perform its many complex much greater efficiency in energy transformations.
functions. Energy derived from the oxidation of This enables the body to make direct use of
food is not released suddenly at some kindling chemical energy.
temperature because the body, unlike a mechanical Food materials are transformed into their simple
engine, cannot use heat energy. If this is the fact, and soluble form by digestion prior to the entry
the body fluids would actually boil and our tissue from the intestine. After entering into the blood
would burst into flames. Rather, the chemical they undergo a series of biochemical reactions
energy trapped within the bounds of carbohydrates, stream place. The reactions which are included into
lipids and proteins is extracted in relatively small the process of synthesis of larger protoplasmic
Energy Metabolism  117
molecules from lower ones for building up tissues Efficiency: Efficiency is defined as a percent of total
are collectively known as anabolism, and those energy used. Researches have generally utilized two
reactions which are included in the process of distinct methods for computing it. The first and
breakdown of larger protoplasmic molecules to simplest is gross efficiency, in which the total energy
smaller ones for the energy are collectively called used is divided into the total measurable work. It
catabolism. Thus, the term metabolism of a food is written as:
substance is meant by a series of specific Gross efficiency (percent)
biochemical reactions occurring with in the living external work output
organism from the time of its incorporation into = 100
total energy used for work
the cell and of which some are concerned with
The second method is called net efficiency.
tissue building system and other which tissue
Since at any given time of the day a certain amount
breakdown unit are termed as anabolism and
of the energy used up by the body is being used
catabolism respectively.
merely to maintain life (basal requirements), the
Energy: Energy is usually defined as the capacity calculated gross efficiency does not fairly represent
to perform work. Normally there are six forms of the efficiency of the working muscles that are
energy such as- mechanical, heat, light, chemical, being appraised. In order to determine the net
electrical and nuclear energy. Each can readily be ef ficiency of the working body, the basal
converted from one form to another. For example requirements should be subtracted from the total
a person exercising or playing basketball is energy cost. Thus, the net efficiency is calculated
converting chemical energy (food stuffs) to heat with the following equation:
and mechanical energy. Thus, it can be seen that Net efficiency (percent)
in ever y human movement, whether it be
external work output
contraction of the viscera within the body or the = 100
throwing of a baseball, the energy require to (total energy used basal requirements)
perform it is originated from food.
Ener gy input = Ener
Energy gy output
Energy BASAL METABOLIC RATE (BMR)
(Chemical energy of food) = (heat energy +
The BMR may be defined as the amount of heat
work energy +
given out by a subject who, though, lying in a
stored chemical
state of maximum physical and mental rest
energy)
under comfortable conditions of temperature,
Work: The work is defined as a product of force pressure and humidity (12–18 hours after
times the distance for which this force acts. This meals). Basal metabolic rate is usually expressed
may be expressed in the following equation: as the heat production per square meter of body
Work = for ce × distance
force surface per hour.
Thus, lifting 5 pounds to a height of 5 feet will
Normal Value: In adult male normal BMR is about
constitute 25 foot-pounds of work.
40 cal/sq meter of body surface per hour and in
Power: The term power is used to represent work the adult female is about 37 calories.
in a unit of time. It consists of strength and speed
and may be stated as: Factors affecting BMR: The following factors
which affecting BMR:
Power = work/time, or
i. Age: The BMR of children is much higher
Power = (for ce × distance)/time
(force
than the adults, i.e. with advancement of age,
In the above example, if the 5-pound weight
the BMR falls.
were raised 5 feet in 1 second, power would be
ii. Sex: The BMR of the male is slightly higher
expressed as:
than the female.
5 lb × 5 ft iii. Body Surface Area (BSA): The BMR is
Power = = 25 ft-lb/sec
1 sec directly proportional to the body surface area.
Larger the surface area greater will be the vi. Exercise: With moderate exercise the RQ
heat loss. remains same. But in the maximum exercise
iv. Climate: In cold climates the BMR is high lactic acid produces acidosis and as a result
and in tropical climates the BMR is RQ rises. However, during recovery RQ falls
proportionately low. because less production of CO2.
v. Training: Trained athletes have a slightly
METS (Metabolic Equivalents): This expression is
higher BMR than a sedentary one.
used to describe the energy cost of work. One MET
vi. Diet: Prolong under nutrition lowers the
represents the net energy cost during rest
BMR.
(approximately 0.25 liters of oxygen or 1.25 kcal);
vii. Hormones: Some hormones secreted by
two METS corresponds to two times the resting
adrenal, thyroids and anterior pituitary gland
value; three METS is three times the resting value,
in circulating level, increase BMR.
etc. in some situations where work and/ or power
viii. Pregnancy: The BMR of the pregnant women
is difficult to measure (such as in isometric work)
after 180 days of gestation rises.
and where direct measurements of the metabolic
ix. Body temperature: The BMR increases about
energy cost is not only time consuming, but
12 percent with the rise of 1oC of body
requires rather expensive equipment, the MET
temperature.
concept undoubtedly has some practical value and
x. Drugs: Some drugs like Caffeine, Benzedrine,
will more than likely be used extensively in future
etc. increases the BMR.
metabolic investigations.
RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT (RQ) SOURCES OF ENERGY

It is the ratio of the volume of CO2 produced by
the volume of O2 consumed during a given time. ATP-CP SYSTEM
Normal RQ of a healthy human adult it is 0.85 for
The energy set free during the breakdown of food
a mixed diet.
is not utilized directly by the muscle cells. Instead,
Factors affecting RQ it is used by the body to build another, more
i. Role of diet: Incase of carbohydrate diet the complex powerhouse chemical compound known
RQ is unity. Because in carbohydrate diet the as ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP is found in
volume of CO2 produced is same as the the cytoplasm of cells and it consists of a adenosine
volume of O2 consumed. Incase of fats the component and three “high energy” phosphate
RQ will be lowest and is about 0.7; because groups. During the breakdown of ATP, one of
fat is an O 2 poor compound. Incase of these phosphate bonds is spilt or removed from
proteins the RQ is about 0.8. the rest of the molecule, and approximately 8,000
ii. Interconversion in the body: When carbo- calories (8 kcal) of energy are set free and free
hydrates are converted into fats in the body, phosphate (Pi) plus adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
RQ will rise and when fat is converted into are formed. It is known to us that the breakdown
carbohydrate just the reverse effects will be of ATP represents the immediate source of energy
produced and RQ will fall. of the contractile process of the actin and myosin
iii. Acidosis and alkalosis: During acidosis CO2 protein filaments of the myofibril.
out put is greater than O2 consumption so In addition to ATP, creatine phosphate (CP or
the RQ rises. The RQ falls due to the reverse phosphor yl creatine) is another important
condition of acidosis, i.e. CO2 output is lesser chemical, which provides stored energy. Although
than O2 consumption. CP also contains the high-energy phosphate bond,
iv. Rise of body temperature: It may increase RQ it cannot be used directly by the cells as a source of
as in acidosis. energy. Instead, it is used to resynthesize ATP from
v. Starvation: RQ will fall than the normal. ADP. During the breakdown of CP when its
Anaerobic metabolism uses carbohydrates (glucose

and glycogen) exclusively for the manufacture of
ATP, whereas aerobic metabolism can use all three
foodstuffs (carbohydrates, fats and proteins) for
its fuel.
Anaerobic Metabolism
Carbohydrates are broken down into glucose (in
absence of O2) where it is transported by the blood
and stored in the muscles and liver in the form of
glycogen. It is generally believed that somewhere
Fig. 7.1: ATP and three high energy phosphate groups between 350 to 450 grams of glycogen are stored
along with break down of ATP to ADP and free phosphate
in the human body. While each glucose molecule
is made up of 6 carbon atoms, glycogen molecules
phosphate group is removed, a large amount of are merely clusters of glucose sugar molecules that
energy is set free and creatine plus free phosphate are linked to each other in chain-like structures.
are formed. This energy is immediately available The actual process of breaking down glycogen
to reform ATP. For example, when ATP is broken involves the removal of a glucose molecule from
down during heavy work, it is continuously the chain-like structure one at a time. This process
regenerated from ADP and Pi by the energy set is called glycogenolysis, while breakdown of
free during the breakdown of the stored CP; CP, glycogen or glucose to pyruvic acid (anaerobic)
like ATP, is in short supply in the muscle and must which is further oxidized to CO2 and H2O through
be resynthesized continuously. TCA cycle is called glycolysis.
It is interesting to note that the only means by Steps of anaerobic metabolism: Anaerobic
which CP can be regenerated from Pi and creatine metabolism (in the absence of oxygen) involves a
is from the energy set free by the breakdown of series of chemical reactions staring with the 6-
ATP. Thus, there are two ultimate sources of energy carbon glucose molecule being broken down
for the resynthesis of the phosphagens (ATP and par tially from glycogen into two 3-carbon
CP): (i) breakdown of food, and (ii) glycolysis, the molecules of pyruvic or lactic acid. This process is
breakdown of glycogen resulting in the formation referred to as anaerobic glycolysis. Anaerobic
of lactic acid. The second of these processes is glycolysis takes place entirely in the sarcoplasm/
reversible: with an input of energy from food cytoplasm of the cell. Since all the enzymes that
combustion, lactic acid is reconstituted to catalyze these reactions are located in this area.
glycogen.
Reaction Sequence of Glycolysis
ATP and CP are not dependent on oxygen nor
on a series of reactions and for this reason, they i. Muscles, brain, kidneys and erythrocytes
are extremely important not only during muscular collect glucose from the blood and glycolyze
work involving powerful quick starts of football that glucose directly. In such cases,
players, high jumpers, sprinters and basketball hexokinase phosphor ylates glucose to
players, but also in events that require only a few glucose 6-phosphate with the help of ATP.
seconds to complete such as sprinting up a flight It involves the expenditure of one high-
of stairs. energy phosphate bond of ATP per glucose
molecule changed (Fig. 7.2).
AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC METABOLISM ii. Phosphohexose isomerase isomerizes glucose
6-phosphate to fructose 6-phosphate.
(CARBOHYDRATE BREAKDOWN)
iii. Phosphofructokinase phosphor ylates
The major purpose of aerobic and anaerobic fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1,6-
metabolism is to provide energy for the body’s cells. disphosphate with the help of ATP and Mg2+.
iv. Aldolase catalyzes an aldol cleavage of of each glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate molecule

fructose 1, 6-disphosphate into two triose to 1, 3-diphosphoglycerate, which bears a high
phosphates, viz., dihydroxyacetone energy C1-acyl phosphate group. NAD+ is
phosphate and glyceraldehydes 3-phosphate. used as the electron-acceptor for the oxidation
v. Phosphotriose isomerase an aldose-ketose and is thereby reduced to NADH. This is the
isomerase, isomerizes dihydroxyacetone only oxidative reaction in glycolysis.
phosphate to glyceraldehydes 3-phosphate. vii. Phosphoglycerate kinase transfers the high
vi. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase energy C1-phosphate group from 1, 3-
catalyzes the oxidation and phosphorylation diphosphoglycerate to Mg2+-ADP, produc-
Fig. 7.2: Schematic representation of path of glycolysis (anaerobic pathway)

ing Mg 2+-ATP and 3-phosphoglycerate. Aerobic Metabolism

Thus, two high-energy phosphate bonds are When oxygen is available in sufficient quantities,
produced at this step from two molecules of aerobic metabolism provides energy for the body’s
1, 3-diphosphoglycerate formed from each
cell. While the breakdown of glucose from
glucose molecule. glycogen starts in the same manner as anaerobic
viii. Phosphoglyceromutase next isomerizes 3- glycolysis, the pyruvic acid molecules (under
phosphoglycerate to 2-phosphoglycerate.
aerobic conditions) are not converted to lactic
The enzyme requires Mg2+ and a trace of 2, acid, but instead, they diffuse from the sarcoplasm
3-diphosphoglycerate for its activity. fluid across the mitochondrial membrane to the
ix. Enolase catalyzes the dehydration of 2-phos-
inside of the mitochondria where a series of
phoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) chemical reactions take place to form carbon
in presence of Mg2+. dioxide and water with the production of ATP’s
x. Pyruvate kinase, a tetramaric protein trans-
taking place simultaneously.
fers the high-energy phosphate group from When oxygen supply is plentiful and the muscles
phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate and ADP are not under heavy stress (such as in exhaustive-
in presence of Mg2+. Thus, two high-energy
type anaerobic work), a glucose molecule is
phosphate bonds are produced at this step completely broken down to carbon dioxide and
from two molecules of PEP formed from each water with 36 molecules of ATP being produced
glucose molecule.
in addition to those found in the anaerobic
xi. To maintain the availability of NAD+ for gly- glycolysis is produced aerobically.
colysis, cytoplasmic NADH produced dur- There are two important series of chemical
ing the action of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
reactions that play a vital role in aerobic
dehydrogenase must be speedily reoxidized. metabolism: namely, the Krebs cycle and the
The primary purpose of anaerobic metabolism
electron transport system.
is to provide energy for the body and that glucose The Krebs cycle or Citric Acid cycle or
is used exclusively for the production of ATP. For Tricarboxylic Acid cycle (TCA cycle): The Krebs cycle
every single molecule that undergoes glycolysis
is the final common path for the aerobic oxidation of
results in a net production of 2 ATP molecules. the end products of glycolysis, β-oxidation and
While this represents only approximately 5% of the catabolism of many amino acids. This cycle operates
total number of ATP molecules that can be
in the mitochondrial matrix and is highly operative
produced when the same amount of glucose is in cardiac muscle, liver and in the brain also, but not
breakdown by aerobic metabolism (36 molecules in erythrocytes as devoid of mitochondria.
of ATP). But anaerobic metabolism is
tremendously important to us, especially during Reaction Sequence of Krebs Cycle
high-intensity type work. For example, when the
body is unable to supply oxygen to the cell in In this cycle, an acetyl (C2) unit from acetyl-CoA
sufficient quantity such as in underwater swimming condenses with oxaloacetate (C4) to form citrate
or as in sprinting a 220-yd run, anaerobic (C 6 ), which is systematically oxidized, and
metabolism is able to furnish energy for muscular decarboxylated by mitochondrial enzymes to
contraction. At the same time, while anaerobic regenerate oxaloacetate finally.
metabolism may function in the total absence of There are four steps of oxidation in the cycle,
oxygen, this process is inefficient when compared each yielding high-energy phosphate bonds
to aerobic metabolism since it results in the through oxidative phosphorylation. Another step
accumulation of lactic acid. Because there is a finite of this cycle forms one high-energy phosphate
limit as to the amount of lactic acid that can bond through substrate-level phosphorylation.
be tolerated in the human body, this process can i. Citrate synthatase, a homodimeric (α 2)
continue for only a short period of time before enzyme, condenses acetyl-CoA with
muscular fatigue sets in. oxaloacetate by aldol condensation. The
thioester bond in citryl-CoA is immediately iv. Isocitrate dehydrogenase, a heterotetrameric

hydrolyzed to release citrate and coenzyme A. (α2βγ) enzyme, changes isocitrate to α-
ii. Aconitase, a homodimeric (α2) enzyme, ketoglutarate (C5) in mitochondria. First it
isomerizes citrate to isocitrate. It first oxidizes isocitrate to oxalosuccinate, using
dehydrates, citrate to cis-aconitate by NAD+ as the acceptor of a hydride (H+) ion
removing H and OH groups from its carbons from isocitrate. This is the first oxidative step
derived respectively from the methylene-C of the TCA cycle; the NADH produced is
and the ketonyl-C of oxaloacetate. reoxidized to NAD+ by the mitochondrial
iii. Next the same enzyme Aconitase hydrates cis- electron transport chain, generating three
aconitate to isocitrate by adding H and OH high-energy phosphate bonds through
groups in a reverse order to those carbons. oxidative phosphorylation.
Fig. 7.3: Schematic representation of TCA cycle (Krebs cycle)

v. α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, converts longer (at higher efficiency level) at submaximal

α-ketoglutarate to succinyl CoA; this is the and steady state speed than at maximal speed.
second oxidative step of the TCA cycle.
vi. Succinate thiokinase converts the succinyl FAT METABOLISM
CoA to Succinate and Coenzyme-A and
utilize the energy released in this reaction. The oxidation of fats can account for most of the
Thus a high-energy phosphate bond is ATP production during certain types of exercise.
produced at this step. The majority of fat (lipid) that is consumed by
vii. Succinate dehydrogenase oxidized Succinate man is stored in the body as triglycerides. A four-
to fumarate. This reaction leads to the part molecule made up of three molecules of fatty
formation of two high-energy phosphate acids and one molecule of glycerol. It should be
bonds through oxidative phosphorylation. pointed out that this discussion will be restricted
viii. Fumarase converts fumarate to malate. to the fatty acid molecule since most of ATP
ix. Malate dehydrogenase oxidized malate to production from fats come from the fatty acid
oxaloacetate and this is the forth-oxidative molecules that are split off (by an enzyme called
step of the TCA cycle. The mitochondrial lipase) from the triglycerides molecules of the
electron transport chain oxidizes NADH adipose tissue. Each fatty acid molecule is
produced in this reaction, yielding 3 high- composed of 16 or 18 long chains of carbon atoms
energy phosphate bonds through oxidative with hydrogen atoms attached to them.
phosphorylation. Formation of oxaloacetate One fatty acid molecule splits off from the
complete one turn of TCA cycle. triglycerides molecule of the adipose tissue, it
diffuses over into the blood where it is transported
The electron transport system: In mitochondria the
into the muscles and eventually undergoes a
electron transport system that is the respiratory
chemical transformation called beta-oxidation in
chain where a chain of oxidative enzymes and
which the fatty acid molecule is degraded to acetyl
coenzymes to combine oxygen that we breathe
coenzyme and the acetyl coenzyme enters the
with the electrons and hydrogen ions that are
Krebs cycle in the mitochondria to produce ATP.
released in Krebs cycle to form water and ATP. It
However, for the normal person, since
is generally believe that the key to aerobic
approximately 25 to 30 percent of the calories in
metabolism is the ability of flavoprotein and
the diet comes from fats. Thus it is important for
cytochromes to receive the electron and hydrogen
energy source. Fat also appears to have the
ions from the Krebs cycle and then to pass them advantage over carbohydrates in terms of energy
along the electron transport system to combine stored per unit of weight. For example, a gram of
eventually with the oxygen that we breathe. In so fat produces energy as 9.0 kcal/gm whereas a gram
doing, the majority of the energy is produced in of carbohydrate produces 4.0 kcal/gm.
this system. In fact, for each molecule of glucose Another advantage of fat is that the human body
entering the metabolic system, 34 molecules of is able to store in the cells of adipose tissue large
ATP are produced via the electron transport quantities of fat, which can be called for later use,
system. Two ATP molecules are released from both especially during a long duration type of exercise,
the TCA cycle and the anaerobic glycolysis for a i.e. longer endurance type activities such as
net gain of 38 molecules. marathon running, or long physical labor.
The energy production is much more efficient
when glucose is broken down through aerobic PROTEIN METABOLISM
metabolism then by way of the anaerobic system.
In fact, 19 times more ATP is produced per glucose Protein makes only slight contributions to ATP
molecule aerobically then by anaerobic glycolysis production during exercise. In fact, the breakdown
(38 ATP = aerobic; 2 ATP = anaerobic). This helps of protein supplies only about 5 to 15 percent of
to explain why a marathon runner can run so much the body’s total energy. Thus, consuming a large
Fig. 7.4: Schematic representation of the metabolism of fat, protein and carbohydrate
amount of protein prior to an event or contest from down to pyruvic acids and thus enter into the Krebs
the viewpoint of energy metabolism is supported. cycle for oxidation and subsequent production of
While proteins are not a common source of fuel, ATP. In addition, within the Krebs cycle other
they are, however an important part of the diet. amino acids can be converted into molecules for
They are used primarily for construction of new final oxidation and production of ATP. While it is
body tissue cells. obvious that proteins do have the potential for ATP
Each protein molecule contains complex chains production, they, unlike carbohydrates and fats,
of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen atoms are not considered to be a primary source of energy.
with amino acids being the basic unit. In fact, 20 As a source of fuel, they are used only under
different amino acids have been determined to be extreme circumstances with their major
present in proteins. Several of these amino acids contribution being that of building and repairing
such as alanine, serine and cysteine can be broken body tissue.
ENERGY METABOLISM DURING REST, importance. On the other hand at one extreme,
maximal exercises of short duration are supplied
EXERCISE AND RECOVERY via anaerobic metabolism, whereas exercises that
Rest: As oxygen consumption during rest remains can be performed for relatively long period of time
relatively constant and is adequate to supply the such as marathon running are supplied primarily
required ATP and because blood lactic acid level by aerobic metabolism. So the pathways of energy
remains within the normal range, it is apparent that release will be divided into three categories, which
metabolism of the resting conditions is aerobic. In are as follows:
fact, the aerobic breakdown of fats and glucose a) Very short duration, high intensity exercises: If the
supplies all the ATP required by the body on the duration of exercise is very short (within 15
resting conditions. Fats and the remaining one- seconds) and the intensity/workload is maximum,
third contribute approximately two-thirds of the the energy will be liberating to breaking down the
food source by the glucose. store ATP, CP are already store in the skeletal
Exercise: Both aerobic (in presence of oxygen) and muscle tissues. For example: 100 m sprint,
anaerobic (in absence of oxygen) pathways jumping, throwing, lifting weights, etc are the
contribute a certain amounts of energy during examples of such energy dependent event/game.
maximal exercise of various durations, and it is b) Short duration, high intensity exercises: Exercise
somewhat difficult to determine the major energy in this category (duration- more than 15 sec. to 2
source in activities lasting from 2 to 4 minutes such or 3 minutes) energy liberates mainly from the food
as- middle distance events. During this time, the fuel, i.e. carbohydrate and other two constituents-
aerobic and anaerobic energy sources are of equal fats and proteins contributes very negligible
Fig. 7.5: The approximate percentage of contribution of aerobic and anaerobic energy sources in selected track events.
(Shaded areas represent events in which aerobic and anaerobic systems are of nearly equal importance)
Table 7.1: General characteristics of the three systems by which ATP is formed
System Food or Chemical Fuel O2 required Speed Relative ATP

Production
Anaerobic
i. ATP-PC system Phosphocreatine No Fastest Few; limited
ii. Lactic acid system Glycogen (glucose) No Fast Few; limited
Aerobic
i. Oxygen system Glycogen, fats, proteins Yes Slow Many; unlimited
Fig. 7.6: Aerobic and anaerobic energy contribution during maximal exercise of various durations.
(Adopted form Essential of exercise physiology by L.G. Shaver, 1981)
Fig. 7.7: Figure represents the three different path ways of energy release (ATP-CP, Glycolysis and aerobic system)
amount. Carbohydrates breakdown (anaerobic oxygen consumption reaches a new steady state
glycolysis) in absence of oxygen produce ATP with level it is sufficient to supply all of the ATP energy
the by-product of lactic acid. This category include required for the exercise. For this reason blood
sprinting 200 meter, 400 meter dashes, the 800 lactic acid does not accumulate to very high
meter run and other events in which the required levels.
rate of work can be maintained only up to two or In prolonged activities of very low intensity, such
possibly 3 minutes. as walking, playing golf and certain industrial tasks,
c) Long continues sub-maximal exercise: Any lactic acid does not accumulate above the normal
exercise that can be maintained for relatively longer resting level. This is so because the phosphagen
period of time (more than 2 or 3 minutes to few system alone is sufficient to supply the additional
hours) should be included under this category. The ATP energy needed prior to reaching a steady state
nature of the activity should be long continuous of oxygen consumption. In these cases, fatigue can
(longer duration) and low intensity (sub-maximal be delayed even up to 6 hours or more.
workload). In this category the major foodstuffs Many exercise activities require a blend of both
are carbohydrates and fats. The major source of anaerobic and aerobic metabolism. For example,
ATP is supplied by the aerobic system. The lactic in the 1500-meter run, the anaerobic systems
acid and ATP-PC systems also contribute, but only supply the major portion of ATP during the sprint
at the beginning of the exercise, before oxygen at both the start and finish of the race, with the
consumption reaches a new steady state level. Once oxygen system predominating during the middle,
or steady state, period of the run. This information the rate of work is such that the metabolic demand
is useful when developing training programs. can be met aerobically) can be attained. Ordinarily,
this oxygen debt is paid off quickly during the
Recovery: The primary purpose of the metabolic
recover y period. During high-intensity work
pathway during the recovery period following
(anaerobic) in which a steady state cannot be
exercise is to repay the energy stores that were used
achieved, the oxygen debt will continue to rise until
up during the exercise period. This is accomplished
work ceases (Fig. 7.8).
solely by the aerobic pathways.
The duration of the exercise is generally limited
by the individual’s ability to tolerate a large oxygen
OXYGEN DEBT debt. Research has illustrated that in maximal, all
An oxygen debt is defined as all post exercise out work the anaerobic metabolism furnishes
oxygen consumption above the basal oxygen most of the energy needs, the length of work is
consumption level. This means that the oxygen restricted to approximately 30 seconds while
taken in during recovery over and above that which recovery period may last as long as 90 minutes. The
would have normally been consumed for the same untrained sedentary person will usually stop work
period of time during rest is used to provide energy when an oxygen debt of about 10 liters has been
for repaying the energy stores that were used up reached, whereas with endurance training the debt
during exercise. capacity may be increased to somewhere around
Since there is generally a lag in the circulatory- 17 to 18 liters. Apparently, the highly trained
respiratory systems during the transitional period athlete is able to tolerate a much larger oxygen
of rest and exercise, a small oxygen debt can occur debt than the untrained. In determining the
even in light exercise for which a steady state (when oxygen debt, two measurements are required: (i)
Fig. 7.8: O2 deficit and O2 debt at high and low intensity exercise
the resting oxygen consumption and the oxygen As stated earlier the lactacid oxygen debt is
consumed during the recover y period. For repaid at a rate approximately 30 times slower than
example, let us assume that we found during a the lactacid debt. This is because it takes a longer
5-minute rest period the subject consumed 2,000 period of time to convert lactic acid back into
ml of oxygen or a resting rate of 400 ml per minute; glucose than it does to restore ATP and CP.
and during a 20-minute recovery period following Evidence is rather clear that lactic acid can be
an exercise bout he consumed 10,000 ml of removed from the blood and converted into
oxygen. From the recovery oxygen (10,000 ml), glucose and/or carbon dioxide and water at a faster
we subtract that amount which would have been rate following exercise if an individual performs
used if the subject were resting for that particular light work such as walking or slow jagging or
time period; or 10,000 ml- (20 minutes × 400 ml), cycling rather than just sitting down and doing
which equals 2,000 ml (0xygen debt). nothing. By keeping active during the recovery
Alactacid and Lactacid debts: Although the period, this not only allows for a faster conversion
oxygen debt is generally attributed to the cost of of lactic acid by the liver, but the heart as well as
oxidation and reconversion of lactic acid (the by- the active skeletal muscles are also using some of
product of anaerobic glycolysis), no very firm the lactic acid as a source of energy. Because more
correlation of the debt volume and lactic acid of the lactic acid is used as fuel under these
content has been found. In fact early research conditions, the lactacid oxygen debt is reduced to
indicated that an oxygen debt of approximately 2.4 about 1 to 2 liters in size. These findings support
liters could be accumulated without significant the general practice by most athletes of moving
increases in blood lactate concentration. Because around by way of walking or jogging in between
these findings have been supported by other their events or matches rather than resting during
investigators working in this area, the oxygen debt recovery. This procedure obviously allows them to
has been generally accepted as having two recover more quickly and be better preparing for
components: alactacid, for which no significant their next event or match.
lactate increment is found and lactacid, which is
Excess Post Exercise Oxygen (O2)
represented by proportional increments in blood
Consumption (EPOC)
lactate. In addition, researches have also found a
tremendous difference in the repayment of these The oxygen debt is also called excess post exercise
two oxygen debt components. The alactacid debt O2 consumption (EPOC) is the oxygen consumption
accounts for the fast component of the recovery above rest following exercise. Several factors
curve and it is repaid at a rate approximately 30 contribute to the EPOC. First, some of the O2
times faster than the lactacid debt (the slow consumed early in the recovery period is used to
component of recovery). resynthesises of stored PC in the muscle and replace
The alactacid debt is generally attributed to the O2 stores in both muscle and blood. Other factors
restoration of the ATP and CP stores in the muscles that contribute to the “slow” portion of the EPOC
that were depleted during exercise, whereas the include an elevated body temperature, O2 required
lactacid debt is more associated with the metabolic to convert lactic acid to glucose and elevated blood
cost of converting lactic acid build-up back to levels of epinephrine and nor-epinephrine.
energy. More specially, it is believed to be the direct
cost of conver ting some of the lactic acid Replenishment of Energy Stores during
(approximately three-quarters) by way of the Krebs Recovery
cycle and electron transport system to carbon It is recalled that there are two sources of energy
dioxide and water with the production of ATP. that are depleted to various extends during exercise:
Also, it is believed to be the direct cost of (i) anaerobic glycolysis (the phosphagens ATP and
converting a small amount (about 10 percent) of PC stored in the muscle cells) and (ii) the glycogen
lactic acid back to glucose in the liver and released stored in large amount in muscles as well as in the
into the blood stream as blood glucose. The liver which serves as an important source of fuel
remaining portion of lactic acid is unaccounted for. during most exercise activities.
Fig. 7.9: Factors contributing to excess post exercise oxygen consumption
Restoration of ATP, PC and alactacid O2 debt: Most completed in 24 hours. Only small amount of
of the muscular stores of ATP and PC that were muscle and liver glycogen are restored within the
depleted during exercise are rapidly restored during immediate recovery (1–2 hours) period following
the first 3 to 5 minutes of the recovery period. maximal exercise of either type. The ATP for muscle
The ATP energy required for this process is and liver glycogen restoration comes from the
supplied mainly by the aerobic system through the aerobic system, but does not involved, to a great
oxygen consumed during the alactacid debt. The extend, the oxygen consumed during the lactacid
repayment of the alactacid debt is also rapid, debt component.
requiring only a few minutes. The maximum size
of the alactacid component ranges between 2 and PRODUCTION OF LACTIC ACID
3 liter of oxygen, although much higher values have
been recorded in trained athletes. ATP is generated through three energy systems
which are as follows:
Restoration of muscle and liver glycogen: Restoration
 ATP-PCr System
of muscle and liver glycogen stores depleted during
 The glycolytic system
exercise is depend upon the type of exercise
 The oxidative system
performed (continuous versus intermittent) and may
require several days for completion during which The glycolytic system involves the process of
time dietary intake of carbohydrate is necessary. glycolysis. Carbohydrates are broken down into
Following continuous exhausting exercise, muscle glucose where it is transported by the blood and
glycogen restoration is 60 percent completed in 10 stored in the muscles and liver in the form of
hours of recovery and is fully completed within 46 glycogen. It is generally believed that somewhere
hours approximately. Following intermittent, between 350 to 450 grams of glycogen are stored
exhausting exercise, restoration of muscle glycogen in the human body. While each glucose molecule
is 53 percent completed in 5 hours and is fully is made up of 6 carbon atoms, glycogen molecules
Fig. 7.10: The O2 debts and its two components: namely, alactacid for which no significant lactate increase and lactacid which
is represented by proportional increase in blood lactate (Adopted from Essential of Exercise physiology, by LG Shaver, 1981)
Table 7.2: Minimum and maximum period suggested for recovery process after maximum exercise
Recovery Process Suggested Recovery Time
Minimum Maximum
Restoration of muscle phosphagen stores (ATP + PC) 2 min 5 min
Repayment of the lactacid O2 debt component 3 min 5 min
Muscle glycogen resynthesis 10 hours (after continuous exercise) 46 hours
5 hours (after intermittent exercise) 24 hours
Liver glycogen replenishment Unknown 12–24 hours
Removal of lactic acid from blood and muscles 30 min (active-recovery) 1 hour
1 hour (rest-recovery) 2 hours
Repayment of lactacid O2 debt component 30 min 1 hour
Restoration of O2 stores 10–15 sec 1 hour
are merely clusters of glucose sugar molecules that involvement of oxygen. In this case the pyruvic
are linked to each other in chain-like structures. acid is converted to lactic acid.
The actual process of breaking down glycogen Another major limitation of anaerobic glycolysis
involves the removal of a glucose molecule from is that it causes an accumulation of lactic acid in
the chain-like structure one at a time. This process the muscle and body fluids. In all out sprint events
is called glycogenolysis. lasting up to 2 minutes the demands of the
Glycolysis (stated earlier) ultimately produces glycolytic system are high, and muscle lactic acid
pyruvic acid. This process does not require oxygen, levels can increase from a resting value of about
but the use of oxygen determines the fate of pyruvic 1 mmol/kg of muscle to more than 25 mmol/kg.
acid formed by glycolysis. In this context, when it This acidification of muscle fibers inhibits further
referred to the glycolytic system it is referring to glycogen breakdown because it impairs glycolytic
the process of glycolysis as it occurs without the enzyme function. In addition, the acid decreases
the fibers calcium binding capacity and thus may Restoration of oxygen stores (O2-Myoglobin stores):
impede muscle contraction, which ultimately leads Oxygen is stored in skeletal muscle in chemical
to the fatigue. combination with myoglobin. Although the stores
are small they are of importance during intermittent
REMOVAL OF LACTIC ACID FROM exercise because they are used during work periods
and a restored during the rest periods. Restoration
BLOOD AND MUSCLE
of the myoglobin stores during recovery is rapid,
The lactic acid accumulated in blood and muscle requiring only a few seconds and is dependent upon
during exercise is removed during the recovery the availability of oxygen. The oxygen is part of
period. The speed of lactic acid removal depends the alactacid O2 debt component.
on whether one rests during recovery (rest-
recovery) or performance light exercise (30–50% ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD
VO2 max) during recovery (exercise-recovery).
Lactic acid is removed faster during exercise- A disproportionate increase in ventilation without
recovery. The fate of the lactic acid removed is: in increasing oxygen consumption led to early
(a) conversion to glucose and/or glycogen, speculation that the ventilatory break point might
(b) conversion to protein, and (c) oxidation to CO2 be related to the threshold (the point at which the
and H2O by the aerobic system. The major fate is blood lactate begins to accumulate above resting
oxidation, which occurs is mainly in the skeletal levels during a graded exercise test). Ventilatory
muscle but also occurs in heart, kidney, liver, and break point reflects an increase in the volume of
brain tissues. Although at least part of the oxygen CO2 produced per minute.
and ATP required for removal of lactic acid The increased VCO2 was brought to result from
probably comes from the lactic acid oxygen debt excess CO 2 being released from bi-carbonate
component, no quantitative relationship between buffering lactic acid. Wasserman and Macllory
the two has been determined. The maximal size of coined the term anaerobic threshold to describe
the lactacid debt is usually between 5 and 10 liters the above phenomenon because they assumed the
of oxygen. sudden increase in CO2 reflected a shift toward
Fig. 7.11: Removal of lactic acid from blood at rest recovery (passive) and at exercise recovery (active)
more anaerobic metabolism. They used the increase exercise due to a lack of muscle phosphorylase.
in respiratory exchange ratio (RER) as the marker They demonstrate a clear anaerobic threshold
of anaerobic threshold and believed that this was a during exercise of increasing intensity even though
good non-invasive alternative to blood sampling blood lactate concentration remains at resting
for detecting the onset of anaerobic metabolism. levels. Depleting the glycogen stores prior to
Over the years, this concept is refined exercise also alters the relationship between
considerably. The most accurate technique for anaerobic threshold and lactate threshold.
identify anaerobic threshold now appears to involve
monitoring both the ventilatory equivalent for VENTILATORY THRESHOLD
oxygen (VE/VO2) and the ventilatory equivalent
for CO2 (VE/VCO2), which is the ratio of the As exercise intensity increases towards maximum,
amount of air breathed to the amount of CO2 at some point ventilation increases dispro-
produced. The most specific criteria for estimating portionately as compare to oxygen consumption.
anaerobic threshold is a systematic increase in This point is called the ventilatory break point.
VE/VO 2 without a concomitant increase in When the work rate exceeds 55 to 70 percent of
VE/VCO2. The ventilatory equivalent for CO2 one’s VO2 max, oxygen delivery to the muscles
remains relatively constant, indicating that can no longer support the oxygen requirements
ventilation matches the body’s need to remove of oxidation. To compensate, more energy is
CO2. The increase in VE/VO2 indicates that the derived from anaerobic glycolysis. This results in
increase in ventilation to remove CO 2 is increased lactic acid production and accumulation.
disproportionate to the body’s need to provide O2. This lactic acid combines with sodium bicarbonate
Anaerobic threshold has been used as a non- and forms sodium lactate, water and CO2. As we
invasive estimate of lactate threshold and under know the increase in CO 2 stimulates
most conditions the two occur at the same point chemoreceptors that signal the inspiratory center
at time during at incremental exercise bout, or at to increase ventilation. Thus, the ventilatory break
the same percentage of maximal oxygen uptake. point reflects the respiratory response to increase
However, there are exceptions. For example, CO2 levels and ventilation increases dramatically
people with McArdle’s disease are incapable of beyond the ventilatory break point.
increasing blood lactate and H + levels during
LACTATE THRESHOLD
Lactate threshold is the point at which blood lactate
begins to rapidly accumulate above resting level
during exercise. The onset of blood lactate
accumulation (OBLA) is a standard value set at
either 2 or 4 mmol lactate/liter of oxygen and is
used as a common reference point. Generally,
individuals having higher lactate threshold or
OBLA values, expressed as a percent of their VO2
max, are capable of the best endurance
performance.
Importance in high performance sports: The
concept of an anaerobic threshold is a very
attractive one because it offers a method of
identifying the exercise intensity at which anaerobic
metabolism makes a significant contribution to the
Fig. 7.12: Running speed and anaerobic threshold provision of ATP. It is well established that
endurance training increases the exercise intensity AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC TRAINING
at which there is a significant rise in blood lactic
acid concentration. This improvement in aerobic
METHODS
capacity is a consequence of a training-induced General principles of training such as specificity and
increase in the number of capillaries surrounding overload apply to all physical conditioning
the type 1 and type II fibers along with the increase programs. In other words, for any training program
number of mitochondria. These changes should to be effective, it must develop not only the specific
be detectable as changes in the anaerobic threshold energy systems involved, but it must also develop
whether it is measured as a lactate or the ventilatory the specific muscle or muscle group as well as the
threshold. specific movement patterns involved in the activity.
The anaerobic threshold concept also offers a In addition, it is well establised that in order for
submaximal method of assessing responses to any training program to be successful, it should
training and also a way of describing the aerobic follow the progressive overload principle. In the
capacity of an individual in terms of percent of VO2 development of aerobic and anaerobic endurance,
max. This particular definition of aerobic fitness this means that as the person becomes endurance
allows individuals with different VO2 max values trained, any additional gains in endurance will only
to be compared because the anaerobic threshold be experienced if he or she accomplished more
response to endurance training and is independent work during each of the training sessions than can
to VO2 max. be normally accomplished.
The anaerobic threshold is also appealing Once it has been established which specific
because it may be more sensitive to training induced energy systems is involved in training as well as the
adaptation then VO2 max alone. This is especially specific movement patterns and muscle or muscle
useful for assessing the adaptation to training of groups involved, selecting the proper training
well-trained individuals who often show little method that will bring about the desired changes
additional improvement in VO2 max with further is the next logical step. Table 7.3 illustrates some
training, but significant improvements in of the more popular training regimes. Within this
endurance capacity. table the approximate development percentage
Fig. 7.13: The relationship between exercise intensity and blood lactate accumulation
Table 7.3: Several Training Methods and the Approximate Development Percentage
of the various Energy Systems
Training Method Development (Percent)

Speed Aerobic System Anaerobic System
(ATP-CP) (Oxygen) (Lactic Acid)
Repetitions of sprints 90 4 6
Continuous slow running 2 93 5
Continuous fast running 2 90 8
Slow interval training 10 60 30
Fast interval training 30 20 50
Repetition running 10 40 50
Speed play (fartlek) 20 40 40
Interval sprinting 20 70 10
Acceleration sprinting 90 5 5
Hollow sprints 85 5 10
Jogging — 100 —
of the three energy systems for each of the various 4. Type of activity during rest interval, and
training programs. 5. Number of training periods per week.
The aerobic endurance can be developed by It has been suggested that in order for optimal
several methods such as jogging, continuous slow changes in the effectiveness of the oxygen transport
and fast running or swimming, it is generally agreed system to be accomplished through interval
among coaches and exercise physiologists that training, the work bouts should be between 3 and
interval training is probably the most popular 5 minutes in length, with light activity or short
aerobic and aerobic type training program used rest intervals between the bouts. The level of
nowadays. conditioning of the individual and the purpose
As any coach or sports scientist knows, one of of the training should determine the number of
the primary objectives of a training program is to training periods per week, the number
obtain the greatest possible workload with the of repetitions during each workout, the intensity
smallest physiological strain. The fact that this can of each repetition, and the amount of rest between
best be achieved through the methods of interval each bout.
training is well supported on heart rate and blood In training for endurance, heart rate should be
lactate. One of the advantages that interval training used as the criterion for determining the optimal
has is that it is very flexible and can be adapted for training intensity. For example, heart rate during
developing aerobic endurance, but also anaerobic interval training should be kept at a rate between
endurance as well as the ATP-PC system (or all 60 and 90 percent of maximum during each of
three systems equally as well). the 3 to 5 minute work periods (depends on
The interval training method is based upon the training age). For healthy, sedentary people, the
overload principle. In order for the overload lower figure (60%) is sufficient for increase in
principle to be successful for interval training over endurance to be noticed, while a trained athlete
a period of time, the intensity of the workouts must should use the upper level (90%). The following
also be progressively increased as endurance is equation can be used for both males and females
with a relatively high degree of accuracy:
gained. In interval training, the intensity of the
workouts can be adjusted by the manipulation of Maximal heart rate = 220 – age
5 different variables of which they are: Normally, the rest interval between exercise
1. Rate and distance, intervals should be equal to or less than the time
2. Number of repetitions during each workout, of the actual work bouts. Also, it may be
3. Time of rest interval between the work intervals, determined by the recovery heart rate. Generally,
when the heart rate reaches 120 beats/min, the the ability of the individual athlete. For example, a
individual starts the next exercise bout. 7-minute mile pace might be the appropriate speed
The level of conditioning of the person and the for an inexperienced college miler, while at the same
purpose of the training should determine the time; a 6-minute mile pace might be adequate foe
number of training periods per week. For example, a world-class marathon runner.
the competitive endurance athlete will need to train Continuous Fast Running: While this type of training
between 5 and 7 days per week, whereas the team is more instance than the slow continuous running,
sports athlete who is supplementing has regular
it also develops mainly aerobic endurance, the
training program with anaerobic endurance
distance covered in this type of training are often
training can benefit from working out 2 to 4 times
in excess of the competitive distance; however, they
per week. At the same time, the sedentary person
are usually not as long as those performed in the
who is training for general endurance fitness can
slow continuous running. For instance, a 6-miler,
also benefit by working out between 2 and 4 days
instead, of running 12 to 18 miles as under
per week. Once the training benefits have been
continuous slow running training might run 8 to
developed, they can be expected to be retained for
10 miles at a steady, but faster pace, while a miler
several months with a weekly maintenance-training
might run 11/2 to 2 ½ miles, and repeat the
program of only one workout.
distance 2 to 3 times, alternately walking and
Repetitions of Sprints: This type of training involves jogging for 5 minutes after each run. This type of
several repetitions of sprints over distances between training is performed at a relatively high intensity
60 and 220 yards at absolute maximum speed.
(about 85 to 90 percent of maximum heart rate).
Because the heartbeats so fast (around 200 beats/
min or higher) during this type of training, a heart Slow Interval Training: This type of training causes
expansion stimulates does not normally take place the heart to beat approximately 170 to 180 times/
since the heart does not fill to its maximum during min during the work phase, and develops mostly
the diastolic or resting period. As a result, an aerobic endurance. It is generally restricted to
increased stroke volume of the heart is not generally distances up to 880 yards. These would include
produced. Instead, the primary effect of sprint repetitions of either 110, 220, 440, and 880 yards.
training is the development of the ATP-CP energy The speed by which this type of training is carried
system. out is somewhat faster than in continuous fast
running training, but at the same time, slower than
Continuous Slow Running: Continuous slow
the athlete’s normal competitive speed. An example
running is a form of training that develops almost
for an athlete who is capable of running the mile
totally aerobic endurance. This type of running is
in 4 minutes might be as follows: running twenty
also known as LSD (long, slow distance). It involves
220-yd intervals in a time of 33 seconds each with
running over long distances (somewhere between
each run followed by jogging 110 yards in 30 to
3 and 20 miles and even further) at slow speeds
(7 minute miles and slower). The amount of 45 seconds each. Complete recovery is usually not
distance covered in this type of training is generally experienced by the athlete during the between
determined by the individual’s competitive runs. Generally, when the recovery heart rate
distance. For instance, a 6-miler might run between reaches 120 beats/min, the athlete starts the next
12 and 18 miles, while a miler might run between work bout.
3 and 5 miles. This type of training is performed Fast Interval Training: During the work or
at a relatively low intensity (about 60 to 80 percent “effort” phase of the fast interval training, the heart
of the maximum heart rate), and is generally beats in excess of 180 beats/min. It develops
considered to be the best method for developing primarily anaerobic endurance or speed. It is usually
stroke volume and Capillarization. This type of restricted to distances between 110 and 440 yards.
training is being used; the speed by which it takes An example for a 4-minute miler might be as
to bring the heart rate up to between 60 and 80 follows: running several 440 yard intervals in
percent of maximum heart rate will depend upon 56 to 59 sec each, with each run followed by
jogging 440 yards in 2 to 3 minutes each. Again, involves 50 to 110 yards of jogging, followed by
like the slow interval training, complete recovery 50 to 110 yards of fast striding, and finally 50 to
is not normally witnessed by the athlete during 110 yards of sprinting. Following a recovery (via
between runs. Fast interval training is generally not walking) distance of 50 to 110 yards, the procedure
undertaken until a good overall background of should be repeated. As it points out, this type of
aerobic or general endurance has been developed. training is excellent when running outside in cold
Repetition Running: When compare to interval weather, since the athlete, instead of suddenly
training, repetition running generally involves reaching his or her top sprint speed, gradually
longer distances with a more heart rate recovery obtains it and therefore, avoids the possibility of
(by way of walking) following each run. When muscle injury as so often occurs in conditions of
using this type of training the speed determines low atmospheric temperatures.
whether an aerobic and anaerobic training benefit Hollow Sprints: Hollow sprints involves sprinting,
takes place. For instance, when the repetitions are jogging, walking and for recovery prior to the next
run at speeds near racing conditions anaerobic repetition. This type of training, provided adequate
conditions are developed. On the other hand, when recovery takes place during the walking phase,
the pace is slower than the racing speed, aerobic mainly develops speed and muscular strength.
endurances usually develop. When repetitions of Jogging: Jogging has gained a tremendous amount
r unning beyond competitive distance are of popularity in recent years, especially with older
undertaken, the speed by which they are run should adults who are not training for competitive
be significantly slower than the racing speed. At purpose, but instead, to lose a few pounds of fat
the same time, when repetition running reaches and for health reasons. For example, it is well
competitive apeed, the distance of the fast run known that jogging is one of the best ways of
should not suppress half the racing distance for improving the cardiovascular system for fighting
which the individual is running. coronar y heart disease. Jogging, especially
Speed Play: This type of training (“farlek”) involves recreational jogging, generally consist of long, slow
informal fast and slow-running (as compared to running.
the formal fast-slow running in interval training)
alternately at various speeds and distance over ADAPTATION TO AEROBIC TRAINING
unmarked terrains such as golf courses, forests,
Systematic endurance training results the
country roads, etc. All of the aforementioned types
adaptations in the following:
of training may be combined in various ways in
i. In muscle: (a) Muscle fiber type, (b) Capil-
speed play, when carried out properly, this type of
lary supply, (c) Myoglobin content, (d) Mi-
training should develop not only aerobic and
tochondrial function and oxidative enzyme.
anaerobic endurance, but also speed.
ii. Effecting energy source/release: (a) Carbo-
Interval Sprinting: This form of training consists hydrate and (b) Fat.
of training for 50 yards and jogging for 60 yards iii. Cardio-vascular adaptation: (a) Heart size,
after each for distances up to 3 miles. In other (b) stroke volume, (c) Heart rate, (d) Cardiac
words, for each 440 yards, the athlete would out put, (e) Blood flow, (f) Blood pressure
combine four 50-yd sprints with four 60-yd jogs. and (g) Blood volume.
Because of early fatigue (generally after the first iv. Respiratory adaptation: (a) Lung volume,
several points), this type of training not only keeps (b) Respiratory rate, (c) Pulmonary ventilation
the athlete from running at his or her maximal and (d) Pulmonary diffusion.
sprint speed, but it also causes the athlete to
gradually extend his or her recovery jogging time. MAXIMAL OXYGEN CONSUMPTION—
Therefore, the major training effect is primarily
aerobic endurance. THE VO2 MAX
Acceleration sprinting: This type of training High maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) is
develops almost exclusively speed and strength. It one of the hallmark characteristics of great
Fig. 7.14: The pathways by which oxygen is transported from atmospheric air to
the active muscles for production of energy
endurance performers in running, cycling, rowing delivering CO2 back to the lungs. So, if we measure
and cross-country skiing, so it must be pretty a greater consumption of oxygen during exercise,
important. we know that the working muscle is working at a
VO2 max is the maximum volume of oxygen that higher intensity. To receive this oxygen and use it
by the body can consume during intense, whole- to make ATP for muscle contraction, our muscle
body exercise, while breathing air at sea level. This fibers are absolutely dependent on two things:
volume is expressed as a rate, either liters per minute (1) an external delivery system to bring oxygen
(L/min) or millilitres per kg bodyweight per minute from the atmosphere to the working muscle cells
(ml/kg/min). Because oxygen consumption is and (2) mitochondria to carry-out the process of
linearly related to energy expenditure, when we aerobic energy transfer. Endurance athletes are
measure oxygen consumption, we are indirectly characterized by both a very good cardiovascular
measuring an individual’s maximal capacity to do system and well developed oxidative capacity in
work aerobically. their skeletal muscles. We need a big and efficient
To rephrase, we might start by asking “what pump to deliver oxygen rich blood to the muscles,
are the physiological determinants of VO2 max?” and we need mitochondria-rich muscles to use the
Every cell consumes oxygen in order to convert oxygen and support high rates of exercise. Which
food energy to usable ATP for cellular work. variable is the limiting factor in VO2 max, oxygen
However, it is muscle that has the greatest range delivery or oxygen utilization.
in oxygen consumption. At rest, muscle uses little
energy. However, muscle cells that are contracting IN THE WELL-TRAINED, OXYGEN
have high demands for ATP. So it follows that they
DELIVERY LIMITS VO2 MAX
will consume more oxygen during exercise. The
sum total of billions of cells throughout the body Several experiments of different types support the
consuming oxygen and generating carbon dioxide, concept that, in trained individuals, it is oxygen
can be measured at the breath using a combination deliver
deliveryy , not oxygen utilization that limits VO2
of ventilation volume-measuring and O2/CO2- max. By performing exercise with one leg and
sensing equipment. The figure above summarizes directly measuring muscle oxygen consumption of
this process of moving O2 to the muscle and a small mass of muscle (using ar terial
catheterization) it has been shown that the capacity working skeletal muscle, oxygen diffuses out of the
of skeletal muscle to use oxygen exceeds the heart’s capillaries and to the mitochondria (following the
capacity for delivery. Thus, although the average concentration gradient). The higher the oxygen
male has about 30 to 35 kg of muscle, only a consumption rate by the mitochondria, the greater
portion of this muscle can be well perfused with the oxygen extraction
extraction, and the higher the a-v O2
blood at any one time. The heart can’t deliver a difference at any given blood flow rate. Delivery is
high blood flow to all skeletal muscle, and still the limiting factor because even the best-trained
maintain adequate blood pressure. This limitation muscle cannot use oxygen that isn’t delivered. But,
is analogous to the water pressure in our house. If if the blood is delivered in to muscles that are poorly
we turn all the faucets on while trying to take a trained for endurance, VO2 max will be lower
shower, the shower pressure will be inadequate despite a high delivery capacity. When we perform
because there is not enough driving pressure. VO2 max tests on untrained persons, we often see
Without getting into deep on the hemodynamics, that they stop at a time point in the test when their
it seems that blood pressure is a centrally controlled VO2 max seems to still be on the way up. The
variable; the body will not “open the valves” to problem is that they just do not have the aerobic
more muscle than can be perfused without capacity in their working muscles and become
compromising central pressure and blood flow to fatigued locally prior to fully exploiting their
the brain. The bigger the pumping capacity of the cardiovascular capacity. In contrast, when we test
heart, the more muscle can be perfused while athletes, they will usually show a ideal flattening
maintaining all-important blood pressure. (leveling off) out of VO 2 despite increasing
As further evidence for a delivery limitation, intensity towards the end of the test. Heart rate
long-term endurance training can result in a 300 peaks out, VO2 maxes out, and even though some
percent increase in muscle oxidative capacity, but of the best trained individual can hold out at VO2
only about a 15 to 25 percent increase in VO2 max for several minutes, and changes at the
max. VO 2 max can be altered artificially by muscular level that inhibit muscular force
changing the oxygen concentration in the air. VO2 production and bring on exhaustion.
max also increases in previously untrained subjects
before a change in skeletal muscle aerobic capacity HOW VO2 MAX IS MEASURED?
occurs. All of these observations demonstrate that In order to determine an athlete’s true maximal
VO2 max can be dissociated from skeletal muscle aerobic capacity, exercise conditions must be
characteristics. created that maximally stress the blood delivery
Stroke volume, in contrast, is linearly related to capacity of the heart.
VO2 max. Training results in an increase in stroke
volume and therefore, an increase in maximal A physical test that meets this requirement must:
cardiac output. Greater capacity for oxygen delivery  Employ at least 50 percent of the total muscle
is the result. More muscle can be supplied with mass. Activities which meet this requirement
oxygen simultaneously while still maintaining include running, cycling, rowing, etc. The most
necessary blood pressure levels. common laboratory, method is the treadmill
running test. A motorized treadmill with
IN THE UNTRAINED, SKELETAL MUSCLE variable speed and variable inclination is
employed.
CAPACITY CAN BE LIMITING
 Be independent of strength, speed, body size,
Heart performance dictates VO 2 max, it is and skill. The exception to this rule is spe-
important to explain the contributing, or accepting, cialized tests for swimmers, rowers, skaters,
role of muscle oxidative capacity. Oxygen etc.
consumption = Cardiac output × arterial-venous  Be of sufficient duration for cardiovascular
oxygen difference (a-v O2 diff). As the oxygen rich responses to be maximized. Generally,
blood passes through the capillary network of a maximal tests using continuous graded
Fig. 7.15: A well trained endurance runner performed in laboratory on treadmill running
exercise protocols are completed in 6 to 12 achieving VO2 max along with other criteria i.e. RQ
minutes. = 1 & maximum heart rate is around 180 b/min.
 Be performed by someone who is highly The value is given by the test administrator will
motivated! VO2 max tests are tough, but they be in one of two forms. The first is called absolute
don’t last too long. VO2 max. This value will be in liters/min and will
probably be between 3.0 and 6.0 liters/min if the
If we use a treadmill test as an example, here is
subject is a man and between 2.5 and 4.5 l/min if
what will happen. After a medical examination and
she is a woman. This absolute value does not take
after being atteched to an ECG machine to monitor
into account differences in body size, so a second
cardiac electrical activity, the subject might start the
way of expressing of VO2 max is common. This is
test by walking on the treadmill at low speed and
called the relative VO2 max. It will be expressed
zero percent grades. If subject’s fitness level is quite
in milliliters per min per kg bodyweight (ml/min/
high, the test might be initiated at a centain running
speed. Then, depending on the exact protocol, speed kg). So, if absolute VO2 max was 4.0 liters/min
or inclination (or both) of the treadmill will increase and body weighed is 75 kg, then the relative VO2
at a regular intervals (30 sec to 2 minutes). While max would be 4000 divided by 75, or 53.3 ml/
running, the subject will be breathing through a min/kg. In general, absolute VO2 max favors the
two-way valve system (open circuit). Air will come large endurance athlete, while relative VO2 tends
in from the room, but will be expired through to be higher in smaller athletes.
sensors that measure both volume and oxygen For comparison, the average maximal oxygen
concentration in the expired air. Using these values consumption of an untrained male in his mid 30s
and some calculation, oxygen uptake will be is about 40 to 45 ml/min/kg, and decreases with
calculated by a computer at each stage. With each age. The same person who undergoes a regular
increase in speed or incline, more muscle mass will endurance exercise program might increase to 50
be employed at a greater intensity. Oxygen to 55 ml/min/kg. A champion male master runner
consumption will increase inclination with increasing age 50 will probably have a value of over 60 ml/
the workload. However, at some point, an increase min/kg. An Olympic champion 10,000-meter
in intensity will not result in an “appropriate” runner will probably have a VO2 max over 80 ml/
increase in oxygen consumption. Ideally, the oxygen min/kg. The underlying physiology is the same,
consumption will completely flatten out despite ever- however specific differences result in lower
increasing workload. This is the true indication of population values for VO2 max in untrained,
trained and champion females when compared to months of exercise, carefully controlled research
men at a similar relative capacity. studies have shown that a small percentage of people
will hardly show an increase in VO2 max at all.
VO2 MAX AS A PREDICTOR OF
PERFORMANCE VO2 MAX IN ATHLETES AND NON
ATHLETES
In elite athletes, VO2 max is not a good predictor
of performance. The winner of a marathon race VO2 max varies greatly between individuals and even
for example, cannot be predicted from maximal between elite athletes that compete in the same
oxygen uptake. Perhaps more significant than VO2 sport. The table below (Table 7.4) lists normative
max is the speed at which an athlete can run, bike data for VO2 max in various population groups.
or swim at VO2 max. Two athletes may have the Heredity plays a major role in a person’s VO2 max
same level of aerobic power but one may reach and heredity can account for up to 25 to 50 percent
their VO2 max at a running speed of 20 km/hr of the variance observed between individuals. The
and the other at 22 km/hr. highest ever recorded VO2 max is 94 ml/kg/min in
While a high VO2 max may be a prerequisite for men and 77 ml/kg/min in women. Both were cross-
performance in endurance events at the highest level, country skiers . Untrained girls and women typically
have a maximal oxygen uptake 20 to 25 percent lower
other markers such as lactate threshold are more
than untrained men. However, when comparing elite
predictive of performance. Again, the speed at lactate
athletes, the gap tends to close to about 10%. Taking
threshold is more significant than the actual value
it step further, if VO2 max is adjusted to account for
itself. So, VO2 max as an athlete’s aerobic potential
fat free mass in elite male and female athletes, the
and the lactate threshold as the marker for how much
differences disappear in some studies. Cureton and
of that potential they are tapping.
Collins suggest that sex-specific essential fat stores
Role of Heredity account for the majority of metabolic differences in
running between men and women.
There is a significant genetic component to most of
the underlying physical qualities that limit just how
“Citius, altius, fortius” we can be with training. VO2
EFFECTS OF AGING ON VO2 MAX
max is no exception. The reality is that if an adult VO2 max decreases with age. The average rate of
male with a natural, untrained VO2 max of 45 ml/ decline is generally accepted to be about 1% per
min/kg trains optimally for 5 years, they might see year or 10% per decade after the age of 25. One
their VO2 max climb to around 60 to 65 ml/min/ large cross sectional study found the average
kg. This is a huge improvement. Yet, the best runners decrease was 0.46 ml/kg/min per year in men
have a VO2 max of 75 to 85 ml/kg so our hard (1.2%) and 0.54 ml/kg/min in women (1.7%).
training normal person is still going to come up way However, this deterioration is not necessarily due
short against the likes of these people. If they were to to the aging process. In some cases the decrease
stop training for a year, their VO2 max might fall to may be purely a reflection of increased body
about where the average person’s topped out after weight with no change in absolute values for
years of optimal training. The bottom line is that ventilation of oxygen. VO2 max is usually expressed
Olympic champions are born with unique genetic relative to body weight. If this increases, as tends
potential that is transformed into performance to happen with age and aerobic fitness stays the
capacity with years of hard training. Scientific studies same then VO2 max measured in ml/kg/min will
focusing on the genetics of exercise adaptation have decrease. Usually, the decline in age-related VO2
also demonstrated that not only is our starting point max can be accounted for by a reduction in
genetically determined, but our adaptability to maximum heart rate, maximal stoke volume and
training (how much we improve) is also quite variable maximal A-V difference, i.e. the difference between
and genetically influenced. While the typical person oxygen concentration in arterial blood and venus
will show a substantial increasing in VO2 max with 6 blood.
Table 7.4: Maximal oxygen uptake (ml/kg/min) in various population groups
Age Males Females

Non Athletes
10–19* 45–50 38–46
20–29* 45–52 40–48
30–39* 43–48 38–45
40–49* 40–45 35–40
50–59* 38–40 30–36
60–69* 35–38 28–30
70–79* 30–35 25–27
Athletes
Baseball/softball 18–32 48–56 52–57
Basketball 18–30* 48–60 43–57
Bicycling 18–26 62–74 47–57
Canoeing 22–28 55–67 48–52
Football 20–36 42–60
Gymnastics 18–22 41–52 36–38
Ice Hockey 10–30 50–63
Jockey 20–40 50–60
Orienteering 20–60 47–53 46–60
Racquetball 20–35 55–62 50–60
Rowing 20–35 60–72 58–65
Skiing, alpine 18–30 57–68 50–55
Skiing, nordic 20–28 65–94 60–75
Ski jumping 18–24 58–63
Soccer 22–28* 54–64 48–57
Speed skating 18–24 56–73 44–55
Swimming 10–25 50–70 40–60
Track and field, discuss 22–30 42–55
Track and field, running 18–39* 60–85 50–72
40–75 40–60 35–60
Track and field, shot put 22–30 40–46
Volleyball 18–22* 47–52 40–56
Weightlifting 20–30 38–52
Wrestling 20–30 52–65
Adopled from Wilmore and Costil (2005) (3), ‘*’–Study done by author.
Vigorous training at a younger age does not seem When they maintain the same relative intensity of
to prevent the fall in VO2 max if training is ceased training, a decrease of only 3.6 percent over 25
altogether. Elite athletes have been shown to decline years has been reported and most of that was
by 43 percent from ages 23 to 50 (from 70 ml/ attributable to a small increase in bodyweight. It
kg/min to 40 ml/kg/min) when they stop training seems that training can slow the rate of decline in
after their career is over. In some cases, the relative VO2 max but becomes less effective after the age
decline is greater than for the average population - of about 50.
as much as 15 percent per decade or 1.5 percent
per year. DETERMINING VO2 MAX
However, in comparison, master athletes who
continue to keep fit only show a decrease of 5 to 6 VO2 max can be determined through a number of
percent per decade or 0.5 to 0.6 percent per year. physical evaluations. These tests can be dir ect or
direct
i ndir ect
ndirect
ect. Direct testing requires sophisticated VO2max = (35.97 × miles) – 11.29
equipment to measure the volume and gas VO2max = (22.351 × kilometers) – 11.288
concentrations of inspired and expired air. There
The above table also gives general guidelines
are many protocols used on treadmills, cycle
for interpreting the results of this test for adults.
ergometers and other exercise equipment to
 Tar get population: This test can be modified
arget
measure VO2 max directly. The direct measurement
to be suitable for most populations. For those
of VO2 max can be done in the laboratory as well
who are unfit or unable to run, there are similar
as in the field. One of the most common protocol
walking tests that can be performed.
is the Bruce protocol often used for testing VO2
 Validity: Cooper (1968) reported a correlation
max in athletes or for signs of coronary heart disease
of 0.90 between VO2 max and the distance
in high-risk individuals.
covered in a 12 min walk–run.
Indirect testing is much more widely used by
 Reliability: The reliability of this test would
scientists/coaches as it requires little or no
depend on practice, pacing strategies and
expensive equipment. There are many indirect tests
motivation level. There should be good
used to estimate VO2 max. Some are more reliable
reliability if these issues are addressed.
and accurate than others but none are as accurate
 Advantages: Large groups can be tested at once,
as direct testing. Examples include the multistage
and it is a very cheap and simple test to perform.
shuttle run (bleep test), 12 minute walk test , 1.5
 Disadvantages: Practice and pacing is required,
mile run, etc. which are as follows:
and performance on this test can be affected
greatly by motivation.
Cooper 12 Minute run and walk test
 Variations/modifications: The test can also be
Purpose: To test aerobic fitness (the ability of the conducted by running on a treadmill for 12
body to use oxygen to power it while running). minutes, set to level 1 (1 percent) incline to
Equipment rrequir
equir ed: Flat oval or running track,
equired: mimic outdoor running. There are many
marking cones, recording sheets, stopwatch. variations of the walk/run test.
Description/pr ocedur
Description/procedur
ocedure: e: Place markers at set Queens College Step Test
intervals around the track to aid in measuring the
Purpose: This step test provides a measure of
completed distance. Participants run for 12 cardio-respiratory endurance fitness.
minutes, and the total distance covered is recorded.
Equipment rrequir
equir ed: 16.25 inches or 41.3 cm
equired:
Walking is allowed, though the participants must
step (box/stool), stopwatch, metronome, heart
be encouraged to push themselves as hard as they
rate monitor (optional).
can.
Description: The athlete steps up and down on
Table 7.5: Normative Value for adult males the platform at a rate of 22 steps per minute for
females and at 24 steps per minute for males, for a
Rating Distance (meters) total period of 3 minutes. The athlete immediately
Excellent > 2700 m stops on completion of the exercise test, and the
Good 2300–2700 m heart beats are counted for 15 seconds from 5 to
Average 1900–2300 m 20 seconds of recovery.
Below average 1500–1900 m  Scoring: A An estimation of VO2 max can be
Poor < 1500 m calculated form the test results, using the
formula below:
Scoring: There are several equations that can be  Men: VO2 max (ml/kg/min) = 111.33 – 0.42
used to estimate VO2 max (in ml/kg/min) from × heart rate (bpm)
the distance score (a formula for either kms or  Women: VO 2 max (ml/kg/min) = 65.81 –
miles): 0.1847 × heart rate (bpm)
 Reliability: T
Test re-test reliability for recovery Rating Fitness index (long form)
heart rate has been measured as r = 0.92
excellent > 90
 Validity: C
Correlation between recovery heart rate
good 80–89
and VO2max has been measured as r = –0.75.
high average 65–79
Advantages: Minimal equipment and costs involved, low average 55–64
little time required and can be self-administered. poor < 55
Disadvantages: Biomechanical characteristics vary Fitness Index (short form) = (100 × test duration
between individuals (e.g. taller people are at an in seconds) divided by (5.5 × pulse count between
advantage). Also, apparently the data was 1 and 1.5 minutes).
formulated from treadmill running, therefore, their
assumption is that stepping and treadmill running Fitness Index (long form) = (100 × test duration
have the same oxygen cost. in seconds) divided by (2 × sum of heart beats in
the recovery periods).
Harvard Step Test Validity: Correlation to VO2max has been reported
The Har var
Harvar
vardd Step test is a test of aerobic fitness, as between 0.6 to 0.8 in numerous studies.
developed by Brouha et al. (1943) in the Harvard Advantages: This test requires minimal equipment
Fatigue Laboratories during World War-II. The and costs, and can be self-administered.
features of this test are that it is simple to conduct Disadvantages: Biomechanical characteristics vary
and requires minimal equipment. There are many
between individuals. For example, considering that
other variations of step tests too.
the step height is standard, taller people are at an
Equipment rrequir
equir ed: Step or platform 20 inches/
equired: advantage as it will take less energy to step up onto
50.8 cm high (18′′ for Indian male), stopwatch, the step box. Body weight has also been shown to
metronome or cadence tape. be a factor. Testing large groups with this test will
be time consuming.
Description/pr ocedur
ocedure: e: The athlete steps up and
Comments: The Harvard Step Test was developed
down on the platform at a rate of 30 steps per
minute (every two seconds) for 5 minutes or until by Brouha et al. (1943) in the Harvard Fatigue
exhaustion. Exhaustion is defined as when the Laboratory during World War-II. Some sources
athlete cannot maintain the stepping rate for 15 suggest a 40 cm high bench, which is not the
seconds. The athlete immediately sits down on standard and original bench height. Since the
completion of the test, and the total number of original description of this test, there have been
heart beats is counted between 1 to 1.5 minutes variations in the test procedure such as reducing
after finishing. This is the only measure required if the bench height for female subjects in some
using the short form of the test. If the long form of research studies.
the test is being conducted, there is an additional
heart rate measures at between 2 to 2.5 minutes, Beep Test (Multistage Fitness Test, 20m
and between 3 to 3.5 minutes. Shuttle run, Bleep Test)
Scoring: The Fitness Index score is determined The multistage fitness test is a commonly used
by the following equations. For example, if the total maximal running aerobic fitness test. It is also
test time was 300 seconds (if completed the whole known as the 20 meter shuttle run test, beep or
5 minutes), and the number of heart beats between bleep test among others. The details of the tests
1–1.5 minutes is 90, between 2–2.5 it is are as follows:
80 and between 3–3.5 it is 70, then the long form  Equipment rrequir
equir ed: Flat, non-slip surface,
equired:
Fitness Index score would be: (100 × 300)/(240 marking cones, 20m measuring tape, CD or pre-
× 2) = 62.5. Note: you are using the total number recorded audio tape, recording sheets.
of heart beats in the 30 second period, not the  Description: This test involves continuous
rate (beats per minute) during that time. running between two lines 20m apart in time to
Fig. 7.16: Dimension of bleep test protocol
recorded beeps. For this reason the tests if also  Validity: There are published VO2max score
often called the ‘beep’ or ‘bleep’ test. The test equivalents for each level reached. The
subjects stand behind one of the lines facing the correlation to actual VO2max scores is high.
second line, and begin running when instructed  Reliability: Reliability would depend on how
by the CD or tape. The speed at the start is quite strictly the test is run and the practice allowed
slow. The subject continues running between the for the subjects.
two lines, turning when signaled by the recorded  Advantages: Large groups can perform this test
beeps. After about one minute, a sound indicates all at once for minimal costs. Also, the test
an increase in speed and the beeps will be closer continues to maximum effort unlike many other
together. This continues each minute (level). If tests of endurance capacity.
the line is not reached in time for each beep, the  Disadvantages: Practice and motivation levels
subject must run to the line turn and try to catch can influence the score attained, and the scoring
up with the pace within 2 more ‘beeps’. Also, if can be subjective. As the test is often conducted
the line is reached before the beep sounds, the outside, the environmental conditions can affect
subject must wait until the beep sounds. The test the results.
is stopped if the subject fails to reach the line  Other considerations:
(within 2 meters) for two consecutive ends. There  As the audio-tapes may stretch overtime, the
are several versions of the test, but one commonly tapes need to be calibrated which involves
used version has an initial running velocity of 8.5 timing a one-minute interval and making
km/hr, which increases by 0.5 km/hr each adjustment to the distance between markers.
minute.
The recording is also available on compact
Scoring: The athletes score is the level and number disc, which does not require such a stringent
of shuttles (20 m) reached before they are unable calibration, but should also be checked
to keep up with the recording. This score can be occasionally.
converted to a VO2 max equivalent score using  This test goes by many names, though you
this calculator/chart. need to be careful as the different names also
 Tar get population: This test is suitable for
arget may signify that these are different versions
sports person and school groups, but not for of the test. Therefore, you need to be wary
populations in which a maximal exercise test when comparing results or comparing to
would be contraindicated. norms.
 This test is a maximal test, which requires a entering into the blood they undergo a series
reasonable level of fitness. It is not of biochemical reactions takes place. The
recommended for recreational athletes or reactions which are included into the process
people with health problems, injuries or low of synthesis of larger protoplasmic molecules
fitness levels. from lower ones for building up tissues are
collectively known as anabolism, and those
PRT 1.5 Mile Run Test reactions which are included in the process of
This test forms part of the Navy Physical Readiness breakdown of larger protoplasmic molecules
Test (PRT), performed by US Navy personnel. An to smaller ones for the energy are collectively
alternative to this test is the 500 yard swim test. called catabolism. Thus, the term metabolism
 Purpose: This test measures aerobic fitness and
of a food substance is meant by a series of
leg muscles endurance. specific biochemical reactions occurring with
 Equipment rrequir
equir ed: 1.5 mile flat and hard
equired: in the living organism from the time of its
running course, stopwatch incorporation into the cell and of which some
 Description/pr ocedur
ocedure: e: The aim of this test are concerned with tissue system and other
is to complete the 1.5 mile course in the shortest which tissue breakdown unit are termed as
possible time. At the start, all subjects line up anabolism and catabolism respectively.
behind the starting line. On the command ‘go,’ 2. The BMR may be defining as the amount of
the clock will start, and the subject will begin heat given out by a subject who, though, lying
running at their own pace. Although walking is in a state of maximum physical and mental
authorized, however it is strongly discouraged. rest under comfortable conditions of tempera-
A cool down walk should be performed at the ture, pressure and humidity. Respiratory
completion of the test. quotient (RQ) is the ratio of the volume of
Scoring: The total time to complete the course CO2 produced by the volume of O2 consumed
is to be recorded. during a given time. Normal RQ of a healthy
 Comments: It is permitted to pace a participant
human adult it is 0.85 for a mixed diet. METS
(such as running ahead of, along side of, or behind) (Metabolic Equivalents) expression is used to
during the run, as long as there is no physical describe the energy cost of work. One MET
contact with the runner and it does not physically represents the net energy cost during rest; two
hinder other people taking the test. Cheering or METS corresponds to two times the resting
calling out the elapsed time is also permitted. value; three METS is three times the resting
During the 1.5-mile run, it is critical to have some value, etc.
type of medical support in place or a medical 3. The energy set free during the breakdown of
emergency plan, Dangerous climate conditions food is not utilized directly by the muscle cells.
such as hot/humid weather should be avoided Instead, it is used by the body to build another,
and water or other fluids should be made available more complex powerhouse chemical
upon completion of the assessment. compound known as ATP. In addition to ATP,
creatine phosphate (CP or phosphor yl
creatine) is another important chemical, which
SUMMARY
provides stored energy. ATP and CP are not
1. Energy is usually defined as the capacity to dependent on oxygen nor on a series of
perform work. Normally there are six forms reactions and for this reason, they are
of energy such as- mechanical, heat, light, extremely important not only during muscular
chemical, electrical and nuclear. Each can work involving powerful quick starts of
readily be converted from one form to football players, high jumpers, sprinters and
another. Food materials are transformed into basketball players, but also in events that
their simple and soluble form by digestion require only a few seconds to complete such
prior to the entry from the intestine. After as sprinting up a flight of stairs.
4. The major purpose of aerobic and anaerobic oxygen taken in during recovery over and
metabolism is to provide energy for the body’s above that which would have normally been
cells. Anaerobic (in absence of O2) metabolism consumed for the same period of time during
uses carbohydrates (glucose and glycogen) rest is used to provide energy for repaying the
exclusively for the manufacture of ATP, energy stores that were used up during
whereas aerobic (in presence of O 2 ) exercise. Oxygen debt has been generally
metabolism can use all three foodstuffs accepted as having two components: alactacid,
(carbohydrates, fats and proteins) for its fuel. for which no significant lactate increment is
The primary purpose of anaerobic metabolism found, and lactacid, which is represented by
is to provide energy for the body and that proportional increments in blood lactate. The
glucose is used exclusively for the production alactacid debt is generally attributed to
of ATP. For ever y single molecule that the restoration of the ATP and CP stores in
undergoes glycolysis results in a net the muscles that were depleted during
production of 2 ATP molecules. When oxygen exercise, whereas the lactacid debt is more
supply is plentiful and the muscles are not associated with the metabolic cost of
under heavy stress (such as in exhaustive-type converting lactic acid build-up back to energy.
anaerobic work), a glucose molecule is 7. Anaerobic threshold has been used as a non-
completely broken down to carbon dioxide invasive estimate of lactate threshold, and
and water with 36 molecules of ATP being under most conditions the two occur at the
produced in addition to those found in the same point at time during at incremental
anaerobic glycolysis is produced aerobically. exercise bout, or at the same percentage of
5. As oxygen consumption during rest remains maximal oxygen uptake. As exercise intensity
relatively constant and is adequate to supply increases towards maximum, at some point
the required ATP, and because blood lactic ventilation increases disproportionately as
acid level remains within the normal range, it compare to oxygen consumption. This point
is apparent that metabolism of the resting is called the ventilatory break point. Lactate
conditions is aerobic. In fact, the aerobic threshold is the point at which blood lactate
breakdown of fats and glucose supplies all the begins to rapidly accumulate above resting
ATP required by the body on the resting level during exercise. The onset of blood
conditions. Both aerobic (in presence of lactate accumulation (OBLA) is a standard
oxygen) and anaerobic (in absence of oxygen) value set at either 2 or 4 mmol lactate/liter of
pathways contribute a certain amounts of oxygen and is used as a common reference
energy during maximal exercise of various point.
durations, and it is somewhat difficult to 8. The concept of an anaerobic threshold is a
determine the major energy source in activities very attractive one because it offers a method
lasting from 2 to 4 minutes such as- middle of identifying the exercise intensity at which
distance events. During this time, the aerobic anaerobic metabolism makes a significant
and anaerobic energy sources are of equal contribution to the provision of ATP. The
importance. On the other hand at one anaerobic threshold concept also offers a
extreme, maximal exercises of short duration submaximal method of assessing responses to
are supplied via anaerobic metabolism, training and also a way of describing the
whereas exercises that can be performed for aerobic capacity of an individual in terms of
relatively long period of time such as marathon percent of VO2 max. The anaerobic threshold
running are supplied primarily by aerobic is also appealing because it may be more
metabolism. sensitive to training induced adaptation then
6. Oxygen debt is defined as all post exercise VO2 max alone.
oxygen consumption above the basal oxygen 9. VO2 max is the maximum volume of oxygen
consumption level. This means that the that by the body can consume during intense,
whole-body exercise, while breathing air at sea reduction in maximum heart rate, maximal
level. By oxygen consumption we are stoke volume and maximal a-v O2 difference,
indirectly measuring an individual’s maximal i.e. the dif ference between oxygen
capacity to do work aerobically. If we measure concentration in arterial blood and venus
a greater consumption of oxygen during blood.
exercise, we know that the working muscle is
working at a higher intensity. To receive this REVIEW QUESTIONS
oxygen and use it to make ATP for muscle
contraction, our muscle fibers are absolutely 1. Define RQ. What is its significance?
dependent on two things: (1) an external 2. What is metabolism? Define the term
delivery system to bring oxygen from the ‘Anabolism’ and ‘Catabolism’.
atmosphere to the working muscle cells, and 3. Why does anaerobic respiration produce less
energy than aerobic respiration?
(2) mitochondria to carry-out the process of
4. Why can red muscle fibers work for longer
aerobic energy transfer. Endurance athletes are
periods continuously? While white muscle
characterized by both a ver y good
fibers get easily fatigue?
cardiovascular system, and well developed
5. Give schematic representation of an overall
oxidative capacity in their skeletal muscles.
view of aerobic metabolism.
10. In order to determine an athlete’s true maximal
6. When and where does anaerobic respiration
aerobic capacity, exercise conditions must be
occur in men?
created that maximally stress the blood delivery
7. What is the other name of Krebs cycle? Where
capacity of the heart. A physical test that meets
does it occur? Write its importance.
this requirement must employ at least 50
8. Give a schematic representation of Krebs cycle.
percent of the total muscle mass. Activities
Give its importance.
which meet this requirement include running,
9. What is glycolysis? Explain the major steps of
cycling, rowing, etc. The most common
glycolysis. Where does this process occur in a
laboratory method is the treadmill running test.
cell?
A motorized treadmill with variable speed and 10. What role does oxygen play in the process of
variable inclination is employed. High VO2 max aerobic metabolism?
may be a prerequisite for performance in 11. What is the respiratory exchange ratio? Explain
endurance events at the highest level, other how it is used to determine the oxidation of
markers such as lactate threshold are more carbohydrate and fat.
predictive of performance. Again, the speed at 12. Define VO2 max? What are the various field
lactate threshold is more significant than the methods by which you can predict VO2 max
actual value itself. of an individual? Discuss the procedure of
11. VO2 max varies greatly between individuals ‘Multistage Physical Fitness Test’.
and even between elite athletes that compete 13. What do you mean by anaerobic threshold?
in the same sport. Heredity plays a major role How can we use measurements of oxygen
in a person’s VO 2 max and heredity can consumption to estimate one’s exercise effi-
account for up to 25 to 50 percent of the ciency?
variance observed between individuals. 14. Why do athletes with high VO2 max values
12. VO2 max decreases with age. The average rate perform better in endurance events than those
of decline is generally accepted to be about 1 with lower values?
percent per year or 10 percent per decade after 15. Give examples of interval training sessions that
the age of 25. Usually, the decline in age- might be used to develop the ATP-PCr,
related VO2 max can be accounted for by a glycolytic, and oxidative system for a runner.
CHAPTER
8
Nutrition and Physical Per for
Perfor mance
formance
 Classification of Foods  Computation of Calorie and Nutrient Requirements

 Classification and Functions of Carbohydrate, Fat  Body Water and Water Balance
and Protein  Water Requirement in Exercise
 Classification and Functions of Vitamins and  Recommended Oral Rehydration Solution
Minerals  Body Weight Control and Exercise
 Antioxidant Role of Specific Vitamins  Timing of Nutritional Intake
 Exercise and Antioxidant  The Pre-Competition Meal
 Vitamins and Exercise Performance  Food Supplements during Competition
 Mega Vitamins  The Post-Competition Meal
 Minerals and Exercise Performance  Vegetarian Diet
 Food Requirements  Diets Affect Performance
 Balanced Diets  Muscle Glycogen Loading or Super Compensation
All living organism required food. The food like order to control the different metabolic
carbohydrates, proteins and fats, the minerals, processes are the main function of nutrition.
vitamins and water are required for various life ii. The potential energy stored within the food
processes. All these essential substances are is transformed into useable energy, which is
collectively called nutrients. The process that used for different physiological functions
involves ingestion and digestion of food materials like movement, locomotion, excretion,
and after that absorption and finally assimilation reproduction, etc.
of absorbed food is means nutrition. iii. The disease-resistant power of the living body
The basic understanding of nutrition and its is developed through nutrition.
effects on health, weight control, and physical iv. The future energy is produced from stored
performance is essential for all people. An athlete’s food matters (glycogen and fat) during
performance may be improved with good, sound shortage of food.
nutrition, while at the same time; it may deteriorate v. Nutrition plays a special role in production
with poor nutritional practices. of heat energy in the body to meet the caloric
demand of an individual.
Definition: “Nutrition is the combination of
processes by which the living organism receives and Nutrients: The organic and inorganic materials,
which the living organism collects from the nature
utilizes the materials necessary for the maintenance
to perform all the fundamental activities of the
of its functions and for the growth and the renewal
body, are called nutrients.
of its components”.
All nutrients that are collected by the living
organisms from their surroundings are not
Importance of Nutrition
considered as food. Nutrients do not require
i. To promote growth, repairing wear and tear digestion. The essential substance like minerals,
of the damaged tissues and to gain energy in vitamins and water are collectively called nutrients.
Nutrition and Physical Performance  149
Food Classification of carbohydrates: According to

Definition: By taking those edible substances, due sugar unit carbohydrates are of the following types:
to which growth, nutrition, yield of energy and i) Monosaccharides: These carbohydrates contain
building new tissue of the living body take place, only a single 6-carbon sugar molecule like glucose,
are considered as food. fructose, galactose, etc.
The most common or simplest monosaccharide
CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS is glucose, which can be oxidized and used directly
by the body for energy or it may be broken down
Food is divided into two types according to their by the digestive system and converted into
functions such as- (i) primary or nutritive food, glycogen (a polysaccharide) and stored in the
(ii) secondary or protective food. muscle and liver for later use.
Once the storage capacity for glycogen has been
CLASSIFICATION AND FUNCTIONS OF reached in the muscles and liver, the excess glucose
CARBOHYDRATE, FAT AND PROTEIN is converted into fat and stored in the fatty
(adipose) tissue of the body. This means, therefore,
Primary or nutritive food: The food substances that even if a person is on a high carbohydrate and
which help in energy production, body growth, low fat diet, it is still possible, if excessive amounts
repair of wear and tear of damaged tissue, etc. are of calories are consumed for that person to increase
called primary or nutritive food. Carbohydrate, his or her body fat level.
protein and fat are the components of nutritive In addition to glucose, there are two other
food. monosaccharides fructose and galactose (same
a. Carbohydrates: Carbohydrate is defined as a chemical make-up like glucose). In the final products
neutral organic compound made up of carbon, of carbohydrates digestion, glucose makes up about
hydrogen and oxygen; the last two elements remain 80 percent, while fructose and galactose make up
in the same proportion as in water (2:1). approximately 10 percent each respectively.
Fig. 8.1: Schematic representation of the classification of foods
Fig. 8.2: Chemical structure of D-glucose

Glucose and fructose are found mainly in fruits Daily rrequir

equir ement: In healthy adult human the
equirement:
(especially dried), pastries, candy, jams and honey, daily requirement of carbohydrates is about 400
whereas galactose is present primarily in the to 500 gm (i.e. 65 to 70% of total food).
mammary glands of certain animals. Deficiency symptoms: Decrease of sugar in
ii) Disaccharide: These carbohydrates contain two blood causes hypoglycemia and ketosis.
6-carbon sugar molecules like maltose, sucrose and b) Pr oteins: Proteins, unlike carbohydrates and
Proteins:
lactose, etc. Maltose is produced during digestion fats, contain nitrogen in addition to carbon,
of starches, while lactose is found in milk and it hydrogen and oxygen. Some protein may contain
eventually breaks down to galactose and glucose sulfur and phosphorus.
during digestion. Sucrose (or table sugar) is Definition: Proteins are polymers formed by
normally found in cane sugar. monomeric units called amino acids. Every cell in
iii) Polysaccharide: These carbohydrates contain the body needs protein. In fact, proteins are found
three or more 6-carbon sugar molecules like throughout the body with muscle tissue being their
starches. Starch is found mainly in potatoes, cereal major location. Proteins are not used to any great
and bread products such as rice, corn, wheat and extent for energy, but instead, they are considered
barley along with beans and peas. Other as “building blocks” of tissue.
polysaccharide products that are ingested to a slight Proteins are made up of long chain like
extent in the diet are glycogen, dextrin, pectin and nitrogenous compounds called amino acids. There
cellulose, all of which are digested in basically the are over twenty different known amino acids in
same manner as the starches. protein, eight of these cannot be manufactured
within the body, and therefore, must be obtained
Sources: Carbohydrates are generally obtained
directly from the diet. These are referred to as
from two sources such as-
essential amino acids. The remaining ones, called
i. Plant source: glucose- grapes; fructose- honey
non-essential, can be synthesized within the body
and all types of sweet fruits; lactose-milk;
from the nutrients and in from the diet. The eight
sucrose- jaggery, cane sugar; starch-potato,
essential amino acids are: Isoleucine, Leucine,
wheat, rice; cellulose-vegetables, etc.
Lysine, Methionine, Phenyl alanine, Threonine,
ii. Animal source: milk, muscle, liver, etc.
Tryptophan and Valine.
Functions of carbohydrates: It is interesting to note that the animal protein
i. Source of energy (calorific value): In the tissue sources contains all of the essential amino acids
when carbohydrates are oxidized completely and therefore, are generally considered to be “high
then it produce energy. One gram of quality” proteins. On the other hand, protein from
carbohydrates yields about 4.0 Kcal of energy. vegetables and other sources tend to be “low
ii. Storage: The chief form of carbohydrate is quality” protein because these foods are missing
starch in plant and glycogen in liver and one or more of these essential amino acids.
muscles of animal. While there is some disagreement as to how
iii. Maintenance of blood sugar: Normally 100 much protein is needed daily, most nutritionist do
ml human blood contains 80 to 120 mg of agree that no more than one gram of protein per
glucose. This blood glucose level is maintained kilogram of body weight is needed daily, In fact
by the stored glycogen in the liver and muscle. the United States Food and Nutrition Board has
iv. Synthesis of fats and proteins: By the process recommended a daily protein allowance of 0.9
of metabolism, carbohydrates are converted grams per kilogram of body weight for adolescent
into fats, proteins, etc. in the liver. and adult men and women. This means that a
v. Evacuation of feces: Cellulose is not digested person who weighs 165 pounds (75 kilograms)
by man but it adds bulk to the stomach and would require, on a daily basis, approximately 75
intestinal contents, stimulate peristaltic grams of protein intake in order to meet the needs
movement of the intestine and thus helps in for tissue growth and maintenance. People who
evacuation of feces. Thus it acts as roughage. are heavier would naturally require a greater
amount. It has also been suggested that women kilogram of body weight or even more for power
who are pregnant should raise their daily protein events.
allowances by as much as 10 grams, whereas young
Deficiency symptoms:
mothers who are nursing young babies should
i. Kwashiorkor: It is a severe protein deficiency
increase their daily intake to 20 grams. Sports
disease generally observed in children less
person also need more protein as per their event/
than one year. It is characterized by
game.
discolored hair and skin, bloated belly due
Classification of proteins: Proteins may be
to fluid imbalance and thin legs.
classified in many ways. Generally it is classified as ii. Marasmus: It is a disease caused by deficiency
follows: of both protein and calories in infants. It is
a. Simple Protein: Simple proteins are defined as due to inadequate supply of food or poor
those proteins, which are made up of only amino absorption of digested food from the intestine.
acids. Examples: albumin, globulin, histone, etc. It is characterized by gradual wasting of tissues,
b. Conjugated Protein: The proteins, in which wrinkled skin and sunken eyes.
simple proteins remain combined with some
non-pr otein substances, are known as c) Fats: Like carbohydrate and protein, fat is also
conjugated proteins. Examples: nucleoprotein, an organic compound made up of carbon, hydrogen
phosphoprotein, lipoprotein, glycoprotein, etc. and oxygen in different amounts. While fats contain
c. Derived Protein: Those proteins obtained as less oxygen than carbohydrates, they also have more
intermediate products during hydrolysis carbon and hydrogen. This obviously allows them
(digestion) of simple or conjugated proteins are to be greater fuel providers, but at the same time, a
known as derived proteins. Examples: proteins, greater cost in terms of oxidation.
metaproteins, peptones, polypeptides, etc. Definition: Fats are ester of fatty acids with
glycerol. The salts of alcohols (glycerol) with
Sour ces: Proteins are obtained from both plant
Sources: organic acids (fatty acid) are known as esters. Fatty
and animal sources such as- acids are insoluble in water but soluble in fat
i. Plant Source: wheat, rice, soyabean, pulses, solvents like chloroform, ether, alcohol, etc.
different seeds etc. Classification of fats: Chemically, a fat molecule
ii. Animal source: milk, egg, fish, meat etc. is made up of two different groups of atoms;
Functions of pr otein:
protein: namely, fatty acids and glycerol.
i. Calorific value: one gram of protein when i) Fatty acids: These are higher aliphatic acids which
completely oxidized yields about 4.1 Kcal of are insoluble in water but soluble in fat solvent
heat energy. like chloroform, ether, benzene, etc. the
ii. Proteins help in body-structure, growth, commonest type of fatty acids occurring in the
repair of damaged tissues due to wear and natural fats generally contain even number of
tear, storage, etc. carbon atoms and are straight chain derivatives.
iii. Synthetic functions: It helps in the synthesis According to absence of or presence of double
of plasma proteins, hemoglobin, enzymes, bonds in the chains, the fatty acids are saturated
hormones, milk proteins, etc. fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids respectively.
iv. Synthesis of cell: Protein is the chief a. Saturated fatty acids: Fats are considered to be
constituent of all parts of the living cell. saturated fatty acids if the carbon atom chain
Hence proteins are necessary to build them contains as many hydrogen atoms as it will hold.
up. In other words, the single bond link between
Daily rrequir
equir ement: In healthy adult human the
equirement: the carbon atoms is completely saturated with
daily protein requirement is about 1 gm per kg hydrogen atoms and will not hold any more
body weight, in infant 3 to 4 gm per kg and in hydrogen atom.
growing children 2 to 3 gm per kg body weight. Examples: palmitic acid, butyric acid, stearic acid,
Sports person required 1.5 to 2.0 gm protein per etc.
b. Unsaturated fatty acids: Fats are classified as Obviously, more research is needed in this area
unsaturated fatty acids if two or more hydrogen before any final recommendation can be made.
atoms, because of the presence of a double bond
Sour ces: Fats are obtained from both plant and
Sources:
link between the carbon atoms, are missing from
animal sources such as-
the carbon atom chain. The carbon chain of
i. Plant Source: mustard oil, coconut oil,
unsaturated fats contains two less hydrogen
groundnut oil, etc. The vegetable oils such
atoms for each double bond. The fat molecule
as- cottonseed oil, corn oil, peanut oil and
is referred to as monounsaturated if the carbon
soybean oil are good source of unsaturated
chain contains one double bond and
fats.
polyunsaturated if two or more double bonds
ii. Animal source: milk, egg, fish, meat, etc. In
are present. Examples: linoleic acid, linolenic
addition cream, whole milk, ice cream, butter,
acid and arachidonic acid, etc.
margarine, egg-yolks, cheese, lobster and
ii) Glycerol: It is trihydric alcohol. It is clear, crabs are rich source of saturated fats.
colorless, syrupy liquid of sweet taste. It is miscible
Functions of fats:
with alcohol and water. It is obtained by the
i. Calorific value: Fat gives maximum amount
hydrolysis of fats.
of heat. One gram fat yields 9.0 Kcal of heat
Fats are stored in the body in the form of
energy.
triglyceride (three fatty acids joined with glycerol).
ii. Storage: Fats are easily stored for future use.
Triglycerides, also known as neutral fats, are the
iii. Protection: The storage (depot) fat protects
most common fats of the diet. Other fats found in
the vital organs and also acts as cushion and
the body are phospholipids and cholesterol, both
packing tissues.
of which play important roles in maintaining the iv. It supplies essential fatty acids and fat-soluble
membrane structure of all cells. Phospholipids also vitamins like A, D, E, K.
plays an important role in blood clotting while v. Regulation of body temperature: Fat acts as
cholesterol is needed for the production of both poor heat conductor. Thus subcutaneous fat
male and female hormones androgen, estrogen and helps to regulate body temperature.
progesterone.
While fat plays an essential part in our diet, it is Daily rree q u i rrement:
ement: In adult the daily fat
generally agreed that most people of developed requirement is about 80 to 100 gm. (i.e. 20% of
country (for example: Americans) consume far total food).
more fat than they really need. Today, fat makes
up about 42 percent of the total average American CLASSIFICATION AND FUNCTIONS OF
diet, while most experts in the area of nutrition VITAMINS AND MINERALS
agree that approximately 20 to 25 percent is
adequate. Secondary or protective food: In addition to the
Although this is a highly controversial subject, organic substances (food) like carbohydrate,
there is suggestive evidence that a diet high in protein and fat, human being needs few other
saturated fats may be directly or indirectly related things for its growth and maintenance of its
to cardiovascular disease. It has been suggested that functional activities. Those substances are vitamins,
in order to perhaps avoid this potential risk, a inorganic salts or minerals and water, which are
portion of saturated fats should be replaced with known as accessory or protective food.
unsaturated fats. This has been especially advisable a) V itamins:
Vitamins:
for people who are overweight, those with a history Definition: Vitamins are organic compounds
of heart disease (especially middle age people), present in variable minute quantity in natural food
those people who have sedentary type jobs, or stuffs, which are required for the normal growth
people who hold highly stressful type jobs. as well as maintenance of health and life.
Although vitamins are needed in only small ii) Fat-soluble Vitamins: The vitamins, which are
amounts, they must be provided in either the diet soluble in fat solvents like chloroform, benzene,
or by way of supplements since the living cell cannot etc. are called, fat soluble vitamins. Such as-
manufacture them. Vitamin A (Retinol), D (Calciferol), E
Classification of V itamines: Vitamines are
Vitamines: (Tocopherol) and K (Phylloquinone).
generally classified as either water-soluble or fat- Provitamins: The Provitamins are the organic
soluble. compounds from which the vitamins are
synthesized in the animal body. Examples:
i) Water-soluble Vitamines: The Vitamines, which
are soluble in water, are called water-soluble Carotene—it is present in green and yellow
vitamins. Such as- vegetables and fruits. It produces vitamin A.
a. Vitamin B-complex: The B-complex group Antivitamins: The substances, which have got
includes thiamine (Vit-B1), riboflavin (Vit-B2), structural and chemical group similar to vitamins
pantothenic acid (Vit-B 3), niacin (Vit-B 5), but without any physiological action or which
pyridoxine (Vit-B6), biotin (Vit-B7), folic acid destroy the vitamins or make the vitamins
(Vit-B9), cyanocobalamine (Vit-B12), choline, ineffective are called antivitamins. Examples:
nicotinic acid, inositol, etc. Phyrithiamine—Destroy the action of thiamine
b. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) (Vit-B1).
Table 8.1: Summary of vitamins sources, functions, deficiency symptoms, diseases and excess intake.
Vitamins Dietary Sources Major bodily Deficiency Diseases Excess

functions symptoms
Water-Soluble
Thiamine (B1) Pork, organ Coenzyme (i) Degeneration Beriberi None reported
meats, whole (thiamin of peripheral
grains, nuts, phosphate) in nerves resulting
legumes, milk, reactions in paralysis,
fruits and involving the edema and
vegetables removal of heart failure
carbon dioxide.
Riboflavin (B2) Widely Constituent of (i) Fissures at (i) Cheilosis None reported
distributed in two flavin the angles of (ii) Dermatitis
foods: meats, nucleotide the mouth.
eggs, milk coenzymes (ii) Reddened
products, whole involved in lips
grain and energy (iii) Cracks at
enriched cereal metabolism mouth corner
products, wheat (FAD and (iv) Dry chaffed
germ, green FMN). skin
leafy (v) Eye lesions
vegetables
Pantothenic Widely Constituent of (i) Roughness of Dermatitis None reported
Acid (B3) distributed in coenzyme A, skin
foods: meat, which plays a (ii) Fatigue
fish, poultry, central role in (iii) Sleep
milk products, energy disturbances
legumes, and metabolism. (iv) Impaired
whole grains coordination
(v) Nausea
Contd...
Contd...

functions symptoms
Niacin (B5) Liver, lean Constituent of (i) Skin lesion Pellagra Flushing,
meats, poultry, two coenzymes (ii) Gastrointestinal burning and
grains, legumes, in oxidation- lesion. tingling around
peanuts, etc reduction (iii) Nervous mental neck, face
reactions (NAD disorders. and hands
and NADP)
Pyridoxine (B6) Meats, fish, Coenzyme (i) Roughness (i) Dermatitis None reported
poultry, (pyridoxal of skin. (ii) Acrodoynia
vegetables, phosphate) (ii) Irritability
whole grains, involved in (iii) Convulsions
cereals, seeds, etc amino acid (iv) Muscular
and glycogen twitching
metabolism (v) Kidney stones
Folic acid (B9) Legumes, green Coenzyme (i) Production of Macrocytic None reported
vegetables, (reduced form) abnormal, large anemia
whole-wheat involved in red blood cells
products, meats, transfer of single- (ii) Gastrointestinal
eggs, milk carbon units in disturbances
products, liver nucleic acid and (iii) Diarrhea
amino acid (iv) Red tongue
metabolism
Cyanocobal- Muscle meats, Coenzyme (i) Decrease of Pernicious None reported
amine (B12) fish, eggs, dairy involved in red blood cell anemia
products. transfer of single- (ii) Neurologic
carbon units in disorders
nucleic acid
metabolism.
Biotin Legumes, Coenzyme (i) Fatigue Dermatitis None reported
vegetables, required for fat (ii) Depression
meats, liver, synthesis, amino (iii) Nausea
egg yolk, nuts, acid metabolism, (iv) Muscular
etc. and glycogen pain
(animal starch) (v) Roughness
formation. of skin
Vitamin C Citrus fruits, (i) Maintains (i) Spongy and Scurvy Relatively
(Ascorbic tomatoes, green intercellular bleeding gum nontoxic and
acid) peppers, salad matrix of (ii) Hemorrhage possibility of
greens. cartilage, bone under skin and kidney stones
and dentine mucous membrane
(ii) Important in (iii) Degeneration
collagen of skin, teeth and
synthesis blood vessels
Fat-Soluble Provitamin A (i) Constituent (i) Dry scaly eye. (i) Xeropthal- Headache,
Vitamin A (β-carotene) of rhodopsin (ii) Inability to see mia vomiting,
(Retinol) widely (visual pigment). in dim light (ii) Nightblind- peeling of
distributed (ii) Maintenance (iii) Keratinization ness skin,
in green of epithelial of ocular tissue (iii) Permanent anorexia,
vegetables tissue blindness swelling of
Retinol present (iii) Role in long bones
in milk, butter, mucopoly-
cheese, fortified saccharide
margarine synthesis
Contd...
Contd...

functions symptoms
Vitamin D Cod-liver oil, (i) Promotes (i) Softening and (i) Ricket Vomiting,
(Calciferol) eggs, dairy growth and bending of leg (in children) diarrhea,
products, mineralization bones. (ii) Osteo- loss of weight,
fortified milk, of bones (ii) Decay of malacia kidney damage
margarine, (ii) Increase bone and teeth (in adult)
UV-ray of sun light absorption of (iii) Bone
calcium deformities
Vitamin E Seeds, Function as an (i) Weakness Possible Relatively
(Tocopherol) green leafy antioxidant to (ii) Nausea anemia nontoxic
vegetables, prevent cell
margarines, damage
seeds oil
Vitamin K Green leafy Important in (i) Severe Defective Relatively
(Phylloquinone) vegetables, blood clotting bleeding coagulation nontoxic.
small amounts (involved in (ii) Internal of blood. Synthetic forms
in cereals, fruits formation of hemorrhage at high doses
and meats prothrombin) may cause
jaundice
Hyper-vitaminosis: A condition due to the form oxygen containing free radicals such as super
administration of excess amount of a vitamin is oxide (O 2–), hydrogen peroxide (H 2O 2) and
termed as hyper-vitaminosis. Excess amount of hydroxyl (OH–) radicals due to electron “leakage”
water-soluble vitamins when administrated in at various steps in the electron transports chain.
the body are excreted through urine. Thus they When super oxide forms, for example, it
cause no toxic effects. But fat-soluble vitamins are dismutates to hydrogen peroxide, normally, super
more prone to produce toxic symptoms, as their oxide is rapidly converted to O2 and H2O by the
concentration level rises steadily in the body. enzyme super oxide dismutase. An accumulation
Daily ingestion of a moderate to large amount of free radicals increases the potential for cellular
of vitamin A and D eventually can have serious damage, or oxidative stress, to many biologically
toxic effects. In young children, excessive vitamin important substances. In fact the major effect of
A intake causes irritability, swelling of the bones, oxygen radicals is their affinity to the poly-
weight loss and dry, itchy skin. In adults, symptoms unsaturated fatty acids that make-up the lipid by
can include nausea, headache, drowsiness, loss of layer of the cell membrane. During unchecked
hair, diarrhea and loss of calcium from bones, oxidative stress, there is a deterioration of the fatty
causing brittleness. Discontinuing high intakes acids in the plasma membrane, which becomes
of Vitamin-A reverses these symptoms. damaged through a chain reaction series of events
Kidney damage can result from a regular excess in termed lipid peroxidation. Free radicals also can
take of vitamin D. facilitate the oxidation of low density lipoprotein
(LDL) cholesterol, which accelerate the process of
ANTIOXIDANT ROLE OF SPECIFIC atherosclerosis. Oxidative stress ultimately increases
the likely hood of cellular deterioration associated
VITAMINS
with advanced aging as well as cancer, diabetes and
Most of the oxygen consumed during energy coronary artery disease.
metabolism in the mitochondria combines with Although there is no way to stop oxygen
hydrogen to produce water. Normally, however, reduction and the production of free radicals, an
approximately 2 to 5 percent of this oxygen will elaborate natural defense against their damaging
effects exists within the cytosol and mitochondria vitamin E and vitamin C are the strong antioxidant
of the cell and its surrounding extra cellular space. and supplementation of these vitamins, the free
This defense includes the scavenger enzymes such radical production is reduced dramatically as
as catalase, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide reported by many researchers.
dismutase and metal binding proteins. In addition,
nutritive-reducing agents such as vitamins A, C, E Supplementation of Vitamins
and the vitamin A-precursor, β-carotene, serve Vitamin supplements can reverse the symptoms of
important protective functions. Maintaining a diet vitamin deficiency, once a deficiency is cured,
that provides appropriate levels of the antioxidant supplements do not further improve a normal
vitamins, especially vitamin C and β-carotene, is status. However, researches have not supported the
linked to a reduced risk of several types of cancers, use of vitamin supplements to improve exercise
whereas normal to above normal intake of vitamin per formance or training per formance in
E and β-carotene may decrease the heart attack nutritionally adequate healthy people. When
risk. vitamin intake is at recommended levels,
supplements neither improve exercise performance
Exercise and Antioxidant
nor necessarily increase the blood levels of these
Although the beneficial effects of physical activity nutrients.
are well known, the potential for possible negative
effects is currently being reviewed in the literature. VITAMINS AND EXERCISE
This potential is based on the reasoning that the
PERFORMANCE
elevated aerobic metabolism in exercise increases
the production of free radicals. Free radical can be Many vitamins serve as coenzyme components or
produced during exercise in at least two ways. The precursors of coenzymes that regulate energy
first is via an electron leak in the mitochondria and metabolism. Many coaches, athletes, fitness
the second is during alterations in blood flow and enthusiasts to advocate the use of vitamin
oxygen supply—under perfusion often occurs supplements. But this approach is simply not
during intense exercise and is than followed by supported by research findings. However, B-
reperfusion in the recovery period. With exercise, vitamins play key roles as coenzymes in important
the risk seems to depend on intensity and the energy yielding reactions during carbohydrate, lipid
individual’s state of training, because exhaustive and protein catabolism.
exercise by untrained individuals is more likely to Supplementing the diet with vitamin B 6 an
produce oxidative damage in the active muscle. essential co-factor in glycogen and amino acid
Now the question is whether physically active metabolism, is of no benefit to the mixture
individuals are more prone to free-radical damage metabolized by men/women during intense
or whether protective agents with antioxidant aerobic exercise. No exercise benefit has been
properties are required in increased quantities in reported for vitamins other than the B-complex
physically active individuals. group such as vitamin C and E.
It has been suggested that for well nourished It has never been firmly established that a
humans, the natural defenses of the body are deficiency state for vitamin E exists for normal
adequate for its protection. Although a single bout individuals or that vitamin E supplements above
of submaximal exercise increased oxidant the RDA level are beneficial to stamina, circulatory
production, the natural antioxidant defenses coped function, or energy metabolism. Chronic high
effectively. Even when repeated bouts of exercise potency multivitamin-mineral supplementation for
were performed on consecutive days, various well nourished healthy individuals was of no benefit
indices of oxidative stress indicated that the body’s on measures of aerobic fitness, muscular strength
antioxidant system was not depleted. However, and athletic performance.
Fig. 8.3: Role of water soluble vitamins in the metabolism of carbohydrates lipids, and proteins.
(Adapted from Katch, Katch and Mcardle)
Mega Vitamins vitamin C may destroy significant amount of vitamin

Although physically active individuals who eat a well B12 . In healthy individuals, vitamin C supplements
balanced diet do not need to take additional frequently irritate the bowel and cause diarrhea.
vitamins, most scientists believed that there is little Excess vitamin B6 may produce liver disease and
harm in taking a multivitamin capsule containing nerve damage. Excess vitamin B2 can impair vision,
the recommended allowance of each vitamin. It is whereas mega dose of nicotinic acid inhibits the
of great concern, however, that some athletes resort uptake of fatty acids by cardiac muscle during
to taking megavitamins, or doses at least ten fold exercise. Possible side effects of vitamin E mega
and up to 1000 times the RDA, in hopes that dose include headache, fatigue, blurred vision,
“supercharging” with vitamins will improve exercise gastrointestinal disturbances, muscular weakness,
performance. Such a practice can be harmful, except and low blood sugar. The toxicity to the nervous
incase of specific serious medical illness. system of mega doses of vitamin A and the
A mega dose of water soluble vitamin C, for damaging effects to the kidneys of excess vitamin
example, can raise serum uric acid levels and D have been well demonstrated.
precipitate gout in people predisposed to this disease.
Minerals
Also some American blacks, Asian and Sephardic
Jews have a genetic metabolic deficiency in which Minerals are defined as those elements which
of vitamin C can lead to hemolytic anemia. In remain largely as ash when plant or animal tissues
individuals who are iron-deficient, mega doses of are burned. The mineral salts are very much
essential for our life although they give no energy. b. Micro minerals: Micro minerals are those
The body contains more than 19 minerals all of elements, which are required in much smaller
which must be derived from foods. About 4% of amounts (less than 2–5 mg per day). Examples:
the body weight is made up of minerals. iodine, iron, copper, fluorine, zinc, etc.
Classification of minerals: Minerals fall broadly
under two groups such as- Role of Minerals in the Body
a. Macro minerals: Macro minerals are those
elements needed in relatively large amounts Various minerals that help in catabolic and anabolic
(around 100 mg per day). Examples: sodium, cellular process. They are important in activating
potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, the numerous reactions that release energy during
chlorine, sulfur. the breakdown of fat, protein and carbohydrate.
Table 8.2: Summary of minerals sources, functions and deficiency symptoms and excess intake.
Minerals Dietary Sources Major bodily functions Deficiency symptoms Excess in take
Major
Calcium Milk, cheese, dark (i) Bone and teeth (i) Muscular cramps and Not reported in
(Ca) green vegetables, formation convulsions humans
dried legumes, (ii) Nerve transmission (ii) Delays blood
etc. (iii) Blood clotting coagulation
(iii) Stunted growth
(iv) Osteoporosis
(v) May cause rickets
Phosphorus Milk, cheese, (i) Bone and teeth (i) Weakness Erosion of jaw
(P) yogurt, meat, formation (ii) Demineralization (phossy jaw)
poultry, grains, (ii) Essential part of (iii) Osteomalacia
fish, etc. cell membrane.
(iii) Loss of calcium.
Potassium Leafy vegetables, (i) Fluid balance (i) Muscle cramps. None if kidneys
(K) cantelope, lima (ii) Nerve transmission (ii) Irregular cardiac function normally.
beans, potatoes, (iii) Acid-base balance rhythm But poor kidney
bananas, milk, (iii) Mental confusion function causes
meats, coffee, tea (iv) Loss of appetite potassium buildup
(v) Can be life and cardiac
threatening arrythmias
Sulfur (s) Meat, eggs, dairy (i) Acid-base balance Unlikely to occur if Unknown
products, nuts, (ii) Liver function dietary intake is
legumes adequate
Sodium Common table (i) Acid-base balance (i) Muscle cramps High blood
(Na) salt, dairy (ii) Body water balance (ii) Mental apathy pressure
products, meat, (iii) Nerve function (iii) Reduced appetite
eggs, vegetables
Chlorine Chlorides are part Important part of extra Unlikely to occur Along with sodium
(Chloride) of salt containing cellular fluids if dietary intake is contributes to high
food, table salt adequate blood pressure
(NaCl). Some
vegetables and
fruits
Magnesium Whole grains, Activates enzymes (i) Growth failure Diarrhea
(Mg) green leafy involved in protein (ii) Behavioral
vegetables synthesis disturbances
Contd...
Contd...
Minerals Dietary Sources Major bodily functions Deficiency symptoms Excess

Minor
Iron (Fe) Eggs, lean meats, (i) Constituent of (i) Weakness (i) Siderosis
legumes, whole hemoglobin (ii) Reduced resistance (ii) Cirrhosis of liver
grains, green leafy (ii) Enzymes involved to infection
vegetables, fruits in energy metabolism.
Fluorine Drinking water, May be important in Higher frequency (i) Mottling of
(F) tea and seafood maintenance of bone of tooth decay. teeth
structure (ii) Increased bone
density
Zinc Widely distributed Constituent of (i) Growth failure (i) Fever
(Zn) in foods: liver, fish, enzymes involved (ii) Small sex glands (ii) Nausea
shellfish and many in digestion (iii) Vomiting
other foods (iv) Diarrhea
Copper Meats, drinking Constituent of (i) Anemia Rare metabolic
(Cu) water, etc. enzymes associated (ii) Bone change condition
with iron metabolism. (rare in humans) (Wilson’s disease)
Selenium Seafood, meats, Functions in close Anemia (rare) (i) Gastrointestinal
(Se) grains association with disorders
vitamin E (ii) Lung irritations
Iodine (I) Marine fish Constituent of thyroid Goiter (enlarged Very high intakes
and shellfish, hormones thyroid) depress thyroid
dairy products, activity
vegetables,
iodized salt
Chromium Legumes, cereals, Constituent of some Not reported in Inhibition of
(Cr) organ meats enzymes humans enzymes
Minerals also form important constituents of consequence of prolonged exercise, especially in

hormones. Along with these minerals serve three hot weather, is the loss of water and minerals salts,
broad roles in the body which are as follows: primarily sodium and some potassium chloride in
i. They provide structure in the formation of sweating. Excessive water and electrolyte losses
bones and teeth. impair heat tolerance and exercise performance and
ii. In terms of function, they are intimately can lead to severe dysfunction in the form of heat
involved in maintaining normal heart rhythm, cramps, heat exhaustion, or heat stroke.
muscular contractility, neural conductivity Vigorous exercise triggers a rapid and
and the acid-base balance of the body. co-ordinated release of the hormones vasopressin,
iii. They play crucial roles in the regulation of rennin, and aldosterone, which reduce sodium and
water loss through kidneys. Sodium conservation
cellular metabolism by serving as important
by the kidneys is increased, even under extreme
par ts of enzymes and hormones that
conditions such as marathon running in warm
modulate cellular activity.
weather, during which sweat output may be as
much as 2 L per hour. Any electrolytes that are
MINERALS AND EXERCISE lost usually can be replenished by adding a slight
PERFORMANCE amount of salt to the fluid ingested or to the normal
daily food intake.
There is no evidence that supplementation benefit Research findings indicated that ingested so
of exercise performance for normal individuals called ‘Athletic Drinks’ is of no special benefit in
receiving the RDA of minerals. An important replacing the minerals lost through sweating
compared with ingesting a well balance diet. For Protein : 14–15 %

fluid losses in excess of 4 or 5 kg and for prolonged Fat : 29–30%
activity in the heat, salt supplements may be Carbohydrate : 55–56%
necessary and can be achieved with a 0.1 to 0.2 For example, athletes requiring 5000 kcal per
percent salt solution by adding approximately 0.3 day could have their diet divided as follows:
tsp of table salt per liter of water. Protein : 700–750 kcal
Strenuous exercise may place a drain on the Fat : 1450–1500 kcal
body’s content of the trace elements. While such Carbohydrate : 2750–2800 kcal
trace minerals losses do not necessarily mean that As we become older, our daily energy needs
athletes should supplement these micronutrients, decreases. The following diagram (Fig. 8.4) represent
it is possible that for men and women with marginal the relationship of age and energy requirements.
micronutrient intakes any further loss with
strenuous exercise needs to be replaced to prevent BALANCED DIETS
an over deficiency. Because iron, zinc and copper
are highly interactive with each other and compete A diet is considered “balanced” when all food
for the same carrier during intestinal absorption, groups (six) are represented in appropriate
an excessive intake of one mineral may cause a proportions or percentages. This means following
deficiency in the other. the recommended daily allowances for
micronutrients and for macronutrients—fats,
FOOD REQUIREMENTS proteins and carbohydrates. The six groups of foods
are fats, proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals
The amount of food necessary each day depends
upon a person’s energy needs. These energy needs and water.
are directly related to: Nutrition and balanced diets are often difficult
i. Periods of rapid growth to understand, let alone practice. Yet, they are so
ii. Age important to the success. For example: a sedentary
iii. Physical activity young male needs 1gm protein per kilogram of
During the rapid growing years (12–22 years the body weight, 20–25 percent of fat of total
for boys and 12–18 years for girls), there is a calorie and approximately 65 percent of
gradual increase in the minimal daily food carbohydrate along with other three, i.e. vitamins,
requirements. minerals and water. If he takes the above proportion
The percent contributes toward the total caloric are in his daily diet then only to be considered the
intake for each of the three foodstuffs are: diet is “balanced”.
Table 8.3: Recommended daily dietary allowances established by the national academy of sciences
Gender Age (years) Weight Height Kilo-Calories Kcal/lb

(lb) (kg) (inches) (cm)
Males 10–12 77 35.0 55 139.7 2,500 33
12–14 95 43.1 59 149.9 2,700 28
14–18 30 59.0 67 170.2 3,000 23
18–22 147 66.7 69 175.3 2,800 19
Females 10–12 77 35.0 56 142.2 2,250 29

12–14 97 44.0 61 154.9 2,300 24
14–16 114 51.8 62 157.5 2,400 21
16–18 119 54.0 63 160.0 2,300 19
18–22 128 58.1 64 162.6 2,000 16
* From Nutrition for the Athlete: American Association for health, Physical Education and Recreation, Washington, DC,
1971, p.9.
I. Calorie requirement
Activities:
i. Sleep for 8 hours @ 90% of BMR = 60 × 0.9
× 8= 432 Cal
ii. Non occupational activities:
a. Eating, shaving, bathing and dressing
@ 2 Kcal/kg/hr for 1.5 hrs = 2 × 65 × 1.5
= 195 Cal
b. Quiet sitting or standing @ 1.5Cal/kg/
hr for 1 hr = 1.5 × 65 × 1 = 98 Cal
c. Writing, card-playing, gossiping and
playing musical instruments @ 1.5Cal/
kg/hr for 5.5 hrs= 1.5 × 65 × 5.5 = 537
Fig. 8.4: Daily energy requirements for men ages
20 to 75 years (sedentary) Cal
d. Walking @ 3Cal/kg/hr for 1 hr = 3 × 65
× 1 = 195 Cal
Unfortunately, it’s very hard to find dieting iii. Occupational work @ 3.5 Cal/kg/hr for 7
programs that center on balanced diets. That’s hr = 3.5 × 65 × 7.0 = 1593 Cal
because most programs aims to lose weight fast. Total amount of calorie = 3050 Cal
As consumers of weight loss products, we all want Ten percent allowance for SDA = 305 Cal
fast results. But fast results come at the expense of Total daily calorie requirement = 3355 Cal
nutrition and balanced diets. II. Nutrient Requirement
Nutrients Amounts Cal
COMPUTATION OF CALORIE AND
1. Proteins @1g/kg 65 × 1 = 65 gm 267
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS (1g protein ≡ 4.1 Cal)
Before computation of calorie and nutrient 2. Fats @20% of total Cal (3355 × 0.20)/9 671
(1g fat ≡ 9 Cal) = 75 gm
requirements the daily activity to be recorded for
3. Carbohydrate for the {3355 – (267 + 671}
the individual. The daily activity and calorie balance of Calorie /4 = 604 gm
requirement per kilogram of body weight per hour (1g carbohydrate 2417
given/classified are as follows: ≡ 4 Cal)
i. Very light activity (quite sitting, reading,
watching TV etc.) — 1.5–2.0 Kcal/kg/hr.
ii. Light activity (Eating, bathing, Dressing,
BODY WATER AND WATER BALANCE
playing Music, etc.) — 2.0–3.0 Kcal/kg/hr. Water
iii. Moderate activity (Walking, gardening,
jogging etc.) — 3.0–3.5 Kcal/kg/hr. Water is one of the most important food for living
iv. Heavy activity (Swimming, Porters, running, organisms. The human body contains water (60%),
etc.) — 3.5–4.5 Kcal/kg/hr. proteins (20%), lipids (10%), minerals (7%) and
v. Exhaustive activity (Weight lifting, Long carbohydrates (3%). The total water is distributed
distance running etc.) — 4.5 and more Kcal/ throughout the body as in two main compartments,
kg/hr. intracellular (55%), i.e. the fluid within the cells and
For example: extra cellular (45%), i.e. the fluid outside the cells.
Subject: Adult male The extra cellular water includes 3 liters plasma and
Age: 25 years about 11 liters interstitial fluid and lymph. Although
Weight: 65 kg water makes up 40 to 60 percent of the total body
B.M.R: 60 Cal/hr weight, which is like vitamins and minerals, which is
not classified as an energy nutrient.
Fig. 8.5: Percent of water content in the body.(Adapted from Greenleaf,JE: Problem:thirst,drinking behavior and
involuntary dehydration. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 24: 645, 1992)
Sources: Water Intake: A fairly sedentary adult in a normal

i. Exogenous water: From food and drink. environment requires about 2.5 L of water each
ii. Endogenous water: From the end product day. For an active person in a warm environment
of metabolism. the water requirement often increases to between
Functions: Water plays severals important roles 5–10 L daily. Three sources provide this water: (1)
which are given below: liquids, (2) foods, and (3) metabolic processes.
i. It is an essential constituent of living cell. i. Water from liquids: The average individual
ii. It acts as an important medium for osmosis, normally consumes 1200 ml or 41 oz of
diffusion, filtration, etc. of the various water each day. Of course, during exercise
physical processes. and thermal stress, fluid intake can increase
iii. Body temperature is regulated by water. five or six times above normal. However, with
iv. Water acts as lubricating agent by which it proper fluid ingestion, including salt
prevents friction and drying. supplements, the actual body weight loss
v. It helps in the process of absorption from amounted to only 1.4 kg. Fluid loss and
intestine, reabsorption from kidney tubules, replenishment represented between 3.5 and
synthesis of digestive juices, transport of 4 gallons of liquid.
hormones, etc. ii. Water in foods: Most foods, particularly fruits
vi. Water helps in making the food bolus. and vegetables, contain considerable amount
vii. It helps in dilution of food for activity of of water (e.g. lettuce, watermelon, cucumber
enzyme. and cantaloupe, pickles, green beans and
broccoli, etc.); in contrast, butter, oils, dried
Water Balance meats and chocolate, cookies and cakes etc.
The body’s water content remains relatively stable have a relatively low water content.
overtime. Although considerable water output iii. Metabolic water: Water and carbon dioxide
occurs in physically active individuals, appropriate form when food molecules become
fluid intake rapidly restore and imbalance in the catabolized for energy. This water, termed
body’s fluid level. The sources of water intake and metabolic water, provides about 25 percent
output are discussed below: of the daily water requirement of a sedentary
Fig. 8.6: Sources of body water gains and loss at rest. (Adapted from Wilmore and Costil)
person. The complete breakdown of 100 g ii. Water loss through the skin: A small quantity
of carbohydrate, protein and fat produces of water (perhaps 350 ml), termed insensible
55g, 100g and 107g of metabolic water, perspiration , continually seeps from the
respectively. Additionally, each gram of deeper tissues through the skin to the body’s
glycogen joins with 2.7g of water as its surface.
glucose unit’s link together; subsequently, Water loss through the skin also occurs as
glycogen liberates this water during its sweat produced by specialized sweat glands
catabolism for energy. beneath the skin. Evaporation of sweat’s
water component provides the refrigerator
Water Output: Water loss from the body occurs in
mechanism to cool the body. Daily sweat rate
urine, through the skin, as water vapor in expired under normal conditions amounts to
air, and in feces. between 500 and 700 ml. This by no means
i. Water loss in urine: Under normal conditions reflects sweating capacity; a well-acclimatized
the kidneys reabsorb about 99 percent of the person can produce up to 12 L of sweat
140 to 160 L of filtrate formed each day; (equivalent of 10 to 12 kg) at a rate of 1 L
consequently, the volume of urine excreted per hour during prolonged exercise in a hot
daily by the kidneys ranges from 1000 to environment.
1500 ml or about 1.5 quarts. iii. Water loss in feces: Intestinal elimination
Elimination of 1g of solute by the kidneys produces between 100 and 200 ml of water
requires about 15 ml of water. Thus, a person loss because water constitutes approximately
need of water in urine becomes “obligated” 70 percent of fecal matter. The remainder
to rid the body of metabolic byproducts like comprises nondigestible material including
urea, an end product of protein breakdown. bacteria from the digestive process, and the
Using large quantities of protein for energy residues of digestive juices from the intestine,
(as occurs with a high protein diet) actually stomach and pancreas. With diarrhea or
accelerates the body’s dehydration during vomiting, water loss increases in between
exercise. 1500 and 5000 ml.
Physical activity and environmental factors play an There is wide variability in sweat rates, losses
important role: The loss of body water represents and hydration levels of individuals, it is nearly
the most serious consequence of profuse sweating. impossible to provide specific recommendation or
The severity of physical activity, environmental guidelines about the type or amount of fluids
temperature and humidity determine the amount athletes should consume. Finding the right amount
of water lost through sweating. Relative humidity of fluid to drink depends upon a variety of
(water content of the ambient air) affects the individual factors including the length and intensity
ef ficiency of the sweating mechanism in of exercise and other individual differences.
temperature regulation. The air becomes
completely saturated with water vapor at 100 Recommended Oral Rehydration Solution
percent relative humidity. This blocks any The ideal oral rehydration solution contains a
evaporation of fluid from the skin surface to the carbohydrate concentration of between 5 and 8
air, thus minimizing this important avenue for body percent. Oral rehydration solutions within this
cooling. Under such conditions, sweat beads on
range generally permit carbohydrate replenishment
the skin and eventually rolls off, without providing
with out hindering water uptake, fluid homeostasis,
a cooling effect. On a dry day, however, the air can
and temperature regulation compare to ingesting
hold considerable moisture, and fluid rapidly
plain water during prolonged exercise in the heat.
evaporates from the skin. Thus, the sweat
If the duration of the intense aerobic effort is
mechanism functions at optimal efficiency and
relatively short (less than one hour) and the thermal
body temperature remains regulated. Interestingly,
stress is high, fluid replenishment is of utmost
a decrease in plasma volume occurs when sweating
importance to health and safety, and it is advisable
causes a fluid loss equal to 2 or 3 percent of body
to consume a diluted carbohydrate-electrolyte
mass. Fluid loss places a significant strain on
solution (less than 5% carbohydrate). There is a
circulatory function, which ultimately impairs
exercise capacity and thermoregulation. little difference between liquid glucose, sucrose,
Monitoring changes in body weight provides a or starch as the ingested carbohydrate fuel source
convenient method for assessing fluid loss during during exercise. Fructose is not desirable because
exercise and or heat stress. Each 0.45 kg (1 lb) of its absorption by the gut does not involve by the
body weight loss corresponds to 450 ml (15 oz) active co-transport process required for glucose-
of dehydration. sodium. Therefore, fructose absorption is relatively
slow and promotes less fluid uptake than an
Water Requirement in Exercise equivalent amount of glucose. The optimal
carbohydrate replacement rate is between 30 and
The most serious consequence of profuse sweating
60 gm per hour ingested at least 30 minutes before
is the loss of body water. The amount of water loss
the time when fatigue would normally occur with
through sweating depends on the severity of the
out a carbohydrate supplement.
physical activity and environmental temperature.
The relative humidity is also an important factor
affecting the efficiency of the sweating mechanism BODY WEIGHT CONTROL AND
in temperature regulation. Staying hydrated is EXERCISE
particularly important during exercise. Adequate
fluid intake is essential to comfort, performance There are two components to the weight control
and safety. The longer and more intense exercise, equation; namely, the number of calories that you
the more important it is to drink the right kind of consume and the number of calories that you burn.
fluids, Studies have found that athletes who lose Under normal conditions, the objective in weight
as little as two percent of their body weight through control is to achieve a balance between the two. If
blood volume may also lead to muscle cramps, an imbalance does occur it will generally result in
dizziness, fatigue and heat illness. either a loss or possibly a gain in weight. For
example, if more calories than needed for energy and weight control is that exercise is not really
expenditure are taken in, a weight gain usually effective in weight reduction because appetite is
results. The reverse is also true. automatically increased in direct proportion to the
An individual can lose or gain weight in one of increased exercise. There is no doubt that laborers
three ways: such as lumberjacks and farmers who perform daily
i. By manipulating the number of calories taken 8 hours of hard physical work consume twice as
in. many daily calories as sedentary people. Also, athletes
ii. By manipulating the number of calories such as marathon runners and cross-country skiers
burned up. who devote a considerable amount of time (in some
iii. By manipulating both the intake and cases, 8 hours or more) to strenuous training
expenditure. consume a large amount of calories per day (around
Most people, when attempting to lose a few 6,000 kcal) as compared to sedentary (between
kilograms of body weight, generally think of cutting 2,000 and 3,000 kcal) people. Apparently, this high
down on their caloric intake (by dieting) while giving calorie intake for these athletes, however, is needed
very little attention to the number of calories that to meet their energy demands for training since some
they burn. Although the result is usually some of the athletes have very low percent of body fats.
weight loss and a reduction in lean body weight, its On the other hand, there is a considerable amount
generally just for a short period of time and is usually of evidence available to indicate that if exercise is
not retained. Under this system where weight loss performed for short to moderate periods of time (such
is accomplished only by dieting, a feeling of as one hour per day) daily, appetite and food intake is
deprivation and resentment is usually developed over not increased regardless of whether the work is mild
a period of time. What normally happens is that or vigorous. But instead, most people’s appetite will
people often revert back to their old previous eating generally decrease (especially if they are used to
habits and gain weight in terms of body fat. Most sedentary style of living).
nutritionists and exercise physiologists agree that a Another misconception concerning exercise and
combination of reduced intake and increased weight control is the amount of time required by
expenditure is generally considered the best. In fact, exercising to reduce body weight, in other words,
the majority of research in recent years has concluded some people claim that a person must spend an
that the best method of losing weight is through a unbelievable amount of time and effort to lose just
combined exercise (progressive cardio respiratory- half kg of fat. For example, on a short-time weight-
endurance type) and diet program over a relatively reduction exercise program, this is probably true
long period of time. This type of weight-reduction since in order to lose a pound of stored fat, a deficit
program is designed to allow for a slow and gradual of 3,500 kcal is equal to 3,087 ft-lb of work. What
weight loss of between 0.5 and 1.0 kg per week this actually means in terms of physical activity is
without a large reduction in the daily food intake. playing golf (walking and not riding in a cart) for
However, it has been suggested that individuals something like 20 hours, leisure walking for
should not lost more than 1.0 kg per week. A weight something like 20 to 25 hours, or performing some
loss of 1.0 kg per week is a considerable amount other ridiculous feat of work. A person who is
when one considers that this would total around overweight and wants to lose 5 to 10 kg would
47 kg if carried on for 12 months or one year. It become very discouraged and upset if he thought
should also be mentioned that this combined and that he had to spend that much time in one or two
diet long-range program is also designed to not only days or even in a week on order to lose one kg. In
reduce body weight to optimum levels without fact, he probably would choose dieting over
necessarily lowering lean body weight, but also to existing if he felt that it was going to require that
perhaps create new and long lasting eating and much time. On the other hand, what most people
exercising habits. tend to forget is that the number of calories
At this point, it should be mentioned that in some expended during physical activity is cumulative and
circles a general misconception concerning exercise may take place over a prolonged period of time. In
other words, a caloric deficit of 3,500 kcal is equal d. Low in fat and fiber to facilitate gastric emptying
to half kg of weight loss no matter if it occurs in and gastrointestinal distress.
one day, over a one-month period, or in one year. e. Hold moderate intake of protein foods because
It is important to remember that the speed by their metabolism results in fixed acids. In large
which an effective weight loss can be brought about quantities, this could result in an undesirable
will naturally depend upon the individual’s personal acidosis.
goals, their motivation, how much they reduce the f. Fluid can best be supplied by bouillon (which
intake of food, and how much exercise they actually supplies sodium, which is excreted in perspiration
get involved in. during an event). Many athletes will prefer milk or
Some typical caloric values of several physical juices, and if experiences show no ill effects it is
activities are only average energy values for normal
probably wise to accede to this preference. Sufficient
people and should not be interpreted as absolute
in fluid to maintain hydration in suggected.
values since the number of kilocalories expended
g. High in carbohydrate to maintain blood glucose
for any physical activity will fluctuate from person
and maximize filling of glycogen stores in the
to person. These values can be used as a helpful
body.
guide in calculating how much extra daily activity
h. Made up of foods familiar to the athlete should
one needs in a weight-reducing program.
be preferred
i. Ideally, the meal should be eaten approximately
TIMING OF NUTRITIONAL INTAKE
3 to 4 hours before the event and comprise 200
Athletes are concerned that they are properly fueled to 300 g of carbohydrate.
prior to exercise or competition. Although most
realize the importance of eating, many do not Food Supplements during Competition
understand the timing of the pre-exercise or pre-
The importance of carbohydrate supplementation
event meal and what this meal should consist of.
during competition has begun to attain full
However, over the last few years a greater
acceptance and its efficacy has achieved scientific
understanding has been attained due to studies
merit. These guidelines are recommended for the
examining the effects of food and fluid consumption
during-competition meal:
prior to and during exercise and completion.
i. Carbohydrates during exercise maintain
The Pre-Competition Meal blood glucose levels and improve exercise
performance. In addition, the carbohydrate
It is generally accepted that athletes benefit greatly
supplement did not cause any elevation in
from having meal before practice or competition
plasma insulin concentrations.
as opposed to performing in a fasted state (ACSM
ii. Continually providing carbohydrate at 15 to
Joint Position Statement, 2000). The meal before
20 min intervals during the first 2-hour
game contributes very little to the glycogen content
activity may be more beneficial.
of the muscle. However, it helps to ensure blood
glucose levels and prevent feelings of hunger. iii. The composition of the carbohydrate should
These guidelines are recommended for the pre- be primarily glucose but a combination of
competition meal: glucose and fructose may be used without
a. Avoid foods that are even mildly distasteful to gastric problems.
an individual athlete-no matter how well they iv. The carbohydrate consumed can be in liquid,
may serve nutritional objectives. An athlete may solid, or gel form as long as the athlete drinks
get sick even though the food is excellent. adequate fluids.
b. Avoid irritating foods, such as highly spiced v. If the athletes enter the competition with an
foods and roughage. inadequate glycogen supply, they would
c. Avoid gas-forming foods: onions, cabbage, benefit from carbohydrate supplementation
apples and baked beans, etc. during the event.
The Post-Competition Meal selection of the plant foods they eat to provide a
The timing of the post exercise or post-competition good balance of the essential amino acids and
meal is important. It is generally recommended adequate sources of vitamin A, riboflavin, vitamin
B 12 , vitamin D, calcium, iron and sufficient
that the post exercise meal be eaten within 2 to 4
hours. However, the closer the meal is to the calories.
conclusion of the exercise or competition, the
greater the opportunity to maximize glycogen DIETS AFFECT PERFORMANCE
loading. The following guidelines are Carbohydrate is the prime source of energy during
recommended for the post-competition meal: exhaustive work; both fat and carbohydrates are
i. Carbohydrates with a high glycemic index are the sources of energy during steady state activities.
essential for the meal due to higher muscle The carbohydrate molecule contains more oxygen
glycogen content. than does fat. Add to this the fact that carbohydrate
ii. Foods with a high glycemic index are digested is a more efficient precursor of energy than fat
quickly and raise blood glucose levels fairly (requires less oxygen to produce the same amount
rapidly. of energy); this makes it the preferable energy-
iii. Protein consumption is necessary for muscle producing food. Studies conclusively demonstrate
repair and other anabolic processes within the that diets lacking in carbohydrates have deleterious
muscle. effects on work performance.
iv. A combined protein and carbohydrate
supplement provided immediately post
MUSCLE GLYCOGEN LOADING OR
exercise might enhance the anabolic processes
after resistance exercise. SUPERCOMPENSATION
The amount of glycogen resynthesized in skeletal
VEGETARIAN DIET muscle can be increased to values much higher than
normal by following one or more of the following
To eat a healthy diet and to increase carbohydrate
diet and or exercise procedures.
intake, many athletes have adopted vegetarianism.
However, athletes can survive on vegetarian diet. 1. The first of these procedures is the endurance
But the athletes who are strict vegetarians (not athletes who consume a high carbohydrate diet
lacto-vegetarian) must be very careful in the for 3 to 4 days after several days on a normal
Fig. 8.7: The relationship between muscle glycogen content and work time.
mixed diet may increase their glycogen stores i. Exercise-induced depletion of glycogen is
from the normal 15 grams to around 25 grams followed by a fat and protein diet, causes a
per kilogram of muscle. During the period of feeling of fatigue.
the high carbohydrate diet, no exhausting ii. Possibility of a reduced niacin intake during
exercise should be performed. the carbohydrate-rich diet.
2. A second procedures for loading the muscle with iii. Glycogen loading results in an increased
glycogen combines exercise and diet. In this muscular storage of water. A feeling of
procedure the muscles that are to be loaded are stiffness and heaviness is thus often associated
first exhausted of their glycogen stores through with loading of the muscle.
exercise; the individual then follows a high
carbohydrate diet for a few days. This routine SUMMARY
has been shown to double the glycogen stores.
3. A third procedure for glycogen loading calls for i. Nutrition is the combination of processes by
exercise and two special diets. Exercise is once which the living organism receives and
again used to induce glycogen depletion. The utilizes the materials necessar y for the
individual then follows a diet very low in maintenance of its functions and for the
carbohydrates but high in fat and protein for 3 growth and the renewal of its components.
days, after which a high carbohydrate diet is All nutrients that are collected by the living
followed for an additional 3 days. This organisms from their surroundings are not
procedure has been shown to increase the considered as food. Nutrients do not require
glycogen stores to levels approaching 50g/kg digestion. The essential substance like
and could result 700 gm of stored glycogen or minerals, vitamins and water are collectively
2800 kcal of ready energy. called nutrients.
A degree of caution should be obser ved ii. By taking those edible substances, due to
whenever glycogen loading is attempted. which growth, nutrition, yield of energy, and
Fig. 8.8: Muscle glycogen stores in the muscle followed by three different processes
building new tissue of the living body take exercise, especially in hot weather, is the loss
place, are considered as food. Food is divided of water and minerals salts, primarily sodium
into two types according to their functions and some potassium chloride in sweating.
such as- (i) primary or nutritive food (ii) Excessive water and electrolyte losses impair
secondary or protective food. Fat, protein, heat tolerance and exercise performance and
carbohydrates are called nutritive food and can lead to severe dysfunction in the form of
vitamins, minerals and water are known as heat cramps, heat exhaustion, or heat stroke.
protective food. Nutritive foods provide us vii. A diet is considered “balanced” when all food
energy and protective foods protect our body groups (six) are represented in appropriate
against the disease. proportions or percentages. This means
following the recommended daily allowances
iii. The Provitamins are the organic compounds
for micronutrients and for macronutrients—
from which the vitamins are synthesized in
fats, proteins and carbohydrates. The six
the animal body. The substances, which have
groups of foods are fats, proteins,
got structural and chemical group similar to
carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals and water.
vitamins but without any physiological action
Water is one of the most important foods for
or which destroy the vitamins or make the
living organisms.
vitamins ineffective are called antivitamins.
viii. The body’s water content remains relatively
A condition due to the administration of
stable overtime. Although considerable water
excess amount of a vitamin is termed as hyper-
output occurs in physically active individuals,
vitaminosis. Excess amount of water-soluble
appropriate fluid intake rapidly restore and
vitamins when administrated in the body are
imbalance in the body’s fluid level. A fairly
excreted through urine cause no toxic effects.
sedentary adult in a normal environment
But fat-soluble vitamins are more prone to
requires about 2.5 L of water each day. For
produce toxic symptoms, as their
an active person in a warm environment the
concentration level rises steadily in the body. water requirement often increases to between
iv. Vitamin supplements can reverse the 5 to 10 L daily. Three sources provide this
symptoms of vitamin deficiency, once a water: (1) liquids, (2) foods, and (3) metabolic
deficiency is cured, supplements do not processes.
further improve a normal status. Many ix. There are two components to the weight
coaches, athletes, fitness enthusiasts to control equation; namely, the number of
advocate the use of vitamin supplements. But calories that you consume and the number
this approach is simply not supported by of calories that you burn. Under normal
research findings. conditions, the objective in weight control
v. The mineral salts are very much essential for is to achieve a balance between the two. If
our life although they give no energy. The an imbalance does occur it will generally
body contains more than 19 minerals all of result in either a loss or possibly a gain in
which must be derived from foods. Various weight. For example, if more calories than
minerals that help in catabolic and anabolic needed for energy expenditure are taken in,
cellular process. They are important in a weight gain usually results.
activating the numerous reactions that release x. Athletes are concerned that they are properly
energy during the breakdown of fat, protein fueled prior to exercise or competition.
and carbohydrate. Minerals also form Although most realize the importance of
important constituents of hormones. eating, many do not understand the timing
vi. There is no evidence that supplementation of the pre-exercise or pre-event meal and
benefit of exercise performance for normal what this meal should consist of. However,
individuals receiving the RDA of minerals. over the last few years a greater understanding
An important consequence of prolonged has been attained due to studies examining
the effects of food and fluid consumption 7. Name the nutrients the deficiency of which
prior to and during exercise and completion. produces the following diseases: (a)
xi. Carbohydrate is the prime source of energy Kwashiorkor; (b) Scurvey; (c) Osteomelacia;
during exhaustive work; both fat and (d) Xerophthalmia; (e) Marasmus; (f) Pellagra;
carbohydrates are the sources of energy during (g) Goiter; (h) Rickets
steady state activities. The carbohydrate 8. Mentioned the nutritional role of the
molecule contains more oxygen than does fat. following in the human body: (a) Iron; (b)
Add to this the fact that carbohydrate is a more Iodine; (c) Vitamin D; (d) Carbohydrates; (e)
efficient precursor of energy than fat (requires Thiamin; (f) Calcium; (g) Vitamin A; (h)
less oxygen to produce the same amount of Protein.
energy); this makes it the preferable energy- 9. Discuss the value of using protein supplements
producing food. to enhance performance in strength and
endurance event.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 10. What is Balance Diet? Computation of Calorie
1. Define food. What do you mean by nutritive and Nutrient Requirements for a young adult
and protective food? What are the six male.
categories of nutrients? Write the neme of all 11. How does the body regulate electrolyte
essential acide. balance during acute exercise and chronic
2. What is an appropriate protein allowance for exercise?
a (i) normally active male and female, (ii) 12. Describe the preferred pre-competition and
Growing children and (iii) Shot-put thrower? post competition meal. Discuss about the food
3. What are the essential amino acids? supplements during competition.
4. What are the deficiency symptoms of vitamin 13. What is vegetarian diet? How diet affects
A and D? State the sources of vitamin A and C. sports performance?
5. Although fats provide more energy than 14. Describe the proper dietar y regimen to
carbohydrates, yet carbohydrates are more glycogen load the muscle prior to an
suitable than fats, why? exhaustive event lasting three to four hours.
6. Define nutrients? State the physiological 15. Discuss the value of consuming carbohydrate
functions of three fat and water soluble vitamins. during and after endurance exercise.
CHAPTER
9
Age, Sex and Physical Per for
Perfor mance
formance
 Growth, Development and the Young Athlete  Resistance (Strength) Training

 Influence of Growth Factors on Physical Fitness  Aerobic and Anaerobic Training
 Growth and Development of the Tissues  Growth and Maturation
 Effect of Exercise on Growth  Aging and Exercise
 Physical Performance in Young Athletes  Physiological Changes Accompanying the Aging
 Motor Ability Process
 Strength  Training Adaptation in the Aged
 Pulmonary Function  Basic Principles and Guidelines for Constructing
 Cardiovascular Function Individualized Cardiorespiratory Endurance
 Aerobic Capacity Exercise Program for the Aged
 Running Economy  Sport Performance
 Anaerobic Capacity, and  Changes in Muscular Strength with Aging
 Thermal Stress  Fiber Type and Aging
 Training the Young Athlete  Muscle Endurance Capacity and Aging
GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND THE state of a child’s or adolescent’s maturity can be

YOUNG ATHLETE defined by
a. Chronological age
Growth, development and maturation are terms b. Skeletal age
that can be used to describe changes starting at c. Stage of sexual maturation
conception and continuing through adulthood that
occur in the body. Growth refers to an increase in Chronological Age
the size of the body or any of its par ts. Chronological age refers to the period that has
Development refers to differentiation along elapsed beginning with an individual’s birth and
specialized lines of function, so it reflects the extending to any given point in time.
functional changes that occur with growth. Finally, Chronological age is used in research and in test
maturation refers to the process of talking on the norm development as a measure to group
adult form and becoming fully functional being individuals. Developmental research looks for age-
considered. For example, skeletal maturity refers related differences or behavior changes as a function
to having a fully developed skeletal system in which of age.
all bones have completed normal growth and Using chronological age provides a means to
ossification, whereas sexual maturity refers to roughly assure the equivalence of such factors as
having a fully functional reproductive system. The physical experience, social interaction, learning, and
acculturation among others. Chronological age is INFLUENCE OF GROWTH FACTORS ON

not necessarily a predictor of an individual’s stages PHYSICAL FITNESS
of development, as the rate at which individual’s
progress through stages may not be identical. Physical growth is the most important factor in
Problems in using chronological age include such the development of physical responses to exercise
issues as school readiness and the evaluation of during the childhood years. Moreover, differences
premature infants. As medical technology has in the rate of growth are largely responsible for
advanced in the treatment of premature infants, inter individual dif ferences in physical
chronological age has been challenged as an performances in the pediatric age group. A 16
appropriate measure for this group with gestational year old boy has three time greater maximal
age or durational pregnancy being proposed as a oxygen uptake than he had back at age 5. Grip
means of adjusting chronological age. strength in girls increases threefold over the same
age span. A teenager runs more economically
Developmental Norms (with a lower VO2 per kg.) at a given speed than
when he was a small child.
Developmental norms are defined as standards by
These are all expression principally of increases
which the progress of a child’s development can
in body size. Between the ages of 6 and 16 years,
be measured. For example, the average age at which
the lungs in males grow approximately from a
a child walks, learns to talk, or reaches puberty
total capacity of 1937 ml to 5685 ml and the
would be such a standard and would be used to
weight of the heart grows from 95 gm to 258
judge whether the child is progressing normally.
gm. These increases ar e manifest in the
Norms have also been used as a basis for the “ages
development in maximum minute ventilation
and stages” approach to understanding child
and stroke volume as children grow. Muscle
development, made famous most notably by Yale
strength improves as a consequence of increased
University pediatrician and educator Arnold Gessell
volume of muscle tissue. Estimated total body
and University of Chicago educator Robert
muscle mass in girls grows from 7 kg at age six
Havighurst. In using the idea of norms, Havighurst
years to 23 kg by adolescence. As leg length
presented a set of developmental tasks tied closely
increase with age, stride frequency at a given
to what behavior one might observe at what age.
speed declines, resulting in a lower overall
These sets of developmental tasks became a tool
oxygen requirement for running.
for teachers to use to help judge the appropriateness
of certain types of curriculum for children of certain
ages or developmental levels. While norms are
usually thought of as being age-related, norms can
also be tied to other developmental variables such
as race, ethnicity and sex.
There are early and late maturers, such as (Fig.
9.1) child A and child B whose individual
differences in variables such as strength and speed
at age 8 are not predictive of values at age 13.
Superimposed on these variations in rate of
maturation are inherent (geneticall-based)
interindividual differences, which cause one child
to be more fit than another, even when body size
and level of biologic development are equivalent.
Child C in the figure is fortunate and will always Fig. 9.1: Effects of timing of biologic maturation and inharent
physical fitness on physiologic performance development.
be able to lift more weight for a longer time than Child A, early maturer; child B, late maturer and child C,
child A. inharently more highly fit
Age, Sex and Physical Performance  173
Biologic Age Table 9.2: Average height and weight of girls

at different ages (Indian)
It has been observed that a program of hormonal
Age (years) Height (cm) Weight (kg)
activity that stimulates somatic growth proceeds
Birth 49.9 3.2
during the childhood and adolescent years. This
3 months 60.2 5.4
evolution of body size increase is one example of
6 months 66.6 7.2
biologic maturation, a series of developmental
9 months 71.1 8.6
changes that culminates in the adult stage or 1 year 75.0 9.5
complete biologic maturation. 2 years 84.5 11.8
The extent of biologic maturation can be 3 years 93.9 14.1
estimated by percentage of estimated adult height 4 years 101.6 16.0
and weight, wrist bone age as measured by 5 years 108.4 17.7
radiography and after the onset of puberty by the 6 years 114.6 19.5
progression of appearance of secondary sexual 7 years 120.6 21.8
characteristics. These are all indicators of different 8 years 126.4 24.8
aspects of biologic growth, but since all are 9 years 132.2 28.5
affected by similar anabolic hormonal influences, 10 years 138.3 32.5
they typically cluster and track together as children 11 years 142.0 33.7
12 years 148.0 38.7
grow.
13 years 150.0 44.0
14 years 155.0 48.0
Table 9.1: Average height and weight of boys
15 years 161.0 51.5
at different ages (Indian)
16 years 162.0 53.0
Age (years) Height (cm) Weight (kg) 17 years 163.0 54.0
18 years 164.0 54.4
Birth 50.5 3.3
3 months 61.1 6.0 Source: Nutrient requirements and recommended
6 months 67.8 7.8 dietary allowances for Indians, ICMR, 1990
9 months 72.3 9.2
1 year 76.1 10.2 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE
2 years 85.6 12.3
TISSUES
3 years 94.9 14.6
4 years 102.9 16.7 To understand the physical capabilities of children
5 years 109.9 18.7 and the potential impact that sport activity can have
6 years 116.1 20.7 on young athletes. We should consider the physical
7 years 121.7 22.9 state of their body. Growth and development of
8 years 127.0 25.3 some tissues are as follows:
9 years 132.2 28.1
a. Height and weight
10 years 137.5 31.4
b. Bone
11 years 140.0 32.2
c. Muscle
12 years 147.0 37.0
d. Body Fat
13 years 153.0 40.9
e. The nervous system
14 years 160.0 47.0
15 years 166.0 52.6
Height and Weight
16 years 171.0 58.0
17 years 175.0 62.7 These two variables are most useful when we
18 years 177.0 65.0 examine their rates of change with growth. Change
Source: Nutrient requirements and recommended dietary in height is assessed in terms of centimeters per
allowances for Indians, ICMR, 1990 year and change in weight in terms of kilograms
per year. Figure. 9.2 shows that height increases followed by an exponential decrease in the height
rapidly during the first two years of life. In fact the growth rate until full height is attained at a mean
child reaches about 50 percent of adult height by age of about 16.5 years in girls and 18.5 years in
age 2. After this, height increases at a progressively boys. The peak rate of growth in height occurs at
slower rate throughout childhood; thus there is a approximately 11–12 years in girls and 13–14 years
decline in the rate of its change. Just prior to puberty, in boys. The same overall trend for the rate of
the rate of change in height increases markedly, change in weight is revealed from the Figure. 9.2.
Fig. 9.2: Change of height and weight with age of boys and girls (up to maturity)
As with height, the peak rate of growth in body through increases in their myofilaments and
weight occurs at approximately 12.0 years in girls myofibrils. Muscle length increases through the
and 14.5 years in boys, which is slightly later than addition of sarcomeres and by increases in the length
height. of existing sarcomeres.
Muscle mass peaks in girls between ages 16 and
Bone 20 years and in boys between 18 and 25 years,
Bones are formed through ossification, which though it can be increased more through diet and
spreads from primary (diaphysis) and secondary exercise.
(epiphysis) ossification centers. Injury in the
epiphysis would cause early termination of growth. Body Fat
Exercise, along with an adequate diet, is essential Fat cells can increase in size and numbers
for proper bone growth. Exercise affects primarily throughout the life. Fat storage occurs through
bone width, density, and strength but has little or increase in the size of existing fat cells and by
no affect on length. increasing the number of fat cells. It appears that
Competitive baseball, specially pitching motion, existing fat cells, as they become full, signal the
carries the highest risks of epiphyseal injury. Sometimes need for the development of the new fat cells.
Tennis and Swimming also carry higher risks for young The amount of fat that accumulates with grows
athletes. and aging depends on diet, exercise habits and
heredity. Heredity is unchangeable, but both diet
Muscle and exercise can be altered to either increase or
Muscle mass increases steadily along with weight decrease the body fat storage.
gain from birth through adolescence. In males, the At physical maturity, the body’s fat content
rate of muscle mass increase peaks at puberty, when averages 15 percent in males and 25 percent in
testosterone production increases dramatically. females. The differences are caused primarily by
On the other hand girls do not experience this sharp higher testosterone level in males and higher
increase in muscle mass. Muscle mass increases in estrogen levels in females.
boys and girls result primarily from fiber hypertrophy
with little or no hyperplasia. The increase in muscle Nervous System
mass with growth and development is accomplished As children grow, they develop better balance,
primarily by hypertrophy of individual muscle fibers agility and coordination as their nervous systems
develop. Myelination of the nerve fibers must be
completed before fast reactions and skilled
movement can occur, because conduction of an
impulse along a nerve fiber is considerably slower
if myelination is absent or incomplete. Myelination
of the cerebral cortex occurs most rapidly during
childhood, but continues well beyond puberty.
Although practicing an activity or skill can improve
per formance to a cer tain extent, the full
development of that activity or skill is dependent
on full maturation of the nervous system.
EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON GROWTH

It is one of the very important aspect that how
physical activity during childhood and adolescence,
Fig. 9.3: Muscle mass with increase in age of boys and girls particularly athletic participation, affect physical
Figs 9.4(A and B): Change of (A) – fat and fat free mass and (B) skin fold thickness (four sites) of boys and girls with
increase in age (adopted from physiology of sports and exercise, Wilmore and Costill)
growth. This is a major concern of parents, coaches, bone width density and strength but has little or
and physical educators. Can this stresses of intense no effects on length.
physical activity in the growing years impair linear
and visceral growth? PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE IN
From an early report indicated that delayed
YOUNG ATHLETES
statural maturation in children undertaking hard
labor in poor socioeconomic conditions. However, The function of almost all physiological systems
exercise along with an adequate diet, is essential improves until full maturity is reached or shortly
for proper bone growth. Exercise affects primarily before. After that, function plateaus for a period
Fig. 9.5: Changes in motor ability from the ages of 6 years to 17 years boy and girls (adopted from physiology of
sports and exercise, Wilmore and Costill)
of time befor e star ting to decline with  Pulmonary function

advancing age. The following changes in the  Cardiovascular function
young athlete that accompanies the growth and  Aerobic capacity
development.  Running economy
 Motor ability  Anaerobic capacity, and
 Strength  Thermal stress
Motor Ability to the increasing body size during exhaustive

exercise.
The motor ability of boys and girls generally
A cross sectional study showed that maximal
increases with age for the first 18 years although
expiratory ventilation averages about 40 lit/min
girls tend to plateau at the age of puberty. This
for 4 to 6 years old boys and increases to 110 to
improvements result primarily for the development
140 lit/min at full maturity. Girls also follow the
of neuromuscular and endocrine system and
same patterned, but their absolute values remained
secondarily from the children’s increased activity.
considerably lower, primarily due to their smaller
The plateau observed in the girls at puberty is
size of the body. These changes are associated with
likely explained by two factors. The increase in
the growth of the pulmonary system, which
estrogen level at puberty leads to increase fat
parallels the general growth patterns of children.
deposition. Performance stands to decrease as fat
increases. Probably of greater importance, though,
Developmental Change in Ventilatory
is that around puberty many girls assume a much
Components
more sedentary lifestyle than boys. This is largely a
matter of social conditioning, as boys are The changes that occur in the components of
encouraged to be more active and athletic than ventilation as children grow, both at rest and during
girls. As these girls become less active, their motor exercise, have been well described. Much of this
abilities tend to plateau. development parallels increases in lung size.
Between the age 5 and 14 years, the total capacity
Strength of the lung increasers from approximately 1,400
Strength improves as muscle mass increases with to 4,500 cm3. It has been reported that lung
age. Gains in strength also depend on neural volume correlated closely with both height and
maturation, because neuromuscular control is height cubed, irrespective of sex.
limited until myelination has been completed
Ventilatory Equivalent for Oxygen
usually around sexual maturity. Girls are experiences
a more gradually increase in strength and do not Children also hyperventilate in relation to the
exhibit a marked change in their rate of change aerobic metabolic requirements of physical work.
gain with puberty. This manifested by their greater ventilator y
It is well established that testosterone increases equivalent for oxygen (VE/VO2) at all levels of
skeletal muscle bulk and strength. Changes in exercise. A gradual decline in VE/VO2 occurs
muscle strength at puberty are closely associated continuously through the childhood years. It has
with a rise in testosterone levels. Men who have been reported by many scientists that a gradual
depressed gonadal function characteristically also decline in VE/VO2 at maximal exercise between
demonstrate low fat free mass. The decline in the ages of 8 and 16 years, with values falling from
testosterone as men age parallels a fall in muscle about 34 to 24. No differences were seen in these
strength. Testosterone also increases strength by changes between boys and girls.
some means other than increasing muscle mass.
Neuromuscular transmission may be facilitated by Cardiovascular Function
testosterone, and the cognitive effects of androgens
Heart size is directly related to body size, so
might alter motivation to train at higher intensity.
children have smaller hearts than the adults. As a
result of this and a smaller blood volume the child
Pulmonary Function
has a smaller stroke volume capacity. The higher
Lung function changes markedly with age. All lung maximum heart rate in the children can only
volumes increase until growth is completed. Peak partially compensate for this lower stroke volume
flow rates follow the same pattern. Until physical capacity and thus maximal cardiac output is lower
maturity, maximal ventilatory capacity and maximal than that of an equal trained adult. Blood pressure
expiratory ventilation increase in direct proportion is directly related to body size- it is lower in children
than adults but increases to adult levels in the late difference in maximal heart rates during exercise
teen years. in boys and girls. Although maximal heart rate is
Even with increase heart rate, a child’s cardiac stable during childhood, the inter-individual
output remains less than an adult. In submaximal variability in considerable. Typical standard
exercise, an increase in the arteriovenous oxygen deviations of 5 to 9 bpm has been reported in most
difference ensures adequate oxygen delivery to the studies.
active muscles. But at maximal work rates oxygen Since resting heart rate falls with age in children
delivery limits performance in activities other than while maximal values are stable, the difference
those in which the child merely needs to move his (heart rate reserve) must increase. Between the ages
or her body mass. of 6 and 12 years, for instance, this reserve increases
from 120 to 133 bpm in the average boy. Such
Heart Rate changes may contribute to improved aerobic
Resting heart rate falls progressively during capacity during the childhood.
childhood. When measured in the basal state, the Like those at rest, heart rate values at a given
average child experiences a decrease from 80 bpm submaximal work level progressively decline as the
at age 5 to 62 bpm at age 15 years. Before age 10 child ages. This makes sense, since absolute oxygen
years there are little gender differences, but above uptake and cardiac output do not change with age
this age the basal heart rate is about 3 to 5 bpm at a specific work load, while stroke volume
greater in girls. Seated resting values are typically increases with body size. As a result, heart rate must
15 bpm higher than those obtained in basal fall. For instance, submaximal heart rate declines
conditions (postabsorptive, lying quietly for at least from about 140 to 100 bpm in males between ages
30 minutes). 8 and 18 years while pedaling at a work load of 30
The decline in resting heart rate with age watts.
parallels that of weight-relative basal metabolic rate Heart rate relates linearly to work intensity at
(BMR), and it is tempting to conclude that this moderate levels of exercise, but at high loads the
association is causal, i.e. that the fall is BMR as heart rate tapers as work rate increases. This
body size increases is the result of a decline in phenomenon, not well explained, appears to be
resting heart rate, while other factors responsible qualitatively and quantitatively similar in children
for metabolic rate (cardiac stroke volume, and adults. The point at which the heart rate begins
peripheral arteriovenous oxygen uptake) grow in to decelerate as work increases (the “heart rate
relation to body size. The fall in resting heart rate deflection”) has been reported to relate to
with age during childhood is not caused by changes ventilatory markers of the anaerobic threshold in
in autonomic influence, since a similar decline is both children and adults.
observed after sympathetic and parasympathetic The rate of decline in heart rate after exhaustive
blockade. exercise decreases as the child ages. Washington et
Both longitudinal and cross-sectional studies in al, reported one-minute recovery heart rates of
children have indicated that maximal heart rate 133, 138 and 148 bpm in boys grouped by surface
does not change during childhood. It is important area as <1.0 m2, 1.0 to 1.19 m2 and >1.2 m2,
to recognize, then, that formulae used for respectively. Factors responsible for the more rapid
estimating maximal heart rate for age (such as 220 recovery of heart rate after peak exercise in the
minus age) are inappropriate for children. Maximal smaller child are uncertain.
heart rates in studies of children typically range
from 195 to 205 bpm and are influenced by testing Stroke Volume
modality. Peak heart rates obtained during cycle Since maximal heart rate during childhood is stable,
testing are typically about 5 bpm less than those it follows that (1) the rise in maximal cardiac output
obtained during treadmill exercise and values in children as they grow must be entirely due to
during treadmill running are usually higher than an increase in stroke volume, and (2) during the
with walking protocols. These findings mimic those same time period heart rate does not contribute
observed in adults. Most studies have shown no to any increases in absolute maximal oxygen uptake.
Similarly, it can be summerised that maximal stroke Cardiac Output

volume increases in proportion to body dimension Stroke volume increases with age in children in close
in a manner similar to that of oxygen uptake. relationship with body dimensions while resting heart
Echocardiographic and cardiac catheterization rate falls, it would be expected that resting cardiac
studies of children indicate that resting stroke output relative to body weight or surface area would
volume relates closely to both body weight and progressively decline during the childhood. Limited
surface area. Typical values are 42 ml/m2 in the experimental data support this conclusion. However,
supine position and 35 ml/m2 in upright position. some study of healthy subjects demonstrated a decline
Absolute values have been reported as 5 ml at birth, in resting cardiac output of 6 l/min/m2 at age 4 to 4
25 ml at age 5 years and 85 ml at age 15 years. l/min/m2 during adolescence.
Values for stroke volume at maximal exercise Likewise, if stroke volume-body size
demonstrate a similar close relationship to body relationships remain constant at maximal exercise
size/weight as they do at rest. Scientists reported during childhood while peak hear t rate is
that stroke volumes from cardiac output estimates unchanged, maximal cardiac output should parallel
based on the carbon dioxide re-breathing to body dimensions or weight. This is also borne
technique within 15 seconds after exhaustive cycle out by the experimental data. A cross-sectional
exercise testing. Values for stroke volume related study indicated that absolute maximal cardiac
to body surface area remained stable across the age output increased from 12.5 to 21.1 l/min in males
range of 9 to 20 years, averaging 65 ml/m2 in males between 10 and 20 years of age and from 10.5 to
and 56 ml/m2 in females. 15.5 l/min in girls of the same ages. Maximal
Figs 9.6(A to D): Submaximal a) heart rate, b) stroke volume, c) cardiac output and d) arterio-venus O2 difference in an 8 year
boy and fully mature man at fixed rate of O2 uptake (adopted from physiology of sports and exercise, Wilmore and Costill)
cardiac output relative to body surface area 12 and 15 years in females, after which it steadily
remained essentially unchanged during this age decreases. When VO2 max is expressed relative to
span, with a average of 12.2 and 10.5 l/min/m2 body weight, it plateaus in males from age 16 to 25
for the boys and girls, respectively. years, but begins its decline at about age 13 years
in girls. However, expressing VO2 max relating to
Blood Pressure body weight might not provide an accurate
During exercise (rhythmic) the rise in systolic blood estimate at aerobic capacity. Such VO2 max values
pressure is proportional to exercise intensity and to do not have reflect the significant gains in
the overall metabolic level. Such pattern is operative endurance performance capacity that are noted
in all healthy individuals, irrespective of age. Diastolic with both maturation and training.
blood pressure, which depends primarily on the The child’s lower VO2 max value (lit/min) limits
peripheral vascular resistance, changes little (or even endurance performance unless body weight is the
decrease slightly) with exercise. However, for a given major resistance to movement, such as in distance
level of exercise, a small child responds with a lower running. When expressed relative to body weight
increase in systolic and diastolic pressures than does a child’s VO2 max is similar to adults yet in activities
an adolescent. With increase in mean blood pressure, such as distance running. A child’s performance is
total peripheral resistance decreases progressively. In far inferior to adult performance because of
spite of the lower arterial pressure in children, their differences of economy of effort.
peripheral resistance is higher than in adults. There
seem to be no gender differences in total peripheral Running Economy
resistance. Children cannot maintain as first a running pace
A lower exercise blood pressure in the young as the adult because of basic differences in economy
child is in line with the lower cardiac output and of effort. Running economy increases and this
stroke volume. There is no reason to assume that improve their distance-running pace even if the
such an age related pressure difference is either children are not training and if their VO2 max
materially beneficial or detrimental to the working values do not increase.
capacity of the young child. Some scientist have hypothesized that the
following factors that can change growth and
Aerobic Capacity development explain at least in part the lower
As pulmonar y and cardiovascular function running economy in children and its improvement
improves with continued development, so does its maturation:
aerobic capacity. VO2 max express in lit/min, peaks  Stride frequency
between ages 17 and 21 years in males and between  Gait mechanics
Figs 9.7(A and B): Changes in maximal oxygen uptake with age (adopted from physiology of sports and exercise,
Wilmore and Costill)
 Musculotendinous elastic energy storage have greater conductive heat loss than adults,
 Surface area to body mass ratio which should replace children at greater risk for
 Changes in body composition hypothermia in cold environments. Until more
 Thermal response to exercise is known about children’s susceptibility to
 Substrate utilization thermal stress, a conservative approach should
 Anaerobic capacity be used for children who exercise in temperature
 Ventilatory efficiency extremes.
Of these factors, thus far only stride frequency
has been proven to be important. TRAINING THE YOUNG ATHLETE
Anaerobic Capacity The young athlete is physiologically unique from
the adult and must be considered differently.
The child’s ability to perform anaerobic activities Training can improve the strength, aerobic capacity
is limited. A child has a lower glycolytic capacity, and anaerobic capacity of the young athlete.
possibly because of a limited amount of Generally, the youngster will adapt well to the same
Phosphofructokinase enzyme. type of training routine used by the mature athlete.
Children cannot attain high respirator y But training programs for children and adolescents
exchange ratio during maximal and exhaustive should be designed specifically for each age group,
exercise, suggesting less lactate production. Mean keeping in mind the development factors associated
anaerobic capacity and peak power outputs are with that age. In this section, it has been discussed
lower in children than in adults. the issue of most concern for young athletes who
are involved in:
Thermal Stress
i. Resistance (strength) training
Thermal stress including heat and cold induced ii. Aerobic training
illness or injury is more susceptible in children iii. Anaerobic training
than adults. Children are capable of less
evaporative heat loss than adults because children Resistance (Strength) Training
sweat less (less sweat is produced by each active
For many years, the use of resistance training to
sweat gland). Young boys acclimatized to heat
increase muscular strength and endurance in
more slowly than adults do. Children appear to
prepubescent and adolescent boys and girls was
highly controversial. Boys and girls were
discouraged from using free weights for fear that
they might injure themselves and prematurely stop
the growth process. Furthermore, many scientists
speculated that resistance training would have little
or no effect on the muscles of prepubescent boys
because their levels of circulating androgens were
still low.
Studies on animals suggest that heavy-resistance
exercise can lead to stronger, broader and more
compact bones. Several studies have been
conducted in which both prepubescent and
adolescent children have participated in resistance
training. From these studies it has been concluded
that the risk of injury is very low. In fact, resistance
training might offer some protection against injury
Fig. 9.8: Improvements in running economy with age mean
that the older child works at a relatively lower intensity (% VO2 for example, by strengthening the muscles that
max) at the same speed cross a joint.
Several studies conducted in the mid-1980s For actual training programs, resistance training
demonstrated that prepubescent boys and girls can for children should be prescribed in much the same
participate safely in resistance training and they can way as is done in adults. Specific guidelines were
gain substantial strength. In one study, established by a group representing eight different
prepubescent boys and girls took part in a 9-week professional organizations. However, competent
progressive resistance-training program. They instructors who have been trained specifically to
exercised 25 to 30 minutes per day, 3 days each work with children must carefully supervise any
week. Their mean strength increase was 42.9 youth resistance-training program. Furthermore,
percent, compared to a 9.5 percent increase in resistance training should be only one part of more
nontraining control group. In a second study, 16 comprehensive fitness program for this age group.
prepubescent males between ages 6 and 11
participated in a 14-week strength-training Strength Training Recommendations for
program using isokinetic techniques with hydrolic Prepubescent Children
resistance, while another 10 boys ser ved as Equipment: The following equipments are
nontraining controls. Isokinetic strength increased recommended for introducing strength training of
between 18 percent and 37 percent in the training children.
group. None of the subjects demonstrated any i. Strength training equipment should be of
damage to the epiphysis, bones or muscles as a appropriate design to accommodate their size
result of strength training. and degree of maturity of the prepubescent.
In a final study, 33 prepubescent, pubescent and ii. It should be cost effective.
postpubescent males under went a 9-week iii. It should be safe, free of defects and inspected
resistance-training program. All three groups had frequently.
significant strength gains. Researchers iv. It should be located in an uncrowned area
hypothesized that the pubescent group would free of obstructions with adequate lighting
experience the greatest strength gains because and ventilation.
testosterone levels increase dramatically during this
period. In fact, the prepubescent group made Program Consideration
greater gains than the pubescent group in several i. A preparticipation physical examination is
of the strength tests. mandatory.
The mechanisms allowing strength changes in ii. The child must have the emotional maturity
children are similar to those for adults, with one to accept coaching and instruction.
minor exception: prepubescent strength gains are iii. There must be adequate supervision by
accomplished largely without any change in muscle coaches who are knowledgeable about
size. The mechanisms responsible for strength strength training and the special problems
increase in prepubescent boys are: of prepubescent.
i. Improved motor skill coordination iv. Strength training should be a part of an
ii. Increased motor unit activation overall comprehensive program designed to
iii. Other underdetermined neurological increase motor skills and level of fitness.
adaptation v. Strength training should be preceded by a
Strength gains in the adolescent result primarily warm-up period and followed by a cool
from neural adaptations and increase in both down.
muscle size and specific tension. Strength is vi. Emphasis should be on dynamic concentric
influenced by the amount of fat-free mass, contractions of muscle while giving the
testosterone concentrations, the extent of nervous training program.
system development, and the differentiation of fast vii. All exercises should be carried through a full
twitch and slow twitch muscle fibers. The early range of motion.
gains in strength up through puberty are largely viii. Competition is prohibited at that period.
the result of changes in neuromuscular patterns. ix. No maximum lift should ever be attempted.
Prescribed Program Aerobic and Anaerobic Training
i. Training is recommended two or three times It has been well establish that training prepubescent
a week for 20 to 30 min periods. children did not change their VO2 max values.
ii. No resistance should be applied until proper Even, without significant increases in VO2 max,
form is demonstrated. Six to fifteen the running performance of the children studied
repetitions equal one set; one to three set did improve substantially. They could run a fixed
per exercise should be done. distance faster following the training program.
iii. Weight or resistance is increased in 1 to 3-lb More recent studies have found small increase in
increments after the prepubescent does 15 aerobic capacity with training in prepubescent
repetitions in good form. children, but these increases are less than would
be expected for adolescents or adults. More
Table 9.3: Basic guidelines for resistance exercise substantial changes in VO2 max appear to occur
progression in children once children have reached at puberty. The reasons
for these findings are not well defined. Because
Age (years) Considerations stroke volume appears to be the major limitation
7 or younger Introduce child to basic exercises to aerobic performance in this age group, it is quite
with little or no weight; develop possible that further increases in aerobic capacity
the concept of a training session; depend on heart growth.
teach exercise techniques; Anaerobic training appears to improve children’s
progress from body weight anaerobic capacity. Following training children
calisthenics, partner exercises, and
have-
lightly resisted exercises; keep
i. Increased resting levels of phosphocreatine,
volume low.
ATP and glycogen
8–10 Gradually increase the number of ii. Increased phosphofructokinase activity
exercises; practice exercise iii. Increased maximal blood lactate levels
technique in all lifts; start gradual Ventilatory threshold, a noninvasive marker of
progressive loading of exercises;
lactate threshold, has also been reported to increase
keep exercises simple; gradually
with endurance training in 10 to 14 year old boys.
increase training volume; carefully
monitor toleration to the exercises
stress. GROWTH AND MATURATION
11–13 Teach all basic exercise Many people have wondered what effect physical
techniques; continue progressive training might have on growth and maturation.
loading of each exercise; Regular training has no apparent effect on growth
emphasize exercise techniques; in height. It does however, affect weight and body
introduce more advanced composition. Generally, regular training results in:
exercises with little or no i. Decreased total body fat
resistance.
ii. Increased fat-free mass
14–15 Progress to more advanced youth iii. Increased total body mass
programs in resistance exercise; However, the gains in fat-free mass are generally
add sport-specific components; limited to boys. As for maturation, the age at which
emphasize exercise techniques; peak height velocity occurs is generally not affected
increase volume.
by regular training, nor is the rate of skeletal
16 or older Move child to entry-level adult maturation. But the data concerning the influence
programs after all background of regular training on indices of sexual maturation
knowledge has been mastered and are not at all clear. Although some data suggest
a basic level of training that menarche (the initial onset of menstruation)
experiences has been gained. is delayed in highly trained girls, these data are
confounded by a number of factors that were not and cardio-respiratory health, it is not surprising
controlled for in the analysis. Malina concludes his that adult inactivity can lead to deterioration of
review with the following statement: “Responses ones’ capacity and tolerance for strenuous effort.
of the developing individual to the physical activity The changes in physiological function and physical
of regular training are probably not sufficient to performance which are discuss in details below.
alter geotropically programmed growth and
maturation processes. Thus, training has no Physiological Changes Accompanying the
Aging Process
apparent effect on stature and on maturation as
ordinarily assessed in growth studies.” At the outset, there does not appear to be any
specific threshold age for which performance
AGING AND EXERCISE deteriorates. Most of the physiological functions
apparently have their own individual peaks and
The area of exercise physiology relates to the declines with age. Research shows that most
various physiological effects, training adaptation systems and functions, after reaching their peak,
and basic principles and guidelines for constructing will level off for a period of time before gradually
an individualized cardiorerspiratory endurance decreasing with age. Recent evidence indicates that
exercise program for the aged that accompany the physical activity may retarded or slows down the
aging process. rate of decline that is associated with aging. Some
The level of physical activity begins to decline of the physiological changes accompanying
soon after people reach adult maturity. Considering the aging process are shown in the following
the importance of exercise for maintaining muscle Table 9.4.
Table 9.4: Physiological changes accompanying the aging process
No. Physiological Functions Ageing

1 Muscle size Decreased
2 Muscle strength Decreased
3 Lean body weight Decreased
4 Percent body weight Increased
5 Basal metabolic rate Decreased
6 Maximal heart rate Decreased
7 Overall heart size (specially the left ventricular cavity) Decreased
8 Cardiac muscle strength Decreased
9 Maximal stroke volume Decreased
10 Maximal cardiac output Decreased
12 Maximal blood flow Decreased
13 Elasticity of blood vessels Decreased
14 Blood pressure Increased
15 Capillary density of muscle Uncharged
16 Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) Decreased
17 Vital capacity Decreased
18 Maximal expiratory ventilation (VE max) Decreased
19 Pulmonary diffusion capacity Decreased
20 Ratio of residual volume to the total lung capacity (RV/TLC) Increased
21 Reaction time Decreased
22 Movement time Decreased
23 Bone density Decreased
24 Flexibility Decreased
25 Elasticity of lung tissue and chest wall Decreased
Muscle size and Strength amount of decline in lean body weight also
As an individual gets older, there is a decline in controlled by the eating and exercise habits.
muscle size. It is believed that this decline is due, Basal Metabolic Rate
in part, to a reduced amount of protein as well as
a decline in the number and size of muscle fibers. Basal metabolic rate (BMR) decreases gradually
While it is not completely clear, it has been with increasing age. The rate of decline from the
age of 3 through 80 years is around 3 percent per
suggested that the decline in the number of
decade. Between the ages of 20 and 30, this decline
muscle fibers may be due to degenerative diseases
apparently indicates an improved metabolic
affecting the nerve fibers. Increases in strength
efficiency. A decline for older people past 30 may
are highly related to muscle fiber hypertrophy.
be due to the decrease in lean body weight that
On other words, strength increases parallel to
accompanies age.
increases in muscle size. As people get old, there
is also a parallel decrease in muscular strength, Respiratory Changes
which probably results from the decline in muscle
Both vital capacity and forced expiratory volume
size. The decline in strength is a gradual one
decrease linearly with age. Residual volume increases
following the age of about 35 to 45 years.
and total lung capacity remain unchanged. This
However, even at the age of 60, the decline in
increases RV: TLC ratio, meaning that less air can
strength does not appear to exceed 20 percent of
be exchanged with each breath. Maximum
an individual’s maximum strength.
expiratory ventilation also increases with age.
Body Fat Pulmonary changes that accompany age are
primarily caused by a loss of elasticity in the lung
With advancing age, there is a general trend to
tissue and the chest wall. With a reduced elasticity,
accumulate increase in body fat. There are several
it naturally decreases their mobility and as a result,
reasons normally given for this increase in body
increases the effort of breathing. However, older
fat with advancing age. Such as:
athletes have only slightly decreased pulmonary
i. Decrease one’s ability to release or mobilize
ventilation capacity. For them, the primary limitation
stored fatty acids from adipose tissue for of VO 2 max appears to be decreased oxygen
energy fuel, results in less fatty acids being transport to the muscle. Furthermore, arteriovenous
burned up. oxygen difference is decreased, indicating that less
ii. Increase of the food intake but become less oxygen is extracted by their muscles.
active.
iii. Take more calories than burned up. Cardiovascular Changes
iv. Besides heredity the amount of fat gained Cardiovascular functions are also change with
depends on eating and exercise habits. increase in age. These are maximum heart rate,
Normally active and sedentary men and women stroke volume, cardiac output, etc.
gradually gain body weight from age 20 to 60, Maximum heart rate (HR max) decreases
despite a gradual reduction in fat free body tissue, slightly less than one beat/min per year with
muscle and bones. But this age related tendency increasing age. The average maximum heart rate
for greater fatness and less fat free body mass is for a certain age can be estimated/ predicted by
not constant throughout the life. the following equation:
HR max = 220-age
Lean Body Weight
However, this only estimates the average value
As one gets older, their lean body weight decreases. for a given age. Individual values can deviate by
The lean body weight with age parallel with the ±20 beats/min or more from the predicted
increases and decreases in muscle mass. However, value. For example, the equation predicts that a
the decrease in lean body weight is due to the sixty-year-old would have a HR max of 160 beats/
decrease in muscle size along with the decline in min, but actual HR max might be as low as 140
calcium and phosphorus content of the bones. The beats/min or high as 180 beats/min.
Maximal stroke volume (SV max) and cardiac inactivity might play a larger role than physical
output also appear to decrease with age. Stroke aging.
volume can well maintained by older athletes who
Nervous System
have continued to train, but it will still be less than
in younger athletes. Peripheral blood flow also The reaction time and movement time slow down
decreases with age; however, in trained older with increasing age. A slower conduction time
athletes this is offset by an increased submaximal along both the afferent and efferent nerve fibers
arteriovenous oxygen difference. (in peripheral nervous system) may account for
The decrease in VO 2 max with aging and some of the decrement in reaction time and
inactivity is largely explain by a decrease in HR movement time. The major cause is more directly
max, SV max and arteriovenous differences. The related to the degeneration of the central nervous
system. The excessive activity of nerve cells may
decrease in HR max is due largely to decrease in
have beneficial effects in preventing cognitive
sympathetic nervous system activity and alteration
(reaction time) decrements in performance with
in the cardiac conduction system. The decrease
increasing age.
in SV max is due primarily to increase total
peripheral resistance due to a reduced compliance Bone Density
in the ar teries with aging and to possible
Bone density decreases with increasing age,
reductions in left ventricular contractility. The which means that elderly people are much more
decrease in arteriovenous difference is related to prone for bone injuries than young people whose
the reduction in blood flow to the active muscles, bones have obtained full growth and maturity.
which is possible due to the reduced cardiac This is due to a decrease in minerals (calcium
output. and phosphorus) found in the bone, which
It is unclear how much of the decrease in makes the bones less dense, more porous and
cardiovascular function with aging is due to harder to heal from an injury. The decline in
physical aging along and how much is due to calcium and phosphorus generally starts in the
deconditioning because of decreased activity. early forties. The extra intake of these minerals
However, many studies indicate that these may actually slow down or reduce their loss. The
changes are minimized in older athletes to physical activity (endurance type) apparently has
continue to train, which seems to indicate that a beneficial effect on curbing mineral losses.
Training Adaptation in the Aged

The older person can adapt with various
physiological training and can improve the different
physiological components which are deteriorating
due to ageing. Those parameters are summarized
in the following Table 9.5.
Basic Principles and Guidelines for

Constructing Individualized
Cardiorespiratory Endurance Exercise
Program for the Aged
(a) Exer cise Pr
Exercise escription: In prescription a
Prescription:
cardiorespiratory endurance exercise program, four
basic factors are involved. They are:
(i) Intensity: This factor is the most critical of all
Fig. 9.9: Effects of ageing on maximal values for cardiac
output, stroke volume and heart rate (adopted from physiology in developing cardiorespiratory endurance fitness.
of sports and exercise, Wilmore and Costill) It depends upon an individual’s present level of
Table 9.5: Summary of the major physiological training adaptations in the aged
No. Variables Training effects

1 Heart rate at standard submaximal work loads Decreased
2 Stroke volume at standard submaximal work loads Increased
3 Blood volume Increased
4 Total hemoglobin Increased
5 Oxygen pulse Increased
6 Blood pressure (resting) Decreased
7 Vital capacity Increased
8 Maximal expiratory ventilation (VE max) Increased
9 Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) Increased
10 Physical work capacity Increased
11 ECG abnormalities Decreased
12 Muscle strength Increased
13 Lean body weight Increased
14 Percent body fat Decreased
15 Serum cholesterol and triglyceride levels Decreased
16 Flexibility Increased
fitness, their present health condition and the level improves and exercise heart rate for a standard
length of duration of the training. The intensity of workload decreases, then they automatically must
work can be expressed in several ways including a work more in order to reach their minimum
percentage of maximum heart rate, a percentage threshold level.
of maximal oxygen consumption, number of
(ii) Duration: In training for cardiorespiratory
calories consume or in METS. During submaximal
endurance, it should be kept in mind that the
and aerobic work, it has been well established that
duration and intensity of the work are interrelated.
heart rate increases linearly with energy cost of the
For example, research shows that improvements
work. Because of these and for practical reasons, in cardiorespiratory endurance (about 15–20%) can
exercise heart rate has been used by many research be noticed with high-intensity (heart rates around
workers for determining not only the physiological 85–90% of maximum) work lasting for only 5 to 10
stress of the work, but also developing various minutes per day. However, low intensity (heart rates
training programs. around 65–75% of maximum) work shows little
Evidences now indicates that a sufficient amount (about 5%) or no improvement for this period of
of cardiorespirator y endurance can be time. The continuous training at a low intensity
accomplished by training at somewhere between level for duration in between 30 to 60 minutes per
60 and 90 percent of maximum heart rate. This day will result in significantly greater improvements
represents a maximum oxygen uptake level of 50 than training at low intensity for short periods of
to 80 percent. The lower heart rate figure of 60 time.
percent of maximum represents a minimum In general the adult (middle age and older
threshold level for which it must reach in order for people) do not really enjoy or tolerate exercise at a
improvements to take place. Training at levels high intensity level and because running requires
below this apparently results in little or no more energy than leisurely walking. To work-up
cardiorespiratory improvements. for the lower calorie expenditure at the low
The concept of training at individual heart rate intensity training level, an individual can merely
threshold level automatically accounts for any walk longer and more often and achieve basically
improvement that might take place during the the same results as a person working to near
training program. For example, as a person’s fitness exhaustion for a relatively short period of time.
On the other hand, the training duration time fitness. In addition, short, anaerobic type activities
refers to the length of time that the subject’s heart that call for explosive power and speed do little in
rate is kept within the prescribed training threshold developing the aerobic fitness.
level. While weight-training programs may improve
equency: In order to develop one’s
(iii) F rrequency: muscular strength and muscular endurance, they
cardiorespiratory responses capacity, daily exercise have little or no significant effects on developing
and training is not necessary. In fact, 3 to 5 days one’s cardiorespiratory fitness. Because isometric
per week is an optimal number of workouts for type weight training exercises results in
developing cardiorespiratory fitness. Once a regular uncommonly high blood pressures, they are
exercise routine has been established and the absolutely not recommended for the elderly and
workouts have become enjoyable than the especially people with cardiovascular disease.
frequency of workouts may be extended to more An outline program to develop physical fitness
than 3 to 5 days per week. It is important however, (safe and effective) for the old man and woman –
not to initially start out training everyday of the involves (a) calisthenics (for warm-up) (b) a run-
week since chances are good that the individual, walk program for developing the cardiorespiratory
after a couple of weeks will become completely ex- fitness and (c) static stretching for improving the
hausted and will more than likely quit the program. joint mobility and preventing soreness. The
subjects, in the run-walk phase, work at their own
(iv) Mode of activity: In general, it is agreed that cadence and stride length that is normal and
activities involving the entire body such as walking, comfortable without any consideration for
jogging, running, swimming, hiking, bicycling, regulating time.
canoeing, game like activities such as basketball,
Phase I: Calisthenics for 15 to 20 minutes
soccer and aerobic dancing produce the best
improvements of the cardiorespiratory fitness. On Phase II: Run-walk program for 15 to 20
the other hand, activities that are somewhat low in minutes
energy cost such as golf, bowling, softball and most Phase III: Static stretching to prevent soreness
calisthenics do little in way in developing physical and to improve joint mobility for 15 to 20 minutes.
Table 9.6: Age–predicted maximum heart rate and cardiorespiratory training heart rates that represent
the minimum and upper threshold levels
Age(yrs) Age-predicted (220-age) Training heart rates

Maximal heart rate Minimum Threshold Upper Threshold level 90%
(beats/min) Level 60% Heart rate Heart rate
20 200 120 180
25 195 117 176
30 190 114 171
35 185 111 167
40 180 108 162
45 175 105 158
50 170 102 153
55 165 99 149
60 160 96 144
65 155 93 140
70 150 90 135
75 145 87 131
80 140 84 126
85 135 81 122
90 130 78 117
SPORT PERFORMANCE change are about the same in both sprint and
endurance running performances.
Records in running, swimming, cycling and weight
lifting suggest that human beings are in their Swimming Performance
physical prime during the late 20s or early 30s.
Swimming performance is affected by the aging
Using a cross-sectional approach, comparing these
process as much the same manner as running. The
records with national and world records for masters
average velocities for record performances in the
athletes in these events allows to examine of the
100-m front crawl decrease by about 1 percent
ef fects aging has on the best per formers.
more than the running performance.
Unfortunately, there are little longitudinal
information about the ef fects of aging on
performance, because few studies have enabled to CHANGES IN MUSCULAR STRENGTH
follow physical performance in selected individuals WITH AGING
over the span of their athletic careers.
It is well documented that a person’s maximal
strength decreases with increasing age. Is this case
Running Performance
due to an unavoidable effect of aging or the typical
Running performance decreases with age and the decrease in physical activity that often accompanies
rate of this decline appears to be independent of getting older? The answer appears to be both.
distance. Performance records for both 100-m and From the Figure. 9.11 below, it is apparent that
10-km runs decrease by about 1 percent per year strength training remains highly effective in
from age 25 to 60. Beyond age 60, the records for maintaining muscular strength throughout life.
men slow by nearly 2% percent per year. A sprint However, after about age 60, strength levels fall
running test of 560 women between ages 30 and more rapidly, independent of training. This is
70 revealed a steady decrease in maximal running probably influenced by marked changes in the
velocity of 8.5 percent per decade. The patterns of hormonal milieu. Both testosterone and growth
Fig. 9.10: Age–predicted maximum heart rate and cardiorespiratory training heart rates that represent the
minimum and upper threshold levels
hormone appear to decline more dramatically after units decreases slightly with aging after age 50, about
about the age of 60. Reduction in the circulating 10 percent per decade. The reasons or mechanisms
concentration of these hormones will result in a shift for such a change are unclear. So, the net effect of
in the balance between muscle protein synthesis aging for the endurance athlete is unchanged fiber
(anabolism) and protein breakdown (catabolism). composition or a slight relative increase in slow fiber
The decreased strength is due to atrophy of muscle type due to selective fast fiber loss. The Fast motor
fibers. It is important to notice that with strength units do not become slow motor units.
training, the maximal strength of a 60-year-old can
exceed that of his untrained sons! And, several MUSCLE ENDURANCE CAPACITY AND
studies have demonstrated that strength gains are AGING
possible even at 90-year-old. So it is never too late
to begin a strength training program. The good news for the endurance athlete is that
there appears to be little change in skeletal muscle
MUSCLE FIBER TYPE AND AGING oxidative capacity with age, as long as training is
maintained. The number of capillaries per unit area
There have been conflicting reports and myths of muscle is the same in young and old endurance
developed regarding fiber type changes with aging. athletes. Oxidative enzyme levels are similar or
Cross-sectional studies of postmortem bodies slightly lower in older athletes. This small decrease
between age 15 and 83 have suggested that fiber is probably attributable to decreased training
type composition is unchanged throughout life. This volume in the older athletes. Furthermore, it
is also supported by comparing muscle biopsy results appears that the older individual who starts
of younger and older endurance athletes. In contrast, endurance training retains the potential to improve
one longitudinal study of a group of runners muscle endurance capacity.
examined in 1974 and again 1992, suggested that
training could play a role in fiber distribution. Those SUMMARY
athletes who continued training showed unchanged
fiber composition. Those who stopped training 1. Growth refers to an increase in the size of the
appeared to have greater slow-twitch fiber body or any of its parts. Development refers
percentage. This was primarily due to selective to differentiation along specialized lines of
atrophy of the fast fibers. This is not difficult to function, so it reflects the functional changes
explain since they are seldom recruited. There is also that occur with growth. Finally, maturation
some evidence that the actual number of fast motor refers to the process of talking on the adult
Fig. 9.11: Age related change of muscular strength in trained and untrained men.
form and becoming fully functional being pattern. Heart size is directly related to body
considered. Chronological age refers to the size, so children have smaller hearts than the
period that has elapsed beginning with an adults. As a result of this and a smaller blood
individual’s birth and extending to any given volume the child has a smaller stroke volume
point in time. It has been observed that a capacity.
program of hormonal activity that stimulates 5. Resting heart rate falls progressively during
somatic growth proceeds during the childhood. The decline in resting heart rate
childhood and adolescent years. This with age parallels that of weight-relative basal
evolution of body size increase is one example metabolic rate (BMR) and it is tempting to
of biologic maturation, a series of conclude that this association is causal i.e. the
developmental changes that culminates in the fall is BMR as body size increases is the result
adult stage or complete biologic maturation. of a decline in resting heart rate, while other
2. The extent of biologic maturation can be factors responsible for metabolic rate (cardiac
estimated by percentage of estimated adult stroke volume, peripheral arteriovenous
height and weight, wrist bone age as measured oxygen uptake) grow in relation to body size.
by radiography and after the onset of puberty Both longitudinal and cross-sectional studies
by the progression of appearance of secondary in children have indicated that maximal heart
sexual characteristics. Change in height is rate does not change during childhood. Since
assessed in terms of centimeters per year and resting heart rate falls with age in children
change in weight in terms of kilograms per year. while maximal values are stable.
The peak rate of growth in height occurs at 6. Since maximal heart rate during childhood is
approximately 12.0 years in girls and 14.0 years stable, it follows that (1) the rise in maximal
in boys. The same overall trend for the rate of cardiac output in children as they grow must
change in weight is revealed from the Figure be entirely due to an increase in stroke volume
in the text. As with height, the peak rate of and (2) during the same time period heart
growth in body weight occurs at approximately rate does not contribute to any increases in
12.0 years in girls and 14.5 years in boys, which absolute maximal oxygen uptake. Similarly, it
is slightly later than height. can be summerised that maximal stroke
3. The function of almost all physiological volume increases in proportion to body
systems improves until full maturity is reached dimension in a manner similar to that of
or shortly before. After that, functional oxygen uptake. Stroke volume increases with
plateaus for a period of time before starting age in children in close relationship with body
to decline with advancing age. The motor dimensions while resting heart rate falls, it
ability of boys and girls generally increases with would be expected that resting cardiac output
age for the first 18 years although girls tend relative to body weight or surface area would
to plateau at the age of puberty. Strength progressively decline during the childhood.
improves as muscle mass increases with age. 7. During exercise (rhythmic) the rise in systolic
Gains in strength also depend on neural blood pressure is proportional to exercise
maturation, because neuromuscular control intensity and to the overall metabolic level.
is limited until myelination has been Such pattern is operative in all healthy
completed usually around sexual maturity. individuals, irrespective of age. A lower
Girls are experiences a more gradually increase exercise blood pressure in the young child is
in strength and do not exhibit a marked in line with the lower cardiac output and
change in their rate of change gain with stroke volume.
puberty. 8. As pulmonary and cardiovascular function
4. Lung function changes markedly with age. All improves with continued development, so
lung volumes increase until growth is does aerobic capacity. VO2 max express in lit/
completed. Peak flow rates follow the same min, peaks between ages 17 and 21 years in
males and between 12 and 15 years in females, reaction time and movement time slow down
after which it steadily decreases. Children can with increasing age. Bone density decreases
not maintain as first a running pace as the adult with increasing age, which means that elderly
because of basic differences in economy of people are much more prone for bone injuries
effort. Running economy increases and this than young people whose bones have obtained
improve their distance-running pace even if full growth and maturity.
the children are not training and if their VO2 12. Running and swimming per formance
max values do not increase. The child’s ability decreases with age and the rate of this decline
to perform anaerobic activities is limited. appears to be independent of distance. It is
9. Training can improve the strength, aerobic well documented that a person’s maximal
capacity and anaerobic capacity of the young strength decreases with increasing age. Is this
athlete. Generally, the youngster will adapt due to an unavoidable effect of aging or the
well to the same type of training routine used typical decrease in physical activity that often
by the mature athlete. But training programs accompanies getting older? The answer
for children and adolescents should be appears to be both.
designed specifically for each age group,
keeping in mind the development factors REVIEW QUESTIONS
associated with that age. Boys and girls were
discouraged from using free weights for fear 1. Define growth and development? What is
that they might injure themselves and maturity status? Dif ferentiate growth,
prematurely stop the growth process. development and maturation.
Furthermore, many scientists speculated that 2. What do you mean by growth spurt? Discuss
resistance training would have little or no with the growth curve.
effect on the muscles of prepubescent boys 3. What typical change takes place in various
because their levels of circulating androgens physical and physiological variables during
were still low. However, it has been established growth and development period?
that strength training on children with proper 4. What are the effect of exercises on growth?
guidance is beneficial. What changes occur in stroke volume for a
10. The area of exercise physiology relates to the fixed rate of work as the child grows?
various physiological ef fects, training 5. What changes occur in sub-maximal and
adaptation and basic principles and guidelines maximal heart rate as the child grows?
for constructing an individualized cardio- 6. How dangerous is resistance training in
respiratory endurance exercise program for the children? What advised would you give to
aged that accompany the aging process. The these youngsters if they wanted to improve
level of physical activity begins to decline soon their strength? Can they improve strength, and
after people reach adult maturity. As an if so, how does this occur?
individual gets older, there is a decline in 7. How does physical activity and regular training
muscle size. It is believed that this decline is affect the growth and maturation process?
due, in part, to a reduced amount of protein 8. What cardiovascular changes occur during
as well as a decline in the number and size of ageing? How do these changes affect maximal
muscle fibers. With advancing age, there is a oxygen uptake capacity?
general trend to accumulate in increase in 9. Describe the changes in VO2 max with age.
body fat. As one gets older, their lean body How do trained individuals differ from
weight decreases. untrained subjects?
11. Cardiovascular functions are also change with 10. Discuss the changes in maximum heart rate
increase in age. These are maximum heart rate, with age. How does training alter this
stroke volume, cardiac output, etc. The relationship?
CHAPTER
10
Women Athletes
 Physical and Physiological Differences between  Physiological Adaptations to Exercise Training

Men and Women  Athletic Ability
 Gender Differences in Endurance Performance  Menstruation and Athletic Performance
and Training  Menarche
 The Maximal Oxygen Consumption  Menstrual Dysfunction
 The Lactate Threshold  Pregnancy
 Efficiency  Eating Disorders
 Fat Metabolism  Amenorrhea
 Muscle Strength and Power  Menopause
 Training Volume  Female Athlete Triad
PHYSICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL whereas the average woman of the same age is
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEN 60.0 to 64.4 inches tall and weighs 110.0 to
AND WOMEN 126.6 pounds. This difference in size affects the
absolute amount of physical work that can be
The body of the men and women reacts differently
performed by men and women. Accordingly, the
to varying degrees of physical stress, and never body surface area is also varying between men
two bodies react exactly the same way to the same and women of same ages.
physical stress. For everyone to get the maximum Until puberty, females and males do not differ
benefit from training, and trainer must be aware significantly in most measurements of body size
of these differences and plan the training schedule and composition. But at puberty, due to influences
to provide maximum benefit for everyone. They of estrogen and testosterone hormones, body
must also be aware of the physiological differences composition begins to change markedly. Estrogen
between men and women. While they require causes increased fat deposition in females,
equal efforts of men and women during the particularly in the hips and thighs and an increased
training period, they must also realize that women rate of bone growth, such that bones of females
have physiological limitations which generally reach their final length earlier than in male.
preclude equal performance. The following
paragraphs describe the most important physical Muscles
and physiological differences between men and
Men have 50 percent greater total muscle mass,
women.
based on weight, than do women. A woman who
is the same size as her male counterpart is generally
Body size
only 80 percent as strong. Therefore, men usually
The average 18-year-old man is 68.0 to 70.2 have an advantage in strength, speed and power
inches tall and weighs 125.0 to 144.8 pounds, over women.
Women Athletes  195
Fig. 10.1: Changes in height and weight with increase in age of boys and girls
In males testosterone causes increased bone women must overcome more resistance in activities that
formation, which leads to larger bones, as well as require movement of the lower body. So, women are
increased protein synthesis, which leads to carrying extra body weight as subcutaneous adipose tissue
increased muscle mass. As a result, adolescent as compare to their men counterparts which hinder the
males are larger and more muscular than females, speed ability. The total body fat percent of young sedentary
and these characteristics continue into adulthood. women is about 25 percent whereas a sedentary men of
same age is 5 to 7 percent less as female.
Body Fat In female estrogen hormone influence fat
Women carry about 10 percentage points more body deposition particularly in the thighs and hips and
fat than do men of the same age. Men accumulate fat this increase in fat deposition is the result of
primarily in the back, chest and abdomen; women gain lipoprotein lipase activity in these areas. This enzyme
fat in the buttocks, arms and thighs. Also, because the is mainly responsible for storing fat in adipose tissue.
center of gravity is lower in women than in men, The decreased lipolytic activity makes it difficult for
women to lose fat from these areas.
Fig. 10.2: Changes in muscle mass of boys and girls with Fig. 10.3: Changes in fat free body mass of boys and girls
increase in age with increase in age
Table 10.1: Relative body fat% for men and women i. 13 cm shorter
of various ages ii. 14 to 18 kg lighter to total weight
iii. 18 to 22 kg lighter in fat free mass
Age Groups (Years) Relative body fat %
iv. 3 to 6 kg heavier in fat mass
Men Women
v. 6 percent to 10 percent higher in relative
15–19 13–16 20–24 body fat
20–29 15–20 22–25
30–39 18–26 24–30
Anthropometric Measurements
40–49 23–29 27–33
50–59 26–33 30–36 Anthropometric measurements at maturity differ
60–69 29–33 30–36 substantially between the sexes. Women have
narrower shoulders, broader hips, and smaller chest
Bones diameters and tend to have more fat in the hips
and lower body, whereas men carry more fat in
Women have less bone mass than men, but their
the abdomen and upper body. The below
pelvic structure is wider. This difference gives men
represents the skinfold thickness (four sites),
an advantage in running efficiency. Estrogen
circumference of chest, abdomen, hips and thigh
increases the growth rate of bone allowing the final
and four diameters of both young and middle aged
bone length to be reached within the 2 to 4 years
men and women.
following the onset of puberty. As a result female
grow very rapidly for the first few years following
Heart Size and Heart Rate
puberty, then cease to grow. Males have a much
longer growth phase, allowing them to attain a The average woman’s heart is 25 percent smaller
greater height. Because of these differences, than the average man’s. Thus, the man’s heart can
compare to fully matures males, fully matures pump more blood with each beat (i.e. stroke
females are on average nearly: volume). The larger heart size contributes to the
Table 10.2: Anthropometric measurements for young and middle aged men and women
Parameters Men Women

Young* Middle-aged** Young* Middle-aged**
Skinfolds
i. Triceps 7.9 18.5 12.8 22.2
ii. Suprailliac 19.3 22.0 17.2 17.3
iii. Abdomen 16.0 30.0 15.1 29.6
iv. Thigh 14.9 22.2 31.8 33.1
Circumference
i. Chest 97.4 96.3 85.2 87.1
ii. Abdomen 84.0 91.1 75.3 82.7
iii. Hips 96.9 98.4 95.9 97.5
iv. Thigh 58.0 59.0 57.0 57.6
Diameters
i. Biacromial 40.4 41.5 36.5 36.7
ii. Bi-illiac 28.4 31.4 28.4 31.2
iii. Knee 9.5 10.1 8.9 9.6
iv. Elbow 6.0 — 7.0 —
*- Data from Wilmore Behnke (1969 and 1970)
** - Data from Pollock et al. (1975 and 1976)
slower resting heart rate (five to eight beats a the same absolute power output the women is
minute slower) in males. The normal resting heart working at a higher percentage of her VO2-max.
rate of young adult mail is 72 beats/min whereas Tidal volume and ventilator y volume are
the normal heart rate of women of similar age is generally smaller in women at the same relative and
76 beats/min. This lower heart rate is evident both absolute power outputs, up to and including
at rest and at any given level of submaximal exercise. maximal levels. Most highly trained female athletes
Thus, for any given work rate, the faster heart rate have maximal ventilatory volumes below 125 L/
means that most women will become fatigued min., but highly trained men have maximal values
sooner than men and hence working efficiency is of 150 L/min. and higher, some exceeding even
also less in case of women. 250 L/min. Again these differences are also closely
For the same rate of work, trained women associated with body size.
generally have cardiac outputs similar to those of
comparably trained men, but this is achieved by Response to Heat
higher heart rates and lower stroke volumes. The A woman’s response to heat stress differs somewhat
lower stroke volume in women is due to their from a man’s. Women sweat less, lose less heat
smaller left ventricle and lower blood volume, both through evaporation and reach higher body
the result of women’s smaller body size. temperatures before sweating starts. Nevertheless,
women can adapt to heat stress as well as men.
Flexibility Regardless of gender, players with a higher level of
physical fitness generally better tolerance and adapt
Flexibility, which may be define as the athlete’s
more readily to, heat stress than do less fit sports
ability to move a joint through a normal range of
person.
motion without undue musculotendinous stress.
It has been advocated for enhanced performance
Other Factors
as well as reduced injury rates.
Women generally are more flexible than their Knowing the physiological differences between
men counterpart which may be due to the men and women is just the first step in planning
hip flexion is greater in women than men. Also physical training for a group. Trainers/Coaches
some scientists studied number of male and female need to understand other factors too. Women can
athletes of different sports and found that the exercise during menstruation; it is, in fact,
women were more flexible as compare to men encouraged. However, any unusual discomfort,
athletes. cramps, or pains while menstruating should be
medically evaluated. Pregnant women cannot be
Lungs and Respiratory Response required to exercise without a doctor’s approval.
Generally, pregnant women may exercise until they
The lung capacity of men is 25 to 30 percent are close to childbirth if they follow their doctors’
greater than that of women. This gives men still instructions. The safety and health of the mother
another advantage in the processing of oxygen and and fetus are primary concerns when dealing with
in doing aerobic work such as running, swimming, exercise programs. Vigorous activity does not harm
cycling, etc. The bigger size in lung in male than women’s reproductive organs or cause menstrual
female is due to their bigger trunk size. Again the problems. Also, physical fitness training need not
bigger trunk size is due to they are taller in height damage the breasts. Properly fitted and adjusted
as compare to women. bras, however, should be worn to avoid potential
The differences between men’s and women’s injury to unsupported breast tissue that may result
respiratory responses to exercise are also due largely from prolonged jarring during exercise. Although
to body size differences. Breathing frequency when female players must sometimes be treated
working at the same relative power output differs differently from males, women can reach high levels
little. However, if consider the same absolute power of physical performance. Trainers must use
output, women tend to breathe more rapidly than common sense to help both male and female
men, probably because when both subjects are at achieve acceptable levels of fitness.
GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ENDURANCE running performance spectrum. The reason for the
performance gap is not that women don’t train as
PERFORMANCE AND TRAINING hard as men. There are some impor tant
Historically, there is no doubt that sport has been physiological differences between the sexes that
a center of faulty assumptions and sexism where cannot be overlooked or overcome.
female athletes are concerned. Social issues, and
misunderstanding about female physical and The Maximal Oxygen Consumption
medical limitations (or the presumption of The “typical” young untrained male will have an
limitations) conspired to slow the development of absolute VO2 max of 3.5 liters/min, while the
female performance for many years (the marathon typical same-age female will be about 2 liters/min.
for women was only added to the Olympic schedule This is a 43 percent difference! Where does it come
in 1984), but this is not true at present, at least from? First, much of the difference is due to the
among young athletes. Among master’s athletes, fact that males are bigger in size, on average, than
we still see greatly reduced participation by the females. The humans are all (sort of) geometrically
older female age groups. This participation similar, so heart size scales in proportion to lean
difference will no doubt diminish over the next body size. If we divide VO2 by bodyweight, the
couple of decades. As a result, performances by difference is diminished (45 ml/min/kg vs 38 ml/
the oldest females will probably improve more min/kg) to 15 to 20 percent, but not eliminated.
rapidly than those of the oldest males, as this new What is the source of this remaining difference?
generation of well trained young female athletes’ If we compare average body fat in males and
moves into age-group competition, and are joined females, we find part of the answer. Young
by more and more talented “late bloomers.” untrained women average about 25 percent body
“Old” Social norms and habits are still having fat compared to 15 percent in young men. So, if
negative consequences on participation and we factor out body composition differences by
performance by older (50 + years) females. Modern dividing VO2 by lean body mass (Bodyweight
female athletes have repeatedly demonstrated these minus estimated fat weight)) the difference in
norms (“women are not built to run long distances”) maximal O2 consumption decreases to perhaps 7
are not true. Currently, teenage girls are encouraging to 10 percent. Keep in mind though that this is only
their formally sedentar y mothers and even a meaningful exercise on paper. A female athlete
grandmothers to take up exercise. This transfer of cannot expect to improve her performance by reducing
knowledge and norms Upstream is the reverse of her body fat down to the sub 7 percent levels that are
what we traditionally seen in males (Father teaching often observed in elite males. The health consequences
his boy all he knows). However, this is a transitional for the female are too severe!
period for women in sport, so the knowledge transfer To find an explanation for the remaining 10
across generations is helping to speed the percent difference we must go back to the key
development of women’s masters sport. limitation on VO2 max, oxygen delivery. On
Having said all that, there are some physiological average females have lower blood hemoglobin
dif ferences between the sexes that impact (13.5 gm percent) content than males, up to 10
performance in females independent of age. Some percent lower. Finally, there is some evidence, that
years ago, when the marathon was first becoming the female heart is slightly smaller relative to body
a competitive event for women, the rapid size than the male heart. Several ECG and
improvement in female times led some to predict echocardiographic studies also suggest that the
that female performances would soon equal those young female heart exhibits less enlargement in
of men in the marathon. This has not happened, response to either endurance or resistance training
and it will not. The current world record for than the male heart. This may be due to differences
women is 2:21, compared to 2:06:50 for the men, in androgen receptor density in the female heart.
a difference in speed of about 10 percent. This A smaller heart would be expected to be a less
same 10 percent gap is present across the distance effective pump as well.
Slightly lower oxygen carrying capacity of the

blood (lower hemoglobin levels) plus a somewhat
smaller or less adaptive heart are sufficient to
account for the gender differences in maximal
oxygen consumption that are independent of body
size and fat percentage.
It is worth noting here the results of a 1993 study
by Spina et al. Their data suggested that in previously
sedentary older men and women (60 to 65 years
old) who trained for 9 months to a year, both men
and women increased their VO2 max by the same
Fig. 10.4: Changes in maximum oxygen uptake capacity amount (an average of 20 percent). However, the
in male and female with increase in age
Table 10.3: Maximal oxygen uptake (ml/kg/min) in various population groups of both sexes
Non Athletes Age Males Females

10–19 47–56 38–46
20–29 43–52 33–42
30–39 39–48 30–38
40–49 36–44 26–35
50–59 34–41 24–33
60–69 31–38 22–30
70–79 28–35 20–27
Athletes —
Baseballl/soft ball 18–32 48–56 52–57
Basketball 18–30 40–60 43–60
Bicycling 18–26 62–74 47–57
Canoeing 22–28 55–67 48–52
Football 20–36 42–60 —
Gymnastics 18–22 52–58 36–50
Ice Hockey 10–30 50–63 —
Jockey 20–40 50–60 —
Orienteering 20–60 47–53 46–60
Racquetball 20–35 55–62 50–60
Rowing 20–35 60–72 58–65
Skiing, alpine 18–30 57–68 50–55
Skiing, nordic 20–28 65–94 60–75
Ski jumping 18–24 58–63 —
Soccer 22–28 54–64 50–60
Speed skating 18–24 56–73 44–55
Swimming 10–25 50–70 40–60
Track & field, discus 22–30 42–55 —
Track & field, running 18–39 60–85 50–75
40–75 40–60 35–60
Track & field, shot put 22–30 40–46 —
Volleyball 18–22 — 40–56
Weightlifting 20–30 38–52 —
Wrestling 20–30 52–65 —
Adopted from Wilmore and Costill (2005)(3)
mechanism of improvement was different. The men The question here is, do women demonstrate a
improved primarily by increasing maximal cardiac different pattern or capacity for peripheral
output due to higher stroke volume. However, the adaptations then men? As best as it was known,
older women did not demonstrate any increase in the answer is NO.
cardiac performance, but rather increased oxygen First, Female skeletal muscle is not
consumption by improving oxygen extraction by distinguishable from male skeletal muscle. Second,
the working muscles, due to greater capillarization within some margin of error, the fiber type
and more number of mitochondria. This data distribution (percentage of slow versus fast fibers)
supports previous studies in 60+ year old women is not different in the male and female population.
that show no cardiac hypertrophy in response to Third, male and female skeletal muscle responds
endurance training. similarly to endurance exercise. Finally, elite female
It has been reported that females demonstrate endurance athletes have similar lactate threshold
a different pattern of cardiac adaptation to exercise, values compared to men when expressed as a
which may become more dissimilar with age. They percentage of their VO2 max. Elite women perform
also generally have a lower hemoglobin level by at the same high percentage of their maximal
several percent. The net effect is a small but oxygen consumption as their male counterparts.
significant dif ference in maximal oxygen Earlier it was proposed that women would
consumption, even among similarly trained males actually perform better at ultra-endurance type
and females, and after scaling for differences in size activities. This theory has been disproved both in
and body composition. the laboratory and in practice as a performance
It is important to make note of the fact that difference persists in the ultra marathon events. It
these differences are “on average”. In reality, there has been suggested that women had an edge in
are many women with significantly higher VO2 max the really long events. They discussed a study in
values than average men. However, if we look at which a group of male and female runners who
the “best of the best”, the differences persist. Using were matched for marathon time were raced head
Cross Country skiing as an example (Norway), the to head in the Comrades marathon, a 90k race.
highest reliable values for VO2 max recorded in The women won by 54 minutes, suggesting a
national team Cross Country skiers are about 90 female edge in longer events. The problem with
ml/min/kg. The very best Norwegian woman has this study is that when you match men and women
been measured at 77 ml/min/kg, a 17 percent for performance, the women are relatively better
difference was noted. So, while this woman will runners and probably have a higher slow twitch
outperform 99.9 percent of all men, she will not fiber percentage. This advantage becomes bigger
outperform the national team level of males. in an ultra distance event.
The fact remains that the performance gap
The Lactate Threshold between male and female record holders in the
The another important component of endurance really long running races 50k to 6 days is actually
performance, the lactate threshold. As a review, more on the order of 15 to 20 percent, instead of
this is the exercise intensity at which lactic acid the 10 percent difference for the standard distances.
begins to accumulate in the blood stream at levels Part of this larger gap may be to lower participation,
significantly above “baseline” values. This intensity and the fact that the most talented females have
sets a boundary between that exercise intensity not yet tested themselves over the ultra distances.
which can be sustained for long periods (over one But at elite level the gap may not disappear.
hour) versus those which lead to fatigue in minutes.
Efficiency
It has already been discussed the fact that changes
in the lactate threshold are due to adaptations that The next component of endurance performance is
occur in the exercising muscle. These are called efficiency which of course has different constraints,
peripheral adaptations (Changes in cardiovascular depending on the sport. The research information
performance are called central adaptations). comparing the efficiency of female and male
athletes is both sparse and inconclusive. In running, consistently depressed in females is the maximal
for example females have been found to be more, oxygen consumption. Even after accounting for
less and equally efficient compared to males differences in bodyweight and body fat percentage,
depending on the specific study. Some of this a gap of roughly 10 to 15 percent remains.
confusion comes down to how the differences in
bodyweight and body fat were accounted for. Muscle Strength and Power
After looking over some of the research Although maximal muscular strength and anaerobic
comparing running economy between genders, it power has little to do with endurance performance,
may be argued that any inherent economy there are many events which can be classified as
differences in male and female runners are smaller “power-endurance” events. These events ranging
than the individual variation in running economy from 2 to about 8 minutes require some combination
that is observed among runners, independent of of aerobic and anaerobic capacity. For this reason, it
gender. It may be supported that argument by is important to also consider this “anaerobic”
suggesting the differences in VO2 max observed component of the performance. When it is discussed
between elite males and females are sufficient to about anaerobic capacity, the critical determinant is
explain the “10 percent gap” without other factors muscle mass. Females, on average, have less total
being involved. muscle mass than males. As a result, maximal strength
Now, if we look at ef ficiency/economy measures as well as maximal power measures (power
differences in other sports, things mostly boil down = force/time) are reduced. Gross measures of upper
to body shape/anthropometric differences. In body strength suggest an average 40 to 50 percent
situations like running or cycling, these may difference between the sexes, compared to a 30
actually favor females in general, due to narrower percent difference in lower body strength. About
upper bodies for a given total body mass, and power, Maud and Schultz compared 52 men and 50
potentially less wind or water drag. It has been seen women, all about 21 years old using a maximal power
the differences in VO2 max alone are sufficient to test on a bicycle ergometer. Peak power was about
explain the gender performance gap in rowing. 60 percent lower for the females when comparing
absolute values. But, the men were heavier. Peak
Fat Metabolism power per kg bodyweight was more similar, 9.3
In 70s, a theory got started that said “Since women watts/kg vs 7.9 watts/kg for the women, an 18
have more fat stores, they will be better at utilizing percent difference. Finally, when power outputs were
fat during endurance performance when glycogen adjusted for fat-free mass, the values were 10.4 watts/
stores are depleted.” One of the supporting pillars kg and 9.9 respectively. This 5 percent difference was
of the theory was that it had been noticed by one not statistically significant. Numerous other studies
female runner/author how “fresh” many female using different techniques have also demonstrated
runners looked as they crossed the finish line! This that when it has been look at muscle quality, male
shaky theory was crushed under the harsh light of and female muscle is not different. Within the accuracy
science. In 1979, Costill and colleagues compared of current comparative techniques, it appears that the
males and females who were equally trained during strength and power differences between the sexes are
a 60 minute treadmill run. There were no a function of muscle quantity only. Biomechanical
differences in any measures of fat metabolism was differences probably play a role in some situations,
observed. They even took some muscle out of the but this will be very sport specific.
runners’ legs and tested it in a test tube. Still no
difference was noticed. This is an often repeated Training Volume
finding among similarly trained males and females. There are small but important differences in the
There is no gender difference in the ability of men recovery capacity of male and females, at least when
and women to burn fat! pushed to the extremes of elite level training. Again
Of the three critical components of endurance for example of world class Cross Country skiers, it
performance, the only one that is clearly and appears that the best women perform optimally at
a training volume that is perhaps 10 to 15 percent Women generally gained much less in fat-free
lower than that obser ved in the best men. mass (FFM) than men do. With the exception of
Increasing the volume in the women does not FFM, the magnitude of the change of body
improve results, and often leads to overtraining. composition appears to be related more to the total
The general consensus is that the difference lies in energy expenditure associated with the training
the higher average testosterone levels of males. activities than to the participant’s sex. As for FMM,
Remember, testosterone is an anabolic hormone. significantly more is gained in response to strength
This means it is critical for tissue growth and repair. training than with endurance training, and the
It has been reported that only one of the magnitude of these responses is much less in
Norwegian female national team skiers has been women, due to their hormonal difference.
able to maintain the average yearly training volume
(ii) Neuromuscular adaptation: To prescribing
(measured in hours) that is maintained by the entire
strength training programs for girls and women
Russian female team. At any rate, we should be
was not believed capable of gaining strength due
aware that there is probably a small gender
to their extremely low levels of the male anabolic
difference in recovery capacity from hard or high
hormones until 1970s. Paradoxically, many people
volume training, in addition to the individual
also generally feared that strength training would
variation that is observed.
masculinize women. During the 1960s and 1970s,
however, it became evident that many of the female
Feminity
athletes of United States were not doing better in
The inherent hormonal and morphological factors international competition mainly because they were
are responsible for faminity and masculinity and weaker than their competitors. Gradually research
not strenuous exercise as some people would like demonstrated that women can gain strength
to believe. There is no evidence to indicate that considerably from strength training programs and
participation in vigorous exercise and sports will that strength gain programs usually not
masculinize women. On the contrar y it is a accompanied by large increases in muscle bulk. It
generally accepted fact that such activity tends to has been reported that women can experience that
make a women more graceful and feminine because major increases in strength (20–40 %) as a result
it brings about better muscle tones, replaces fatty of resistance training and the magnitude of these
tissue with from musculature, and improves overall changes is similar to that in men. These gains are
fitness, just to mention a few. It has been agreed likely due more to neural factors, because the
that faminity is the general rule among today and increase in muscle mass is generally small.
female athleter rather than the exception.
(iii) Cardio-respiratory adaptation: Cardiovascular
and respirator y changes that accompany
PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS TO cardiorespiratory endurance training do not appear
EXERCISE TRAINING to be sex specific. Women experience the same
Basic physiological function both at rest and during relative increase in VO2 max that men experience
exercise changes substantially with physical training. with cardiorespiratory endurance training. Women
The emphasizing areas in which how women adapt can experience major increases in endurance
to chronic exercise as compare to men. capacity of 10 to 40 percent with aerobic training.
So, women respond to physical training in the same
(i) Body composition: With either cardiorespiratory manner as men do.
endurance training or strength training, both
women and men experience- ATHLETIC ABILITY
 Losses in total body mass
 Losses of fat mass Women are outperformed by men in almost all
 Losses of relative fat and sports, events or activities. This is quite obvious in
 Gains in fat free mass activities such as the shot put in track and field,
where high levels of upper body strength are crucial Olympic Games, five set personal bests while
to successful performance. In 400 m freestyle menstruating. In another study of Prague track and
swimming, however, the swimming time for field athletes, 29 percent of the competitors attested
women in the 1924 Olympic Games was 16 percent that they had done the same. Results vary wildly
slower than that of men, but this difference from study to study, which shows that individual
decreased to 11.6 percent in the 1946 Olympics, physical variation combined with psychological
and to only 6.9 percent in the 1984 Olympics. factors around menstruation produces highly
The fastest women’s 800 m freestyle swimmer in diverse outcomes with regard to performance
1979 swam faster than the world record holding during menstruation. In terms of the effect of
man for the same distance in 1972. Therefore, in exercise on menstruation, no clinical evidence has
this particular event the gap between the sexes is
been found to show that moderate regular exercise
narrowing, and this is also true for other events
affects the cycle negatively. In the next section on
and for other sports. Unfortunately, making valid
amenorrhea, it is pointed out some of the problems
comparisons through the years has been difficult
associated with heavy training and low body fat
because the degree to which an activity has been
levels. The majority of women find that exercise
emphasized, or its popularity is not constant and
alleviates many of the negative symptoms associated
other factors, such as opportunities to participate,
coaching, facilities, and training techniques, have with premenstrual and menstrual discomfort.
differed considerably between the sexes over the Howevr, from currently available information,
years. it can be concluded that performance in some
women can be affected by the phase of their
MENSTRUATION AND ATHLETIC menstrual cycle, but that many, if not most, women
are not affected. Any women who experiences
PERFORMANCE premenstrual syndrome or dysmenorrhea will likely
Alterations in athletic performance experienced not perform as well while she is experiencing
during different phase of the menstrual cycle are symptoms. For these women, some degree of
subject to considerable individual variability. Some control over their menstrual cycle is possible
woman have absolutely no noticeable change in through the use of low dose oral contraceptives.
their performance ability at anytime during their
menstrual cycle, yet other have considerable MENARCHE
difficulty in either the pre flow or the early flow
The menarche is the first menstrual flow of
phase or during both. Several studies have
women. Delayed menarche has been reported in
suggested that athletic performance is best during
young athletes involved in certain sports and
the immediate post flow period up to the 15th day
activities, such as gymnastics and ballet. The mean
of the cycle, with the first day of the corresponding
age for menarche is generally 12.0 years. For
to the initiation of the flow.
gymnasts, the mean age appears to be closure to
Number of studies has been done that and tried
to show some decrease in performance during 15 years. Frisch has hypothesized that menarche is
menstruation. Whenever some decrease in delayed 5 months for each year for training prior
performance was actually found it is difficult to to menarche, implying that training causes delayed
sufficiently isolate the variable such that the menarche. Malina, however, has postulated that
decrease can be explicitly linked to menstruation. late maturers, such as those with delayed menarche,
In other words, there is no conclusive clinical proof are more likely to be successful in sports such as
that getting period negatively affects the athletic gymnastics because of their small, lean bodies.
performance. In addition, there is a great deal of However, there is not strong evidence to supports
individual variation among women. For example, the contention that the intense training for the
in a study of Finnish female athletes at the Helsinki sports delayed menarche.
MENSTRUAL DYSFUNCTION can be one of a number of factors, but is

probably not the primary factor, in the
Female athletes can experience disruptions of their development of secondary amenorrhea.
normal menstrual cycle. These disruptions are b. Acute effects of stress: The amenorrhic
collectively referred to as menstrual dysfunction, runners associated more stress with their
of which there are several types. training than did eumenorrhic runners.
i. Eumenorrhea : It is the term for normal
However, scientific tests faild to detect any
menstrual function.
differences in the amenorrhic runners’ levels
ii. Oligomenorrhea: It is refers to abnormality
of anxiety, depression and other states that
infrequent or scant menstruation.
reflects stress.
iii. Primary amenorrhea: Primary amenorrhea
c. High quantity and intensity of training: It
refers to the absence of menarche in women
has been established that high quantity of
18 years of age and older women who never
training is associated with secondar y
began menstruating.
amenorrhea. However, the effect of tarining
iv. Secondary amenorrhea: Some athletes with
previously normal menstrual function have intensity on menstrual function has not been
reported the absence of menstruation for well documented. Training at a high intensity,
months or even years when they have trained because of the high physical stress placed on
competed intensely in sports such as figure the body, might be more closely linked with
scatting, ballet, gymnastics, body building, secondary amenorrhea.
cycling and distance r unning. This d. Low body weight and body fat: Excessive
phenomenon is referred to as secondary leanness, undernutrition, or both, have long
amenorrhea. been associated with amenorrhea.
The prevalence of secondary amenorrhea and e. Inadequate nutrition and eating disorder.
oligomenorrhea among athletes is not well f. Hormonal alterations.
documented, but is estimated to var y from
approximately 5 to 40 percent or higher, depending A Proactive Approach
on the spor ts or activity and the level of
The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM)
competition. A high percentage of female athletes
has taken a proactive approach to menstrual
in endurance and appearance sports performance
dysfunction in athletes, recommending
secondary amenorrhea, where normal menstrual
intervention within three months of the onset of
function is lost for months or even years. This
amenorrhea. Their guidelines recommend a
appears to be reversible with reductions in the
intensity and volume of training and an increase in nonpharmacological behavioral approach, together
caloric intake. The cause of these conditions in with diet and training interventions, as follows:
 Reduce training level by 10 to 20 percent;
athletes is unknown, but current evidence
implicates inadequate nutrition as a primary cause  Gradually increase total energy intake;
of secondary amenorrhea. In addition, hormonal  Increase body weight by 2 to 3 percent;
changes from exercise and training might disrupt  Maintain daily calcium intake at 1,500 mg.
gonadotropic hormone releasing hormone Skin blood flow and the sweating response
secretion, which is needed to direct the normal during rest and activity are also influenced by the
cycle. menstrual cycle. Scientists have found that a
The high level training leads to menstrual significantly higher core temperature is required
dysfunction, but the true cause might involve one to initiate sweating during the luteal phase.
or more factors associated with high level training. Although this change in thermoregulator y
Some factors that have been proposed include the sensitivity does not affect the ability to exercise, it
following: is worth taking account of menstrual cycle phase
a. Previous history of menstrual dysfunction: when evaluating thermoregulatory dynamics
A previous history of menstrual dysfunction during exercise and thermal stress.
The majority of published studies agree that One of the most typical problems encountered
neither menstrual phase (follicular vs luteal) nor by pregnant women is back pain. Their center of
menstr ual status (menstruating vs non- gravity shifts and extra weight is added over nine
menstruating) significantly alters or limits exercise months. Women tend to slouch the shoulders and
performance. arch the lower back to compensate for these
However, the combination of intensive exercise changes, which of course leads to discomfort. A
(particularly during the pre-pubertal years) and strong abdominal column as well as a strong back
under-nutrition can have an adverse impact on gained through weight training before pregnancy
reproductive function and sexual maturation, can alleviate much of this problem.
leading to either primary or secondary amenorrhea. Pregnant women are especially prone to
If an athlete does become amenorrheic, medical overheating during exercise, so monitoring
treatment should be considered in order to temperature, avoiding exercise in hot, humid
maintain long-term health and reduce the risk of environments, ensuring that there are mechanisms
fractures of bones. for body cooling (sweating, loosening of clothing,
etc., and drinking lots of water are key factors).
PREGNANCY Exercise during pregnancy, four major
Historically the question of what women should physiological concerns is associated. These are as
do during pregnancy was a highly class-based one. follows:
Upper- and middle-class women of previous i. The acute risk associated with reduced blood
centuries were kept in confinement and forced flow to the uterus leading to fetal hypoxia.
leisure. One of the important truisms about activity ii. Fetal hyperthermia associated with the increase
during pregnancy is that pregnancy is not the time in the mother’s internal body temperature
to begin a strenuous exercise program. Don’t start during prolonged aerobic type of exercise or
German Volume Training or any kind of exercise under conditions of heat stress.
masochistic weight program. In fact, pregnancy is iii. Reduced carbohydrate availability to the fetus
not the time to make any drastic physical changes. as the mother’s body uses more carbohydrate
However, women who are already accustomed to to fuel her exercise.
regular activity and exercise generally find iv. The possibility of miscarriage and the final
pregnancy no disruption to their normal routine. outcome of pregnancy.
The female body has had plenty of evolutionary Although there are several concerns over the
time to adapt to the stress of pregnancy and health of the fetus during maternal exercise, the
compensates for the extra demand in a variety of risk to the fetus from women performing aerobic
ways. For example, oxygen consumption/aerobic exercise during pregnancy appears to be low,
capacity can increase up to 30 percent during particularly if guidelines for exercising during
pregnancy in non-exercisers and even more in pregnancy are followed.
women who exercise. In addition, strenuous
exercise can be exceedingly uncomfortable in the Guidelines for the Prescription of Aerobic Exercise
last part of pregnancy. However, anecdotal and During Pregnancy:
clinical evidence shows that fitter women tend to i. Obtained medical clearence prior to exercise.
have easier pregnancies and shorter deliveries with ii. Swimming, cycling (except weight bearing
fewer complications. Many women also find that exercise) is preferable.
exercise during pregnancy helps alleviate fatigue iii. Exertion levels should be determined on an
and keep energy levels up. In addition, exercise individual basis.
has been shown to reduce the gain of subcutaneous iv. Avoid strenuous exertion during the first
(under the skin) fat associated with extra caloric trimester.
intake during pregnancy. Thus, regular and v. Increases in exercise quantity and quality
moderate exercise during pregnancy can have many should be very gradual for previously inactive
positive effects. women.
vi. Avoid exercise in warm/humid environments. iii. Bathroom visits after meal
vii. Drink liquids before and after exercise to iv. Depressive moods
ensure adequate hydration. v. Strict dieting followed by eating binges
viii. Do not exercise when fatigue, particularly in vi. Increasing criticism of one’s body
late gestation.
ix. Periodic rest intervals may be helpful to AMENORRHEA
minimize hypoxia or thermal stress to the fetus.
Amenorrhea is the clinical term for cessation of
menstrual periods with possible related loss of
EATING DISORDERS
ovulation. This is generally seen in women who
Eating disorder, such as anorexia nervosa and train very heavily and/or have body fat below 10
bulimia nervosa, are more common in women than to 14 percent; thus, athletes, bodybuilders and
in men and for athletes, are especially common in models may all experience this condition. In
appearance sports, endurance sports and weight essence, menstruation has ceased because the body
classification sports. Athletes seem to be at a higher does not feel that it has sufficient resources to
risk for eating disorders than the general nurture a fetus. Interestingly, there seems also to
population. be a relationship between intense athletic training
in young girls and delayed initial onset of
Anorexia Nervosa menstruation, although the exact variables are hard
Anorexia nervosa is a disorder characterized by to determine. It may be that lean girls are more
 Refusal to maintain more than the minimal athletically predisposed anyway, and the delay of
normal weight based on age and height. menarche (onset of first menstruation) is merely
 Distorted body image, an adjunct rather than a result. One of the main
 Intense fear of fatness or gaining weight and concerns around amenorrhea is the concomitant
 Amenorrhea loss of bone density. In other words, skeletal bone
mineral loss has been observed to be related to
Bulimia Nervosa lack of menstruation.
However, research has demonstrated that
Bulimia nervosa is characterized by
amenorrhea is not caused by low body fat per se.
 Recurrent episodes of binge eating,
Rather; it appears to be triggered by a long-term
 A feeling of lack of control during these binges
negative energy balance, which can result in a low
and
body fat. Energy balance is the relationship between
 Purging behavior, which can include self-
calories in and calories expended. If a female athlete
induced vomiting, laxative use and diuretic use.
consistently maintains a negative energy balance
Warning Signs for Anorexia Nervosa and for a long-time (in other words, if she does not eat
Bulimia Nervosa enough to fuel for her activity), then this is what
stimulates loss of menstruation, not a particular
Warning signs for Anorexia nervosa: body fat level in and of itself. Indeed, female
i. Dramatic loss in weight
athletes and bodybuilders who are sensible about
ii. A preoccupation with food, calories and
their nutrition and dieting practices may find that
weight
they do not lose their periods even though they
iii. Wearing baggy or layered clothing
get quite lean.
iv. Relentless, excessive exercise
Although some women who re-star t
v. Mood swings
menstruation can make some moderate gains back,
vi. Avoiding food related social activities
it appears that long-term bone mineral loss related
Warning signs for Bulimia nervosa: to amenorrhea is largely irreversible. With the
i. A noticeable weight loss or gain increasing concern about osteoporosis in our
ii. Excessive concern about weight society today, this is a critical concern for female
athletes. Data is still sketchy on the bone density dramatically to a decrease in injuries and chronic
concerns of developing girls, although perhaps this problems, as well as to a loss of excess body fat.
problem in general might be somewhat alleviated One important point for aging women: in the
by weight training, which is known to increase bone calculation of body fat percentages, the same actual
density. Along with the problem of bone mineral caliper measurement (say, 15 mm) will mean
loss initiate the problem of stress fractures. The different body fat percentage readings depending
possibility of stress fractures raises some important on age. This is due to inter-abdominal fat
questions. Is, for example, the increased bone deposition with age. In other words, the older you
density of the marathon runner as compared to get, the more fat you accumulate on your internal
her sedentary colleague enough to withstand the organs as opposed to beneath your skin
actual activity of marathon running? At what point (subcutaneous fat). Thus the “healthy” range of
do the load-bearing exercises, which improve bone percentages increases with numerical age.
density, become too much load for the bone to Female Athlete T riad
Triad
riad: In the early 90s. It become
handle? apparent that there is a reasonably strong
Obviously there are more variables involved in association between eating disordered, secondary
the problem of amenorrhea and bone density loss. amenorrhea and bone mineral disorder. This has
Diet, training and other environmental factors are been fermed the female athlete triad and it appears
also significant considerations. However, that the triad might start with disordered eating.
amenorrhea as a long-term clinical state is highly An athlete who has disordered eating start to
undesirable in any case. experience disordered menstrual function, which
eventually leads to secondary amenorrhea. Again
MENOPAUSE secondary amenorrhea leads to bone mineral
Surprisingly, there have been few studies done on disorders. However, number of research are going
menopausal women and exercise. The main on there relationship among the female athletes.
concern for menopausal and postmenopausal
women is the drop in estrogen levels which is SUMMARY
associated with bone density loss. This is especially i. The body of the men and women reacts
problematic for those women who may have been differently to varying degrees of physical stress,
amenorrheic in their youths, since there is likely and never two bodies react exactly the same
some bone density loss which has already taken way to the same physical stress. For everyone
place. Weight training, however, has been shown to get the maximum benefit from training,
to have very beneficial effects irrespective of age. and trainer must be aware of these differences
Obviously a menopausal woman isn’t going to and plan the training schedule to provide
respond in the same way as a teenage girl, but the maximum benefit for everyone. They must
positive consequences of weight training are also be aware of the physiological differences
undeniable. Within every age group, active women between men and women. While they require
fare better than inactive women in just about every equal efforts of men and women during the
test. Some studies showed that exercise can reduce training period, they must also realize that
and/or delay much of the symptomology (hot women have physiological limitations which
flashes, anxiety, etc.) associated with menopause. generally preclude equal performance.
If one has been inactive, menopause is a good time ii. This difference in size affects the absolute
to become active. It’s never too late to begin to amount of physical work that can be
strength training and engage in regular exercise. performed by men and women. Accordingly,
Excess body fat is associated with a host of later- the body surface area is also varying between
life problems such as heart disease and diabetes. men and women of same ages. Men have 50
As increasing one’s muscle mass contributes percent greater total muscle mass, based on
weight, than do women. A woman who is the due to the fact that males are bigger, on
same size as her male counterpart is generally average, than females and also having big heart
only 80 percent as strong. Therefore, men and lung size with more muscle mass.
usually have an advantage in strength, speed vi. Some of the research comparing running
and power over women. economy between genders, it may be argued
iii. Women carry about 10 percent more body that any inherent economy differences in male
fat than do men of the same age. Men and female runners are smaller than the
accumulate fat primarily in the back, chest and individual variation in running economy that
abdomen; women gain fat in the buttocks, is observed among runners, independent of
arms and thighs. Women have less bone mass gender. It may be supported that argument
than men, but their pelvic structure is wider. by suggesting the differences in VO2 max
This difference gives men an advantage in observed between elite males and females are
running efficiency. sufficient to explain the “10 percent gap”
iv. Anthropometric measurements at maturity without other factors being involved.
differ substantially between the sexes. Women vii. Maximal muscular strength and anaerobic
have narrower shoulders, broader hips, and power has little to do with pure endurance
smaller chest diameters and tend to have more performance, there are many events which can
fat in the hips and lower body, whereas men be classified as “power-endurance” events.
carry more fat in the abdomen and upper These events ranging from 2 to about 8
body. The average woman’s heart is 25 percent minutes require some combination of aerobic
smaller than the average man’s. Thus, the and anaerobic capacity. For this reason, it is
important to also consider this “anaerobic”
man’s heart can pump more blood with each
component of the performance.
beat (i.e., stroke volume). The larger heart
viii. Alterations in athletic performance experienced
size contributes to the slower resting heart rate
during different phase of the menstrual cycle
(five to eight beats a minute slower) in males.
are subject to considerable individual variability.
The normal resting heart rate of young adult
Some woman have absolutely no noticeable
is 72 beats/min. whereas the normal heart
change in their performance ability at anytime
rate of women of similar age is 76 beats/min.
during their menstrual cycle, yet other
Women generally are more flexible than their
have considerable difficulty in either the pre
men counterpart which may be due to the hip
flow or the early flow phase or during both.
flexion is greater in women than men. The
Several studies have suggested that athletic
lung capacity of men is 25 to 30 percent performance is best during the immediate post
greater than that of women. This gives men flow period up to the 15th day of the cycle,
still another advantage in the processing of with the first day of the corresponding to the
oxygen and in doing aerobic work such as initiation of the flow.
running, swimming, cycling, etc. ix. Delayed menarche has been reported in young
v. Knowing the physiological dif ferences athletes involved in certain sports and
between men and women is just the first step activities, such as gymnastics and ballet. The
in planning physical training for a group. mean age for menarche is generally 12.0 years.
Trainers need to understand other factors too. For gymnasts, the mean age appears to be
Women can exercise during menstruation; it closure to 15 years. Female athletes can
is, in fact, encouraged. The “typical” young experience disruptions of their normal
untrained male will have an absolute VO2 max menstrual cycle. These disruptions are
of 3.5 liters/min, while the typical same-age collectively referred to as menstr ual
female will be about 2 liters/min. This is a 43 dysfunction, of which there are several types:
percent difference and this difference may be Eumenorrhea, Oligomenorrhea, Primary
Amenorrhea and Secondary Amenorrhea. A REVIEW QUESTIONS

high percentage of female athletes in
endurance and appearance sports performance 1. How do men and women differ physically and
secondar y amenorrhea, where normal physiologically?
menstrual function is lost for months or even 2. How do female compare with males with
years. This appears to be reversible with respect to body composition?
reductions in the intensity and volume of 3. How do men and women compare relative to
training and an increase in caloric intake. upper and lower body strength? Can women
x. The female body has had plenty of gain strength with resistance training?
evolutionary time to adapt to the stress of 4. Discuss the Gender Differences in Endurance
pregnancy and compensates for the extra Performance and Training.
demand in a variety of ways. For example, 5. What cardiovascular differences exist between
oxygen consumption/aerobic capacity can female and males with respect to sub maximal
increase up to 30 percent during pregnancy exercise? Maximal exercise?
in non-exercisers and even more in women 6. What are the difference between male and
who exercise. In addition, strenuous exercise female of physiological adaptations to exercise
can be exceedingly uncomfortable in the last and training?
part of pregnancy, which is perhaps the body’s 7. Why are female and male performances in
way of telling mom to lay off for a while till motor skills similar up to the age of puberty,
things get back to normal. and yet considerably different once puberty
xi. Amenorrhea is the clinical term for cessation has been attained?
of menstrual periods with possible related loss 8. How does the menstrual cycle influence
of ovulation. This is generally seen in women athletic performance in female athletes?
who train very heavily and/or have body fat Discuss with suitable example.
below 10 to 14 percent; thus, athletes, 9. What do you mean by menstrual dysfunction?
bodybuilders, and models may all experience What are some of the possible reason that
this condition. In essence, menstruation has woman athletes in intensive training will, in
ceased because the body does not feel that it some cases, stop menstruating for intervals of
has sufficient resources to nurture a fetus. several months to several years or more?
xii. There have been few studies done on 10. What are the risks associated with training
menopausal women and exercise. The main during pregnancy? What are the guidelines of
concern for menopausal and postmenopausal aerobic exercise during pregnancy?
women is the drop in estrogen levels which is 11. What are the two majors’ eating disorders and
associated with bone density loss. This is what is the level of risk of elite female athletes
especially problematic for those women who for these eating disorders? Writes notes on the
may have been amenorrheic in their youths, following: (a) Amenorrhea, (b) Menopause,
since there is likely some bone density loss (c) Eating disorders.
which has already taken place. Weight training, 12. What are the difference between men and
however, has been shown to have ver y women in their exercise response when
beneficial effects irrespective of age. exposed to intense heat and humidity?
CHAPTER
11
Envir onment and Physical Per
Environment for
Perfor mance
formance
 Regulation of Body Temperature  Achieving Heat Acclimatization

 Mechanism of Heat Production  Exercise in the Cold
 Mechanism of Heat Loss  Factors Affecting Body Heat Loss
 Nervous System and Thermotaxis  Cold Acclimatization
 Role of Endocrine Glands  Physiological Responses to Exercise in the Cold
 Role of Sweat Glands  Risks during Exercise in the Cold
 Role of Muscles  Performance at Altitude
 Risks during Exercise in the Heat  Altitude Acclimatization
 Human Limitations in the Heat  Immediate Responses to Altitude
 Practical Recommendations for Fluid  Altitude related Medical Problems
Replacement  Long-term Adjustment to Altitude
 Body Fluid Balance: Sweating  Time Required for Acclimatization
 Exercise in the Heat  Endurance Capacity on Return to Sea Level
 Acclimatization to Exercise in the Heat  Altitude Training and Sea-Level Performance
The animal kingdom can be broadly classified into Even in homoiotherms, who are capable of
two groups, depending upon their body maintaining constant body temperature, it has been
temperature. Those who can maintain their body found that different parts of the body, even
temperature relatively constant in the face of wide different organs, have different temperatures and
variations of environmental temperature are known this is a normal phenomenon. However, the
as warm-blooded animal or homeotherms, where average temperature as measured has been found
as those whose body temperature fluctuates with to lie with in a constant range, hence justifying the
fluctuations of the environmental temperature are statement of having a constant body temperature.
termed as cold-blooded animals or poikilotherms.
In the course of evolution, from poikilotherms to REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE
homeotherms, there exists another group who are
known as hybernants, going into hibernation in Although a large amount of heat is produced and
winter, otherwise behaving like the worm-blooded lost from the body constantly, yet the body
animals in the remaining period. Hibernating temperature remains constant within a limited
animals do not require an external source of heat range. This indicates that there is strong machinery,
to raise their body temperature to normal and can which keeps an exact balance between gain and
rouse themselves probably by activating their large loss of heat and thereby maintains a constant body
store of brown fat. temperature. The physiological process of heat
Environment and Physical Performance  211
production in the body is known as thermogenesis. involuntary response known as shivering, which
Dissipation of bodily heat by means of radiation, may in fact, increase the metabolic processes by as
evaporation, etc., is called thermolysis. The much as 400 percent. The human body generally
mechanism by which body temperature is normally starts to shiver when the skin temperature has
adjusted is known as the thermotaxis. The dropped to approximately 19°C (66°F).
controlling mechanism consists of the following:
MECHANISM OF HEAT LOSS
MECHANISM OF HEAT PRODUCTION
There are three ways by which heat is lost from
The human body primarily as a result of all the the body: (i) Skin (ii) lungs and (iii) excretion. Skin
internal metabolic processes gains heat. However, is the most important organ among the three and
there may be a small gain by radiation and approximately 85 percent of heat is lost via this
convection from the external environment, such organ, although this depends on external and
as the sun, a newly resurfaced blacktop road, desert internal conditions. Thus, the bodily changes that
sand and rock, etc. if they are at a higher regulate the exchange of heat between the body
temperature than the body. A small gain may also and the environment are referred to as physical heat
be obtained through conduction if the body is regulation.
exposed to a source having a high temperature such
i) From the skin (Proportional to the total surface
as hot water. The amount taken in with hot food
area): Heat is lost from the skin by the following
and drink is almost negligible. Heat production
means:
from metabolism takes place in the tissues.
a. Conduction
Although every tissue contributes to this, the
b. Convection
skeletal muscles furnish the largest amount.
c. Radiation
Therefore, increasing heat production is obtained d. Evaporation
primarily by increasing muscular activity. In
strenuous activity, heat production from a. Conduction: Heat may be lost from the skin by
metabolism has been known to increase by as much conduction, as in coming in direct contact with an
as 30 times its normal. In bitter cold weather, the object possessing a colder temperature. Heat is
metabolic heat production is achieved by an always conducted from the warmer to the colder
Fig. 11.1: The balance of body heat gain and loss

object. If the outside object is warmer than the mechanism for cooling the body, the sweat from
human body, then heat is gain by conduction. our body must be changed into a gaseous water
vapor at the body surface. Energy, in the form of
b. Convection: When the body temperature is
heat, is needed for this change and it is absorbed
higher then the surrounding air, heat is lost from
from the body surface. This absorbing of heat
the skin by way of convection. Thus, the
energy results in cooling.
surrounding air is warm by air currents from the
During exercise, the major portion of heat loss
body. The convection currents replace warmed air
is through evaporation of sweat from the body
with cold air and they also replace moist air with
surface. In addition, when air temperature is higher
relatively dry air. The amount of heat loss from
than that of the human body, the majority of heat
convection depends on the temperature as well as
is lost by evaporation. The amount and rate of heat
the speed by which the air flows over the surface
of the body. We gain heat by convection when the lost by evaporation depends upon the movement
surrounding air is warmer than the body. of air across the surface of the body as well as the
relative humidity (RH) of the air. The lower the
c. Radiation: Heat is lost from the skin by radiation humidity, the greater the heat loss via evaporation;
when the body temperature is higher than the whereas the higher the humidity (air highly
surrounding object such as walls and furniture. On saturated with water vapor) the smaller the heat
the other hand, we gain heat by way of radiation loss. During vigorous exercise, especially in a hot
when the external objects are warmer than the and humid environment, perspiration can exceed
human body. Radiation is based on the principle as much as 4 liters per hour. Although the rate of
that molecules within the body are constantly perspiration changes with the temperature, there
vibrating, and as a result, heat is being given off in is some perspiration even at low temperatures.
the forms of electromagnetic waves. Perspiration of this nature is referred to as insensible
d. Evaporation: Heat is lost from the skin by water loss. Insensible water loss leaves the body at
evaporation of sweat from the body surface since all times unless the ambient humidity is 100 percent
the evaporation of any given fluid utilizes and hence RH. This moisture or extra cellular fluid diffuses
removes that from the surrounding objects and through the skin, through the pores of the sweat
air. In order for evaporation to be an effective glands and from the lungs.
Fig. 11.2: The complex interaction between the body’s mechanisms for heat balance and environmental conditions
(Adopted from the book Physiology of Sports and Exercise: J. Wilmore & D. Costill.)
NERVOUS SYSTEM AND THERMOTAXIS of this centers destruction, exposure of the person
to cold climate does not increase metabolism or
There are several centers in the spinal cord and the heart rate; therefore, heat production lags and the
brain, which control such activities as body temperature drops.
vasoconstriction, vasodilatation, sweating, muscle The hypothalamus responds reflexly to afferent
tone and shivering. In order for body temperature impulses initiated by the thermo receptors in the
to remain at or near a constant level, the integration skin, and to changes in the temperature of the arterial
of these various activities is essential. blood that flows through it. The skin receptors react
(i) Role of cerebrum: Removal of cerebrum makes to changes in the environmental temperature,
very little changes. The regulating capacity only whereas the hypothalamus receptors respond to
becomes slightly restricted. The human responds small temperature changes (as little as 0.2 to 0.5°F)
normally to external heat or cold but the body of the arterial blood flowing through them.
temperature falls if kept in the cold room for a (iii) Role of autonomic nervous center: Only the
long-time. parasympathetic division, e.g. salivary secretion,
(ii) Role of hypothalamus: The heat-regulating secretion of glands of the pharynx and respiratory
center lies in the hypothalamus. The role of the tract, mediates a few thermal responses and local
thermoregulatory system in regulating body vasodilatation followed by activity. Greater part of
temperature is accompanied by two centers: (a) the generalized thermal responses in visceral
Anterior hypothalamus center, (b) Posterior effectors is due to sympathetic control, e.g.
hypothalamus center. constriction of peripheral vessels, erection of hair
and feathers, liberation of epinephrine and
a. Anterior hypothalamus center: This center
norepinephrine, sweating and cutaneous
controls heat-dissipating events. For instance, if this
vasodilatation. It has been definitely established
center is stimulated, the blood vessels of the skin
that adrenal medulla is an integral part of the
are dilated, thus resulting in a greater flow of blood
sympathetic system.
to the surface. Also, impulses are transmitted to
the sweat glands, increasing perspiration, and to (iv) Role of spinal cord in heat regulation: Spinal cord
the respiratory center, causing panting. All these is the connecting path between the heat-regulating
physiological responses act to increase the rate of centers in the hypothalamus, peripheral thermo
heat loss from the body, and thereby prevent receptors and effector organs (muscles). The
overheating of the body. Destruction of this center cervical segments of the spinal cord transmit greater
causes a person to react normal in a cold part of the sympathetic outflow, which regulates
environment, but in hot climates the common peripheral circulation and hence heat regulation.
methods of losing heat (conduction, radiation, Spinothalamic tracts of the spinal cord carry the
convection and evaporation) are inoperative and efferent impulse for shivering from higher centers.
hence the body temperature rises. Ef fect of section through spinal cord on
b. Posterior hypothalamus center: The posterior thermoregulation depends upon the level. When
hypothalamus center calls on heat conservation the section of the cord is made above or through
events, and thereby prevents chilling of the body. the level of sympathetic outflow (cer vical
segments), gross disturbance of temperature
For example, if the center is stimulated, the blood
regulation occurs. Transection of the spinal cord
vessels of the skin are constricted, thus reducing
from the level of upper thoracic segments
the blood flow to the surface. In addition, it is
downwards abolishes sweating and shivering below
well known that the surface hairs on the body are
the level of transection, i.e. in the paralyzed parts.
also stimulated to become erect, and thus they
come into play to reinforce the insulating layer of (v) Role of motor fibers of the cerebrospinal system
air surrounding the skin. At the same time, in heat regulation (Muscle tone): Muscle tone alone
shivering is brought about through the same (even without locomotion and exercise) is a
mechanism to increase heat production. As a result continuous source of heat production. Central
nervous system maintains the muscle tone (thermal body temperature (cold stress or heat stress
muscle tone) by continuous discharge of impulses respectively).
to the muscles via motor fibers. Exaggerated
“thermal muscle tone” to the extent of tremor is Adrenal Medulla
described as shivering. Shivering impulses from the It helps in both ways. Cold reflexly stimulates
shivering center are not transmitted via the adrenaline secretion, which increases heat production
sympathetic system but via the motor fibers of by stimulating metabolism. When the adrenal medulla
cerebrospinal system. is stimulated, large amounts of epinephrine and
norepinephrine hormones are released into the blood.
Role of Endocrine Glands
These two hormones have the ability to increase the
The effects of several hormones cause the cells to basal metabolic rate and therefore increase the heat
increase their metabolic rates. This affects heat production. The exact means by which this is
balance because increased metabolism increases accomplished is not clear, however, according to some
heat production. Cooling the body stimulates authorities researching in this area, epinephrine and
thyroxine release from the thyroid gland, which norepinephrine enhances the breakdown of glycogen
can elevate the metabolic rate throughout the body into glucose as well as increase the rate of some of
by more than 100 percent. Also, epinephrine and the enzymatic reactions that promote oxidation of
norepinephrine mimic and enhances the activity foods. Since these two hormones may cause
of the sympathetic nervous system. Thus, they constriction of the cutaneous blood vessels, they are
directly affect the metabolic rate of virtually all body also of value in conservation of body heat.
cells.
Adrenal Cortex
Thyroid
Adrenal corticoid secretion is stimulated by the
When the thyroid gland is stimulated, large increase or decrease of environmental temperature.
quantities of the hormone called thyroxin is Usually a low body temperature has been noted in
released into the blood. The thyroid hormone Addison’s disease (hypofunction of adrenal cortex).
continues to be active for as long as 4 to 8 weeks The hypothalamus contains high concentration of
after its release into the blood. Large secretions of 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) and noradrenaline
the thyroid hormone can cause the basal metabolic (norepinephrine). The effect of these two amines,
rate (BMR) to increase as much as 200 percent of so far the temperature regulation is concerned, varies
normal. It is generally known to increase the in different animals. It is presumed that these
quantities of most of the cellular enzymes. Hence, hypothalamic amines play some part in the
this may explain its metabolic effects. Cold regulation of body temperature in normal and in
stimulates and heat reduces thyroid secretion. In pathological states. The effect of these two amines,
cold, excess thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) so far the temperature regulation is concerned, varies
is liberated from the anterior pituitary and thereby in different animals. It is presumed that these
excess thyroid hormones are secreted from the hypothalamic animals play some part in the
thyroid gland in controlling low body temperature. regulation of body temperature in normal and in
In cretinism and myxoedema body temperature is pathological states.
subnormal. Thyroidectomised animals cannot
maintain the normal body temperature. Role of Sweat Glands
When either the skin or the blood is heated, the
Anterior Pituitary
hypothalamus sends impulses to the sweat glands,
Thyrotrophic hormone stimulates secretion of commending them to actively secrete sweat that
thyroxine and helps in the maintenance of body moistens the skin. The hotter the person is, the
temperature. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone more sweat he produces. The evaporation of this
(ACTH) is secreted under increased or decreased moisture removes heat from the skin’s surface.
Role of Muscles in a hot environment. At least four variables must

be taken into account:
Smooth Muscle Around Arterioles
i. Air temperature
When the skin and blood are heated, the ii. Humidity
hypothalamus sends signals to the smooth muscle iii. Air velocity and
in the walls of the arterioles that supply the skin, iv. The amount of radiation
causing them to dilate. This increases blood flow All these influence the degree of heat stress
to the skin. The blood carries heat from the deeper experience by the person. The contribution of each
parts of the body to the skin, where the heat of these factors to the total body heat stress are
dissipates to the environment through conduction, not clear, because the contribution vary with
convection, radiation or evaporation. changing environmental conditions.
With an air temperature of 23ºC, an individual
Skeletal Muscle exercising on a bright, sunny day with no
Skeletal muscle is called into action when one needs measurable wind experiences considerably more
to generate more body heat. In a cold environment, heat stress than someone exercising the same air
the thermo receptors in the skin relay signals to temperature but under cloud cover and with a
the hypothalamus. Similarly, whenever the blood slight breeze. At temperatures above 30–32°C,
temperature drops, the change is noted by the radiation, conduction and convection substantially
central receptors in the hypothalamus. In response at to the body’s heat load rather than acting as
to this neural input, the hypothalamus activates the avenues for heat loss.
brain centers that control muscle tone. These
centers stimulate shivering, which is a rapid, HUMAN LIMITATIONS IN THE HEAT
involuntary cycle of contraction and relaxation of There are some problems that can be caused by
skeletal muscles. This increased muscle activity exercising in the heat with which coaches, trainers
generates heat to either maintain or increase the and athletes should be familiar. The following
body temperature. problems are common in the athlete which are
discussed:
Physiological Response to Exercise in
the Heat
Heat Stress
During exercise in the heat, the heat loss
The heat stress is not accurately reflected by air
mechanism compete with the active muscles for
temperature alone. Humidity, air velocity (or wind)
more of the limited blood volume. Thus neither
and thermal radiation also contribute to the total
area is adequately supplied under extreme
heat stress that one experiences when exercising in
conditions. Though cardiac output may remain
the heat. Actually the heat stress is the sum of the
reasonably constant, the stroke volume may
metabolic and environmental heat loads. The total
decline, resulting in a gradual upward drift in heart
thermal load is related to the exercise intensity
rate. Oxygen uptake also increases during constant
(metabolic load), the environmental temperature,
rate exercise in the heat lead weating increase
and the evaporative potential of the environment
during exercises in the heat and this can quickly
(itself related to the ambient water vapor pressure,
had to dehydration and excessive electrolyte loss.
or humidity).
To compensate, the release of aldosterone and
ADH increase, causing sodium and water Heat Strain
retension, which can expand the plasma volume.
The bodily effect of heat stress, that is, the relative
RISKS DURING EXERCISE IN THE HEAT elevation of body core temperature, average skin
temperature, and rate over that occurring in a cool
Air temperature alone is not an accurate index of environment. It is quiet obvious that exercise in
the total physiological stress imposed on the body environmental surroundings of high temperature
and high relative humidity can place severe strains Treatment for victims of heat exhaustion
upon the cardiovascular system. involves rest in a cooler environment with their
feet elevated to avoid shock. If the person is
Heat Related Disorders conscious, administration of salt water is usually
Exposure to the combination of external heat stress recommended. If the person is unconscious,
and the inability to dissipate metabolically medically supervised intravenous administration of
generated heat can lead to mainly three heat-related saline solution is recommended. If allowed to
injuries: progress, heat exhaustion can deteriorate to heat
 Heat cramps
stroke.
 Heat exhaustion
Heat syncope: Heat syncope (fainting) is rare in
 Heat stroke
a conditioned athlete. In most instances, it occurs
Heat cramps: Heat cramps, the least serious of when individuals stand for a prolonged period of
the three heat disorders, is characterized by severe time in the heat or exercise for a prolonged period
cramping of the skeletal muscles. It primarily in an upright position. Heat syncope is caused by
involves the muscles that are most heavily used a pooling of blood in the vasculature of the limbs
during exercise. This disorder is probably brought and skin because of excessive ambient temperatures.
on by the mineral losses and dehydration that In response to the hot environment, the cutaneous
accompany high rates of sweating, but a cause and vesicles of the skin dilate to allow for greater
effect relationship has not been fully established. cooling. The increase in vasodilatation reduces the
Heat cramps are treated by moving the stricken volume of blood that is returned to the heart, which
individual to a cooler location and administration decreases cardiac output and lowers blood pressure.
fluids or a saline solution. Blood flow to the brain is therefore reduced,
Heat exhaustion: Heat exhaustion is typically resulting in a syncopic episode.
accompanied by such symptoms as extreme fatigue, The medical diagnosis of heat syncope is based
breathlessness, dizziness, vomiting, fainting, cold on a fainting spell with the absence of an elevated
and clammy or hot and dry skin, hypotension (low rectal temperature. Before the syncopic episode
blood pressure) and a weak, rapid pulse. It is caused occur the patient may experience nausea, weakness,
by the cardiovascular system’s inability to tunnel vision or vertigo. Treatment for heat
adequately meet the body’s needs. Recall that syncope is to replace any fluid and electrolyte
during exercise in heat, the active muscles and the deficits and have the patient lie in a horizontal
skin, through which excess heat is lost, compete position with the feet elevated. The horizontal
for their fare share of the total blood volume. Heat position allows for a greater venous return to the
exhaustion results when these simultaneous heart. Subsequently, cardiac output and blood
demands are not met. The disorder typically occurs pressure increase, resulting in a return of normal
when the blood volume is reduced, either by blood volume to the brain.
excessive fluid loss or by mineral loss from sweating. Heat stroke: Heat stroke is a life-threatening heat
With heat exhaustion, the thermoregulatory disorder that requires immediate medical attention.
mechanisms are functioning but cannot dissipate It is characterized by-
heat quickly enough because there is insufficient i. A rise in internal body temperature to values
blood volume to allow adequate distribution to exceeding 40ºC (104ºF)
the skin. Although the condition often occurs ii. Cessation of sweating
during mild to moderate exercise in the heat, it is iii. Hot and dry skin
not generally accompanied by a high rectal iv. Rapid pulse and respiration
temperature. Some people who collapse from heat v. Usually hypertension (high blood pressure)
stress exhibit symptoms of heat exhaustion, but vi. Confusion
have internal temperatures below 39ºC (102.2ºF). vii. Unconsciousness
People who are poorly conditioned or If left untreated, heat stroke progresses to
unacclimatized to the heat are more susceptible to comma and death quickly follows. Treatment
heat exhaustion. involves rapidly cooling the person’s body in a bath
of cold water or ice or wrapping the body in wet Prevention of Heat Illness
sheets and fanning the victim. i. Encourage a pre-season training program. In
This disorder is caused by failure of the body’s other words, a period of heat acclimatization
thermoregulator y mechanisms. Body heat should be carried out before working in the heat.
production during exercise is dependent on ii. Practice in lightweight uniforms. Long-
exercise intensity and body weight, so heavier sleeved jerseys and stockings (such as in
athletes run a higher risk of overheating than lighter football) should not be worn until the
athletes when exercising at the same rate, assuming weather turns cool.
both have about equal heat acclimatization. iii. Players should be weighed before and after
In case of athlete, heat stroke is not a problem workouts. An individual who was lost over 5
associated only with extreme conditions. Studies lb (2.3 kg) should be observed very carefully.
have reported rectal temperatures above 40.5ºC Individuals who lose over 10 lbs (4.5 kg) in
(105ºF) in marathon runners who successfully a practice should be considered in the danger
completed races conducted under relatively zone.
moderate thermal conditions (for example, 70ºF iv. Provide for adequate salt and water
and 30 percent relative humidity). Even in shorter replacement. Water, in some form, should be
events, the body’s core temperature can reach life- allowed during all practices and games.
threatening levels. As early as 1937, Robinson v. Allow for sufficient rest periods during
observed rectal temperatures of 41ºC (105.8ºF) practice.
in runners competing in events lasting only about vi. Workouts and distance runs should be
14 minutes, such as the 5,000-m race. Following conducted during the cool-part of the day
(generally early mornings and late evenings)
a 10,000-m race conducted with an air temperature
on hot days.
of 29.5ºC (85ºF), 80 percent relative humidity
vii. Conduct daily dry and wet bulb readings. The
and bright sun, one runner who collapsed had a
relative humidity should also be recorded daily.
rectal temperature of 43ºC (109.4ºF). Without When the wet-bulb temperature is over 50ºF,
proper medical attention, such fevers can result in all members of the team should be alerted
permanent central nervous system damage or (especially those teams that have to have their
death. Fortunately, this runner was rapidly cooled bodies covered with uniforms such as football
with ice and recovered without complications. players). Many water and rest breaks should
be allowed. When wet-bulb temperatures are
Prevention of Hyperthermia above 75ºF, practices should be conducted
We can do little about environmental conditions. in shorts or they should be cancelled. Note
Thus, in threatening conditions, athletes must that the American college of Sports Medicine
decrease their effort in order to reduce their heat has issued a position statement concerning
distance running in heat and their position is
production and their risk of developing
that distance races (16 kilograms or 10 miles)
Hyperthermia (high body temperature). All
should not be conducted when the wet-bulb
athletes, coaches and sports organizers should be
temperature exceeds 82.4ºF or 28.0ºC. it is
able to recognize the symptoms of Hyperthermia.
also important to remember that whenever
Fortunately, all the subjective sensations are well relative humidity is around 95 percent or
correlated with the body temperature. Although higher, precautions should be taken at all
there is generally little concern when rectal temperature levels.
temperature remains below 40ºC (104ºF) during
prolonged exercise, athletes who experience PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
throbbing pressure in their head and chills should
realize that they are rapidly approaching a
FLUID REPLACEMENT
dangerous situation that could prove fatal if they The primary aim of fluid replacement is to maintain
continue to exercise. plasma volume so that circulation and sweating
progress at optimal levels. Ingesting “extra” water The mineral content of each subject’s sweat is
before exercising in the heat provides some significantly different in trained and untrained
thermoregulator y protection. It delays the subjects. With training and repeated heat exposure,
development of dehydration, increases sweating aldosterone can strongly stimulate the sweat glands,
during exercise and brings about a smaller rise in causing them to reabsorb more sodium and
body temperature compared to exercising without chloride. Unfor tunately, the sweat glands
prior fluids. In this regard, it is wise to consume apparently do not have a similar mechanism for
400 to 600 ml of cold water 10 to 20 minutes conserving other electrolytes. Potassium, calcium
before exercising. Doing this, however, does not and magnesium for example, are normally found
eliminate the need for continual fluid replacement in the same concentrations in both sweat and
during exercise. plasma.
While per forming heavy exercise in hot
BODY FLUID BALANCE: SWEATING conditions, the body can lose more than 1L of
sweat per hour per square meter of body surface.
Under some conditions, the temperature of the This means that during intense effort on a hot and
environment approaches and can exceed both the humid day (high level of heat stress), an average-
skin and deep body temperatures. This makes sized individual (50 to 75 kg) might lose 1.5 to
evaporation far more important for heat loss 2.5 L of sweat, or about 2 to 4 percent of body
because radiation, convection and conduction are weight each hour. A person can lose a critical
less effective as environmental temperature rises. amount of body water in only a few hours of
In fact, these mechanisms can lead to heat gain in exercise in these conditions.
extreme environmental conditions. Increased A high rate of sweating reduces blood volume.
dependence on evaporation means an increased This limits the volume of blood available to supply
demand for sweating. the needs of the muscles and to prevent heat build
The sweat glands are controlled by stimulation up, which in turn, reduces performance potential
of the hypothalamus. Elevated blood temperature particularly for endurance activity. In long distance
causes the hypothalamus to transmit impulses runners sweat losses can approach 6 to 10 percent
through the sympathetic nerve fibers to the millions of body weight. Such severe dehydration can limit
of sweat glands distributed over the body’s surface. subsequent sweating and make the individual
The sweat glands are tubular structures extending susceptible to heat related illness.
through the dermis and epidermis, opening onto Loss of both mineral and water by sweating
the skin. triggers the release of aldosterone and antidiuretic
Sweat is formed by the filtration of plasma. As hormone (ADH). The aldosterone is responsible
the filtrate passes through the duct of the gland, for maintaining appropriate sodium levels and
sodium and chloride are gradually reabsorbed back ADH maintains the fluid balance. During acute
into the surrounding tissues and then into the exercise the heat and during repeated days of
blood. During light sweating, the filtrate sweat exercise in the heat, this hormone limits sodium
travels slowly through the tubules, allowing time excretion from the kidneys. More sodium is
for almost complete reabsorption of sodium and retained by the body, which in turn more water
chloride. Thus, the sweat that forms during light retention. Because of this, plasma and interstitial
sweating contains very little of these minerals by fluid volumes can increase 10 to 20 percent. This
the time it reaches the skin. However, when the allows the body to retain water and sodium in
sweating rate increases during exercise, the filtrate preparation for additional exposures to the heat
moves more quickly through the tubules, allowing and subsequent sweat losses.
less time for reabsorption. As a result, the sodium Similarly, exercise and body water loss stimulate
and chloride content of the sweat can be the posterior pituitary gland to release ADH. This
considerably higher. hormone stimulates water reabsorption from the
kidneys, which further promoted fluid retention transported from the core to the skin, and this
in the body. Thus, the body attends to compensate requires adjustments from the normal, resting
for mineral and water loss during periods of heat circulatory state. The arteriovenous anastomoses
stress and heavy sweating by reducing their losses of the microcirculation open up, along with
in urine. precapillary sphincters, to increase flow through
the skin and subcutaneous tissues. This results in
EXERCISE IN THE HEAT greater volumes of slow-moving blood in and close
to the skin for better transfer of heat to the
Exercise in hot climates is a more serious problem evaporative surfaces and thus in better cooling.
than exercise in the cold. In a cold climate the Along with the improved cooling, however the
increased metabolic heat production combats the volume of the circulatory system has increased by
increased heat loss to the environment, but in a a considerable amount. Under these conditions,
hot climate metabolism and environment combine venous return to the heart is somewhat impaired
to increase heat gain in body tissues. The problem and this results in a decreased stroke volume (in
is further complicated by the fact that when accord with Starling’s law). To maintain a constant
environmental temperature approaches skin cardiac output for the demands of both exercising
temperature (approximately 92ºF), heat loss muscles and skin circulation, the heart rate must
through convection and radiation gradually comes increases. Because increases in rate depress cardiac
to an end, so that at temperatures above skin efficiency, exercise at temperatures close to or above
temperature the only means for heat loss is skin temperature can impose very severe loads on
evaporation of sweat. Radiation and convection the cardiovascular system, even when the air is
reverse their direction and add heat to the body. relatively dry.
Sweating then, is the only avenue for heat loss Since the entire process of heat dissipation now
at temperatures above skin temperature, and it is depends on elimination of water in perspiration, it
the most important avenue at temperatures that is obvious that dehydration is a distinct possibility.
approach skin temperature. At this point it is most A man walking in the desert (temperature 100ºF)
important to understand that the mere process of will lose approximately one quart of water per hour.
sweating is not in itself effective in dissipating heat; Furthermore, their extensive desert experimen-
liquid sweat must be converted to a gas by tation indicates that voluntary thirst results in
evaporation before any heat loss occurs. Sweat that adequate water replacement during rest but not
merely rolls off is virtually ineffective, but large during work or exercise.
heat losses can result when the weather is so dry
that the liquid evaporates from the skin rapidly. Hot and Humid Environment
Under such conditions sweating is imperceptible. When the air surrounding an individual is not only
For these reasons, exercise in the heat will be hot but is also loaded with moisture, evaporative
discussed as two separate and distinct cooling is impaired because evaporation cannot
environmental problems: (a) Hot and dr y take place unless volumes of air are available to
environment, (b) Hot and humid environment. take-up the water vapor given off. To illustrate this,
let us take the extreme example where the air is
Hot and Dry Environment
completely saturated (100 percent relative
When a person works or plays in hot and dry humidity) and the air temperature is higher than
environment, cooling of the skin is brought about the skin temperature. Under these conditions no
by evaporation of sweat. There is no problem heat dissipation can occur. Consequently, the
because dry air can absorb considerable moisture metabolic heat accumulates and raises body
before becoming saturated. Cooling the skin is not temperature, until death ensues (108ºF to 110ºF).
the desired end result, however, it is the internal One may therefore conclude that the problems in
environment that must be cooled at all costs. To a hot, dry atmosphere are related to increased
retain a normal core temperature, heat must be cardiovascular loads and dehydration if water intake
is insufficient. In a hot, humid climate the same an increased blood volume, reduced blood flow
problems exist and are aggravated by a lessened to the skin or both. Either of these changes
ability to unload water vapor into an already loaded increases the stroke volume. Although some
ambient atmosphere. It is clear that although the investigators have found that an increase in blood
temperature is lower in the hot, wet situation, it is volume accompanies heat acclimatization, this
considerably more stressful in terms of heart rate change is temporary and probably relates to the
response than the hot, dry climate. body’s efforts to retain sodium, thereby expanding
the plasma volume.
Acclimatization to Exercise in the Heat In addition, following heat acclimatization,
more work can be done before the onset of fatigue
Repeated prolonged exercise bouts in the heat
or exhaustion. Recall that exercise at a given
cause gradual improvement in the ability to
intensity in the heat requires the use of more muscle
eliminate excess body heat, which reduces the
glycogen than the same effort done in cooler air.
risk of heat exhaustion and heat stroke. This
As a result, repeated days of training in the heat
process, termed heat acclimatization, results in can rapidly deplete muscle glycogen and cause
many adjustments in sweating and blood flow. chronic fatigue in unacclimatized people. Heat
Though the total amount of sweat produced acclimatization reduces the rate of muscle glycogen
during exercise in the heat might not change use by as much as 50 to 60 percent, reducing this
with heat acclimatization, the amount of sweat risk.
produced often increases in the most exposed
body areas and in the areas that are most Achieving Heat Acclimatization
ef fective at dissipating body heat. At the
Heat acclimatization requires more than mere
beginning of exercise, sweating starts earlier in
exposure to a hot environment. It is dependent on
an acclimatized person, which improves heat
tolerance. As a result, skin temperatures are i. The environmental conditions during each
lower. This increases the temperature gradient exercise session
from deep in the body to the skin and the ii. The duration of heat exposure
environment. Because heat loss is facilitated, less iii. The rate of internal heat production (exercise
blood must flow to the skin for body heat intensity).
transfer, so more blood is available for the active An athlete must exercise in a hot environment
muscles. Also, blood pressure following heat to attain acclimatization that carries over to exercise
acclimatization appears to be more stable and in a heat. Simply sitting in a hot environment, such
adequately regulated during exercise. The as a sauna, for long periods each day will not
reduction in the salt content of the sweat is prepare the individual for physical excretion in the
believed to be due to an increased amount of heat.
aldosterone hormones released into the blood Although most individuals must be exposed to
stream during heat exposure. Without this the heat to gain full adjustment, they can gain
decline in salt concentration, the human body partial heat tolerance simply by training, even if it
(in most cases) would suffer a salt deficit. is done in a cooler environment. Interestingly,
In addition, the sweat produced is more dilute when athletes become acclimatized to a given level
following training in the heat, so the body’s mineral of heat stress, they can also perform better in cooler
stores are conserved more efficiently. Because environments. But to gain maximum benefits,
training enhances the body’s heat loss capacity for athletes who train in environments cooler than
a specified level of work, body temperatures are those in which they will be competing should
lower following training in the heat than they achieve heat acclimatization prior to the contest
are before training. Also, after training heart rate or event. This will improve their performances and
increases less in response to standardized reduce the associated physiological stress and risk
submaximal exercise. This adaptation results from of heat injury.
If athletes must compete in hot weather, at least Shivering

part of their training should be conducted in the The uncontrolled muscular contraction can cause
warmest part of the day. Early morning and evening a four to five fold increase in the body’s resting
training will not fully prepare an athlete to tolerate rate of heat production. Nonshivering
the midday hot. Normal workouts in the heat for thermogenesis involves stimulation of metabolism
5 to 10 days should provide nearly total heat by the sympathetic nervous system. Increasing the
acclimatization. Workout intensity should be metabolic rate increases the amount of internal heat
reduced to 60 to 70 percent during the first few production.
days to prevent excessive heat stress. Of course, Peripheral vasoconstriction occurs as a result of
care must be taken to guard against heat injuries sympathetic stimulation to the smooth muscle
such as heat stroke and heat exhaustion. Those in surrounding the arterioles in the skin. This
training should be alert to any symptoms and stimulation causes the muscle to contract, which
should consume as much fluid as possible. constricts the arterioles and reduces the blood flow
to the shell of the body and prevents unnecessary
EXERCISE IN THE COLD heat loss. The metabolic rate of the skin cells also
decreases as the skin’s temperature falls, so the skin
Increasing year-round participation in such requires less oxygen.
sporting activities as the triathlon, scuba diving,
running, cycling, and long-distance swimming has Clothing
sparked new interest in, and concerns about,
Although clothing is important in terms of
exercise in the cold. In addition, some occupations
insulation for the inactive person in cold weather,
require employees to work in cold conditions that an individual engaged in a strenuous winter sport
can limit their performance. For these reasons, such as skiing or speed skating needs little clothing
understanding the physiological responses and because of his high heat production. Since vigorous
health risks associated with cold stress are important activity may cause the metabolic rate to increase
issues in exercise science. The cold stress here as by as much as 25 to 30 times basal values, and
any environmental condition that causes a loss of since clothing may act as a partial water vapor
body heat that threatens homeostasis. In the barrier, it is obvious that clothes worn during
following discussion it will be focused on the two muscular activity in cold weather can become a
major cold stresses: air and water. hindrance in the temperature regulation process.
The hypothalamus has a temperature set point For instance, it is known that most active people
of about 37ºC (99ºF), but daily fluctuations in generally sweat profusely even in cold
the body temperature can be as much as 1ºC. A environments, and if the clothing worn is heavy
decrease in either skin or blood temperature and allows for no ventilation, then the sweat is
provides feedback to the thermoregulatory center condensed in the clothing and hence, does not
(hypothalamus) to activate the mechanisms that achieve skin cooling. Eventually, however, during
will conser ve body heat and increase heat periods between works, the sweat evaporates and
production. The primary means by which our body thus takes away from the body heat that it cannot
avoid excessive cooling are: afford to lose at that time. Therefore, an important
i. Shivering consideration for individuals working in cold
ii. Nonshivering thermogenesis weather is that the clothing worn should allow for
iii. Peripheral vasoconstriction considerable ventilation as well as vapor
Because these mechanisms of heat production permeability. While some people wear protective
and conservation are often inadequate, the clothing scarves or clothing over their faces to protect
and subcutaneous fat help to insulate the deep body themselves against the possibility of chapped lips
tissues from the environment. or a dry mouth and throat due to the low humidity
in the cold air, it should be pointed out that there subcutaneous fat in females might give them an
is no evidence at this time to indicate any lung advantage during cold water immersion. When
tissue damage as a result of exercising in cold males and females of similar body fat mass, size,
weather. fitness are compared, little difference is noted in body
temperature regulation with exposure to the cold.
FACTORS AFFECTING BODY HEAT
Windchill
LOSS
As with heat, the air temperature alone is not a
As in the case of heat stress, the body’s ability to valid index of the amount of thermal stress
meet the demands of thermoregulation is limited experienced by the individual. Wind creates a chill
when exposed to extreme cold. Too much heat factor, known as the windchill, by increasing the
loss can occur. Those factors (conduction, rate of heat loss via convection and conduction.
convection, radiation and evaporation) that usually Also, the more humid the air, the greater the
perform so effectively in dissipating metabolically physiological stress. A dry, still day at 10ºC (50ºF)
produced heat during exercise in warm conditions, in the direct sun can be comfortable. Yet on a moist,
can, in a cold environment, dissipate heat faster
windy day with complete cloud cover, the cold at
then the body produces it.
this same temperature can be quite penetrating.
Pinpointing the exact conditions that permit
excessive body heat loss and eventual hypothermia
(low body temperature) is difficult. Thermal balance
COLD ACCLIMATIZATION
depends on a wide variety of factors that affect the It is generally known that repeated exposure to
gradient between body heat production and heat cold temperatures results in greater ability to
loss. Generally, the larger the difference between tolerate cold. However, no definite pattern of
the temperatures of the skin and the cold acclimatization to cold environments has been
environment, the greater the heat loss. However, a reported for humans, and some investigators
number of anatomical and environmental factors can question the occurrence of such a pattern. On the
influence the rate of heat loss. other hand, animals kept at 5ºC definitely indicate
acclimatization. This includes an increased
Body Size and Composition metabolism of 50 to 100 percent, which is linked
Insulating the body against the cold is the most with a decrease of shivering activity (Nonshivering
obvious protection against hypothermia. thermogenesis). It appears that this nonshivering
Subcutaneous fat is an excellent source of thermogenesis may originate in the muscle tissue,
insulation. Skinfold measurements of subcutaneous but not from muscle contraction. The chemical
fat thickness are a good indicator of an individual’s mechanism of this extra metabolism has not yet
tolerance for cold exposure. The thermal been reported, however, it is possible that the
conductivity of fat (its capacity for transferring heat) hormones, norepinephrine and thyroxine play a
is relatively low, so it impedes heat transfer from major role in the elevation of the metabolic rate.
the deep tissues to the body surface. People who Following a period of 3 to 4 weeks in cold and as
have more fat mass conserve heat more efficiently well as cold acclimatization, the thyroid gland
in the cold. gradually enlarges and thus increases the rate of
The rate of heat loss is also affected by the ratio thyroxine secretion. Apparently, this mechanism
of body surface area to body mass. Tall, heavy increases the basal metabolic rate by as much as
individuals have a small surface-area-to-body-mass 15–20 percent.
ratio, which makes them less susceptible to Although local skin cold acclimatization for the
hypothermia. human is well defined, attempts to demonstrate
True gender differences in cold tolerance are whole body cold acclimatization in human
minimal. Women tend to have more body fat than populations have resulted in some contradictory
men. Some studies have shown that the added as well as in unresolved problems of racial, ethnic
and dietary involvements. Nonetheless, the general understood as acclimatization to environmental

trend of human cold acclimatization is hinted to heat stress.
be related to the following:
i. Metabolic PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO
ii. Insulation
EXERCISE IN THE COLD
iii. Hypothermic
iv. Peripheral Circulation
Muscle Function
Some experiments in which human subjects have
been chronically exposed to cold strongly suggest Cooling muscle causes it to become weaker. The
that increased heat production without shivering nervous system responds to muscle cooling by
can be developed. In a study comparing altering the normal muscle fiber recruitment
thermoregulation in Eskimos and European patterns. Some researchers have suggested that this
subjects, the nonshivering metabolism of the change in fiber selection for force development
Eskimo natives was found to be about 30 to 40 decreases the efficiency of the muscle action. If
percent greater than that of the European controls. clothing insulation and exercise metabolism is
While it was suggested that this difference might suf ficient to maintain the athlete’s body
have been due to the Eskimo’s diet and chronic temperature in the cold, then exercise performance
exposure to cold environment. may be unimpaired. However, as fatigue sets in
Information about cold acclimatization is and muscle activity slows, body heat production
limited, but some data suggest that chronic daily gradually decreases. Long distance running,
exposure to cold water increases subcutaneous swimming and skiing in the cold can be exposed
body fat. Much of information regarding the participant to such condition.
habituation to the cold has been obtained from Metabolic Response: Exercise triggers of the
observations on the aborigines, natives of the catecholamine, which increase the mobilization and
Australian outback, where they are normally use of free fatty acids for fuel. But in the cold,
exposed to low temperatures at night and high vasoconstriction impaired circulation to the
temperatures during the day. Compared to subcutaneous fat twisues, so this process is
unacclimatized Europeans, the aborigines were able attenuated.
to sleep more comfortably in the cold with little
protection and they experienced only minor
RISKS DURING EXERCISE IN THE COLD
changes in their metabolism and rectal
temperatures. The Europeans, on the other hand, If humans had retained the ability of lower animals
experienced significant distress and considerable like reptiles to tolerate low body temperatures, we
difficulty in maintaining normal body temperature. could sur vive even extreme hypothermia.
Although some data suggest that repeated Unfor tunately in humans the evolution of
exposure to the cold alters peripheral blood flow thermoregulation has been accompanied by a loss
and skin temperatures, these changes are small and in the ability of vital tissues to function when they
the findings are inconclusive. Field studies have are cooled by more than a few degrees.
shown that chronic exposure of some areas of the
skin, such as the hands, can provide greater cold Hypothermia
tolerance. For example, Gaspe Nor thern If the body temperature falls below 34.5ºC (94ºF),
Norwegian fisherman who must work with their the hypothalamus begins to loose its ability to
hands in cold water for many hours develop regulate body temperature. This ability is
increased vasodilatation and local warming of this completely lost when the internal temperature falls
exposed skin. The rate and degree of adjustment to about 29.5ºC (85ºF). This loss of function
to these conditions have not been fully explained. is associated with slowing of metabolic reaction to
Thus, acclimatization to cold is not as thoroughly one-half their normal rates for each 10ºC decline
in cellular temperature. As a result, cooling the can be thawed, preferably in a hospital, without
body can cause drowsiness even coma. risk of refreezing.
Cardio Respiratory Effects PERFORMANCE AT ALTITUDE

The hazards of cold exposure include potential
It is an established fact that at altitude of over 5000
injury to both peripheral tissues and the life
feet (1524 meters), the ability to perform physical
supporting cardiovascular and respiratory systems.
work is affected-the higher the altitude, the more
The most important effect of hypothermia is on
severe the effects. In general, one can expect a
the heart. Death for hypothermia has resulted from
reduction in endurance capacity as measured by
cardiac arrest while respiration was still functional.
the maximal oxygen consumption (max VO2) of 3
Cooling primarily influences the SA Node—the
to 31/2 percent for every 1000 feet ascended above
heart’s pacemaker.
5000 feet. Work performance and max VO2 are
It is a questioned whether rapid, deep breathing
of cold air can cause freezing or damage to the reduced by 60 percent or more at extremely high
respiratory tract. In fact, the cold air that passes altitudes, i.e. at around 25,000 feet. Although such
into the mouth and trachea is rapidly warmed even reduction in physical performance are quite large
when the inhaled air is less than –25ºC (–13ºF). as they stand.
Excessive cold exposure does affect respiratory function:
which decreases the respiratory rate and volume. ALTITUDE ACCLIMATIZATION
The longer you remain at altitude, the better
Treatment of Hypothermia
becomes your performance, but it never quite
Mild hypothermia can be treated by giving a person reaches the values that are obtained at sea level.
protection from the cold and providing dry The improved per formance during stay at
clothing and warm beverages. Moderate to severe altitude is brought about through acclimatization.
cases of hypothermia require gentle handling avoid The number of weeks to acclimatize depends on
initiating a cardiac arrythmia. This requires slowly the altitude, i.e. for 9000 feet, about 7 to 10 days;
rewarming the victim. Severe cases of hypothermia for 12,000 feet, 15 to 21 days; and for 15,000
require hospital facilities and medical care. feet, 21 to 25 days respectively. These are only
approximations; a great deal depends on the
Frostbite individual. As a matter of fact, a few people will
The exposed skin can freeze when its temperature never acclimatize and continue to suffer mountain
is lowered just a few degrees below the freezing or altitude sickness while at altitude.
point (0ºC, 32ºF). Because of the warming
influence of circulation and metabolic heat Physiology of Altitude Acclimatization
production, the environmental air temperature
(including windchill) required to freeze one’s Above sea level, the barometric pressure (PB)
exposed fingers, nose and ears is about –29ºC decreases, as the weight of the atmosphere
(–20ºF). Recall from our earlier discussion that becomes less. The percentage of oxygen in the
peripheral vasoconstriction helps the body retain air remains 20.93 percent, but the number of
heat. Unfortunately, during exposure to extreme oxygen molecules per unit volume decreases. This
cold, the circulation in the skin can decrease to means that when at altitude, in order to receive
the point that the tissue dies from the lack of the same number of molecules in a breath of air
oxygen and nutrients. This is commonly called that receive at sea level, must breathe more air.
frostbite. If not treated early, frostbite injuries can The main reason for lessened performance at
be serious, leading to gangrene and loss of tissue. altitude is a consequence of the lowered oxygen
Frostbite parts should be left untreated until they partial pressure (PO2). This results in hypoxia,
Table 11.1: The immidiate and longterm effect on various physiological

parameters at high altitude
System Immediate effect Long term effect

Pulmonary acid-base i. Hyperventilation i. Hyperventilation
balance ii. Body fluid become ii. Excretion of base via kidneys and concomitant
more alkaline reduction in alkaline reserve
Cardiovascular i. Increase in submaximal i. Submaximal heart rate remains elevated

system heart rate
ii. Increase in submaximal ii. Submaximal cardiac output falls to or below
cardiac output sea level values
iii. Stroke volume remains the iii. Stroke volume is lowered
same or slightly lowered
iv. Maximum cardiac output iv. Maximum cardiac output is lowered
remains the same or slightly
lowered
Hematological value i. Decrease plasma volume

ii. Increased hematocrit
iii. Increased Hemoglobin concentration
iv. Increased total number of RBC count.
v. Increased capillary density of skeletal muscle
vi. Increased mitochondrial density
vii. Increased aerobic enzyme in muscles
viii. Loss of body weight and lean body mass
i.e. lack of adequate oxygen. Apparently, hypoxia first few days and then stabilizing after about a week at
stimulates the acclimatization mechanisms. altitude. The most important result of hyperventilation
Depending upon altitude and duration of stay, among is an increased alveolar PO2. This ensures a greater
the important physiological changes that take place saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen. With
during acclimatization to altitude are following: hyperventilation, excessive amount of CO2 are blown
off thus decreasing both the alveolar PCO2 and the
Immediate Responses to Altitude H+ concentration (increased pH).
On arrival at elevations of about 2300m and higher,
Increased Cardiovascular Responses
rapid physiological adjustments occur to
compensate for the thinner air and accompanying In the early stages of altitude adaptation,
reduced alveolar PO2. The most important of these submaximal exercise heart rate and cardiac out
responses are: put may increase by 50 percent above sea level
 An increase in the respiratory drive that results values, whereas the heart’s stroke volume remains
in a relative hyperventilation (increase the unchanged. Because the oxygen cost of exercising
breathing frequency). at altitude is no different than at sea level, the
 An increase in blood flow both at rest and during increase in blood flow at altitude partially
submaximal exercise. compensates for the reduced oxygen in arterial
blood.
Increased Pulmonary Ventilation
(Hyperventilation) Altitude Related Medical Problems
This response is immediate (within a few hours) upon The people who live and work at high altitude, as
arrival at altitude, being more pronounced during the well as newcomers to altitude, often encounter a
variety of medical problems associated with the persistent dry, irritating cough without phlegm and
reduced PO2 at higher elevations. Some of these without pre-existing pulmonary infection, pain or
problems are transient and mild dissipate within pressure in the substernal area, headache, and
hours or several days, depending on the rapidity nausea). This leads to pulmonary edema and fluid
of the ascent and degree of exposure; other medical retention by the kidneys. Even in well acclimatized
complications can be severe and can significantly individuals, HAPE can develop upon severe
compromise the person’s overall safety. Three exertion at elevations above 5,486 m and probably
medical conditions pose potential problem to those is related to increases in pulmonar y arter y
who ascent to high altitude: (a) acute mountain pressure.
sickness (b) high altitude pulmonary edema and
(c) high altitude cerebral edema. High Altitude Cerebral Edema (HACE)
This condition of increased intracranial pressure
Acute Mountain or Altitude Sickness (AMS)
can lead to coma and ultimately can death. The
This happens even with people who were born and early symptoms are similar to AMS and HAPE,
reside at altitude. Suddenly, for unknown reasons, but the symptoms eventually become more severe.
they loss their acclimatization and suffer from HACE occurs in approximately 1 percent of people
mountain sickness. The symptoms of altitude exposed to altitudes usually above 2700 m. In
sickness include pulmonar y edema, nausea, addition to debilitating headache and severe
vomiting, headache, rapid pulse and anorexia (loss fatigue, there is disruption vision, bladder and bowl
of appetite). Emergency treatment of severe dysfunction, and loss of coordination involving the
mountain sickness consists of administrating trunk muscles, paralysis on one side of the body,
oxygen or removal to lower altitude and both. generally poor reflexes and mental confusion.
Appetite suppression can be severe during the Cerebral edema is probably due to cerebral
early stages of a high altitude stay, resulting in an vasodilatation and an elevated capillary hydrostatic
average reduction in energy intake of approximately pressure.
40 percent and an accompanying loss of body mass.
Even moderate exercise can be intolerable for Fluid Loss
people suffering the effects of mountain sickness. The air in mountainous region is usually cool and
With acclimatization, symptoms subside and many dry, considerable body water can be lost through
of them disappear. Concurrently, a person’s ability evaporation as inspired air is warmed and
to exercise improves and considerably more work moistened in the respiratory passages. This fluid
can be accomplished. Mountain sickness usually loss often leads to a moderate dehydration and
can be prevented by acclimatizing slowly to accompanying symptoms of dryness of the lips,
moderate altitude below 3,048 m followed by a mouth and throat.
slow progression to higher elevations. Physical
activity also should be minimized during the first Long-term Adjustment to Altitude
day of altitude exposure.
Hyper ventilation and increased submaximal
High Altitude Pulmonary Edema exercise cardiac output provide a rapid and
relatively effectively counter to the acute challenge
The altitude above 3,048 m experience a severe of altitude exposure. Concurrently, other slower-
complication from acute mountain sickness termed acting adjustments occur during a prolonged high
High-Altitude Pulmonar y Edema (HAPE).. altitude stay. The most important of these involve:
Symptoms of HAPE usually manifest within 12 to  Regulation of the acid base balance of body
96 hours after a rapid ascent to high altitudes. In fluids that become altered by hyperventilation.
this condition fluid accumulates in the brain and  Increased production of hemoglobin and red
lungs. Initially the symptoms do not seem too blood cells and accompanying changes in local
severe (general fatigue, dyspnea upon exertion, circulation and cellular function.
Both of these adaptations generally reduced After 1 week at 2300 m, for example, the plasma
distress and improve tolerance to the relative volume decreased by approximately 8 percent
hypoxia of medium and high altitudes. whereas the concentration of RBC increased by 4
percent and hemoglobin increased by 10 percent.
Acid-Base Readjustment This rapid reduction in plasma volume and
Though hyperventilation at altitude increased accompanying hemoconcentration causes the
alveolar PO2, it has the opposite effect on CO2. oxygen content of arterial blood to increase
Because ambient air contains essentially no CO2, significantly above values observed upon arrival at
the increased breathing volume at altitude tends altitude.
to washout or dilute this gas in the alveoli. This
creates a larger than normal gradient for the Increase in Red Blood Cell
diffusion of CO2 from the blood to the lungs and The reduced arterial PO2 at high altitude also
arterial CO2 is reduced considerably. During a stimulates an increase in the total number of RBC,
prolonged stay at high altitude the pressure of a condition termed polycythemia. This response is
alveolar CO2 falls to as low as 10 mm of Hg. mediated by an erythrocyte stimulating hormone,
The loss of CO2 from the body’s fluids in a erythropoietin, which is released from the kidneys
hypoxic environment causes a physiologic and other tissues within 15 hours after altitude
disequilibrium. A decrease in CO2 as occur in ascent. In the weeks that follow, the production of
hyperventilation causes the pH to rise (due to loss erythrocytes in the marrow of the long bones
of carbonic acid) and the blood becomes more increases considerably and remains elevated during
alkaline. the stay at altitude.
Hyper ventilation is a normal and sustained Polycythemia directly translates into an increase
response to altitude exposure, adjustments must in the blood’s capacity to transport oxygen. For
be made during acclimatization to minimize the well acclimatized mountaineers, the blood O2
side effects that disrupt the acid – base balance. carrying capacity slightly more as compared to low
This control of respiratory alkalosis is accomplished land residents. Therefore, even with the reduced
slowly as the kidneys excrete base (HCO3-) through saturation of hemoglobin with high altitude, the
the renal tubules. In turn, the restoration of a actual quantity of O2 in arterial blood approaches
normal pH increases the responsiveness of the or even equals sea-level values. Supplementation
respiratory center, thus enabling ventilation to of iron is beneficial to increase the hemoglobin
increase to even higher levels to adjust to altitude concentration and hematocrit of the athletes
hypoxia. training at high altitude as compared to the athletes
The establishment of acid-base equilibrium with are refrain from the supplementation of iron.
acclimatization occurs at the expense of a loss of
absolute alkaline reserve. Thus, although the Tissue Level Changes
pathways of anaerobic metabolism are unaffected These changes include (a) increased muscle and
at high altitude, the blood’s buffering capacity for tissue capillarization; (b) increased myoglobin
acid is gradually decreased, and the critical level concentration; (c) increased mitochondrial density
for the accumulation of acid metabolites is lowered. and (d) enzyme changes that enhance the oxidative
A general depression in maximal lactate capacity. Unlike the previously mentioned
concentration is particularly apparent during acclimatization processes, these cellular changes
maximal exercise at altitudes above 4000 m. take more time. In fact, they are seen most
developed in the long-time resident of high altitude
Decrease in Plasma Volume
regions.
During the first several days of altitude exposure These are major physiological changes that
the plasma volume decrease and which causes the greatly aid in delivering oxygen to the tissues when
RBC becomes more concentrated in the plasma. oxygen is hard to come by, i.e. under hypoxic
conditions. When the person returns from 3–4 detraining effects because it is difficult to engage in
week spent at altitude, he or she will lose these heard training during the early days of one’s altitude
changes brought about by acclimatization within stay. The benefits of acclimatization are lost within
a period of about 2 to 4 weeks. 2 or 3 weeks after returning to sea level.
Changes in Body Mass and Composition ENDURANCE CAPACITY ON RETURN TO

Long-term exposure to high altitude produces a SEA LEVEL
significant loss in lean body mass and body fat; the
magnitude of weight loss is directly related to the Sea level exercise performance does not improve
terrestrial elevation. This is because a marked after living at altitude when VO2-max serves as the
increase in the basal metabolic rate upon arrival at improvement criterion. Eighteen days stay at
high altitude, which facilitates weight loss. To some 3100 m produce no change in the altitude-induced
extent, this accelerated metabolic rate can be over aerobic capacity in young runners has been
hidden and weight loss can be minimized by reported. Also VO2-max remained at the same as
increasing the energy intake during the high pre altitude value on return to sea level. Even in
altitude stay. studies that reported a small improvement in VO2-
max or exercise performance at altitude and on
return to sea level, the change often relates to
TIME REQUIRED FOR ACCLIMATIZATION
increased physical activity during altitude exposure.
The length of the acclimatization period depends
on the altitude. Acclimatization at one altitude ALTITUDE TRAINING AND SEA LEVEL
ensures only partial adjustment to a higher elevation.
PERFORMANCE
As a broad guide line, approximately 2 weeks are
required to adapt to altitude up to 2300 m. It is clear that altitude acclimatization improves
Therefore, for each 610 m increase in altitude, an ones capacity for aerobic metabolism for aerobic
additional week is necessary to an fully adapt up to exercise at altitude. Altitude adaptations in local
an altitude of approximately 4600 m. For athletes circulation and cellular metabolism, as well as the
desiring to compete at altitude, intense training compensatory increase in the blood’s oxygen
should commence as soon as possible during the carrying capacity, should facilitate subsequent sea
acclimatization period. This will minimize any level performance. Also the pulmonary adaptation
Fig. 11.3: Training at high altitude and return to sea level

and responses during prolonged hypoxic exposure percent below pre-altitude sea level values. For
are lost immediately upon descent from altitude. these well conditioned middle-distance runners,
Furthermore, if tissue hypoxia is an important there was no synergistic effect of hard aerobic
training stimulus, altitude and training should act training at medium altitude over an equivalent
synergistically so that the total effects exceeds that program of severe training pursued at sea level.
of similar training at sea level.
Training and Altitude
Effectiveness of Altitude Training and Sea level
From a theoretical viewpoint, training at altitude
Training
could produce more rapid and even greater
It has been reported by the researcher that two physiological changes than could train at sea level
homogenous groups were selected to determine only. The reason for this is that altitude hypoxia is
whether altitude training is more effective than a stress that produces physiological changes
similar sea level training. Six highly trained (acclimatization) similar to those caused by physical
middle distance runners trained at sea level for training. For example, total blood volume,
3 weeks at 75 percent of the sea level VO2 max hemoglobin, red blood cell count, mitochondrial
at 2300 m alititude. The groups than exchanged concentration and muscle enzyme changes have
training sites and continued training for 3 weeks all been shown to be enhanced in both types of
at intensity similar to that of the preceding stress. To a certain extent, this idea has been
group. Initially 2 mile run times were 7.2 percent supported experimentally. For example, in several
slower at altitude than at sea level. This improved well controlled studies using nonathletes, greater
approximately 2.0 percent for both groups after increases in maximal aerobic power and endurance
altitude training, but post performance at sea time were seen when the training sessions were
level was unchanged when compared to pre- conducted at altitude (7400 to 11,300 feet) rather
altitude sea-level runs. As shown in the figure than at sea level. In addition, some effects of 8 weeks
below, VO2 max for both groups at altitude was of interval training can be maintained for an
reduced initially by approximately 17.4 percent. additional 12 weeks by use of two 3-hour exposures
This improved only slightly after 20 days of to a simulated altitude of 15,000 feet (4572 meters).
altitude training. When the runners were than During the exposures, the subjects did not perform
measured at sea level, aerobic capacity was 2.8 any exercise, but merely rested. Other studies have
Fig. 11.4: Maximal O2 uptake of two equivalent groups during training for three weeks at sea level. Group-1 trained first at sea
level and then continued training for three weeks at altitude. For group-2 the procedure was reversed. as they trained first at
altitude and then at sea leval (From Adams, WC et.al.: Effects of equivalent sea level and altitude training on VO2-max and
running performance.J.Appl.Physiol. 39; 262, 1975)
Table 11.2: Time trials in running before, during & after training at an altitude of 7500 feet (2300 meters)
Event Time at Time at Time on return

sea level altitude to sea level
min: sec) (min: sec) (min: sec)
Day 3 Day 14 Day 21 Day 1 Day 21
880-yard run 2:41 2:48 2:38 2:37 2:32 2:32
1-mile run 6:07 6:30 — 6:15 5:49 5:38
2-mile run 13:08 13:45 13:09 — 12:22 11:57
Based on data from Faulkner, Daniels and Balke
shown improved in performance at sea level after aeelimatization was menured in the 440-Yard, 880
training at altitude. Some of the results are given in Yard, 1-mile, and 2-mile runs of the altitude natives
above table. However, from this study it is possible and found that run time were slower then pre-
that their performances would have been conclude altitude times (Fig. 11.5)
with further training even at sea level. It can be seen from Figures 11.6 that in studies
A study on highly trained subject revealed taht involving highly trained athletes performance on
Vo 2 max and running performance were no return from altitude was not much different from
different retuned to sea leval than in the pre-altituds prior performance at sea level; if anything, some were
measweres. Running preformance after poorer. This would indicate that for the highly
trained athlete, training at and acclimatization to
altitude does not improve performance. Also as
already pointed out, maximal aerobic power and
performance of these athletes do not always improve
with altitude acclimatization.
This can be seen from Figure 11.7, which gives
the intensity of the training workouts for six
collegiate runners at various altitudes. It is clear
that altitude greatly reduced their training efforts.
Training at altitude, therefore, appears to be
helpful for unconditioned, nonathletic subjects but
not necessarily for highly trained athletes. The
following guidelines may prove to be helpful:
1. Adequate training facilities and training
atmosphere must be available.
Fig. 11.5: Decrease in preformance returned to sea level 2. The bulk of time spent at altitude should be
after altitude training
at moderate altitude (6500–7500 feet).
Fig. 11.6: Performance of higly trained athleter on return from altitude

Fig. 11.8:
machinery, which keeps an exact balance

between gain and loss of heat and thereby
maintains a constant body temperature.
Increasing heat production is obtained
primarily by increasing muscular activity. In
strenuous activity, heat production from
metabolism has been known to increase by as
much as 30 times its normal. There are three
ways by which heat is lost from the body: (i)
Fig. 11.7: Precent of sea level preformance of 2 mile run
and Vo2 max of different duration of altitude Skin (ii) lungs and (iii) excretion. Skin is the
most important organ among the three and
3. Short exposure to higher altitude should be approximately 85 percent of heat is lost via
included regularly during the general training this organ, although this depends on external
period at moderate elevation. and internal conditions. Thus, the bodily
4. Steady altitude exposures should be limited changes that regulate the exchange of heat
to the periods of 2 to 4 weeks, with between the body and the environment are
intermittent sea level or lower elevation trips referred to as physical heat regulation. Heat
scheduled to assure maintenance of muscular is lost from the skin by Conduction,
power and normal competitive rhythm and Convection, Radiation and Evaporation.
intensity of effort. 2. The role of nervous system is also very important
5. Training at altitude should emphasize to control the temperature in human body.
maintenance of muscular power yet be geared There are several centers in the spinal cord and
to include normal or near normal overall the brain, which control such activities as
amounts of work. vasoconstriction, vasodilatation, sweating,
6. Important sea level efforts should scheduled muscle tone and shivering. In order for body
about 2 weeks after leaving altitude. temperature to remain at or near a constant level,
the integration of these various activities is
SUMMARY essential. The effects of several hormones cause
the cells to increase their metabolic rates. This
1. A large amount of heat is produced and lost
affects heat balance because increased
from the body constantly, yet the body
metabolism increases heat production. Cooling
temperature remains constant within a limited
the body stimulates thyroxine release from the
range. This indicates that there is strong
thyroid gland, which can elevate the metabolic
rate throughout the body by more than 100 Ingesting “extra” water before exercising in
percent. Also, epinephrine and norepinephrine the heat provides some thermoregulatory
mimic and enhances the activity of the protection. It delays the development of
sympathetic nervous system. Thus, they directly dehydration, increases sweating during
affect the metabolic rate of virtually all body cells. exercise and brings about a smaller rise in body
3. Air temperature along is not an accurate index temperature compared to exercising without
of the total physiological stress imposed on prior fluids.
the body in a hot environment. At least four 7. Exercise in hot climates is a more serious
variables must be taken into account: Air problem than exercise in the cold. In a cold
temperature, Humidity, Air velocity and the climate the increased metabolic heat
amount of radiation. All these influence the production combats the increased heat loss
degree of heat stress experience by the person. to the environment, but in a hot climate
The contribution of each of these factors to metabolism and environment combine to
the total body heat stress are not clear, because increase heat gain in body tissues. The
the contribution var y with changing problem is further complicated by the fact that
environmental conditions. when environmental temperature approaches
4. Heat Stress is not accurately reflected by air skin temperature (approximately 92ºF), heat
temperature alone. Humidity, air velocity (or loss through convection and radiation
wind) and thermal radiation also contribute to gradually comes to an end, so that at
the total heat stress that one experiences when
temperatures above skin temperature the only
exercising in the heat. Heat cramps, the least
means for heat loss is evaporation of sweat.
serious of three heat disorders, is characterized
8. Repeated prolonged exercise bouts in the heat
by severe cramping of the skeletal muscles. It
cause gradual improvement in the ability to
primarily involves the muscles that are most
eliminate excess body heat, which reduces the
heavily used during exercise. Heat exhaustion
risk of heat exhaustion and heat stroke. This
is typically accompanied by such symptoms as
process, termed heat acclimatization, results
extreme fatigue, breathlessness, dizziness,
in many adjustments in sweating and blood
vomiting, fainting, cold and clammy or hot and
dry skin, hypotension (low blood pressure) and flow. This adaptation results from an increased
a weak, rapid pulse. blood volume, reduced blood flow to the skin
5. Heat syncope (fainting) is rare in a conditioned or both. Either of these changes increases the
athlete. In most instances, it occurs when stroke volume. Following heat acclimatization,
individuals stand for a prolonged period of time more work can be done before the onset of
in the heat or exercise for a prolonged period in fatigue or exhaustion.
an upright position. Heat syncope is caused by 9. Understanding the physiological responses
a pooling of blood in the vasculature of the limbs and health risks associated with cold stress are
and skin because of excessive ambient important issues in exercise science. The cold
temperatures. Heat stroke is a life-threatening heat stress as any environmental condition that
disorder that requires immediate medical causes a loss of body heat that threatens
attention. It is characterized by- a rise in internal homeostasis. A decrease in either skin or blood
body temperature to values exceeding 40ºC temperature provides feedback to the
(104ºF), cessation of sweating, hot and dry skin, thermoregulatory center (hypothalamus) to
rapid pulse and respiration, usually hypertension activate the mechanisms that will conserve
(high blood pressure), confusion and body heat and increase heat production. The
unconsciousness. If left untreated, heat stroke exact conditions that permit excessive body
progresses to comma and death quickly follows. heat loss and eventual hypothermia (low body
6. The primary aim of fluid replacement is to temperature) are difficult. Thermal balance
maintain plasma volume so that circulation depends on a wide variety of factors that affect
and sweating progress at optimal levels. the gradient between body heat production
and heat loss. The larger the difference intracranial pressure can lead to coma and
between the temperatures of the skin and the ultimately can death.
cold environment, the greater the heat loss. 14. Training at altitude could produce more rapid
10. It is generally known that repeated exposure and even greater physiological changes than
to cold temperatures results in greater ability could train at sea level only. The reason for this
to tolerate cold. However, no definite pattern is that altitude hypoxia is a stress that produces
of acclimatization to cold environments has physiological changes (acclimatization) similar
been reported for humans. Nonetheless, the to those caused by physical training.
general trend of human cold acclimatization
is hinted to be related to the metabolic,
insulation, hypothermic and peripheral
REVIEW QUESTIONS
circulation. 1. What are the mechanisms of heat production
11. Physiological responses to exercise in the cold and heat loss? Which are the four pathways is
muscle become weaker. The nervous system most important for loss of body heat?
responds to muscle cooling by altering the 2. Discuss the role hypothalamus for body
normal muscle fiber recruitment patterns. If temperature regulation in human body.
the body temperature falls below 34.5ºC 3. What happens to the body temperature during
(94ºF), the hypothalamus begins to loose its exercise and why?
ability to regulate body temperature. The 4. Why is humidity an important factor when
hazards of cold exposure include potential performing in the heat? Why are wind and
injury to both peripheral tissues and the life cloud cover important?
supporting cardiovascular and respiratory 5. What is heat disorder? Differentiate between
systems. heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke.
12. It is an established fact that at altitude of over
6. What measures you will take to prevention of
5000 feet (1524 meters), the ability to
heat illness? What is the role fluid replacement
perform physical work is affected-the higher
in prevention of heat disorder?
the altitude, the more severe the effects. The
7. What physiological adaptations occur allowing
improved performance during stay at altitude
one to acclimatize to exercise in the heat?
is brought about through acclimatization.
8. How does the body minimize excessive heat
However, few people will never acclimatize
loss during exposure to cold?
and continue to suffer mountain or altitude
9. What are the risks during exercise in cold?
sickness while at altitude. On arrival at
Write brief about the ‘Frost bite’.
elevations of about 2300 m and higher, rapid
physiological adjustments occur to 10. Describe the conditions at altitude that limit
compensate for the thinner air and physical activity.
accompanying reduced alveolar PO2. 11. Describe the physiological adjustments that
13. The people who live and work at high altitude, accompany acclimatization to altitude.
as well as newcomers to altitude, often 12. What are the long-term adjustments takes
encounter a variety of medical problems place in human body at altitude?
associated with the reduced PO2 at higher 13. Write notes on (a) Mountain sickness, (b)
elevations. Acute mountain sickness happens High altitude pulmonary edema and (c) High
even with people who were born and raisde altitude cerebral edema.
at altitude. Suddenly, for unknown reasons, 14. Would an endurance athlete who trained at
they loss their acclimatization and suffer from altitude be able to perform better during
mountain sickness. The altitude above 3,048 subsequent sea level performance? Why or why
m experience a severe complication from acute not?
mountain sickness termed high-altitude 15. What are the times required for acclimatization
pulmonary edema. High altitude cerebral at an altitude? What will happen of Endurance
edema is another one which increased capacity on return to sea level? Discuss the
benefit of altitude training.
CHAPTER
12
Physiological Basis of Fatigue
and Recover
Recovery y
 Introduction to Fatigue and Recovery  Lactic Acid

 Causes and Symptoms of Fatigue  Lactate Shuttle
 Methods of Recovery  Low Lactate Threshold
 Treatment  Enhancement of Lactate Threshold
 Sodium Bicarbonate
 Dietary Changes
 Active Recovery
 Lifestyle Changes
 Preventing Overtraining
 Essential Oils
 Rest and Recovery After Exercise—Improve Sports
 Herbal Remedies
Performance
 Traditional Chinese Medicine
 Short and Long-Term Recovery
 Deep Breathing Exercises  Adaptation to Exercise
 Color Therapy  Balance Exercise with Rest and Recovery
 Physiological Basis of Fatigue
INTRODUCTION TO FATIGUE AND as a transient decrease in muscular performance

usually seen as a failure to maintain or develop a
RECOVERY
certain expected force or power.
Fatigue is define as “that state following a period Since fatigue has rather dramatic effects on
of mental or bodily activity characterized by a both strength and reflexes it is to be expected
lessened capacity for work and reduce efficiency of that it would also affect coordination in the
accomplishment, usually accompanied by a feeling complex movements involved in athletics.
of weariness, sleepiness or irritability; it may also Anyone who has ever watched the degraded
supervene when from any cause energy expenditure performance of marathon runners at the finish
outstrips restorative processes, e.g. lack of sleep or line needs no further evidence. However, this
food.” effect of fatigue has been quantitatively studied,
For the purpose of exercise physiology, the term and results from many early investigations
fatigue to describe a transient decrease in working suggest that the deterioration of motor
capacity that results from previous physical activity. performance with fatigue and its consequent
We will further restrict our interest to dealing with increase in oxygen demand per unit work done
neuromuscular fatigue, while fully recognizing the is probably due to irradiation of motor impulses
contribution of other systems such as the cardio to neighboring motor nerve centers. These nerve
vascular, pulmonary and endocrine systems to the centers cannot make any meaningful
end result. Neuromuscular fatigue can be defined contribution to the job at hand and may indeed
Physiological Basis of Fatigue and Recovery  235
result in the coordination that can be observed Symptoms of Fatigue

in extreme fatigue states. The symptoms of the fatigue due to the
overactivity/training/exhaustion are generally
Definition common which are as follows:
Fatigue is physical and/or mental exhaustion that i. Color of the face: Colour of the face is looking
can be triggered by stress, medication, overwork, red.
or mental and physical illness or disease. ii. Sweating: The rate of sweating is increased.
iii. Execution of movements: The movement of
Description an individual becomes crude, staggering and
lack of coordination if he is under fatigue.
Everyone experiences fatigue occasionally. It is the
iv. Concentration: Lack of concentration,
body’s way of signaling its need for rest and sleep.
nervousness and negative learning.
But when fatigue becomes a persistent feeling of
v. Continuity of training: The rest period of a
tiredness or exhaustion that goes beyond normal
person is prolonged if the person is in under
sleepiness, it is usually a sign that something more
fatigue.
serious is amiss.
vi. Behavior changes: Aggressiveness, depression,
Physically, fatigue is characterized by a profound
irritatedness, etc.
lack of energy, feelings of muscle weakness, and
vii. General health symptoms: Heaviness,
slowed movements or central nervous system dizziness, breathing difficulties, nausea,
reactions. Fatigue can also trigger serious mental vomiting, restlessness, insomnia, etc.
exhaustion. Persistent fatigue can cause a lack of viii. Performance: Low physical performance will
mental clarity (or feeling of mental “fuzziness”), be executed by the sports person.
difficulty concentrating, and in some cases, Extreme fatigue which persists, unabated, for
memory loss. at least six months, is not the result of a diagnosed
disease or illness, and is characterized by flu-like
CAUSES AND SYMPTOMS OF FATIGUE symptoms such as swollen lymph nodes, sore
throat, and muscle weakness and/or pain may
Causes and Symptoms indicate a diagnosis of chronic fatigue syndrome.
Fatigue may be the result of one or more Chronic fatigue syndrome (sometimes called
environmental causes such as inadequate rest, chronic fatigue immune deficiency syndrome), is
improper diet, work and home stressors, or poor a debilitating illness that causes overwhelming
physical conditioning and over training or one exhaustion and a constellation of neurological and
symptom of a chronic medical condition or disease immunological symptoms.
process in the body. Heart disease, low blood
pressure, diabetes, end-stage renal disease, iron- METHODS OF RECOVERY
deficiency anemia, narcolepsy and cancer can cause Recovery must start in the concluding part/session
long-term, ongoing fatigue symptoms. Acute of the training. Aims, objectives and tasks of all
illnesses such as viral and bacterial infections can aspects of the training should be clear to the
also trigger temporary feelings of exhaustion. In athletes. Active recovery is more effective than
addition, mental disorders such as depression can passive one. Recovery in micro and meso cycle
also cause of fatigue. through change in activity and also through low
A number of medications, including anti- intensity physical exercise. The following methods
histamines, antibiotics and blood pressure are to be followed for recovery from fatigue:
medications, may cause drowsiness as a side-effect. i. Rest: Adequate/proper rest is required.
Individuals already suffering from fatigue who are ii. Living condition: Well ventilated, hygienic
prescribed one of these medications may wish to living condition is needed.
check with their healthcare provider about iii. Food : Well balanced qualitative and
alternative treatments. quantitative diet to be taken.
iv. Physical therapy: Massage and self relaxation people more alert, less drowsy and improve
(increased blood circulation) is coordination. However, these should be prescribed
recommended. with extreme caution, as overuse of the drug can
v. Hydrotherapy: Jet massage, Jaquizee, contrast lead to serious sleep disorders, like insomnia.
bath, etc. (Stimulate blood circulation to Another reason to avoid extended use of caffeine
removal of metabolites) are suggested. is its associated withdrawal symptoms. People who
vi. Thermotherapy: Wax bath, Steam packs, etc. use large amounts of caffeine over long periods
(Increased metabolism to remove waste products, build-up a tolerance to it. When that happens, they
sweating to perspiration eliminates waste) are have to use more and more caffeine to get the same
recommined.
effects. Heavy caffeine use can also lead to
vii. Electrotherapy: Shor t and microwave
dependence. If an individual stops using caffeine
diathermy, Ultrasound, etc. are also useful
abruptly, withdrawal symptoms may occur,
for recovery.
viii. Psychotherapy: Relaxation, spiritual, yoga, including headache, fatigue, drowsiness, yawning,
meditation, autogenic training, etc are also irritability, restlessness, vomiting, or runny nose.
suggested. These symptoms can go on for as long as a week.
Excess intake of caffeine may become under the
Diagnosis abuse of drug for sports person.
As fatigue is a symptom of a number of different
Alternative Treatment
disorders, diseases and lifestyle choices, diagnosis
may be difficult. A thorough examination and The treatment of fatigue depends on its direct
patient history by a qualified healthcare provider cause, but there are several commonly prescribed
is the first step in determining the cause of the treatments for non-specific fatigue, including
fatigue. A physician can rule out physical conditions dietary and lifestyle changes, the use of essential
and diseases that feature fatigue as a symptom, and oils and herbal therapies, deep breathing exercises,
can also determine if prescription drugs, poor traditional Chinese medicine and color therapy.
dietary habits, work environment, or other external These are discussed below:
stressors could be triggering the exhaustion. Several
diagnostic tests may also be required to rule out
Dietary Changes
common physical causes of exhaustion, such as
blood tests to check for iron-deficiency anemia. Inadequate or inappropriate nutritional intake can
Diagnosis of chronic fatigue syndrome is cause fatigue symptoms. To maintain an adequate
significantly more difficult. Because there is no energy supply and promote overall physical well-
specific biological marker or conclusive blood test being, individuals should eat a balanced diet and
to check for the disorder, healthcare providers must observe the following nutritional guidelines:
rely on the patient’s presentation and severity of
 Drinking plenty of water. Individuals should try
symptoms to make a diagnosis. In many cases,
to drink 9 to 12 glasses of water a day.
individuals with chronic fatigue syndrome go
Dehydration can reduce blood volume, which
through a battery of invasive diagnostic tests and
leads to feelings of fatigue.
several years of consultation with medical
 Eating iron-rich foods (i.e., liver, raisins, spinach,
professionals before receiving a correct diagnosis.
apricots). Iron enables the blood to transport
TREATMENT oxygen throughout the tissues, organs, and
muscles, and diminished oxygenation of the
Conventional medicine recommends the dietary
blood can result in fatigue.
and lifestyle changes outlined above as a first line
 Avoiding high-fat meals and snacks. High fat
of defense against fatigue. Individuals who
experience occasional fatigue symptoms may foods take longer to digest, reducing blood flow
benefit from short-term use of caffeine-containing to the brain, heart, and rest of the body while
central nervous system stimulants, which make blood flow is increased to the stomach.
 Eating unrefined carbohydrates and proteins Above all, the bedroom should be quiet and
together for sustained energy. comfortable, away from loud noises and with
 Balancing proteins. Limiting protein to 15 to adequate window treatments to keep sunlight and
20 grams per meal and two snacks of 15 grams streetlights out. Removing distractions from the
is recommended, but not getting enough bedroom such as televisions and telephones can
protein adds to fatigue. Pregnant or also be helpful.
breastfeeding women, growing children, and the
sportsman of power game should get more Essential Oils
protein. Aroma therapists, hydro therapists, and other
 Getting the recommended daily allowance of B holistic healthcare providers may recommend the
complex vitamins (specifically, pantothenic acid, use of essential oils of rosemary (Rosmarinus
folic acid, thiamine and vitamin B 12 ). officinalis), eucalyptus blue gum (Eucalyptus
Deficiencies in these vitamins can trigger fatigue. globulus), peppermint, (Mentha x piperata), or scots
 Getting the recommended daily allowance of pine oil (Pinus sylvestris) to stimulate the nervous
selenium, riboflavin and niacin. These are all system and reduce fatigue. These oils can be added
essential nutritional elements in metabolizing to bathwater or massage oil as a tropical application.
food energy. Citrus oils such as lemon, orange, grapefruit, and
 Individuals should only eat when they are lime have a similar effect, and can be added to a
hungr y and stop when they are full. An
steam bath or vaporizer for inhalation.
overstuffed stomach can cause short-term
fatigue and individuals who are overweight are Herbal Remedies
much more likely to regularly experience fatigue
symptoms. Herbal remedies that act as circulatory stimulants
can offset the symptoms of fatigue in some
Lifestyle Changes individuals. An herbalist may recommend an
Lifestyle factors such as a high-stress job, erratic infusion of ginger (Zingiber officinale) root or
work hours, lack of social or family support, or treatment with cayenne (Capsicum annuum),
erratic sleep patterns can all cause prolonged balmony (Chelone glabra), damiana (Turnera
fatigue. If stress is an issue, a number of relaxation diffusa), ginseng (Panax ginseng), or rosemary
therapies and techniques are available to help (Rosmarinus officinalis) to treat ongoing fatigue.
alleviate tension, including massage, yoga, An infusion is prepared by mixing the herb with
ar omatherapy (The therapeutic use of plant-
aromatherapy boiling water, steeping it for several minutes and
derived, aromatic essential oils to promote physical then removing the herb from the infusion before
and psychological well-being). Hydr otherapy
Hydrotherapy drinking. A strainer, tea ball, or infuser can be used
[Hydrotherapy, or water therapy, is use of water to immerse loose herb in the boiling water before
(hot, cold, steam, or ice) to relieve discomfort and steeping and separating it. A second method of
promote physical well-being]; p rro o g rressive
essive infusion is to mix the loose herbal preparation with
r elaxation exer cises
cises, meditation and guided
exercises cold water first, bringing the mixture to a boil in a
imager y (The use of relaxation and mental pan or teapot and then separating the tea from the
visualization to improve mood and/or physical infusion with a strainer before drinking.
well-being). Some individuals may also benefit from Caffeine-containing central nervous system
individual or family counseling or psychotherapy stimulants such as tea (Camellia senensis) and cola
sessions to work through stress-related fatigue that (Cola nitida) can provide temporary, short-term
is a result of family or social issues. relief of fatigue symptoms. However, long-term
Maintaining healthy sleep patterns is critical to use of caffeine can cause restlessness, irritability,
proper rest. Having a set “bedtime” helps to keep and other unwanted side effects, and in some cases
sleep on schedule. A calm and restful sleeping may actually work to increase fatigue after the
environment is also important to healthy sleep. stimulating effects of the caffeine wear off. To avoid
these problems, caffeine intake should be limited Color Therapy

to 300 mg or less a day (the equivalent of 4–8 Color therapy, also known as chromatherapy, is
cups of brewed, hot tea). based on the premise that certain colors are infused
with healing energies. The therapy uses the seven
Traditional Chinese Medicine
colors of the rainbow to promote balance and
Chinese medicine regards fatigue as a blockage, or healing in the mind and body. Red promotes
energy flow, inside the human body. The energy, empowerment, and stimulation. Physically,
practitioner of Chinese medicine chooses it is thought to improve circulation and stimulate
acupuncture and/or herbal therapy to rebalance red blood cell production. Red is associated with
the entire system. The Chinese formula Minot the seventh chakra, located at the root; or base of
Bupleurum soup (or Xiao Chia Hu Tang) has been spine. In yoga, the chakras are specific spiritual
used for nearly 2,000 years for the type of chronic energy centers of the body.
fatigue that comes after the flu. In this condition, Therapeutic color can be administered in a
the person has low-grade fever, nausea and fatigue. number of ways. Practitioners of Ayurvedic, or
There are other formulas that are helpful in other traditional Indian medicine, wrap their patients in
cases. Acupuncture involves the placement of a colored cloth chosen for its therapeutic hue.
series of thin needles into the skin at targeted Individuals suffering from fatigue would be
locations on the body known as acupoints in order wrapped in reds and oranges chosen for their
to harmonize the energy flow within the human uplifting and energizing properties. Patients may
body. also be bathed in light from a color filtered light
source to enhance the healing effects of the
Deep Breathing Exercises treatment.
Individuals under stress often experience fast, Individuals may also be treated with color-
shallow breathing. This type of breathing, known infused water. This is achieved by placing
as chest breathing, can lead to shortness of breath, translucent red colored paper or colored plastic
increased muscle tension, inadequate oxygenation wrap over and around a glass of water and placing
of blood, and fatigue. Breathing exercises can both the glass in direct sunlight so the water can soak
improve respiratory function and relieve stress and up the healing properties and vibrations of the
fatigue. color. Environmental color sources may also be
Deep breathing exercises are best performed used to promote feelings of stimulation and energy.
while laying flat on the back on a hard surface, Red wall and window treatments, furniture,
usually the floor. The knees are bent and the body clothing, and even food may be recommended for
(particularly the mouth, nose and face) is relaxed. their energizing healing properties.
One hand should be placed on the chest and one Color therapy can be used in conjunction with
on the abdomen to monitor breathing technique. both hydrotherapy and aromatherapy to heighten
With proper breathing techniques, the abdomen the therapeutic effect. Spas and holistic healthcare
will rise further than the chest. The individual takes providers may recommend red color baths or soaks,
a series of long, deep breaths through the nose, which combine the benefits of a warm or hot water
attempting to raise the abdomen instead of the soak with energizing essential oils and the fatigue-
chest. Air is exhaled through the relaxed mouth. fighting effects of bright red hues used in color
Deep breathing can be continued for up to 20 therapy.
minutes. After the exercise is complete, the
Prognosis
individual checks again for body tension and
relaxation. Once deep breathing techniques have Fatigue related to a chronic disease or condition
been mastered, an individual can use deep may last indefinitely, but can be alleviated to a
breathing at anytime or place as a quick method of degree through some of the treatment options
relieving tension and preventing fatigue. outlined here. Exhaustion that can be linked to
environmental stressors is usually easily alleviated the cell. To prevent the rise in acidity pyruvic acid
when those stressors are dealt with properly. accepts H+ forming lactic acid that then dissociates
There is no known cure for chronic fatigue into lactate and H+. Some of the lactate diffuses
syndrome, but steps can be taken to lessen into the blood stream and takes some H+ with it
symptoms and improve quality of life for these as a way of reducing the H+ concentration in the
individuals while researchers continue to seek a muscle cell. The normal pH of the muscle cell is
cure. 7.1 but if the build-up of H+ continues and pH is
reduced to around 6.5 then muscle contraction
Prevention may be impaired and the low pH will stimulate
Many of the treatments outlined above are also the free nerve endings in the muscle resulting in
recommended to prevent the onset of fatigue. the perception of pain (the burn). This point is
Getting adequate rest and maintaining a consistent often measured as the lactic threshold or anaerobic
bedtime schedule are the most effective ways to threshold (AT) or onset of blood lactate
combat fatigue. A balanced diet and moderate accumulation (OBLA).
exercise program are also important to maintaining The process of lactic acid removal takes
a consistent energy level. approximately one hour, but this can be accelerated
by undertaking an appropriate cool down that
ensures a rapid and continuous supply of oxygen
PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF FATIGUE
to the muscles.
LACTIC ACID The normal amount of lactic acid circulating in
The expression “lactic acid” is used most the blood is about 1 to 2 millimoles/liter of blood.
commonly by athletes to describe the intense pain The onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA)
felt during exhaustive exercise, especially in events occurs between 2 and 4 millimoles/liter of blood.
like the 400 meters and 800 meters. When energy In non athletes this point is about 50 to 60 of
is required to perform exercise, it is supplied from VO2 max and in trained athletes around 70 percent
the breakdown of ATP. The body has a limited to 80 percent VO2 max and even sometime it is
store of about 85 grams of ATP and would use it more.
up ver y quickly if we did not have ways of
resynthesising it. There are three systems that Lactate Shuttle
produce energy to resynthesise ATP: ATP-PC, Some of the lactate we produce is released into the
lactic acid and aerobic. blood stream and used directly as a fuel by heart
The lactic acid system is capable of releasing muscle, and by the liver to produce blood glucose
energy to resynthesise ATP without the and glycogen (Cori Cycle).
involvement of oxygen and is called anaerobic The lactate shuttle involves the following series
glycolysis. Glycolysis (breakdown of carbohydrates) of events:
results in the formation of pyruvic acid and  As we exercise pyruvate is formed.
hydrogen ions (H+). The pyruvic acid molecules  When insufficient oxygen is available to
undergo oxidation in the mitochondrion and the breakdown the pyr uvate then lactate is
Krebs cycle begins. A build-up of H+ will make the produced.
muscle cells acidic and interfere with their operation  Lactate enters the surrounding muscle cells,
so carrier molecules, called nicotinamide adenine tissue and blood.
dinucleotide (NAD+), remove the H+. The NAD+  The muscle cells and tissues receiving the lactate
is reduced to NADH that deposit the H+ at the either breakdown the lactate to fuel (ATP) for
electron transport gate (ETG) in the mitochondria immediate use or use it in the creation of
to be combined with oxygen to form water (H2O). glycogen.
If there is insufficient of oxygen supply then  The glycogen then remains in the cells until
NADH cannot release the H+ and they build up in energy is required.
Sixtyfive percent of lactic acid is converted to eight weeks before a major competition. This will
carbon dioxide and water, 20 percent into help the muscle cells retain their alkaline buffering
glycogen, 10 percent into protein and 5 percent ability.
into glucose. It has been estimated that about
50 percent of the lactate produced during intensive Lactate Tolerance Training Sessions
exercise is used by muscles to form glycogen which The following Table identifies some possible
acts as a metabolic fuel to sustain exercise. training sessions that can be used to improve your
lactate tolerance:
Anaerobic Threshold
Distance Pace Recovery Reps
Lactic acid starts to accumulate in the muscles once
150 meters 400 meters 90 seconds 3×3
you start operating above the anaerobic threshold, 300 meters 800 meters 2 minutes 6
i.e. high intensity short duration exercise activity. 150 meters 800 meters 45 seconds 12
This is normally somewhere between 80 percent 150 meters 800 meters 20 seconds 2×4
and 90 percent of the maximum heart rate (MHR) 300 meters 1000 meters 90 seconds 9
in trained athletes.
SODIUM BICARBONATE
Low Lactate Threshold
Energy production via anaerobic glycolysis, which
If your lactate threshold (LT) is reached at low is particularly important for events lasting between
exercise intensity, it often means that the “oxidative 30 seconds and 2 minutes, increases the acidity
energy systems” in your muscles are not working inside the muscle cells and very soon after does
very well. If they were performing at a high level, the same to the blood. It is this increase in acidity,
they would use oxygen to break lactate down to within the muscle cells, that is a major factor in
carbon dioxide and water, preventing lactate from producing fatigue. If there is some way to reduce
pouring into the blood. If the LT is low, it may the acidity within the muscle cells, one could
mean that: theoretically delay fatigue and thus continue
 you are not getting enough oxygen inside the
exercising at a very high intensity for longer period.
muscle cells Sodium bicarbonate is an alkalizing agent and
 you do not have adequate concentrations of the therefore, reduces the acidity of the blood (known
enzymes necessary to oxidize pyruvate at high rates as a buffering action). By buffering acidity in the
 you do not have enough mitochondria in your blood, bicarbonate may be able to draw more of
muscle cells the acid produced within the muscle cells out
 your muscles, heart and other tissues are not into the blood and thus reduce the level of acidity
very good at extracting lactate from the blood within the muscle cells themselves. This could delay
the onset of fatigue.
Enhancement of Lactate Threshold The specific athletes who might stand to benefit
The aim is to saturate the muscles in lactic acid in from bicarbonate supplementation will typically
order to educate the body’s buffering mechanism compete in events that last between one and seven
(alkaline) to deal with it more effectively. The minutes, i.e. 400 meters to 1500 meters running,
accumulation of lactate in working skeletal muscles 100 meters to 400 meters swimming, most rowing
is associated with fatigue of this system after 50 to competitions, and many team sports with their
60 seconds of maximal effort. Sessions should repeated nature of high intensity exercise which
comprise of one to five repetitions (depends on the stresses the anaerobic glycolysis system significantly
athlete’s ability) with near to full recovery. Training and produces a lot of acidity.
continuously at about 85 to 90 percent of your
maximum heart rate for 20 to 25 minutes will A Practical Approach
improve the Lactate Threshold (LT). A session The most important practical point is the need to
should be conducted once a week and commence experiment with the supplement during training.
Typically, an 800 meter runner may perform a way to encourage recovery. However, research is
time trial on a particular day after a couple of days beginning to find some advantages in active
of light training. A further couple of days later, recovery. Active recovery refers to engaging in low-
after only more light training, he/she can repeat intensity exercise after heavy workouts. There are
the time trial in a similar environment after two forms of active recovery. One is during the
bicarbonate supplementation. The exact protocol cool-down phase immediately after a hard effort
would be to ingest 0.3 grams of sodium or workout. The second form of active recovery
bicarbonate per kg body weight approximately includes the days following a competition or other
one to two hours before the time trial. That is, intense workout.
for a 66 kg runner, consume 20 grams of sodium It has been reported that active recover y
bicarbonate (about four teaspoons) and, the immediately after the event encourages recovery
commonly found bicarbonate of soda is exactly and reduces muscle lactate levels faster than
the substance needed. This experimenting, if complete rest. After hard intervals, one group
repeated several times, should reveal whether rested completely while a second group exercised
bicarbonate supplementation is likely to produce at 30 percent intensity between intervals. The active
any benefit and whether the athlete concerned is group reduced blood lactate levels faster and could
susceptible to any side effects. achieve a higher power output throughout the
It is likely that large individual differences do workout. Another study found that adding low
exist as far as response to supplementation is intensity exercise to the rest period after
concerned. It has been suggested that the more competition did not decrease an athlete’s physical
highly trained athletes are less likely to benefit from recovery and actually had positive effects on
it because their body’s natural buffering systems psychological recovery by improving relaxation. A
are already so well developed, but so far, this is third study found active recovery encouraged lactic
just speculation. It has also been shown that acid removal and helped speed recovery. The
sprinters build-up more acidity within their muscles general theory is that low-intensity activity assists
than endurance runners in response to the same blood circulation which, in turn, helps remove
exercise, and so may be more likely to benefit from lactic acid from the muscle. Low-intensity
the buffering effect. From the scientific research, active recovery appears to significantly reduce
it appears that the size of the dose is quite important accumulated blood lactate and speed muscle
and that taking only 0.2 grams per kg is less likely recovery. However, all agree that more study is
to be beneficial than 0.3 grams per kg, although necessary to establish a clear answer regarding the
no evidence exists suggesting that an even greater best way to recover from intense exercise.
dose is better still. Active rest appears to allow an athlete to
physically and psychologically recover from the
Side Effects
stresses of training and competing while still
As for the side effects, these may take the form of maintaining fitness levels. It is becoming a common
pain, cramping, diarrhea or a feeling of being part of most training plans and appears to offer
bloated. Drinking up to a liter of water with the more benefit than harm.
dose is often effective and should be carried out as
standard. Breaking up the bicarbonate dose into,
PREVENTING OVERTRAINING
say, four equal portions taken over the course of
an hour may also help. There are potential side Overtraining syndrome frequently occurs in
effects to taking higher than normal levels of athletes who are training for competition or a
Sodium Bicarbonate so need consult with the specific event and train beyond the body’s ability
physician first. to recover. Athletes often exercise longer and
harder so they can improve. But without adequate
ACTIVE RECOVERY rest and recovery, these training regimens can
After athletic competition or a hard workout, it decrease performance. Conditioning requires a
would seem that complete rest would be the best balance between overload and recovery. Too much
overload and/or too little recovery may result in Another way to test the status of recovery to
both physical and psychological symptoms of use the orthostatic heart rate test, developed by
overtraining syndrome. Heikki Rusko while working with cross country
skiers. To obtain this measurement:
Common Warning Signs of Overtraining 1. Lay down and rest comfortably for 10 minutes
 Washed-out feeling, tired, drained, lack of the same time each day (morning is best).
energy 2. At the end of 10 minutes, record the heart
 Mild leg soreness, general aches and pains rate in beats per minute.
 Pain in muscles and joints 3. Then stand up
 Sudden drop in performance 4. After 15 seconds, take a second heart rate in
 Insomnia
beats per minute.
 Headaches
5. After 90 seconds, take a third heart rate in
 Decreased immunity (increased number of colds
beats per minute.
and sore throats) 6. After 120 seconds, take a fourth heart rate
 Decrease in training capacity/intensity
in beats per minute.
 Moodiness and irritability
Well rested athletes will show a consistent heart
 Depression
rate between measurements, but it has been found
 Loss of enthusiasm for the sport
that a marked increase (10 beats/minutes or more)
 Decreased appetite
in the 120 second-post-standing measurement of
 Increased incidence of injuries.
athletes on the verge of overtraining. Such a change
 A compulsive need to exercise
may indicate that he has not recovered from a
It’s hard to predict overtraining since everyone’s previous workout, are fatigued, or otherwise
body is different. It is important, however, to vary stressed and it may be helpful to reduce training
training through the year and schedule in or rest another day before performing another
significant rest time. workout.
While there are many proposed ways to
Treating Overtraining Syndrome objectively test for overtraining, the most accurate
and sensitive measurements are psychological signs
If you suspect you are over trained, the first thing and symptoms and changes in an athlete’s mental
to do is reduce or stop the exercise and allow a few state. Decreased positive feelings for sports and
days of rest. Drink plenty of fluids and alter the increased negative feelings, such as depression,
diet if necessary. Cross training can help to discover anger, fatigue and irritability often appear after a
if you are overworking certain muscles and also few days of intensive overtraining. Studies have
help you determine if you are just mentally found increased ratings of perceived exertion
fatigued. A sports massage can help the recharge during exercise after only three days of overload.
overused muscles. Research on overtraining syndrome shows rest is
the primary treatment plan. Some new evidence
Measuring Overtraining
indicating that low levels of exercise (active
There are several ways you can objectively measure recovery) during the rest period will accelerate
some signs of overtraining. One is by documenting recovery. Moderate exercise has also been shown
the heart rates overtime. Find out the heart rate at to increase immunity. Total recovery can take
specific exercise intensities and speed throughout several weeks and includes proper nutrition and
the training and note it down. If the pace starts to stress reduction. The subjective assessments and
slow rate, the resting heart rate increases and you mental state of an athlete is clearly the most reliable
experience other symptoms, you may heading into indicator of overtraining. Unfortunately, most
overtraining syndrome. You can also record your athletes ignore these signs or wait too long before
resting heart rate at each morning. Any marked doing something. An important component of
increase from the norm may indicate that you aren’t exercise is to objectively measure your training and
fully recovered. modify it before damage is done.
REST AND RECOVERY AFTER recovery refers to engaging in low-intensity exercise

after workouts during both the cool-down phase
EXERCISE—IMPROVE SPORTS immediately after a hard effort or workout as well
PERFORMANCE as during the days following the workout. Both
types of active recovery are linked to performance
Most athletes know that getting enough rest after
benefits. Another major focus of recover y
exercise is essential to high-level performance, but
immediately following exercise has to do with
many still over train and feel guilty when they take
replenishing energy stores and fluids lost during
a day off. The body repairs and strengthens itself
exercise and optimizing protein synthesis (the
in the time between workouts, and continuous
process of increasing the protein content of muscle
training can actually weaken the strongest athletes.
cells, preventing muscle breakdown and increasing
Rest days are critical to sports performance for
muscle size) by eating the right foods in the post-
a variety of reasons. Some are physiological and
exercise meal. This is also the time for soft tissue
some are psychological. Rest is physically necessary
(muscles, tendons, ligaments) repair and the
so that the muscles can repair, rebuild and
removal of chemicals that build-up as a result of
strengthen. For recreational athletes, building in
cell activity during intense exercise.
rest days can help maintain a better balance between
home, work and fitness goals. Long-term Recovery
Building recover y time into any training
The techniques refer to those that are built into a
program is important because this is the time that
seasonal training program. Most well-designed
the body adapts to the stress of exercise and the training schedules will include recovery days and
real training effect takes place. Recovery also allows or weeks that are built into an annual training
the body to replenish energy stores and repair schedule. This is also the reason that athletes and
damaged tissues. Exercise or any other physical coaches change their training program throughout
work causes changes in the body such as muscle the year, add cross training, modify workouts types,
tissue breakdown and the depletion of energy stores and make changes in intensity, time, distance and
(muscle glycogen) as well as fluid loss. all the other training variables.
Recover y time allows these stores to be
replenished and allows tissue repair to occur. ADAPTATION TO EXERCISE
Without sufficient time to repair and replenish, the The Principle of Adaptation states that when we
body will continue to breakdown from intensive undergo the stress of physical exercise, our body
exercise. Symptoms of overtraining often occur adapts and becomes more efficient. It’s just like
from a lack of recovery time. Signs of overtraining learning any new skill; at first it’s difficult, but over
include a feeling of general malaise, staleness, the time it becomes second-nature. Once you adapt
depression, decreased sports performance and to a given stress, you require additional stress to
increased risk of injury, among athletes. continue to make progress.
There are limits to how much stress the body can
SHORT AND LONG-TERM RECOVERY tolerate before it breaks down and risks injury. Doing
too much work too quickly will result in injury or
There are two categories of recovery, such as
muscle damage, but doing too little, too slowly will
immediate (shor t-term) recover y from a
not result in any improvement. This is why coach
particularly intense training session or event, and
trainers set-up specific training programs that increase
is the long-term recovery that needs to be build
time and intensity at a planned rate and allow rest
into a year-round training schedule. Both are
days throughout the program.
important for optimal sports performance.
Sleep Deprivation can Hinder Sports
Short-term Recovery Performance
Sometimes called active recovery occurs in the In general, one or two nights of poor or little sleep
hours immediately after intense exercise. Active will not have much impact on performance,
but consistently getting inadequate sleep can result Ways to Recover Quickly After Exercise
in subtle changes in hormone levels, particularly
There are as many methods of recovery as there
those related to stress, muscle recovery and mood.
are athletes. The following are some of the most
While no one completely understands the
commonly recommended methods.
complexities of sleep, some research indicates that
1. Rest. Time is one of the best ways to recover
sleep deprivation can lead to increased levels of
(or heal) from just about any illness or injury
cortisol (a stress hormone), decreased activity of
and this also works after a hard workout. Body
human growth hormone (which is active during
has an amazing capacity to take care of itself if
tissue repair) and decreased glycogen synthesis.
you allow it sometime. Resting and waiting
after a hard workout allows the repair and
BALANCE EXERCISE WITH REST AND recovery process to happen at a natural pace.
RECOVERY It is not the only thing one can or should do
to promote recovery, but sometimes doing
It is this alternation of adaptation and recovery that
nothing is the easiest thing to do.
takes the athlete to a higher level of fitness. High-
2. Stretch. If you only do one thing after a tough
level athletes need to realize that the greater the
workout, consider gentle stretching. This is a
training intensity and effort, the greater the need
simple and fast way to help your muscles to
for planned recovery. Monitoring the workouts
recover.
with a training log, and paying attention to how
3. Cool down. Cooling down simply means
your body feels and how motivated you are is
slowing down (not stopping completely) after
extremely helpful in determining your recovery
exercise. Continuing to move around at a very
needs and modifying your training program
low intensity for 5 to 10 minutes after a hard
accordingly.
workout helps remove of lactic acid from your
muscles and may reduce muscles stiffness.
Ways to Recover Quickly After Exercise
Warming up and cooling down are more
Do you know what to do after exercise to speed helpful in cooler temperatures or when you
your recovery from a workout? The post exercise have another exercise session or an event later
routine can have a big impact on fitness gains and the same day.
sports performance but most people do not have 4. Eat properly. After depleting your energy
an after exercise recovery plan. Most people exercise stores with exercise, you need to refuel if you
for the benefits they get from their workout: expect the body to recover, repair tissues, get
improved sports performance, better endurance, stronger and be ready for the next bout of
less body fat, added and even just feeling better. exercise. This is even more important if you
In order to maintain an exercise routine it is are performing endurance exercise day after
important to recover fully after exercise. Recovery day or trying to build muscle. Ideally, you
is an essential part of any workout routine. It allows should try to eat within 60 minutes of the
an individual to train more often and train harder end of your workout and make sure you
so one get more out of the training. include some high-quality protein and
complex carbohydrate along with minerals and
Recovery After Exercise sufficient water.
Recovery after exercise is essential to muscle and 5. Replace fluids. You lose a lot of fluid during
tissue repair and strength building. This is even exercise and ideally, should be replacing it
more critical after a heavy weight training session. during exercise, but filling up after exercise is
A muscle needs anywhere from 24 to 48 hours to an easy way to boost your recovery. Water
repair and rebuild and working it again too soon supports every metabolic function and nutrient
simply leads to tissue breakdown instead of transfer in the body and having plenty of water
building. For weight training routines, never work will improve every bodily function. Adequate
the same muscles groups two days in a row. fluid replacement is even more important for
endurance athletes who lose large amounts of the contribution of other systems such as the
water during hours of sweating. cardio vascular, pulmonary and endocrine
6. Active recovery . Easy, gentle movement systems to the end result. Neuromuscular
improves the circulation which helps promote fatigue can be defined as a transient decrease
nutrient and waste product transpor t in muscular performance usually seen as a
throughout the body. In theory, this helps the failure to maintain or develop a certain
muscles repair and refuel faster. expected force or power.
7. Massage. Massage feels good and improves ii. Fatigue may be the result of one or more
circulation while allowing you to fully relax. environmental causes such as inadequate rest,
You can also try self-massage and Foam Roller improper diet, work and home stressors, or
Exercises for Easing Tight Muscles and avoid poor physical conditioning, or one symptom
the heavy sports massage. of a chronic medical condition or disease
8. Alternate hot and cold baths or showers. Some process in the body.
athletes swear by ice baths, ice massage or iii. The symptoms of the fatigue due to the
alternating hot and cold showers to recover overactivity/training/exhaustion are color of
faster, reduce muscle soreness and prevent the face is reddish, rate of sweating increased,
injury. The theory behind this method called movement of an individual becomes crude,
contrast water therapy is that by repeatedly staggering and lack of coordination, lack of
constricting and dilating blood vessels helps concentration, nervousness and negative
remove (or flush out) waste products in the learning, rest period of a person is prolonged if
tissues. Limited research has found some the person is in under fatigue. General health
benefits of contrast water therapy at reducing symptoms are heaviness, dizziness, breathing
delayed onset muscle soreness. While taking difficulties, nausea, vomiting, restlessness,
the post-exercise shower, alternate 2 minutes insomnia, etc. and low physical performance
of hot water with 30 seconds of cold water. will be executed by the sports person.
Repeat four times with a minute of moderate
iv. Recovery must start in the concluding part/
temperatures between each hot-cold spray. If
session of the training. Active recovery is more
you happen to have a spa with hot and cold
effective than passive one. Adequate rest is also
tubs available, you can take a plunge in each
required. Well ventilated, hygienic living
for the same time.
condition is needed. Well balanced qualitative
9. Proper sleep. Optimal sleep is essential for anyone
and quantitative diet to be taken. Massage and
who exercises regularly. During sleep, the body
self relaxation (increased blood circulation) is
produces Growth Hormone (GH) which is
recommended. Jet massage, Jaquizee, contrast
largely responsible for tissue growth and repair.
bath, etc. (Stimulate blood circulation to
10. Avoid overtraining . One simple way to
removal of metabolites) are also suggested. Wax
recovery faster is by designing a systematic
bath, Steam packs, etc. are being used
workout routine in the first place. Excessive
(Increased metabolism to remove waste
exercise, heavy training at every session or a
products, sweating to perspiration eliminates
lack of rest days will limit the fitness gains from
waste).
exercise and undermine the recovery efforts.
v. Conventional medicine recommends the
dietary and lifestyle changes outlined above
SUMMARY as a first line of defense against fatigue.
i. The term fatigue to describe a transient Individuals who experience occasional fatigue
decrease in working capacity that results from symptoms may benefit from short term use
previous physical activity. We will farther of caf feine-containing central ner vous
restrict our interest to dealing with stimulants, which make people more alert, less
neuromuscular fatigue, while fully recognizing drowsy and improve coordination. However,
these should be prescribed with extreme ix. Recovery after exercise is essential to muscle
caution, as overuse of the drug can lead to and tissue repair and strength building. This
serious sleep disorders, like insomnia. is even more critical after a heavy weight
vi. Herbal remedies that act as circulator y training session. A muscle needs anywhere
stimulants can offset the symptoms of fatigue from 24 to 48 hours to repair and rebuild,
in some individuals. Chinese medicine regards and working it again too soon simply leads to
fatigue as a blockage, or energy flow, inside tissue breakdown instead of building. For
the human body. Breathing exercises can both weight training routines, never work the same
improve respiratory function and relieve stress muscles groups two days in a row.
and fatigue. Deep breathing exercises are best
performed while laying flat on the back on a REVIEW QUESTIONS
hard surface, usually the floor.
1. Define fatigue. What are the symptoms of
vii. The expression “lactic acid” is used most fatigue? Discuss the causes of fatigue.
commonly by athletes to describe the intense 2. What are different methods used of recovery
pain felt during exhaustive exercise. When from fatigue? Discuss with suitable example.
energy is required to perform exercise, it is 3. How you can diagnose the onset of fatigue?
supplied from the breakdown of ATP. The Discuss the various treatments of fatigue.
process of lactic acid removal takes 4. How you can treat the fatigue to manipulate
approximately one hour, but this can be the diet and also change the life style?
accelerated by undertaking an appropriate cool 5. Write notes on (i) Traditional Chinese
down that ensures a rapid and continuous medicine (ii) Color therapy (iii) Deep
supply of oxygen to the muscles. It has been breathing exercises in relation with recovery
estimated that about 50 percent of the lactate from fatigue.
produced during intensive exercise is used by 6. What do you mean by lactate shuttle? How
muscles to form glycogen which acts as a can you improve the individuals lactate
metabolic fuel to sustain exercise. tolerance?
viii. Sodium bicarbonate is an alkalizing agent and 7. What do you mean by active recovery? How
therefore reduces the acidity of the blood it is beneficial as compare to passive one?
(known as a buffering action). By buffering 8. What are the over training syndromes? How
acidity in the blood, bicarbonate may be able can you measure overtraining? ‘Rest and
to draw more of the acid produced within the recovery after exercise - Improve Sports
muscle cells out into the blood and thus Performance’—Justify.
reduce the level of acidity within the muscle 9. What is short and long-term recovery? What
cells themselves. This could delay the onset are the ways to recover quickly after exercise?
of fatigue. As for the side effects, these may 10. What are the causes of overtraining? How can
take the form of pain, cramping, diarrhea or a it be identified? What is the suggested
feeling of being bloated. treatment of overtraining?
CHAPTER
13
Identification of TTalent
alent in Spor ts
Sports
 Introduction to Talent Selection  Schemes of Sports Authority of India

 Genetical/ Hereditary Trait of Sports Talent  Monitoring of Performance
 Talent Identification System of Different Countries  Common Tests for All the Games/Sports/Events
 Developing Performance Excellence  Model of Talent Identification and Monitoring
 Talent Identification in India  Steps for Talent Identification
INTRODUCTION TO TALENT SELECTION In this type of research, particularly evident in

Australia, China, Cuba, and the former Eastern
Talent identification refers to the process of bloc countries, there are attempts have been made
recognizing current participants with the potential to identify characteristics that differentiate skilled
to become elite players. It entails predicting from less skilled performers and to determine the
performance over various periods of time by role of heredity and environment in the
measuring physical, physiological, psychological development of exper tise. Detection and
and sociological attributes as well as technical
identification of talent are more difficult in team
abilities either alone or in combination.
games than in individual sports such as running,
Talent has several properties that are genetically
cycling or rowing, where predictors of performance
transmitted and, therefore, innate. Nevertheless,
are more easily and scientifically prescribed. Long-
talent is not always evident at an early age but trained
term success in a team sport is dependent on a
people may be able to identify its existence by using
host of personal and circumstantial factors, not the
certain markers. These early indications of talent may
least of which is the coherence of the team as a
provide a basis for predicting those individuals who
whole and the availability of good coaching. These
have a reasonable chance of succeeding at a later
factors make it difficult to predict ultimate
stage. Very few individuals are talented in any single
domain; indeed, if all children are equally gifted, performance potential in many sports at an early
there would be no means of discriminating or age with a high degree of probability.
explaining differential success. Furthermore, talent
Talent Selection
is specific to that particular domain.
Talent selection involves the ongoing process of It could be argued that competition itself might
identifying players at various stages that demonstrates be the best form of talent identification, with
prerequisite levels of performance for inclusion in a competition seeing the best or most talented
given squad or team. Selection involves choosing the athletes rise to the top in their chosen sport.
most appropriate individual or group of individuals However, many athletes that do not succeed in the
to carry-out the task within a specific context. particular sport they have chosen, along with many
For many years, scientists have attempted to that do achieve a degree of success, may be better
identify key predictors of talent in various sports. suited to a different sport and never realize it.
With this in mind and considering that without have typically attempted to have systems in place
talent development, talent identification would be to develop talented individuals after they have
a waste of time and resources, it is easy to see why identified themselves through competition in their
talent identification is a term that is often confused chosen sport.
with the term talent development. Therefore, it is In this process, the talents grow naturally and
vital, that talent identification is clearly defined are generally spotted during sports competition.
before discussing the topic further. Peltola along Before participating in the competition they do
with Thomson and Beavis define talent identification not receive any systematic training from a qualified
as “that process by which children are encouraged coach/trainer. As a result their growth and
to participate in the sports at which they are most development in performance are not enough as
likely to succeed, based on results of testing on they possess the potentiality. Moreover, most of
selected parameters. These parameters are designed the talented children do not get the opportunity
to predict performance capacity, taking into account to participate in the competition where they come
the child’s current level of fitness and maturity.” to the notice of a coach/trainer. In this system the
In years gone by, and still in western countries, talent may not fall under appropriate game/event
an individual’s participation in a particular sport as they are better suited. Sometimes they are playing
might well be determined by such factors as a game which they are not suitable. They simply
“tradition, ideals, desire to take part in a sport play the game because it is popular at that particular
according to its popularity, parental pressure, a region.
school teacher’s specialty, the proximity of sport
facilities, etc. This system can lead to the more Scientific Selection
popular sports in a particular country having a Several authors have reported about the advantages
plentiful supply of athletes while the lower profile and disadvantages of sophisticated talent
sports struggle for participants. But for many identification programs. Talent identification as
specialists involved in sport, hoping that individuals helping to accelerate an identified individual’s
have chosen the sport that they are best suited to, progression to an elite level and aiding them in
and waiting for talented individuals to identify reaching a high performance level by the time they
themselves through competition, is not good reach international level. As well as assisting
enough for modern sport. Instead, with the aid of individuals to select a sport that they are suited to,
sport scientists, many countries and individual sports thus helping to eliminate the frustration’s caused
within countries have developed specific methods by participating in a sport that they are not suited
to identify talented individuals and help those to. They also have seen talent identification as being
individuals choose the sport that is best suited to an advantageous to the coaches by focusing their
their abilities. Selection of talent in sports are of two training time on athletes with higher levels of talent
types—Natural selection and Scientific selection. and abilities for their particular sport. Talent
identification also allows countries to get the best
Natural Selection
from its limited sporting resources. That scientific
While talent identification through competition talent identification is a critical factor in the
has, in reality, been operating ever since organized development of world class athletes is not in
competitive sport began. It has only been relatively question.
recently that systematic talent identification has In contrast other authors reported that the talent
become a part of sport around the world. Eastern identification as having limitations due to the fact
bloc countries like the German Democratic that large numbers of young athletes needs to be
Republic, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria and Romania tested in order to produce results. Likewise some
are examples of countries that implemented state experts argue that an expert coach’s eye is still quite
run, systematic talent identification programs as often the initial stage of talent identification and
early as the 1960’s and 70’s. While western subsequent testing is merely reinforcing the talent
countries such as Australia and the United States potential of an already identified athlete.
Identification of Talent in Sports  249
Another factor limiting talent identification is the Weight, height and length of limbs can greatly
fact that it is extremely difficult to reliably predict influence sporting performance in certain sports.
future development of an athlete when Therefore, during early phase of talent identification
identification is carried out at a young age. Add to taking anthropometric measures such as height,
this the fact that talented children generally exhibit weight, limb lengths, skinfolds and examining hip
good all-round ability, which can make it difficult and shoulder widths, etc. and then comparing these
to identify the particular sport a young athlete will widths can aid in talent identification. At later ages
be best suited for. This makes it extremely difficult hand plates and X-ray techniques can be used to
for individual sports to pinpoint the correct age to determine whether growth is complete or not.
carry-out their talent identification programs. Sports such as rowing in country like Australia, the
Some experts feel that it could be detrimental for scientist have compared their elite athletes with the
children to specialize in a particular sport before 13 general population. This comparison revealed that
years of age, while others see it as necessary to direct elite Australian rowers were a tall group with
young athletes to some sports before they reach 12 proportionally long leg and arm length compared
years of age to aid efficient skill development. with the general population.
Before implementing talent identification Research on the influence of psychological factors
programs, countries and individual sports need to on sporting performance has also recognized that
psychological parameters can contribute as much
undertake thorough examinations of the specific
to elite sport performance as physiological factors.
factors that influence performance in a particular
sport. The factors that need to be examined are
physiology, anthropometry and psychology. While GENETICAL/HEREDITARY TRAIT OF
some other scientist also include heredity and SPORTS TALENT
sociological factors. These factors have not been
Heredity is another important factor that should
listed in order of importance. Their order of
be considered in talent identification process.
importance will differ between sports and for
Children tend to inherit physiological and
effective talent identification sports need to take psychological characteristics from their parents.
this fact into account. For some spor ts Although some inherited characteristics such as
anthropometric measures may be crucial in talent height, limb length, speed ability and coordination
identification, e.g. height in basketball. While in are not influenced by environment while others
talent identification of novices, desire to participate such as weight, endurance ability (partly) and
in a particular sport may be more important than strength can be altered through training. A
VO2 max which can be improved, to a certain particular area that heredity could be useful in talent
degree, through systematic training program. identification is in the area of training limits. If an
Physiological factors that influence sporting athlete has reached the limits set by his inherited
performance can be assessed by administering tests physiological characteristics, it would be pointless
such as measurement of maximum oxygen uptake for that athlete to continue to attempt to reach an
(VO2 max), which correlates highly with endurance elite level of sporting performance even though
type performance in athletes, determining blood other measures used in talent identification suggest
lactate concentrations by taking blood samples the he can.
from the ear lobe or finger tip. As well as taking Several authors caution that although tests that
muscle biopsies in an effort to determine the type are used in talent identification give us a good
of sport an individual is most likely to be successful indication of the future potential of an athlete and
in by assessing the muscle fiber distribution in a the best direction in sport for that particular athlete,
particular athlete. Assessing muscle strength via they are by no means full proof. While testing does
tests on devices such as the Cybex dynamometer provide a measure of the factors that influence
can also aid in the evaluation of physiological factors ultimate sporting performance they do not test for
that influence sporting performance. drive, ambition or will to win. A young athlete who
does not meet the minimum standards on the Democratic Republic (GDR), the Soviet Union
various tests may still succeed in sports due to high (USSR) and China, over the last three decades.
motivation and commitment. Similarly, the tests Both Peltola and Thomson and his associates
administered have to be sport specific. have seen the most effective talent identification
When talent identification is undertaken, both schemes being tied to the school system similar to
in terms of chronological age and biological aspects of the GDR program. Linking talent
development of an athlete, is a crucial issue. There identification to the schooling system allows wide
seems to be different opinions as to the precise participation of all socioeconomic groups, aids
timing of talent identification screening. It has been development of a wide range of motor skills. School
reported that comprehensive talent identification involvement in talent identification also ensures
needs to be carried out a number of years with three people with at least some professional expertise are
main phases. The primar y phase of talent involved in talent identification and alleviates some
identification should occur during the years 3 to 8 of the cost which can be restrictive in the 90’s.
and needs to be dominated by a scientists/ As mentioned before there have been, over the
physician’s examination and is aimed at detecting last 30 years, several countries that have gone to
body malfunctions and physical deficiencies which great lengths to run comprehensive talent
may restrict future sporting endeavors. The identification programs. These countries include
secondary phase of talent identification should be the GDR, the USSR, Romania and China.
conducted between the ages of 9 to 17; however, Probably the most well known and most talked
this age range will vary between sports, e.g. 9 to 10 about of these programs is the one undertaken in
for gymnastics and swimming, 10 to 15 for girls the GDR. In the 1972 Olympics alone quite a few
and 10 to 17 for boys in other sports. This phase of GDR medalists were scientifically selected, i.e. the
talent identification needs to be conducted on product of system (talent identification program).
athletes who have already experienced of organized To someone living in many western countries the
training and requires a comprehensive assessment dimensions of the GDR talent identification program
of physiological and anthropometric parameters. are quite staggering. The GDR program was highly
Psychological assessment and profiling commence organized and structured. It includes a compulsory
in this phase. The final phase of talent identification program of physical education in schools, early
is mainly concerned with high caliber athlete’s, e.g. identification of sports talent, a club system for
national team members. Talent identification in this talented individuals in separate sports. It also entailed
phase needs to be very sport specific. With particular continuity of selection and ruthless elimination of
attention paid to the athlete’s health, physiological those that do not measure at each stage, a scientific
adaptation to training and their potential for further approach to elite performers training and long range
improvement. objectives. Selected schools were obliged to support
Contrast this with Peltola who have seen the first talent scouting with talented individuals being trained
phase of talent identification taking place at 10 to 12 at training centers, of which there were 2000 young
years of age and involving easy to administering field athlete that catered for approximately 70,000 young
tests. The second stage of talent identification would sports people. There was also a system of youth sport
need to be carried out between the ages of 13 to 16 schools that were attached to a sports club at which
years and again this stage would involve easy to only specific sport disciplines were trained.
administer field tests. Those athletes that are Approximately 9,000 young athletes were enrolled
ultimately selected would then be directed to elite in 20 youth sport schools. There were also about
junior programs for their particular sport. Peltola 10,000 full-time coaches involved in the training of
also emphasises that all athletes that are tested need young athletes. Competition was separated into
to be encouraged to participate in sport, not just various age groups. Substantial financial and material
those that are selected for further development. support was also provided.
There have also been variations of these formats A considerable amount of the GDR success in
employed in several countries, such as the German track and field can be attributed to the attention
that was given to the foundation and build-up phases acronyms; for example, the key phrase incorporated
of their identification program. The first phase, in the scouting process of Ajax Amsterdam is TIPS,
which was called the foundation training phase standing for technique, intelligence, personality and
focused on greatly varied training in different sports speed. Alternative lists include TABS (technique,
and was usually completed in early childhood. The attitude, balance, speed) and SUPS (speed,
second phase known as build-up training began at understanding, personality, skill), etc.
13 to 15 years and lasted between 4 to 6 years. This For many years, scientists have attempted to
phase involved the participant beginning to identify key predictors of talent in various sports.
specialize to a degree and also continuing varied In this type of research, particularly evident in
training. It was hoped that the versatility encouraged Australia, China, Cuba, and the former Eastern
in this phase would develop the ability to learn bloc countries, and attempts were made to identify
quickly and correct the faults easier. characteristics that differentiate skilled from less
skilled performers and also to determine the role
TALENT IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM OF of heredity and environment in the development
of expertise. For instance, identifying and selecting
DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
talented volleyball players are not straight forward
To search talent in sports the following questions operations. Detection and identification of talent
are arise: are more difficult in team games than in individual
1. What makes a champion athlete? What factors sports such as running, cycling or rowing, where
in talent identification can be used to predict predictors of performance are more easily and
performance success? scientifically prescribed. Long-term success in a
2. What is the role of performance-based, long- team sport is dependent on a host of personal and
term athlete development and assessment? circumstantial factors, not the least of which is the
3. What is the role of sport science and coherence of the team as a whole and the availability
technology in the development of skilled and of good coaching. These factors make it difficult
empowered coaches who are responsible for to predict ultimate performance potential in many
creating environments conducive to sports at an early age with a high degree of
performance excellence? probability.
There seems to be three general categories of talent Eastern European systems relied on the
identification systems: Systematic governmental generation of a comprehensive database of personal
systems; systematic non-governmental systems; and and performance variables and formal monitoring
nonsystematic approaches. of progress and development. The systems were
 Systematic, g o v e rrn
nmental systems— most effective where clear relationships between
Countries who used to use this system are individual characteristics were established. These
former soviet bloc countries; China, etc. were almost exclusively individual rather than team-
 Systematic, non-gover nmental systems
non-governmental systems— — based sports.
tennis, swimming/well-structured age-group The most systematic talent identification model
programs; developmental infrastructure identifies was probably the one in the former Deutsche
and reinforces talent moving through system Democratic Republic (DDR). A fundamental pillar
 Non-systematic appr oaches—
approaches—
oaches—somewhat of the country’s tremendous international success
random ID systems with out par ticular in the area of elite sport involved a talent search
approach. program. In preparation for the 2000 Summer
It is not surprising, that there is no consensus Olympics, Australia adopted some elements of the
of opinion, nationally or internationally, regarding DDR talent identification approach by
the theory and practice of talent identification. implementing a talent search program. In contrast,
Usually professional clubs depend on the subjective the West German system of elite sport never
assessment of their experienced scouts and coaches, developed a systematic approach. Even after the
employing a list of key criteria. These are set out as German reunification of 1990, elements of a
successful system were not seriously considered as unidisciplinary. Successful identification needs to
appropriate measures of talent identification in a be followed by selection onto a formal program for
democratic society. developing playing abilities and nurturing the
Within the systems employed in the DDR, not individual towards realizing the potential already
every individual displaying characteristics of talent predicted. Eventual success is ultimately dependent
was selected for systematic training. Youngsters upon a myriad of circumstantial factors, including
were selected for specialization, only on the opportunities to practice, staying free of injury, the
provision that they were healthy and free of medical type of monitoring and coaching available during
anomalies; could tolerate high training loads; had the developmental years. Personal, social and cultural
a psychological capability for training; and factors also influence ultimate performance.
maintained good academic achievement levels. For example, most games played are possession
More recently, the Australian Institute of Sport sports. American football, soccer, baseball/softball,
(AIS) created a model for some European field hockey and basketball have roles and strategies
countries, most notably Great Britain, to follow.
that allow each team to control the ball for
In preparation for the 2000 Olympic Games in
extended periods of time. One statistic kept for
Sydney, the AIS paid considerable attention to its
these sports is time of possession of the ball for
own talent identification process and development.
each team.
A major effort was targeted at individual sports
Using the sport of volleyball, it is a game of
such as rowing, swimming, cycling and track &
rebound and movement. The ball is never
field. A novel approach to talent identification and
motionless from the moment it is served until it
development was adopted for women’s soccer as
contacts the floor or is whistled dead by an official.
well.
The Australian system consisted of detecting The size of the court is relatively small for the
individuals with athletic ability in field games and number of players, creating a congested playing
selecting them for a fast-track program of training area. Because of this, the game has evolved into
in soccer skills. Specific to soccer in Australia, while one of ef ficiency, accuracy and suppor tive
individuals within the team achieved a limited success movements. Each team has a maximum of three
in the game, the Olympic Games experience did contacts with which to accomplish the game’s
not yield convincing evidence that talent detection objective, which is to return the ball and have it
and identification was the perfect process in soccer. contact the floor on the opponents’ side of the net
Matsudo in 1987 described the pyramid model within the boundaries of their court. The outcome
that was used in Brazil that embraced six tiers of of the rally, game and match becomes a summation
performance abilities. The standards of proficiency of each player’s efforts. This is the ultimate in
ranged from physical education classes at the base individual contribution and team effort. As a team
of the pyramid to international competitors at its sport, volleyball uses a net to create no intentional
apex. Their test batter y incorporated physical contact between opposing teams.
anthropometric, physiological and performance Reaching over the net into the opponents’ court
profiles. Its use in specific sports was limited, but is permitted during the follow through motion of
phenomenal success was found in the sport of the attacker’s arm after the ball has been hit, or in
volleyball, with the direction of individuals at an the act of blocking after the hitter has contacted
early age to the sport to which participants seemed the ball.
biologically most suited. The individual techniques of the game are
quite different from those of most team sports.
What Does This Lead To?
Because the essence of the game requires the
The most effective contribution from sports science body to move through all zones of movement,
to talent identification is likely to be the ball can be played at the highest point of a
multidisciplinary. Identifying talent for games at jump or just inches from the floor. The forearm
an early age are not likely to be mechanistic or pass is one technique unique to the game.
No other team sport fosters ball to forearm it was also the team with the lowest retention rate.
contact as an accurate and efficient skill. Sitting In particular, a high retention rate has been
volleyball is yet another example of adaptations emphasized as a major condition of further
in volleyball performance technique. Olympic success.
DEVELOPING PERFORMANCE Table 13.2: Mean age of the players nationwise

participating in the last Olympic game.
EXCELLENCE
USA 27.3 years
Excellence in performance shares common roots Russia 26.0 years
regardless of its form of expression. The concert China 23.4 years
pianist, research neurologist, and Olympic Australia 26.6 years
athlete are all products of sequential, multi-stage Germany 27.5 years
development systems. The commonality among (Pfützner et al, 2001)
these pathways to excellence is surprisingly
strong. A high retention rate may be affected by both the
In 1985, Bloom and colleagues conducted a quantity of potential talents available and the quality
study to understand how world-class talent is of the talent identification system. While the talent
developed. They interviewed 120 people who had development in China can begin with
achieved world-class success in the fields of art, approximately120 million youngsters in the age range
sport, music and academics. Successful individuals of 10 to 14, the base in Australia is only 1.3 million.
had very similar learning and development stages. It can be stated that countries with lesser populations
Bloom divided development phases into the early seem to be depending on very systematic approaches
years, middle years and late years. to talent identification. Australia, with the smallest
Balyi (2002; 2004), a sport scientist and coach population of the top 5 recently has implemented a
systematic Talent Search Program, which already has
from the Hungarian/Eastern European system,
shown several achievements at national and
integrated much of what was involved in talent
international championships.
identification and long-term athlete development
in the Eastern European system and adapted it to
Table 13.3: Nationwise retention rate of selected
meet the needs of democratic societies, with talent.
particular focus on UK Sport and Sport Canada.
The quality of a talent identification system may China 50 %
influence the international success of a country’s USA 72 %
elite sport in various ways. For example, a Russia 40 %
comparison of the results of Summer Olympic Australia 65.8 %
Games showed a linear decrease in Germany. Germany 18 %
(Rütten & Ziemainz, 2004)
Table 13.1: Comparison of the results of three
A number of criteria that is necessary for effective
summer Olympic games of five nations
talent identification tests have been identified. Here
Nation 1992 1996 2000 is a quick overview, as compiled by Kearney (Talent
USA 13.6 % 13.3 % 11.1 % identification and development: The foundation
Russia 15.1 % 8.2 % 9.8 % of Olympic success—White paper presented by
China 6.8 % 6.3 % 7.2 % Sports Science and Technology Division, USOC,
Australia 3.2 % 4.1 % 6.3 % 1999).
Germany 10.6 % 7.4 % 5.4 %
(Rütten & Ziemainz, 2004) Stability
At the same time, the German Olympic team Variable being measured is stable or unchanging
was the oldest team at the last Olympic Games and overtime and is only minimally impacted by growth
Table 13.4: Nation wise talent development in million (10–14 and 15–19 years)
Nation 10–14 15–19 Total Talent pool

USA 20 M 20 M 40 M 4.00 M
Russia 13 M 15 M 28 M 2.80 M
China 120 M 99 M 219 M 21.90 M
Australia 1.3 M 1.3 M 2.6 M 0.26 M
Germany 4.6 M 4.6 M 9.2 M 0.92 M
(Rütten & Ziemainz, 2004)
and development. Variable must have a very strong Assessment Integrity

genetic component to it, and be independent of
Traditional measurement and evaluation criteria of
the experience and training of the athlete.
validity, reliability and objectivity. In the area of
talent identification, this can be challenging, as tests
Tunneling
may be valid and reliable but not objective or any
The variable is measurable at a young age and other combination. A test may validly assess a
effectively predicts the adult status on that cer tain physiological, psychological or
characteristic. If height is a variable with strong morphological characteristic, but that characteristic
tunneling, height of 7 to 8 year olds would be may not be a valid predictor of athletic talent. Test
highly predictive. Height, however, is not a good validity measures the intended variable, but that
example of tunneling because of the significant variable is not a valid predictor of talent; therefore,
variation in rate of development across people. the test is not valid for use in talent identification
Early maturers are taller, younger and do not reach process.
the adult height of some later maturers.
Applicability
Performance Relevance
Needs to be applicable to the environment in which
Variables used for talent identification should be it is going to be used. The characteristics that
intuitively relevant to the performance. Critical contribute to the applicability of a test is that it
variables (Matsudo, Victor) include those that are must be simple, easy to administer, and field-based.
underlying characteristics that are common among There is a continuing debate about the use of field-
all individuals who achieve a high level of athletic based test vs laboratory-based tests. The general
success within a sport discipline, but are not philosophy reflected in the literature is that field-
necessarily capable of differentiating among elite based tests should be used for initial screening and
level performers. An example might be oxygen that the results of these may be fur ther
uptake among elite 10,000 meter runners. All differentiated by the use of laboratory-based
individuals capable of running less than 30 minutes procedures on a more selected group of individuals.
for a 10 Km will have an oxygen uptake above 75 Categories of Talent identification tests proposed
ml/kg/min; however, there is a weak relationship by various scientists which are as follows:
between oxygen uptake of these elite runners and
performance times. In contrast, a related variable A. Morphological Parameters
 Body Mass
is a variable that may help differentiate among elite
 Height
level performers when present in concert with
 Somatotype (physique)
critical variables. Using the same example of 10
 Fat mass
Km runners, the velocity at lactate threshold, or
 Fat-free mass
velocity at Vo 2 max, has a much stronger
 Length and interrelationships among
relationship to competitive performance capacity
than simply oxygen uptake. segment lengths of the body.
B. Physiological/Motor qualities (Balyi & TALENT IDENTIFICATION IN INDIA

Hamilton, 2003)
 Strength ability The search for identification of genetically gifted
 Speed ability talented children in sports has gained importance
 Endurance ability over the year as competition at every level has
 Reaction time (reflex) intensified. It is well known that while genetic
 Agility predisposition are of importance for a successful
 Flexibility sports carrier, nevertheless studies carried out in
 Balance—static and dynamic many countries have proved that while there are
C. Psychological and Sociological (Kluka, 2003; many successful athletes whose parents were good
Calder
Calder,, 2000; Reilly
Reilly,, 2003) in sports, there were also many parents who had
 Personality Traits never competed in any sports in their life. In a
 Psychological profiling country like India with varied climatic conditions,
 Readiness different food habits, wide gaps exist in socio-
 Coach ability economic levels. Therefore, identification of talented
 Self-concept boys and girls in younger age group assumes more
 Sociometric assessments significance to prepare elite sports persons. The
 Significant others systematic way of talent scouting in India was
 Visual perception assessments undertaken by Sports Authority of India (SAI) some
 Includes decision-making and “game times in middle of 1980’s. The scouting was
Intelligence” undertaken through States Sports Department
If a talent identification test is 100 percent under the scheme of National Sports Talent Contest
ef fective, there would be a strong, linear (NSTC) with the following objectives:
relationship between results on the test and results i. To start a movement in the country to broad
in performance. The narrower the geometric base sports at grass root level, to bring about
distribution of the performance on the tests and sports consciousness among the people of
the performance in competition, the more effective various age groups and create awareness that
the talent identification test is. The false negative participation in sports for the children in the
quadrant represents those individuals who score formative years would help in realizing the
poorly on the test, but are able to do well in a objective of a “sound mind in a sound body.”
competitive situation. The results of the talent ii. To scout the talent among school going
identification test would be indicating they did not children who are genetically gifted and are
have the potential for success, but they achieved endowed natural motor qualities and physical
success. The false positive quadrant of individuals growth.
does well on the test, but do not achieve iii. To ensure admission in adopted schools of
competitive results. There are number of factors the SAI and impart scientific and systematic
that have an impact on this test efficacy graph. First, training to the selected children to achieve
there are very few situations where results on a excellence in sports in national /international
single variable can effectively predict competitive competitions and become future champion.
per formance. Considering the traits or
characteristics that are essential for success for a SCHEMES OF SPORTS AUTHORITY OF
woman softball athlete. It is obvious that an INDIA
evaluation on any single variable will not provide a
strong prediction of potential success. The typical Sports Authority of India has started the following
application of an efficacy graph, then, is based on schemes to select and nurture the talented children
the results of a test battery or assessment on a series in sports for excellence. The schemes are – NSTC,
of variables. SPDA, ABSC, SAG and Sports Hostel.
National Sports Talent Contest (NSTC) sports and games from inaccessible tribal, rural,
and coastal areas of the country. The Scheme also
The first talent scouting among the children in the
envisages taping of talent from indigenous games
age groups of 10 to 12 years for Athletics,
and martial arts and also from regions, which are
Basketball, Badminton, Football, Hockey, Table
either genetically or geographically advantageous
tennis, Volleyball and Wrestling and for 8 to 10
for excellence in a particular sports discipline. The
years old children for Gymnastics and Swimming
main objective of the Scheme is to train meritorious
was held in 1985. Till 1988 the talent was scouted
sports persons in the age group of 14 to 21 years.
based on the performance of the children in their
The age is relaxed depending upon the merit of
respective discipline by the former international
the case. The trainees admitted under the
sports persons of the concerned discipline. residential scheme are provided free Boarding and
From 1989 the talent scouting was done by Lodging facilities, sports kit, sports equipment,
applying a battery of tests to assess the physical competition exposure, insurance, medical expenses,
development, motor qualities and ability in skill etc and non residential trainees with some monthly
related to a particular game/sport. The battery of stipend, sports Kit; sports equipment, competition
tests for this purpose were formulated in exposure, insurance coverage, etc.
consultation with the Soviet experts and later
adopted to Indian conditions. Disciplines Covered
Sports Project Development Area (SPDA) Athletics, Archery, Badminton, Boxing, Basketball,
Canoeing and Kayaking, Cycling, Fencing,
In 1987, Govt. of India has started Sports Project Football, Gymnastics, Hockey, Judo, Karate,
Development Area (SPDA) scheme in all states/ Kabaddi, Rowing, Shooting, Swimming,
UTs which would provide in-house coaching Taekwondo, Volleyball, Wrestling, Wushu and
facilities to talented youngsters in their own states. Weightlifting.
Each SPDA to cater to a maximum of four Olympic
games disciplines, based on the popularity of these Objective
disciplines in that area. In adition, 1 or 2 indigenous
1. To scout Natural Talent in their indigenous
games may also be promoted in each SPDA center. games from tribal, coastal and hilly region
Selection of talent between 10 to 14 years of age and nurture them scientifically for achieving
was done on the similar grounds as for NSTC excellence in modern competitive games and
scheme. Same battery of tests were applied. sports
2. To make it possible for the Central Govt. and
Army Boys Sports Companies (ABSC)
State Govts, to work together for Sports
The introduction of another scheme by SAI was development through integrated efforts.
Army Boys Sports Companies started during 1991 3. To correct existing regional imbalance in
to 1992 with the ultimate objective to reach sports infrastructure in the country and
international excellence in sports. The Army has within a state.
joined hands with the SAI to nurture talented boys 4. To enable SAl to nurture junior sports talent
only in sports. The age of boys for induction is 12 scientifically who have attained excellence at
to 14 years and 10 to 12 years for swimming and sub junior level under NSTC scheme for
gymnastics in the scheme. The selection was mainly Center of Excellence on long-term basis.
based on SAI battery of tests for identification of 5. To provide package assistance for sports
talent. infrastructure and undertake various sports
programs in that area.
Special Area Games (SAG) 6. To ensure maximum utilization of the
facilities already existing/to be created in a
Special Areas Games Scheme aims at scouting and
district, proper maintenance and operation.
nurturing natural talent for modern competitive
7. To ensure equitable distribution of the funds out trainees would, ‘however, have the option to
earmarked for various plan scheme of the continue studies in the associated/attached institution
Govt. of India SAl, since the concept covers on their own resources but they shall not be entitled
linkage of quantum of assistance under for any facilities from the SAI
various schemes.
8. To take the benefit of various plan scheme Sports Hostel (STC)
to the grass root level, i.e. up to administrative The sport hostel scheme proposed by SAI is called
block level. the SAI Training Centre (STC). This scheme has
Under the scheme, Special Area Games Center been successful to a great extent, in fulfilling SAI,s
are started in consultation with the State govts/ objectives of spotting and nurturing sports talents.
UT Administration. The facilities to be provided SAI short list sports person aged between 14 and
by the State govt and SAl for establishing the center 21 years and enrolls them. out of the 58 STC's
is given below:- located across India. The talent in the scheme is
spotted based on their spor ts predisposi-
Opening of SAG Centers tion(category -1) and their genetical previous
The Special Area Games centers are started in position as desire for particular game/sports
consultation with the State govts/UT (category-2)
Administration. The State Govt. has to provide Talent selection pr ogram: The talent selection
program:
requisite land with infrastructure. However, in - process starts with the following program and takes
case the non- availability of infrastructure the State two days time. The program includes 12 test and
Govt. has to provide developed land on long-term measurements. Out of which 7 tests are aimed on
lease basis to SAl enabling it to create the required the evaluation of general physical fitness, 3 on
facilities. The SAl will provide the following facilities evaluation of specific physical fitness and 2
for the running of the Center: measurements to reflect physical development. All
a. The trainees are provided facilities, i.e. tests and measurements are to be evaluated in 3
boarding/lodging, education, sports kit, etc as points systems. In this way along with the marks
per laid down norms. in physical development of a child, we are able to
b. Furniture for hostel and catering equipment compare his/her general and specific fitness in the
c. Coaches proportion of 70 and 30 percent respectively.
d. Sports equipment Specific tests are given separately for each event.
e. Maintenance of play fields All general tests and measurements should be made
for all events according to the same program.
f. Administrative and catering staff
Scoring: While framing this battery of tests the
g. Electricity, water and other obligatory charges.
emphasis was given on general physical fitness of
Monitoring of Trainees the children. Maximum number of points which
can be scored during the selection is Physical
The performance of the trainees is thoroughly development (height and weight) = 6, general
scrutinized at the Regional level and the trainees who physical fitness (seven motor ability tests) = 21 and
have not performed satisfactorily during the last two specific skill tests = 9. The number of points is
years are weeded out on the recommendations of enough to be selected on regional level is 13 + 5
the Regional Head who chair the Monitoring (specific) = 18. Scoring the specified number of
Committee. The process is carried out once in a year points in physical development and physical fitness
before start of the next academic session. Immediately is compulsor y. No one scoring less can be
after the annual examination in case of student trainees considered as prospective for the top performance
so that the weeded out trainees do not have problem even if he or she scores maximum number of point
in seeking admission in other schools The weeded in specific tests.
Test Program Medium of instruction .......................................

Any formal sports training received, if so how long.
Registration for testing: Register for registration
of participants at State level should contain the Whether playing any game/sports on his own, if
following information: so name the game/sports.
Sl. No.-ID, Card No ......................................... Height and body weight may be recorded by
Name of the participant ......................................... standard procedure followed by general medical
Name and address of the school ............................. examination and age verification to be done. After
............................................................................ these the physical fitness tests to be conducted as
............................................................................ per the program given below.
Chest No. ............................................................
Father’s name and address .................................... MONITORING OF PERFORMANCE
............................................................................
Progress/monitor growth and development,
Mother tongue .....................................................
various physical, physiological and psychological
Class studying .......................................................
profiles of the trainee is one of the very important
Table 13.5: Anthropometric and Physical fitness tests (motor ability) for selection of talent
Day Session Tests conducted Components measured

Day - 1 Forenoon Height
Weight
6 × 10 m Shuttle Run Agility
Ball Throw (Mini Booketball) Upper body strength & coordination
Vertical Jump Explosive power of lower limbs
Afternoon 30 m Run Speed ability
Balancing Test Neuromuscular coordination
Standing Broad Jump Explosive power of lower limbs
800 m Run Endurance capacity
Day - 2 Forenoon/Afternoon Skill Tests/ Specific Tests
Test manual of Sports Authority of India for methods of testing and ‘norms’.
Table 13.6: Specific skill tests of each discipline/games for selection of talent
Sl. No. Game/ discipline Test-1 Test-2 Test-3

1. Athletics 60 m sprint 300 m run Tennis ball throw
2. Badminton Badminton shuttle Tennis ball throw Standing backward jump
3. Basketball Wall pass test Dribbling test Jumping & turning in air
4. Football 30 m running with ball Kicking for accuracy Juggling with the ball
5. Gymnastics 3 m rope climbing Hip flexibility & Hanging on wall bars and
shoulder flexibility raising legs to right angle
6. Hockey Shooting into the Balance the ball on 20 m moving with ball
goal stick (rolling)
7. Swimming Evaluation of floating Efficiency of sliding Shoulder Flexibility
ability
8. Table tennis Reaction ability Accuracy in striking Speed of playing hand
9. Volleyball Accuracy of service Control on volleyball Medicine ball throw
pass
10. Wrestling Aptitude test Knee touching Bridging
Test manual of Sports Authority of India for methods of testing and ‘norms’.
aspect of improving sports performance. The Ball Ggame (Football, Hockey, etc.)
scientific tests mentioned below are being
 Peak Muscle Power of Hamstring, Quadriceps
conducted by the scientists of SAI generally twice Gastrocnemious, Gastrocsolius, Biceps, etc.
in a year. Based on the result of the scientific  Semo Agility Test to measure the agility.
monitoring tests, concerned coaches are advised  Detection of Anaerobic Threshold (heart rate)
to formulate their training schedule accordingly.  Biochemical Test for Center of Excellence
These trainees who do not improve in their sports Players/national players.
performance would be weeded out, after giving
them and their parents due advice/warning. To Volleyball, Basketball and Racquet Sports
complete the process of weeding out, three
 Arm length and leg length
important aspects of the trainee are taken in to  Peak Muscle Power of Hamstring, Quadriceps,
consideration. These are (a) performance in the Gastrocnemious, Gastrocsolius, Biceps, etc.
competition (last one year), (b) coaches  Semo Agility Test to measure the agility.
assessment report towards the improvement in  Explosive power of lower limb
performance and also (c) the scientific tests results  Detection of Anaerobic Threshold (heart rate)
of the each an individual trainee. Considering  Biochemical Test for Center of Excellence
above three factors, athletes are retain or weeded Players/national and advance players.
out except any disciplinary ground against the
players which is generally suggested by the In- Aquatic Sports
charge of the respective center for weeding out.  Arm Length/Span
Weeding out are generally done every end of  Leg Length
academic year.  Shoulder Breadth
 Trunk Length
Periodical Evaluation and Assessment of Existing  Palm and Foot Length (Only for Swimmers)
Trainees of Various SAI Schemes  Peak Muscle Power of Hamstring, Quadriceps,
Gastrocnemious, Gastrocsolius, Biceps, etc.
COMMON TESTS FOR ALL THE GAMES/  Detection of Anaerobic Threshold (heart rate)
SPORTS/EVENTS  Biochemical Test for Center of Excellence
Players/national and advance players.
The following tests and measurements are being
conducted on all the boys/girls for all the game/ Combat Sports
sports apart form their specific fitness tests.  Shoulder Breadth
 Height  Arm length (for Boxing)
 Weight, LBM, Fat mass  Peak Muscle Power of Hamstring, Quadriceps,
Gastrocnemious, Gastrocsolius, Biceps, etc.
 Relative Back strength
 Detection of Anaerobic Threshold (heart rate)
 Hand Grip Strength  Biochemical Test for Centre of Excellence
 Trunk Flexibility Test Players/national and advance players
 Multi stage Physical Fitness Test/Direct
Measurement of VO2 max with Telemetric Archery
System in the field or in the tab.  Arm Span, Arm Length, Shoulder Breadth
 Measurement of Hemoglobin percent  Hamstring – Quadriceps Ratio
 Tests for speed ability and explosive power  Muscle endurance of Upper Limb/upper body
 Specific sports skill tests
Athletics Middle and Long Distance Running
Game/sports/event related specific anthropometric
 Detection of Anaerobic Threshold (heart rate)
and physiological test
 Peak power of Leg Muscle
 Biochemical Test for Center of Excellence lactate concentrations by taking blood samples. As
Players/national and advance players. well as taking muscle biopsies/other objective
measures in an effort to determine the type of sport
Sprinting and Jumping an individual is most likely to be successful in by
 Leg Length, Sitting Height assessing the muscle fiber distribution and other
 Peak Muscle Power of Hamstring, Quadriceps, physiological qualities in a particular athlete.
Gastrocnemious, Gastrocsolius Assessing muscle strength by dynamometer can also
 Anaerobic Power aid in the evaluation of physiological factors that
 Biochemical Test for Center of Excellence influence sporting performance. So, together with
Players/national and advance players. anthropometric variables and physiological profiles
assessment is very important and useful at the time
Throwing of selection of talent and as well as the selection of
events.
 Arm Length
 Trunk Length
 Leg length
STEPS FOR TALENT IDENTIFICATION
 Anaerobic Power Step - I: The Preliminary Selection Phase
 Peak Muscle Power of Hamstring, Quadriceps, The following major tasks apply to the preliminary
Gastrocnemious, Gastrocsolius, Biceps, etc. selection phase:
 Biochemical Test for Center of Excellence i. Pedagogical observations to evaluate interest
Players/national and advance players. in sport and the level of movement activity
of the youngster.
MODEL OF TALENT IDENTIFICATION AND ii. A preliminary selection into potential event
groups (speed and explosive power events,
MONITORING endurance events), based on observations
and an evaluation of general and specific
Role of Sports Science
physical performance capacities.
Role of Physiology and Anthr opometr y in
Anthropometr Young potential athletes are now divided into
Talent Identification general and sport specific training groups. The
Weight, height, various proportion of body and general group is made up from youngsters with
length of limbs can greatly influence sporting insufficient physical performance capacities. They
performance in certain sports. Therefore, during continue to train with emphasis on general physical
early phase of talent identification taking development. Athletes selected to the other group
anthropometric measures such as height, weight, follow a more intensive general training program
limb lengths, skinfolds and examining hip and that includes some sport specific elements. Their
main training means are made up from movement
shoulder widths and then comparing these widths
games, relays, gymnastics exercises, running and
can aid in talent identification. At later ages hand
jumping.
plates and X-ray techniques can be used to
The testing procedures in the preliminary
determine whether growth is proportionate and
selection phase are based on a small but complex
completed. Sports such as water sports, basketball, physical development and physical performance test
volleyball, etc. are tall group with proportionately battery that includes a medical check-up. The
long leg and arm length compared with the other following tests can be recommended:
game and also the general population.  The evaluation of physical development includes
Physiological factors that influence sporting height, weight, chest circumference, vital
performance can be assessed by administering tests capacity, dynamometric hand strength, arm
such as measurement of maximum oxygen uptake length and foot length.
(VO2 max), which correlates highly with endurance  The evaluation of physical performance includes
type performance in athletes, determining blood 30 m sprint (flying start), 10 sec. maximal speed
running on the spot, 6 × l0 m shuttle run or anthropometric measurements and physical

semo-agility test (for team game), 800 m run/ capacity evaluation tables allow one to assess with
multistage physical fitness test, standing long some accuracy the potential suitability of
jump, vertical jump, medicine ball (1 kg) throw youngsters for a certain group of events.
with two hands from a sitting position, pull- The table below represents that genetical
ups, push-ups and trunk flexibility. qualities and some component which can be
A planned choice from the above listed simple influenced/alter through systematic training
tests makes it possible to evaluate speed, explosive program. This improvement also depends on the
strength, flexibility, endurance, and strength ages of the person, i.e. the training start at early
endurance potential of children in the 8 to 12 yrs. age components could be improved up to
age range. This, in turn, allows one to make some maximum as mentioned above, but training start
predictions about their physical capacities potential, at later age the target can not be achieved.
because most of the chosen indicators have stable However, the hereditary traits are not influenced
inherited characteristics and are hardly influenced by the training as these are genetically determined.
by environmental changes (training). Studies have
clearly indicated that the majority of children with Steps – II: The Basic Selection Phase
good physical performance indicators maintain this The main aim of the basic selection phase is a
advantage when they grow older. Changes in the precise control and evaluation of the development
genetic structure are extremely limited and it of the young athletes who have passed the
appears likely that heredity does not only decide requirements of the preliminary selection, taking
the potential level of physical capacities but also into consideration event specific demands.
their trainability. Their potential talent for a particular event is
Studies have also shown that the same training determined by event specific capacities and the
processes/ produce different rates of improvement development rate during the preceding
in the development of physical capacities in preparations. Physiological and medical controls
different young athletes. The rate of improvement are now increased and the psychological evaluation
is frequently considerably faster than the predicted pays particular attention to such aspects as
values for a certain age range. It is consequently activeness, independence and the mental capacity
important to understand that prediction of to perform under competitive stresses. Laboratory
potential capacities depend, besides the initial level, evaluations, when available, provide additional
also on the rate of improvement. The initial level information on the functioning of the nervous
among younger children is considerably less than system, sensory motor reactions, sensory motor
the rate of improvement. coordination, etc. It is important to stress here that
It is not advisable to evaluate the potential of studies have clearly shown the importance to base
young athletes only according to the results of the the directional selection mainly on the rate of
various tests. The principle of many-sided physical improvement. A second evaluation should
preparation must be stressed during the whole therefore take place about a year after the first to
preliminary selection phase. Nevertheless, ideal calculate the improvement rate of all capacities and
Table 13.7: Genetical traits and some trainable qualities of the sports person
Genetical/Hereditary Traits Trainable Quality

Body Height/ Stature Explosive power
Speed Ability Strength Ability
Endurance Ability Endurance Ability—maximum up to 25%
Agility Speed Ability—maximum up to 15%
Agility—maximum up to 10–15%
Flexibility—maximum up to 50%
performance indicators which are then classified Particularly important in this selection phase are
as “very poor,” “poor,” “satisfactory”, “good” and competition revealed parameters and event specific
“very good.” physical preparation indicators. These should
While the first directional selection is based on correspond to potential elite per former’s
the arithmetical mean, the second evaluation requirements at the end of the profound selection
requires at least a “good” classification that is phase when the biological development is
calculated from the arithmetical mean plus a practically completed and the functional capacities
standard deviation of ±0.5 to ±1.5 or applied norms well defined (14 to 15 years for girls, 16 to 17
(percentile ranking). This procedure reduces years for boys). The profound selection phase is
considerably the number of candidates. regarded to be reliable in the determination of
It is impor tant here to avoid narrow physical capacities and functional potential for the
specialization that can have a negative influence final selection. This begins with an evaluation of
on the development of other potential physical single indicators for a particular event and is
capacities. The best solution appears to be a followed by a complex evaluation of morphological
balanced event specific and compulsory all-round prerequisites, physical/physiological performance
physical development program. This approach in capacities, functional systems and psychological
the basic selection phase assures that youngsters, assessments.
who have not displayed their capacity for one or Finally, it is important to stress the fact that the
another group of events in the earlier part (9 to 11 development of truly talented youngsters is
years) of the selection, will be directed to their revealed during training processes, in which the
potential event in the second stage (13 to 14 years). rate of improvement plays a decisive part in the
Their many sided physical development has at the selection procedures and the correlation between
same time not suffered from narrow specialization. the biological age and test results must be correctly
The employment of the above described interpreted. The differences between the actual and
preliminary and basic selection phases have the the biological ages can in extreme situations exceed
following advantages: three to four years and even more.
 The method provides a reasonably reliable
information system to find children with SUMMARY
potential physical capacities and aptitudes for i. Talent identification refers to the process of
sport. recognizing current participants with the
 An evaluation of physical and anthropometric
potential to become elite players. It entails
capacities over several years makes it possible to predicting performance over various periods
follow individual developmental progress and of time by measuring physical, physiological,
to discover aptitudes towards certain event psychological and sociological attributes as
groups or events. well as technical abilities either alone or in
 The method creates from mass evaluations a data combination. Talent has several properties that
bank for future changes and corrections of are genetically transmitted and, therefore,
training procedures, thus providing for a more innate. Talent selection involves the ongoing
rational and reliable selection system. process of identifying players at various stages
that demonstrates prerequisite levels of
Steps – III: The Profound Selection Phase performance for inclusion in a given squad or
The third phase of the selection procedures covers team. Selection involves choosing the most
several years and is based on the evaluation of appropriate individual or group of individuals
capacities that emerge from practical sporting to carry-out the task within a specific context.
participation, as well as pedagogical observations, ii. Selection of talent in sports is of two types—
control tests and physiological and psychological Natural selection and Scientific selection. While
studies. talent identification through competition has,
in reality, been operating ever since organized level of sporting performance even though
competitive sport began. It has only been other measures used in talent identification
relatively recently that systematic talent suggest he can.
identification has become a part of sport around v. The most effective contribution from sports
the world. In contrast some authors reported science to talent identification is likely to be
that the talent identification as having limitations multidisciplinary. Identifying talent for games
due to the fact that large numbers of young at an early age are not likely to be mechanistic
athletes needs to be tested in order to produce or unidisciplinary. Successful identification
results. Likewise some other experts argue that needs to be followed by selection onto a
an expert coach’s eye is still quite often the initial formal program for developing playing abilities
stage of talent identification and subsequent and nurturing the individual towards realizing
testing is merely reinforcing the talent potential the potential already predicted. Eventual
of an already identified athlete. success is ultimately dependent upon a myriad
iii. Weight, height and length of limbs can greatly of circumstantial factors, including
influence sporting performance in certain opportunities to practice, staying free of injury,
sports. Therefore, during early phase of talent the type of monitoring and coaching available
identification taking anthropometric measures during the developmental years. Personal,
such as height, weight, limb lengths, skinfolds social and cultural factors also influence
and examining hip and shoulder widths, etc. ultimate performance.
and then comparing these widths can aid in vi. It is well known that while genetic
talent identification. Physiological factors that predisposition are of importance for a
influence sporting performance can be successful sports carrier, nevertheless studies
assessed by administering tests such as carried out in many countries have proved that
measurement of maximum oxygen uptake while there are many successful athletes whose
(VO 2 max), which correlates highly with parents were good in sports, there were also
endurance type performance in athletes, many parents who had never competed in any
determining blood lactate concentrations by sports in their life. In a country like India with
taking blood samples from the ear lobe and varied climatic conditions, different food
figure tip. As well as taking muscle biopsies in habits, wide gaps exist in socioeconomic levels.
an effort to determine the type of sport an Therefore, identification of talented boys and
individual is most likely to be successful in by girls in younger age group assumes more
assessing the muscle fiber distribution in a significance to prepare elite sports persons.
particular athlete. The systematic way of talent scouting in India
iv. Heredity is another important factor that was undertaken by Sports Authority of India
should be considered in talent identification. sometimes in middle of 1980’s.
Children tend to inherit physiological and vii. Sports Authority of India has started the
psychological characteristics from their parents. following schemes to select and nurture
Although some inherited characteristics such the talented children in sports for excellence.
as height, limb length, speed ability and The schemes are—NSTC, SPDA, ABSC, SAG
coordination are not influenced by and Sports Hostel. The performance of the
environment while others such as weight, trainees is thoroughly scrutinized at the
endurance ability and strength can be altered Regional level and the trainees who have not
through training. A particular area that heredity performed satisfactorily during the last two
could be useful in talent identification is in the years are weeded out on the recommendations
area of training limits. If an athlete has reached of the Regional Head who chair the
the limits set by his inherited physiological Monitoring Committee. The process is carried
characteristics, it would be pointless for that out once in a year before start of the next
athlete to continue to attempt to reach an elite academic session.
viii. Progress/monitor growth and development, 3. Discuss the talent identification process in
various physical, physiological, and different countries.
psychological profiles of the trainee is one of 4. What are the basic component are to be
the very important aspect of improving sports evaluated during talent identification process?
performance. The scientific tests are being What are hereditary traits?
conducted by the scientists of SAI twice in a 5. Write the dif ferent morphological,
year. Based on the result of the scientific physiological and psychological parameters
monitoring tests, concerned coaches are that are needed to be evaluated for talent
advised to formulate their training schedule identification and why?
accordingly. These trainees who do not 6. Discuss about the Talent identification in
improve in their sports performance would India. Write about Schemes of Spor ts
be weeded out, after giving them and their Authority of India.
parents due advice/warning. Weeding out are 7. What do you mean by monitoring of
generally done every end of academic year. performance? Write about Periodical Scientific
Evaluation & Assessment of Trainees of
REVIEW QUESTIONS Various SAI Schemes.
8. What is the Game/sports/event related
1. What do you mean by talent in sports? What
specific anthropometric & physiological test
is talent selection in sports? Discuss about
are to be conducted for monitoring the talent?
natural selection and scientific selection of
talents. 9. What are the basic steps of talent identification
2. What is the role of sports science in talent process? Discuss with special reference to SAI
selection process? Describe the role of adopted process.
physiology and anthropometry in talent 10. What are the aims and objectives of Special
identification. Area Games project of SAI?
CHAPTER
14
Spor ts Anthr
Sports opometr
Anthropometr y
opometry
 Introduction to Kinanthropometry  Estimation of Body Composition

 Anthropometry  Body Fat Analyzing - Comparing Methods for
 Methods of Measurements Measuring Body Fat
 Anthropometric Instruments  Hydrodensitometry Weighing (Underwater
 Landmarks Weighing)
 Anthropometric Measurement  Calipers (Anthropometry- Skinfold
 Human Physique Measurements)
 Health-Carter Somatotype Method  DEXA (Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry)
 The Anthropometric Somatotype Method  NIR (Near Infrared Interactance)
 Measurement Techniques  Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
 Calculating the Anthropometric Somatotype  Total Body Electrical Conductivity (TOBEC)
 The Heath-Carter Somatotype Rating Form  Computed Tomography (CT)
 Equations for a Decimal Anthropometric  BOD POD (Air Displacement)
Somatotype  BIA (Bioelectrical Impedance)
 Plotting the Somatotype  Ideal Body Fat Percentage
 The Three-dimensional Somatotype  Weight Loss
 Equations for Somatotype Analysis  How to Gain Weight
 Applications in Sports Science  Reversibility of Body Composition in Sportsmen
 Body Composition
INTRODUCTION TO KINANTHROPOMETRY maturation and gross function in order to help

understand growth, exercise, performance and
Kinanthropometry is a scientific specialization nutrition. It is a scientific specialization closely allied
dealing with the measurement of human in a variety to physical education, exercise physiology, Sports
of morphological perspectives, its application to Medicine, Auxology, Physical anthropology,
movement and those factors which influence gerontology and several medical disciplines. It is
movement, including components of body build, essential to examine an athlete from every possible
body measurements, proportions, composition, aspect. This is in order to win in any sport or event
shape and maturation; motor abilities and cardio- in the olympics as well as other international
respiratory capacities, physical activity including competitions. Eastimation of the kinanthro-
recreational activity as well as highly specialized pometric characteristics of these athletes provides
sports performance. It provides quantitative a valuable reference point in human structure and
interface between human structure and function. functions. Analysis of the characteristics of the
The Kinanthropometry is defined as the study of olympic athletes can help the scientists to
human size, shape, proportion, composition, understand top level performance by providing
information useful in formulating strategies for Health. The conference at Glasgow is now history
training and for the explanation to predict the in the order of development for this new science.
performance. The Jordan hill College of Education is of historical
Kinanthropometric investigations have been importance since it was the site of constitution
conducted on the Olympic athletes during the meeting of International Society for the
Olympics more than three decades. The different Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) and
characteristics examined include investigations of undertaken the following objectives:
their size and shape, using large number of variables i. To provide an international forum for the
by sports and events. The somatotype of athletes development of a scientific movement to
has been examined using the latest technology. foster basic research relating to the structural
New approach has been used for the analysis of concomitants of human movements.
proportions and body composition. The maturity ii. To foster the development of instru-
status of Olympic athletes especially in swimming mentation and technology, to quantify
and gymnastics has also been reported. Adequate structure, understand variability and interpret
consideration was given to the growth and maturity individual differences in matters of growth
status of young Olympic athletes, in order to and aging, exercise, performance and
understand the genetic variation in physical nutrition.
structure and performance of athletes. iii. To contribute the development of a body of
A relatively new and comprehensive approach knowledge with attendant philosophies and
was used for assessment of physique through research design & methods used to explain,
Kinanthropometry which evaluates the physical predict, and link empirical fact leading to new
structure of an individuals in relation to gross inference or have some practical value in the
motor performance. The term Kinanthropometry conduct of human behavior.
is derived from morphometr y, which is the iv. To sponsor, support, and encourage the
measurement of shape and form of man. It is the production and dissemination of scientific
quantitative study of size, shape, proportion, reports, topical bibliographies, review articles,
composition and maturation in relation to gross interpretive chapters, textbooks, technical
function as define by carter, in 1985. manuals, computer software and accounts in
Scope and Development the popular press and other media.
Ross, 1978 referred to kinanthropometry both as

‘an emerging scientific technology’ and as ‘an
emerging scientific discipline’. However, so far
development of kinanthropometry is concerned,
it is known that the use of term ‘kinanthropometry’
has been gaining term popularity since its use in
many international and national conferences.
Earlier an International Working group in
Kinanthropometry was founded in Brazil in 1978
as a branch of research committee of the
International Council of Sports Science and
Physical Education. The International Seminar on
Kinanthropometry was held in 1978. In the
Olympic Scientific Congress of 1984 held at
Eugene, USA and the third international
Kinanthropometry Conference was held in 1986
at Glasgow in conjunction with VIII
Commonwealth and International Conference on
Sports, Physical Education, Dance, Recreation and Fig. 14.1: Derivation and content of Kinanthropometry
Sports Anthropometry  267
v. To designate an archival procedure for concerned with the dimensions, proportions and
historical papers and documents, data shape of man’s immediate physical environments.
assembles, and library collections. Anthropometr y has kept pace with these
vi. To develop and maintain a registry of referees developments and provided suitable measurements
and make the list available for grant requests, and techniques. It is traditionally used for static
promotions and tenure, journal articles, measurements, and later on developed functional
papers in congress and symposia and other measurements also for suiting the present day
such scrutinizes which help contribute to the needs.
scientific rigor and reputation of the area. The origin of anthropometry is very ancient.
vii. To plan, organize, sponsor and participate The scientific anthropometry, however, began with
in cer tification courses, symposia, Johann Friedrich Blumenbach who laid the
conferences, congresses and other such foundation of Craniology that is the study of
gatherings. human skull. He classified the human being in
With all these background, the science of different races on the basis of skull form. Broca in
kinanthropometry has taken a strong footing at 1875 published a paper containing instructions
the international level. Even in India special regarding craniometry and craniology. He defined
scientific session on kinanthropometr y were the measurements landmarks to be used as well as
arranged in the year first (1985) and second (1986) the instruction required in taking them. This
National Conference of Indian Association of method was widely used by the scientists in
Sports Scientists and Physical Educationists. dif ferent countr y. In 1935, the American
association of physical Anthropologists formed an
ANTHROPOMETRY Advisory Committee on Anthropometric interest
Key Concept and gave a serious thought to widen the scope of
the field of anthropometry.
Anthropometry means the measurement of man,
Rudolf Martin has written a complete textbook
whether living or dead and consists primarily in
on Anthropology and succeeded in defining more
the measurement of the dimensions of the body.
than 100 measurements on the living body and so
It is the measurement of man provides scientific
many on the skeleton. In addition he gave a
methods and observations on the living man and
number of indices and also devised a few
the skeleton. It represents the typical and traditional
instruments.
tool of human biology, physical anthropology and
Since World War I, anthropometry has been
auxology. It has also taken a strong bonded
employed to provide standard sizes for different
relationship with physical education and sports
kinds of equipment in defense ser vices and
sciences.
industries. Special measurements were devised
Scope and development: The anthropometry suited to the particular need. It may be mentioned
has developed primarily in the sports fields of that Morant, Hooton, White and Hertzberg who
physical anthropologists. Physical anthropology along with a number of other anthropologists have
deals with the study of man’s biological defined not only added new dimensions to anthropometry,
behavior in time space. Physical anthropologist has but also defined measurements, improve
been mainly concerned with the study of human techniques, and devised many new instruments.
origins and human evolutions as well as the varieties The search for new avenues continued.
of mankind in different parts of the world. A new Anthropometrists worked in different laboratories
dimension has been added: namely the study of of the world on varied topics, devised new
human growth and development of various human measurements and new instruments as well as
populations. The effect of environment and improving the old ones. Simultaneously, the
nutrition on the growth and development of scientists interested to work on athletes and
human being is also sought to be assessed. The sportsmen also used anthropometry as a tool in
scientists have in recent years become increasingly
order to examine their size, shape, proportion and In Kinanthropometry investigations, most of the
composition. research investigations referred in literature deal with
In 1960, Tanner examined Olympic athletes. the living subjects – such as athletes, sportsmen,
In 1968, the Mexico Olympic athletes were also physical education and personal sedentary people.
studied by him using anthropometry as a main tool.
The use of anthropometry on the Indian athletes Planes
has also been extensively studied. The use of this Anatomical position: This is the position assumed
science in sportsmen has grown so extensively that in all anatomical descriptions. In this regard the
now it constitutes a new science called sports body should be in upright position with the head
kinanthropometry or sports anthropometry. facing forward, the arms at the sides with the palms
of the hands facing forward and the feet together.
METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS Midsagittal plane: The body (in the anatomical
position) is divided longitudinally into two equal
It is understood that the two individual never be
parts. The dimension in this regard is through the
alike in their measurable characteristics. The
median plane. Any structure which is described as
individual undergo change in varying degrees from
being medial to another is, therefore, nearer the
birth to death, in health, in disease and in physical
mid-line and any structure which is lateral to
training. Individual living under dif ferent
another is farther from the mid-lines or at the side
conditions and individuals of different ethnic of the body.
groups exhibit interesting differences in body size, Sagital plane or Anterio-posterior plane: This
shape and form. Therefore, it is essential to have plane runs parallel to the vertical dividing the body
some means of giving quantitive expressions to the into right and left portions.
variations which such traits exhibit. The Frontal or coronal plane: This plans runs at right
anthropometry can conveniently be subdivided as angle to the other two planes dividing the body in
follows: to upper and lower positions.
Somatometry: The measurement of the body in Proximal plane: The term is used when
the living and in the cadaver. describing bones of the limbs. It is that end of a
Cephalometry: It is included in somatometry; the bone which is nearest to the point of attachment
measurement of the head and face of the limbs with the body.
in the living and in the cadaver and Distal plane: The plane is also used in line with
from X-ray films. the proximal plane. It is that end of a bone which
Osteometry: The measurement of the skeleton is farthest away from the point of attachment of
and its parts. the limbs with the body.
Craniometry: Included in Osteometr y; the Anterior or ventral plane: It indicates that the
measurements of the skull. part being described is nearer the front of the body.
Fig. 14.2: Schematic representation of anthropometry

Posterior or dorsal plane: It indicates that the part 11. Spreading caliper
being described is nearer to the back of the body. 12. Skinfold caliper
Superior plane: This refers to a structure nearer to Anthr opome
Anthropome tric rrod
opometric od
od: The anthropometric kit
the head. included two straight and two curved branches.
Inferior plane: This refers to a structure further The rod is used to measure the body height and
away from the head. different proportion of the body, A-P chest breadth
Boarder: This is a ridge of bone which separates (in lieu of chest caliper), etc. The rod is graduated
two surfaces. in both centimeter and inches and the
Spine, Spinal process or Crest: This refers to a measurements are to be taken as nearest of the
sharp ridge of bone. centimeter or inches respectively.
Weighing m achine
machine
achine: The weighing machines are
ANTHROPOMETRIC INSTRUMENTS of three types—mechanical, electrical and digital.
All the three types having portable one also. The
The use of proper equipment is most essential for machine is calibrated with accuracy up to 50 gm.
various anthropometric measurements. The Machine has got both kilogram and as well as
equipments need high precision and accuracy. The pound scales. The machine should periodically
most commonly used and available equipments are calibrate using standard weight. The machine is
as follows: used to measure the body weight.
1. Anthropometric rod Stadiometer
Stadiometer: In laboratory operations, a wall
2. Weighing machine mounted parallax correcting stadiometer or ball
3. Stadiometer bearing digital wall mounted portable stadiometer
4. Sitting height table can be used. However, stadiometer with foot plate
5. Somatotype turn table is also available. The ‘Harpenden’ portable
6. Strength dynamometer (Hand grip & Back stadiometer has been designed to provide all the
Dynamometer) advantages of the wall mounted stadiometer in a
7. Goniometer portable form. It gives direct and accurate reading
8. Steel measuring tap to the nearest millimeter. Stadiometer is being used
9. Sliding caliper to measure the body height in standing posture.
10. Chest caliper
Fig. 14.3: Various planes of the human body Fig. 14.4: Digital Stadiometer.
Sitting height table

table: The ‘Harpenden’ range the bicondylar measurements, and therefore, named
provides a sitting height table having standard by some as bicondylar vernier.
type of ball-bearing mounted, counter balance Skinfold caliper
caliper: The instrument is used for
head block, giving accurate and direct reading assessment of subcutaneous fat tissue at specific
from 320 to 1090 mm. In addition it has a sites. The skin is lifted with the help of thumb and
secondary carriage, fitted with an anti-reverse index finger without holding the underlying
carriage lock, in order to compensate for upper muscle, forming a double fold. It is because of this
leg variation, and an adjustable foot rest in order reason that the instrument for taking this
to compensate for lower variations. measurement is called skinfold caliper. A double
Somatotype tur turnn table
table: This instrument can layer of the fold is firmly maintained between the
be used for taking Somatotype pictures of an thumb and the forefinger through out the course
individual. Its rounded platform is capable of of the measuring operation. The fold should be
rotating with the subjects’ load. It is fitted with a large enough to get a complete double layer, but
device which locks the turn table at each 90 degree not so large as to get so much skin and fat as may
rotation. The vertical bar on the side showing cause excessive amounts of tension beyond the
arrows will help in calculating the degree of fingertips. The fold of skin and fat is held some
magnification in the picture. Because of this the what loosely while the caliper is applied to the fold
instrument may conveniently be used for taking about 1 cm below the pinch point and the right
some photographic measurements. had is allowed to fully relax its grip on the trigger
Sliding caliper
caliper: It is a simple instrument with a so that the jaws can exert their full pressure. The
graduated flat bar having one fixed horizontal end at caliper must be applied at right angles to the fold
0 mm. The other horizontal end slides with in the at all times. The reading on the dial is taken after
graduated flat bars on the right and left sides. Its permitting full spring pressure of the instrument
horizontal bars have wider contact surfaces ensuring by a complete release of the caliper trigger. The
ease while taking measurements on subjects. The investigator should allow time for the full pressure
instrument can be used for taking small size of the caliper to take effect, but not so long that
measurements. In most cases it is used for measuring the adipose tissue becomes squeezed out of the
skinfold. Considerable practice is essential in order
to make judgment for skinfold of varying sizes and
varying degree of compressibility. The reading is
made approximately two to three seconds after
application, when the riddle slows.
Fig. 14.5: Sitting height measuring table. Fig. 14.6: Spreading caliper
Spr eading caliper

Spreading caliper: The instrument has two steel and the width should be 7 mm or less. The
curved arms with olive tips. The two arms joint tape should have a slab before the zero line helping
together at one point or axis. The scale graduated to hold the tape on the end while taking the
in centimeter. On a flat bar, is loosely fixed with measurements.
zero on one of the arms, passing through a socket
in the other. LANDMARKS
Chest caliper
caliper: This instrument has also two
curved arms with olive tips, but it is bigger in size. The accurate marking of the landmark is more
The principle of its working and construction is essential for more precise anthropometric
just the same as that of spreading caliper. measurements. However, the technique of
Goniometer
Goniometer: It is used for measurement of taking measurement by using the instrument is
angles of joint, indicating structure and extent of equally impor tant. The technique of
movement of different parts of the body. measur ement of various anthr opometric
Steel measuring tape
tape: The anthropometric steel parameters must be a standar d one and
tape ideally—the centimeter/inches marks should producing accurate results, the investigator
be well marked for ease reading the measurements, should be also well trained and skillful.
the tape should be non extensible, and made of
Fig. 14.7: Sliding caliper with vernier scale.
Fig. 14.8: Skin fold caliper (Harpenden).

Fig. 14.9: Goniometer
exactly to the plane of the visual axis that is

obtained when the individual is looking
straight ahead of him.
iv. Tragion: It is a point in the notch immediately
above the tragus of the ear.
v. Vertex: It is the highest point of the head in
the mid sagital plane, when the head is held
erectly in the Frankfurt plane.
vi. Illiocristale: It is the most lateral pointing of
the mid-axillary line on the superior border
of illiac crest.
vii. Cervicale: It is the most projecting point on
the spinal process of 7th thoracic vertebrae.
The point can be located while bending the
Fig. 14.10: Steal measuring tape neck slightly when this vertebra becomes
more prominent.
Before listing the measurements made to
viii. Acromiale: The point is located on the most
determine the various dimensions are necessary to
superior and external boarder of the acromial
understand the landmarks from which such
process when the subject is standing erect
measurements are conventionally made. The
with the arms hanging down freely.
important landmarks are as follows:
ix. Radiale: The point is located on the most
i. Orbitale: It is the lowest point on the inferior
superior and lateral boarder of the head of
margin of the orbit.
radius. The point can be easily marked in the
ii. Postaurale: It is the most posterior point on dimple near the lateral side of the elbow.
the helix of the ear. x. Stylion radiale: It is the most distal point of
iii. Frankfurt horizontal (F-H) plane: The plane the styloid process of the radius. It is located
is determined by the lowest points on the in the ‘anatomical’ snuff box.
infra-orbital margins and the tragion or tragial
notch of the ear. This corresponds almost
Fig. 14.11: Landmark of various anthropometric measurement (Posterior View)
xi. Stylion ulnare: It is the most distal point on

xvi. Tibiale mediale: It is the most medial point
the styloid process of ulna.
on the superior boarder of the proximal end
xii. Metacarpal radiale: The most laterally
of tibia. The landmark can be located by
placed point on the head of second
palpating the quadriceps tendon with index
metacarpal of the stretched hand is
finger at the distal end of patella.
metacarpal radiale.
xvii. Tibiale laterale: The point corresponds to
xiii. Metacarpal ulnare: The most medially placed
the tibiale mediale above but is located on
point on the head of 5th metacarpal is
the lateral boarder of the proximal end of
metacarpal ulnare.
tibia. The tibiale mediale and laterale are
xiv. Dactylion: It is the most distally projecting
almost opposite to each other in the
point on the tip of the finger. The point
transverse plane. To locating the landmark,
dactylion on the thumb is dactylion 1 and
the depression or dimple in the knee,
that on the 5th finger, dactylion 5
bounded by a trial of pr ominence-
respectively.
epicondylar femur, anterio-lateral portion
xv. Trochanterion: It is the most superior point
of the head of tibia and the head of
on the top of greater trochanter of the femur.
fibula.
The point can be located by pressing the
xviii. Pternion: It is the most backwardly projecting
trochanter area with index and middle fingers
point on the heel of the foot when the subject
of the individual standing with weight on the
is standing normally.
other leg.
xix. Acropodian: It is the most anteriorly
projecting point on the first or second toe of
the foot whichever is bigger. The subject’s xxiii. Gluteale: It is the point situated at the
toe nail may have to be chipped for taking sacrococygeal fusion in the midsagital plane.
the measurement. The landmark can be located by placing the
xx. Metatarsal fibiale: It is the most medial point thumb at the top of the gluteal furrow and
on the distal end of the first metatarsal when palpating in a downward direction with the
the subject is standing. thumb. The finger should be spread over the
xxi. Metatarsal tibulare: It is the most lateral point lumber region of the subject and the landmark
on the distal end of 5th metatarsal when the can be located with minimal adjustment of
subject is standing errectly. clothing.
xxii. Cervicale: It is the most backwardly
projecting point on the spinal process of the ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASUREMENT
seventh cervical vertebrae. To locate this i. Body weight: The body weight is ideally taken
landmark, the subject bends his head on a standard weighing machine having the
forwards. This helps the spinous process of accuracy recorded to the nearest 50 gm.
the seventh cervical vertebra which moves The subject should stand erectly on the
away from the spinous processes of the machine and hanging both the arms freely.
usually more prominent first thoracic The individual should wear minimum cloths
vertebra. After locating the landmark, the at the time of recording the body weight.
subject assumes an erect position and the ii. Stature: The subject to stand in a definite
landmark is marked. position in order to obtain accurate
Fig. 14.12: Landmarks of various anthropometric measurements (Fnterior view)

measurements. Stature is taken as the from the horizontal, measuring the largest
maximum distance from the point vertex on diameter between two points.
the head to the ground. The vertex is the vi. Chest breadth: It measures the maximum
heighest point on the head when it is in F-H distance of the thorax at the level of the most
plane. The subject should be barefooted, lateral aspects of the forth ribs. The subject
stand erect with heels together and the arms is made to sit erect facing the investigator.
hanging naturally by the sides. The subject Locate the most lateral point of the forth ribs
is instructed to look straight ahead and take on right and left side, apply the horizontal
deep breath. The measurement is recorded bars of the anthropometer at an angle of 30
to nearest 0.1 centimeter. degrees downwards from the horizontal
iii. Sitting height: It is the vertical distance from avoiding both pectoral and latissimus dorsi
the point vertex to the sitting plane. The muscle.
subject should be instructed to sit stretched vii. Anterio-posterior chest depth: It is the anterio-
upwards with the arms downwards and hands posterior diameter of the chest at the level of
on the thighs and also the lower legs hanging point mesostrenale. The subject sits on a stool
downwards at an angle of 90 degree. The or table and the measurement taken from the
height of the sitting table should be such that right side of the body. The measurements can
the subject’s feet are above the ground. Hold be obtain by using the anthropometer with
the position of head in F-H plane, and asked curved branches or the chest caliper. The
the subject to stretch up and sit straight and anthropometer rests on forearms of the
as tall as possible, and bring down the moving investigators. The olive tip of the instrument
arm of anthropometer on the top of head, is kept on the point mesosternale and
crushing the hair and making firm contact posteriorly on the spinal process of vertebra
with the vertex. in the axis of the point mesosternale.
iv. Bi-acromial breadth: It is the distance between viii. Trunk length: Subtract the value of symphyseal
the two acromion points when the subjects height from suprasternal height.
stand erect with the arms hanging down ix. Upper arm length: It measures the vertical
freely on the sides. The subject erect position distance from the landmark acromion to
and the anthropometric compasses is used radiale or subtract the value of height radiale
for measuring biacromial diameter. Apply the from height acromion.
fixed end of the horizontal bar of x. Fore arm length: It measures the vertical
anthropometer on the left acromion from the distance from the landmark radiale to stylion
back side of the subject. Bring the other radiale; or subtract the value of height stylion
horizontal bar on the right acromion in such radiale from that of height radiale.
a way that both bars and branches of caliper xi. Total arm length: Subtract the value of height
face upwards at an angle of 45 degrees from stylion radiale from height acromion.
horizontal, measuring the largest diameter, xii. Upper leg length: Subtract the value of height
putting firm pressure on both the landmarks. tibiale from that of height symphysion.
v. Bi-iliocristal breadth: It is the maximum xiii. Lower leg length: It measures the straight
distance between the two iliocristal points.
distance from the landmark tibiale mediale
The subject stands erect and the measure- to sphyrion.
ment is taken from front. The landmarks on
xiv. Total leg length: Subtract the value of height
either side are located by using index or
sphyrion from that of height symphysion.
middle fingers with anthropometer in hand.
xv. Foot length: It measures the straight distance
The horizontal bars of anthropometer are
between acropodion and pternion.
applied with pressure on the superior boarder
of the illiac crest at an angle of 45 degrees xvi. Humerus bicondylar diameter: It measures the
maximum distance between the lateral and
medial epicondyles of the humerus at right juxtaposition with the zero on the stub end
angles to the long axis of the upper arm. The of the tape. The reading is obtained at the
subject sits on a chair with the upper arm end tidal of a normal expiration.
extended straight forwards and the forearm xxii. Thigh circumference: It is the perimeter of the
flexed at an angle of 90 degree to the elbow. thigh with the subject standing erect, legs
The sliding caliper is applied as in case of slightly apart with the body weight equally
above measurement. distributed on both feet. The tape is raised
xvii. Femur bicondylar diameter: It measures the to a level one to two centimeters below the
maximum distance between the lateral and gluteal line. A cross-handed technique is used
medial epicondyles of the femur. The to raise the tape to this level on the inner
individual is asked to sit on a chair with the thigh, and then the tape is read when the
knee bent at a right angle. The caliper is stub end is brought in juxtaposition to the
applied bisecting the angle of knee, with the housing end.
firm pressure on the crossbars and the xxiii. Calf circumference: It is also measured with
measurement is recorded to the nearest the subject in the same position as above.
0.5 cm. The tape is maneuvered to obtain the
xviii. Wrist diameter: It measures the width between maximum perimeter of the calf. This measure
the most medial and lateral points of the distal is obtained by manipulation of the tape taking
epiphyses of radius and ulna. The subject a series of girth measurements to assure the
while sitting extends hand towards the largest value.
investigator with palm facing downwards. xxiv. Skin folds: (a) Biceps
Biceps—The skinfold is
The measurement is taken to the nearest measured by raising a vertical fold at the
0.5 mm while keeping the caliper at right marked mid acromeale-radiale line on the
angles from the axis of the fore arm, with anterior surface of the arm. The subject
firm pressure on the crossbars of sliding stands with the arms hanging down freely.
(b) Triceps
riceps—This measurement is taken on
caliper.
the posterior surface of the arm at the level
xix. Arm circumference (relaxed) : It is the
of biceps skinfold with the subject in the
perimeter distance of the right arm parallel
same position. (c) For ear
Forear
earmm —The skinfold
to the long axis of the humerus when the
is measured vertically on the planter surface
subject stands erect and the relaxed arm
of the forearm. The subject stands with
hangs by the sides. The tape is held at the
both arms hanging down so that the palms
measured and marked mid-acromiale-radiale
face anteriorly. (d) Subscapular
Subscapular—The
distance.
skinfold is raised beneath the inferior angle
xx. Forearm circumference: It is the maximum
of the left scapula in the direction running
girth of the forearm when the hand is held
obliquely downwards at an angle of about
palm up and relaxed. The measurement is
45 degree from the horizontal. (e) CalfCalf—
taken to the nearest 0.5 mm while keeping
The skinfold is measured vertically on the
the caliper at right angles from the axis of
medial portion of the calf muscle. At the
the fore arm, with firm pressure on the
time of measurements the calf muscle
crossbars of sliding caliper. should be in relaxed position and the
xxi. Chest circumference: The subject slightly subject will stand freely with the leg is
abducts his arms to permit the investigator slightly for war ded. (f) T h i g h h—The
facing him to pass the tape around his chest; skinfold is taken on the anterior surface
the tape is held in the right hand while the mid-way between the mid-inguinal point
investigator’s left hand adjusts the tape at and the superior border of patella. The knee
the subject’s back to the horizontal level of should be flexed at 90 degree. (g)
the marked mesosternale. The cross handed Abdomen
Abdomen—The fold is taken at the level
technique is used to put the tape scale in of umbilicus about two inches to its left.
HUMAN PHYSIQUE of the mid-point. Thus each component in each

Somatotyping is a form of body classification, i.e. region was scored from a minimum of 1 to a
it is a shorthand method of describing an maximum of 7, and the somatotype of the subject
individual’s physique according to certain physical was determined from the average of each of three
characteristics. Somatotyping was originally components in the five regions combined. Each
developed by an American psychologist—William somatotype was then presented by a three digit
Sheldon in 1940s, after he studied over 4,000 combination: 711, Extreme endomorph, 171,
photographs of college age men. These Extreme Mesomorph; 117 Extreme Ectomorph
photographs have since been termed the ‘Ivy and 444, a balanced physique falling at the mid-
League posture photographs ’. Over the years point of all three scales.
other scientists and professionals have also been The general characteristics of endomorph
instr umental in fur ther developing body mesomorph and ectomorph are as follows:
classification systems (Naccarati, Kretschemer, Endomorph
 Pear-shaped body
Heath-Carter, etc.).
 Rounded head
The experience of Dr Barbara Honeyman
 Wide hips and shoulders
Heath, Roll with somatotyping provide a
 Wider front to back rather than side-to-side
background suitable for empirical modification of
 A lot of fat on the body, upper arms and thighs
constitution Laboratory Somatotype Metho-
dology. She worked on over 7000 somatotype Mesomorph
 Wedge-shaped body
photograph. From 1940 to 1960 the system of
 Cubical head
somatotyping aroused more controversies. There
 Wide broad shoulders
have been questions about Somatotype techniques,
 Muscled arms and legs
methodology and findings. Keeping all small factors
 Narrow hips
in mind, Heath (1963) suggested that the seven
 Narrow from front to back rather than side-to-
point rating scale and relationship of Somatotype
to the criterion of height/ 3 weight reported by side
 A minimum amount of fat
Sheldon.
A new and improved Somatotype method with Ectomorph
 High forehead
universal application to both sexes, for all ages and
 Receding chin
which is reproducible was innovated after requisite
 Narrow shoulders and hips
validation. This method is known as “A Modified
Somatotype Method” and is designed by Barbara
Honeyman Heath, now known as Heath-Roll, and
JE Lindsay Carter in 1967. The new method
retained the well—accepted terminology of
Somatotype, endomorphy, mesomorphy and
ectomorphy.
Extreme Somatotypes
Sheldon divided physique into three basic
categories or somatotypes, known as ‘extreme
somatotypes’ by dividing body into five areas: such
as (i) head, face and neck; (ii) thoracic trunk; (iii)
arms, shoulders, hands; (iv) abdominal trunk; (v)
legs and feet. He then secured a seven point scale
for each component in each region, by
approximating the mid point of each range and
Fig. 14.13: Diagram representing the somatochart
subdividing into three equal intervals on both sides
 Narrow chest and abdomen describe individual variations in human morphology

 Thin arms and legs and composition. The three components – 1st, 2nd
 Little muscle and fat and 3rd components which are as follows:
An extreme or true endomorphic individual is First component (endomorphy): It refers to
generally considered to be an individual who is relative fatness in individual physique. That is the
overweight, an extreme mesomorph is generally a first component ratings are evaluations of degrees
smaller, stocky person, and an extreme or true of fatness which lie on a continuum from the lowest
ectomorph is a taller, leaner individual. Obviously recorded values to the highest recorded values.
the heredity predominantly determines which Second component (mesomorphy): It refers to
somatotype you are, however, through a relative musculo-skeletal development per unit of
combination of diet and exercise, you can move height. The second component ratings are
closer to one particular somatotype as well. evaluations of musculo-skeletal development which
From Sheldon’s perspective it was not suggested lie on a continuum from lowest to highest degree
that we were one category or the other; we recorded. The second component can be thought
generally have combination of all three elements of as lean body mass relative to height.
in our bodily make-up. For example, it would be Third component (ectomorphy): It refers to
unusual to meet someone who is a pure ectomorph, relative linearity of individual physiqu. The third
with no endomorphic or mesomorphic tendencies. component ratings are based largely, but not
You may meet an Ecto-meso-endomorph entirely on height/ 3 weight ratios. This ratio and
(someone who has more ectomorph tendencies third component is closely related, so that at the
than mesomorph, and more mesomorph low ends of their distributions both connote
tendencies than endomorph). relative shortness of the several body segments and
To assist in the body classification, Sheldon the high ends connote elongation or linearity of
evaluated the degree of a somatotype component the several body segments.
which is present on a scale from one to seven, with
one corresponding to the minimum and seven to Classification of Somatotypes
the maximum tendency to have that component. Somatotype if studied in large population, a variety
Using a score of one to seven we can grade our bodies of somatotypes with varying strengths of different
on each of the extreme body types. For example, 2- components will be observed. These somatotypes
6-3 indicates lowest endomorphy-high mesomorphy- can be classified in the following generalized
low ectomorphy. category:
a. Balanced endomorphy: The first component
HEATH-CARTER SOMATOTYPE METHOD is dominant and the second and third
components are equal (or do not differ by
A new improved somatotype method with universal
more than one-half unit), example: 5-3-3,
application to both sexes, for all ages and which is
6-2-2, etc.
reproducible was innovated after requisite, validation.
b. Mesomorphic endomorph: Endomorphy is
This method is known as modified somatotype
dominant and the second component is
method and is designed by Barbara Honeyman Heath
greater than the third. Example: 5-4-2, 6-3-
and JE Lindsey Carter in 1967. The new method
1, etc.
retained the well-accepted terminology—somatotype,
c. Mesomorph-endomorph: The first and second
endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy. Basically
components are equal (or do not differ by
a somatotype is a description of the present more than one-half unit) and the third
morphological confirmation of an individul. It is component is smaller: Example: 5-5-2, 4-4-
expressed in a three numeral rating, consisting of three 2, etc.
sequential numerals, always recorded in the same d. Endomorphic mesomorph: The second
order. Each numeral represents evaluation of one of component is dominant and the first
the three primary components of physique which component is greater than the third
component. Example: 3-6-1, 3-4-2, etc.
Fig. 14.14: Somatotype categories labeled according to carter and heath (1990). Somatoplots falling within the
same area are grouped by category
e. Balanced mesomorph: The second k. Endomorph ectomorph: The first and third
component is dominant and the first and components are equal and the second
third components are less and equal. component is lower. Example: 5-1-5, 4-2-4,
Example: 2-5-2, 3-6-3, etc. etc.
f. Ectomorphic mesomorph: The second l. Ectomorphic endomorph: The first
component is dominant and the third component is dominant and the third
component is greater than the first component is greater than the second
component. Example: 2-5-3, 2-6-4, etc. component. Example: 6-2-3, 5-1-4, etc.
g. Mesomorph ectomorph: The second and third m. Central: No components differ by more than
components are equal and the first component one unit from the other two, and consist of
is lower. Example: 2-4-4, 1-5-5, etc. ratings of 2, 3 or 4, 3-3-3, etc.
h. Mesomorphic ectomorph: The third
component is dominant and the second THE ANTHROPOMETRIC SOMATOTYPE
component is greater than the first METHOD
component. Example: 1-3-6, 2-4-5, etc.
i. Balanced ectomorph: The third component Measurement Techniques
is dominant and the first and second Ten anthropometric dimensions are needed to
components are equal and lower. Example: calculate the anthropometric somatotype: stature,
2-2-6, 3-3-5, etc. body mass, four skinfolds (triceps, subscapular,
j. Endomorphic ectomorph: The third supraspinale, medial calf), two bone breadths
component is dominant and the first (biepicondylar of humerus and femur), and two
component is greater than the second limb girths (arm flexed and tensed, calf). The
component. Example: 3-2-6, 3-1-5, etc. following descriptions are adapted from Carter and
Heath (1990). Further details are given in Ross The Heath-Carter Somatotype Rating Form
and Marfell- Jones (1991), Carter (1996), Ross, 1. Record pertinent identification data in top
Carr and Carter (1999), Duquet and Carter (2001) section of rating form.
and the ISAK Manual (2001). Endomorphy rating (steps 2–5)
i. Stature (height). 2. Record the measurements for each of the four
ii. Body mass (weight). skinfolds.
iii. Skinfolds:
3. Sum the triceps, subscapular, and supraspinale
 Triceps skinfold.
skinfolds; record the sum in the box opposite
 Subscapular skinfold.
sum of three skin folds. Correct for height
 Supraspinale skinfold.
by multiplying this sum by (170.18/height
 Medial calf skinfold.
in cm).
iv. Biepicondylar breadth of the humerus. 4. Circle the closest value in the sum of three
v. Biepicondylar breadth of the femur.
skin folds table to the right. The table is read
vi. Upper arm girth. vertically from low to high in columns and
vii. Calf girth. horizontally from left to right in rows.
Read stature and girths to the nearest mm,
“Lower limit” and “upper limit” on the rows
biepicondylar diameters to the nearest 0.5 mm, provide exact boundaries for each column.
and skinfolds to the nearest 0.1 mm (Harpenden These values are circled only when sum of
caliper) or 0.5 mm on other calipers. Traditionally,
three skin folds are within 1 mm of the limit.
for the anthropometric somatotype, the larger of In most cases circle the value in the row
the right and left breadths and girths have been “midpoint”.
used. When possible this should be done for
5. In the row for endomorphy circle the value
individual assessment. However, in large surveys directly under the column for the value
it is recommended that all measures (including
circled in number (4) above.
skinfolds) be taken on the right side of the body. Mesomorphy rating (steps 6–10)
The investigators should mark the sites and repeat 6. Record height and breadths of humerus and
the complete sequence a second time. For further
femur in the appropriate boxes. Make the
calculations, the duplicated measurements should corrections for skinfolds before recording
be averaged. For more reliable values, relatively girths of biceps and calf. (Skinfold correction:
inexperienced measurers should take triplicate
Convert triceps skinfold to cm by dividing
measurements and use the median value. by 10. Subtract converted triceps skinfold
from the biceps girth. Convert calf skinfold
Calculating the Anthropometric Somatotype
to cm, subtract from calf girth.)
There are two ways to calculate the anthropometric 7. In the height row directly to the right of the
somatotype. recorded value, circle the height value nearest
A. Enter the data onto a somatotype rating to the measured height of the subject. (Note:
form. Regard the height row as a continuous scale.)
B. Enter the data into equations derived from 8. For each bone breadth and girth circle the
the rating form. number nearest to the measured value in the
The use of the rating form will be described appropriate row. (Note: Circle the lower
first. Figures 14.14 and 14.15 are examples of value if the measurement falls midway
calculations using the rating form. It is assumed between two values. This conser vative
that the measurements have been recorded on an procedure is used because the largest girths
appropriate Somatotype Instruction Manual 5 and breadths are recorded.)
recording form and average or median values 9. Deal only with columns, not numerical values
calculated before transfer to the rating form. A for the two procedures below. Find the
blank rating form is provided in Figure 14.16. average deviation of the circled values for
breadths and girths from the circled value in relative to height (i.e. higher mesomorphy) than a
the height column as follows: subject whose values lie to the left of the height
a. Column deviations to the right of the column. The average deviation of the circled values
height column are positive deviations. for breadths and girths is the best index of average
Deviations to the left are negative musculo-skeletal development relative to height.
deviations. (Circled values directly under (ii) The table is constructed so that the subject is
the height column have deviations of zero rated 4 in mesomorphy when the average deviation
and are ignored.) falls in the column under the subject’s height, or
b. Calculate the algebraic sum of the ± when the four circled values fall in the subject’s
deviations (D). Use this formula: height column. That is, the average deviation (±)
mesomorphy = (D/8) + 4.0. Round the to the left or right of the height column is added
obtained value of mesomorphy to the to or subtracted from 4.0 in mesomorphy.
nearest one-half (½) rating unit.
10. In the row for mesomorphy circle the closest Height-Weight Ratio Calculation
value for mesomorphy obtained in number
The height-weight ratio (HWR), or height divided
9 above. (If the point is exactly midway
by the cube root of weight (stature/mass1/3) as it
between two rating points, circle the value
is used in somatotyping, may be determined by using
closest to 4 in the row. This conservative
a hand calculator. A calculator with a y to the x power
regression toward 4 guards against
(yx) key is needed. To get the cube root, enter mass,
spuriously extreme ratings.)
i.e. base (y), press yx, enter.3333, and press ‘equals’.
Ectomorphy rating (steps 11–14).
If there is an INV yx function, this may be used
11. Record weight (kg).
instead by entering 3 (for the cube root).
12. Obtain height divided by cube root of
weight i.e. Hight-weight Ratio (HWR). Limitations of the Rating Form
Record HWR in the appropriate box.
13. Circle the closest value in the HWR table to Although the rating form provides a simple method
the right. (See number 4 above.) of calculating the anthropometric somatotype,
14. In the row for ectomorphy circle the especially in the field, it has some limitations. First,
ectomorphy value directly below the circled the mesomorphy table at the low and high ends
HWR. does not include some values for small subjects,
15. Move to the bottom section of the rating e.g. children, or for large subjects, e.g. heavy
form. In the row for Anthropometric weightlifters. The mesomorphy table can be
Somatotype, record the circled ratings for extrapolated at the lower and upper ends for these
Endomorphy, Mesomorphy and Ecto- subjects. Second, some rounding errors may occur
morphy. in calculating the mesomorphy rating, because the
16. Sign your name to the right of the recorded subject’s height often is not the same as the column
rating. height. If the anthropometric somatotype is
The identification data in the upper section of regarded as an estimate this second limitation is
the rating form are somewhat arbitrary. Investigators not a serious problem. Nevertheless, the following
may change these to suit their purposes. procedures described by Carter (1980) and Carter
and Heath (1990) can correct these problems.
Principles of the calculations:
Two principles are important in understanding the
EQUATIONS FOR A DECIMAL
ANTHROPOMETRIC SOMATOTYPE
calculation of mesomorphy on the rating form. (i)
When the measurements of bone breadths and limb The second method of obtaining the
girths lie to the right of the circled height column, anthropometric somatotype is by means of
the subject has greater musculo-skeletal robustness equations into which the data are entered.
endomorphy = – 0.7182 + 0.1451 (X) – 0.00068 2-2 or a 7-8-7 are impossible somatotypes.
(X 2) + 0.0000014 (X 3) Generally, somatotypes high in endomorphy and/
where X = (sum of triceps, subscapular and or mesomorphy cannot also be high in ectomorphy.
supraspinale skinfolds) multiplied by (170.18/ Conversely, those high in ectomorphy cannot be
height in cm). This is called height-corrected high in endomorphy and/or mesomorphy; and
endomorphy and is the preferred method for those low in endomorphy and mesomorphy must
calculating endomorphy. be high in ectomorphy. Next, look at the pattern
The equation to calculate mesomorphy is: of circled values in the endomorphy and
mesomorphy = 0.858 × humerus breadth + 0.601 mesomorphy sections of the rating form. Are there
x femur breadth + 0.188 × corrected arm girth inconsistencies in the data? For endomorphy, are
+ 0.161 × corrected calf girth – height 0.131 + the skinfold values reasonable? For mesomorphy,
4.5. is there one measure (excluding height) that is quite
Three different equations are used to calculate far apart from the others? In Figure 14.15, upper
ectomorphy according to the height-weight limb circled values are slightly to the right of, and
ratio: larger relative to height, than the lower limb
If HWR is greater than or equal to 40.75 then measures. However, this pattern is not unusual and
ectomorphy = 0.732 HWR – 28.58 is quite acceptable in this case. On the other hand,
If HWR is less than 40.75 but greater than 38.25 if the femur width was 7.95 cm instead of 9.75
then cm, or corrected calf girth was 44.9 cm instead of
ectomorphy = 0.463 HWR – 17.63 37.1 cm; such large deviations would suggest
If HWR is equal to or less than 38.25 then errors. Check for errors in recording and re-
ectomorphy = 0.1 measure the subject if possible. Also, check to see
For subjects A and B-respectively (Figures 14, that the correct skinfolds in cm have been
15, 14, 16), the resulting somatotypes (using subtracted for the corrected girth values. In Figure
height corrected endomorphy) are 1.5-5.5-3.0, 14.16, the small corrected biceps girth (23.4 cm)
and 3.0-2.0-5.0. The preceding equations, derived looks suspiciously low, but in this subject it truly
from data used by Heath and Carter (1967), use represented her his small muscular development
metric units. The equation for endomorphy is a in the upper limb.
third degree polynomial. The equations for If the calculation for any component is zero or
mesomorphy and ectomorphy are linear (When the negative, a value of 0.1 is assigned as the
HWR is below 40.75 a different equation is used component rating, because by definition ratings
for ectomorphy.). If the equation calculation for cannot be zero or negative. The photoscopic rating
any component is zero or negative, a value of 0.1 would be one-half (½). If such low values occur
is assigned as the component rating, because by the raw data should be checked. Values less than
definition ratings cannot be zero or negative. 1.0 are highly unlikely to occur for endomorphy
and mesomorphy, but are not unusual for
Checking the results ectomorphy. Component ratings should be
Now that the anthropometric somatotype has been rounded to nearest 0.1 of a unit, or nearest half-
calculated, is the result is logical? There are several unit depending on their subsequent use. After the
ways to check the results for measurement or values are entered into the equations (either by
calculation errors. Using the rating form examples calculator or computer program) rather than onto
in above Figures the resulting somatotypes the rating form, it is impossible to check the pattern
rounded to the nearest half-unit, are 1½-5½-3 and of values in either the endomorphy or mesomorphy
3-2-5 for subjects A and B-respectively. Are these section as in the rating form, although the raw
reasonable somatotypes? Certain somatotype values can be examined for errors. This is a
ratings are not biologically possible, although our limitation of using the equations. Further checking
examples are not among them. For example, a 2- can be done for either method by using the HWR
and by plotting the somatotype.
Fig. 14.15: Calculations of the anthropometric somatotype using the rating form
Sports Anthropometry

283
Fig. 14.16: Calculations of the anthropometric somatotype using the rating form
Fig. 14.17: Blank Somatotype Rating Form
Sports Anthropometry

285
Fig. 14.18: The 2-D somatochart and X,Y coordinates.
There is a relationship between the HWR and For subject B-HWR = 45.6, his 3-2-5 somatotype
the likely somatotypes (Fig. 14.20). The appears in the row above that for his HWR. His
somatotypes in the rows are those most likely to
ectomorphy is borderline between 4½ and 5, which
occur for the given HWR. For example, given a
suggests that he might be a 3-2-4.5, i.e. half way
HWR of approximately 49.6, the most likely
between the two rows. The somatotypes for both
somatotypes are 1-1-8, 1-2-9 or 2-1-9. (The
subjects appear to be reasonable.
hyphens are left out of the somatotypes to conserve
space.) The next most likely somatotypes are those Plotting the Somatotype
in the rows directly above and below the row for
Traditionally, the three-number somatotype rating
49.6. If none of these somatotypes match or are
is plotted on a two-dimensional somatochart using
not close when interpolating for half-unit ratings,
X,Y coordinates derived from the rating. The
there may be errors in the data or calculations.
coordinates are calculated as follows:
However, other factors such as heavy meals or
X = ectomorphy – endomorphy
dehydration can affect body weight sufficiently to
Y = 2 × mesomorphy – (endomorphy +
alter the “normal” HWR. For subject A, HWR =
ectomorphy)
43.4, and Figure 14.20 shows that in the row for
For subject A, X = 1.5, and Y = 6.5. For subject
a HWR of 43.64 the somatotypes 1-6-3 and 2-5-
B-X = 2.0 and Y = – 4.0. These points on the
3 occur. His 1.5 - 5.5 -3 is a combination of these
somatochart are called somatoplots. If the
two ratings, therefore, his anthropometric rating
somatoplot for the subject is far from that expected
agrees with that expected from the HWR table.
Fig. 14.19: Blank somatochart
when compared to a suitable reference group, coordinate axes are component units with the
check the data and calculations. Because Figure hypothetical somatotype 0-0-0 at the origin of
14.17 is quite crowded with numbers, the final the three axes.
somatoplots could be projected onto a somatochart Somatotype attitudinal distance (SAD). The
without the numbers. Figures 14.18a,b are two distance in three dimensions between any two
blank somatocharts, one with printed somatotypes somatopoints. Calculated in component units.
and one without. These may be copied for use. Somatotype attitudinal means (SAM). The
average of the SADs of each somatopoint from the
The Three-dimensional Somatotype
mean somatopoint (S) of a sample. The SAD
As somatotype is a three-number expression represents the “true” distance between two
meaningful analyses can be conducted only with somato-points (A and B). The SAD is calculated
special techniques. Somatotype data can be as follows:
analyzed by both traditional and non-traditional SADA,B = v [(endomorphyA - endomorphyB)2 +
descriptive and comparative statistical methods (mesomorphyA - mesomorphyB)2 + (ectomorphyA -
although descriptive statistics are used for each of ectomorphyB)2]
the components, comparative statistics should be Where A and B are two individuals, two
made in the first instance using the whole (or different times for one individual, or two means.
global) somatotype rating. This is followed by The SAM is calculated by dividing the sum of
analysis of separate components. Here are some the SADs from their mean somatopoint by the
useful definitions: number of subjects.
Somatopoint (S). A point in three-dimensional
space determined from the somatotype which is Equations for Somatotype Analysis
represented by a triad of x, y and z coordinates The following equations are used in calculation
for the three components. The scales on the and analysis of somatotype data. Items 1 and 2 are
Table 14.1: Dominant somatotype rating and respective sports/ events
Somatotype Examples of suggested suitable sports

Predominantly Endomorph i. Darts
ii. Sumo wrestling, Shot put thrower etc.
Predominantly Mesomorph iii. Power lifting, Weight lifting, Wrestling, Boxing, etc.
iv. Canoeing, Javelin & Discuss Throw, Sprinting, etc.
v. Judo, Cycling, Gymnastics etc.
Predominantly Ectomorph vi. Marathon, Middle & long distance running, Skiing, etc.
vii. Orienteering
viii. Dancing, Rhythmic Gymnastics
for calculating and plotting the somatotype. Items Applications in Sports Science
3 to 6 are for analysis of the whole somatotype. All human being including athletes are made up of
Item 7 suggests methods for comparisons by the three extreme body types so we are all part of
components.
endomorph, part mesomorph and part ectomorph.
1. The anthropometric somatotype. By classifying our own body physiques using
Endomorphy = – 0.7182 + 0.1451 (X) – 0.00068 somatotyping, we can compare our body type with
(X2) + 0.0000014 (X3) that of other athletes. Graphs and tables have been
Mesomorphy = (0.858 HB + 0.601 FB +0.188 developed to decide which sports suit which
CAG + 0.161 CCG) – (0.131 H) + 4.5 somatotypes better (as already been discussed above).
These tables and graphs can be quite helpful
Ectomorphy: for physical education teachers, coaches, trainer,
If HWR ≥ 40.75, then Ectomorphy = 0.732 HWR etc. to ascertain where on the pitch someone should
– 28.58 or could be playing, or which sport that particular
If HWR < 40.75 and > 38.25, then Ectomorphy = individual may be good at. Obviously, there will
0.463 HWR – 17.63 always be the exception to the rule, but generally,
If HWR > 38.25, then Ectomorphy = 0.1 (or certain somatotypes are more suited to certain
recorded as ½) activities than others. For example, an extreme
Where: X = (sum of triceps, subscapular and ectomorph will generally make a better long
supraspinale skinfolds) multiplied by (170.18/ distance runner than they will a prop in rugby, and
height in cm); HB = humerus breadth; FB = femur a mesomorph will generally make a better wrestler
breadth; CAG = corrected arm girth; CCG = than they will a ballet dancer. Obviously, the
corrected calf girth; H = height; HWR = height/ somatotype is not the only factor determining how
cube root of weight. CAG and CCG are the girths good the player is at a particular sport; each sport
corrected for the triceps or calf skinfolds required specific skills, such as good hand-eye co-
respectively as follows: CAG = flexed arm girth – ordination, awareness, concentration, timing,
triceps skinfold/10; CCG = maximal calf girth – speed, endurance, agility etc.
calf skinfold/10. It has been seen that javelin throwers and
2. Plotting somatotypes on the 2-D somatochart. gymnasts have practically identical somatotypes,
although the javelin throwers, (179.5cm and
X-coordinate = ectomorphy - endomorphy
76.7kg) are much bigger than the gymnasts
Y-coordinate = 2 x mesomorphy - (endomorphy +
(167.4cm and 67.1kg). This shows that the use of
ectomorphy)
somatotyping on its own has limits, but used with
other data on body size and shape it may be of The proportion of these components is different in
prime impor tance in Physiological and males and females. Its relative development is
biomechanical interpretation of various sports dependent on the environmental influences, sex,
performances. socioeconomic conditions, occupation, genetics,
nutrition and exercise.
Body Size
Body size refers to the person’s height and weight. ESTIMATION OF BODY COMPOSITION
The ideal size for an athlete depends on their sport, The estimation of body composition has been
and sometimes on the position they play in their attempted using various techniques. These are cadaver
sport (consider the various body sizes in a soccer/ studies, fat cell size and number, skinfolds, body
hockey/rugby team). There are standard ideal density, anthropometric methods, roentgeno-
weight charts based on an individual’s height, grammetry, fat soluble gases, creatinine excretion,
however, these tables do not help athletes because total body water, total body potassium, total body
they do not allow for body composition, i.e. muscle nitrogen, total body carbon, nuclear resonance
is heavier than fat and therefore a person may seems scattering, ultrasound, computed tomography,
overweight when they are not. nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, radioactive
krypton, total body electrical conductivity, electrical
BODY COMPOSITION impedance and infra-red interactance, etc.
For the estimation of body fat from the body density
Theoretically, the body can be divided into several
can be calculated with the help of equations dervied
compartments according to definable tissues. The
by scientists of many method. Scientists have also
two component model used commonly divides the
devised different formulae for different populations,
body to a fat portion, and further divides the fat
sexes and different age groups. The formulae used for
free mass to skeleton, muscle and the remainder.
the prediction of body fat are as follows:
The fluids, etc. can also be studied in terms of total
body water, extra-cellular water, intra-cellular water, a. Pascale et al.(1956):
total body potassium, calcium, sodium and so on. Body density = 1.088468 – 0.007123
However, the athletes have mostly been studied Midaxillary – 0.004834 × Juxtra
considering the body either as two or four Nipple – 0.005513 Triceps skinfold.
compartment model. b. Sloan (1967):
Body composition refers to the athlete’s body Body density = 1.1043 – 0.001327 Thigh –
fat. In most sports the athlete will try to keep his
0.001310 Subscapular
levels of body fat to a minimum. In general, the
c. Chinn and Allen (1960):
higher the percentage of body fat the poorer the
Body fat =[(0.00285x (Subscapular +
performance. The examination of body fat and skin
Triceps)/2 – 0.0114)1/2 – 0.061)]
folds at selected sites is most important for them.
Weight (kg) + 1.1 height3 (meters) + 0.234
It has been found that the athletes who were lean
Age (yrs) – 6.4% fat = Body fat (kg)/ Body
or less fatty but heavy because of a well developed
weight x 100
musculature were superior in performance in certain
d. Jackson and Pollock (1978):
competitive sports. On the other hand the athletes
Density (kg/m3) = 1.10938 – 0.8267 (Chest
who had substantial amount of adipose tissue have
+ Abodominal + Thigh skf) + 0.0016 (Chest
permanently increased energy demands owing to
+ Abodominal + Thigh skf)2 – 0.2574 (Age)
the inert weight of fat thus making the work more
difficult to perform in such activities where the body e. Weltman and Katch (1978):
has to be projected as in jumping movements, or Density (kg/m3) = [Body Weight/0.8719
propelled against gravity over long distances as in Weight + 0.2629 Thigh circumference –
distance running. The science of body composition 7.795] x103
is an important morpho-physiological characteristic. f. Lohman (1981):
Fig. 14.20: Distribution of somatotypes according to the HWR (height/weight1/3)

Density (kg/m3) = 1098.2 – 0.815 (Triceps Percent body fat = [(4.57/Body density) – 4.142]
+ Subscapular + Abdominal skinfold) + x100
0.0084 (Triceps + Subscapular + Suprailliac Percent body fat = [(495/Body density) – 450]
skinfold)2
g. Norgan and Ferro-Luzzi (1985): BODY FAT ANALYZING—COMPARING
Density (kg/m3) = 1145.5 – 59.69 (log sum METHODS FOR MEASURING BODY FAT
of Thorax + Triceps skf) – 0.529 (Age).
Most of the people now understand that to have a
h. Durnin and Womersley (1974):
healthier body means to have a leaner body. These
Males: people are ready for Body Composition Analysis
(17 – 19 years): Body density = 1.1620 – 0.0630 (BCA.) This text will attempt to acquaint you with
log (Biceps + Triceps + Subscapular + Suprailliac the most popular methods of BCA used in
skinfold) aboratoris, gyms, homes and professional practices.
(20 – 29 years): Body density = 1.1631 – 0.0632
Hydrodensitometry Weighing (Underwater
log (Biceps + Triceps + Subscapular + Suprailliac Weighing)
skinfold)
This method measures whole body density by
determining body volume. There is a variety of
log (Biceps + Triceps + Subscapular + Suprailliac
equipment available to do underwater weighing
skinfold)
ranging in sophistication from the standard stainless
(40 – 39 years): Body density = 1.1620 – 0.0700 steel/glass tank with a chair or cot mounted on
log (Biceps + Triceps + Subscapular + Suprailliac underwater scales, to a chair and scale suspended
skinfold) from a diving board over a pool or hot tub.
(50 years and above): Body density = 1.1715 – This technique first requires weighing a person
0.0779 log (Biceps + Triceps + Subscapular + outside the tank, then immersing them totally in
Suprailliac skinfold) water and weighing them again. The densities of
Females: bone and muscles are higher than water, and fat is
(16 – 19 years): Body density = 1.1549 – 0.0678 less dense than water. So a person with more bone
log (Biceps + Triceps + Subscapular + Suprailliac and muscle will weight more in water than a person
skinfold) with less bone and muscle, meaning they have a
(20 – 29 years): Body density = 1.599 – 0.0717 higher body density and lower percentage of body
fat. The volume of the body is calculated and the
individual’s body density is determined by using
skinfold)
standard formulas. Then body fat percentage is
calculated from body density using standard
equations (either Siri or Brozek).
skinfold)
The underlying assumption with this method is
(40 – 49 years): Body density = 1.333 – 0.0612 that densities of fat mass and fat-free mass are
log (Biceps + Triceps + Subscapular + Suprailliac constant. However, underwater weighing may not
skinfold) be the appropriate gold standard for everyone. For
(50 years and above): Body density = 1.1339 – example, athletes tend to have denser bones and
0.0645 log (Biceps + Triceps + Subscapular + muscles than non-athletes, which may lead to an
Suprailliac skinfold) underestimation of body fat percentage. While the
Body density calculated with the help of these body fat of elderly patients suffering from
formulae is converted to percent body fat by the osteoporosis may be overestimated. To date,
formula devised by Brozek et al. (1963) or Siri specific equations have not been developed to
(1956) respectively. accommodate these different population groups.
An important consideration in this method is children and specific ethnic groups. This approach
the amount of air left in a person’s lungs after usually uses underwater weighing as a reference
breathing out. This residual lung volume can be method. The caliper method is based upon the
estimated or measured, but it is established that a assumption that the thickness of the subcutaneous
direct measure is desirable and it should be taken fat (found just under the skin) reflects a constant
in the tank whenever possible. Another proportion of the total body fat (contained in the
consideration is that the water in the tank must be body cavities) and that the sites selected for
completely still; there can be no wind or movement. measurement represent the average thickness of the
Although this method has long been considered subcutaneous fat.
the laboratory “gold standard”, many people find Skinfold measurement is made by grasping the
it difficult, cumbersome, and uncomfortable, and skin and underlying tissue, shaking it to exclude
others are afraid of total submersion or cannot expel any muscle and pinching it between the jaws of
all the air in their lungs. Clinical studies often the caliper. Duplicate readings are often made at
require subjects to be measured three to five times each site to improve the accuracy and
and an average taken of the results. reproducibility of the measurements. Often to save
time in large population studies, a single skinfold
Calipers (Anthropometry- Skinfold
site measurement is also made to reduce the time
Measurements)
involved. Such a test should be used only for a
Using hand-held calipers that exert a standard rough estimate of obesity.
pressure, the skinfold thickness is measured at Generally skinfold measurements are easy to do,
various body locations (3–7 test sites are common). inexpensive and the method is portable. Overall,
Then a calculation is used to derive a body fat results can be very subjective as precision ultimately
percentage based on the sum of the measurements. depends on the skill of the technician and the site
Different prediction equations are needed for measured. The quality of the calipers is also a factor;
they should be accurately calibrated and have a
constant specified pressure. Inexpensive models
sold for home use are usually less accurate than
those used by an accredited caliper technician. The
more obese the subject, the more difficult to
Fig. 14.21: Measurements of body density by hydro-

densitometry weighing Fig. 14.22: Measurement of Skin fold by Skin fold caliper
“pinch” the skinfold correctly, requiring even more method is not as accurate in measuring the
skill to obtain an accurate measurement. extremely obese and the cost of equipment is high,
DEXA is quickly moving from the laboratory
DEXA (Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry) setting into clinical studies.
A relatively new technology that is very accurate
and precise, DEXA is based on a three- NIR (Near Infrared Interactance)
compartment model that divides the body into A fiber optic probe is connected to a digital analyzer
total body mineral, fat-free soft (lean) mass, and that indirectly measures the tissue composition (fat
fat tissue mass. This technique is based on the and water) at various sites on the body. This
assumption that bone mineral content is directly method is based on studies that show optical
proportional to the amount of photon energy densities are linearly related to subcutaneous and
absorbed by the bone being studied. total body fat. The biceps is the most often used
DEXA uses a whole body scanner that has two single site for estimating body fat using the NIR
low dose X-rays at different sources that read bone method. The NIR light penetrates the tissues and
and soft tissue mass simultaneously. The sources is reflected off the bone back to the detector. The
are mounted beneath a table with a detector NIR data is entered into a prediction equation with
overhead. The scanner passes across a person’s the person’s height, weight, frame size, and level
reclining body with data collected at 0.5 cm of activity to estimate the percent body fat.
intervals. A scan takes between 10 to 20 minutes. This method has become popular outside of
It is safe and noninvasive with little burden to the the laborator y because it is simple, fast,
individual, although a person must lie still noninvasive, and the equipment is relatively
throughout the procedure. inexpensive. However, the amount of pressure
DEXA is fast becoming the new “gold standard” applied to the fiber optic probe during
because it provides a higher degree of precision in measurement may affect the values of optical
only one measurement and has the ability to show densities, and skin color and hydration level may
exactly where fat is distributed throughout the be potential sources of error. To date, studies
body. It is very reliable and its results extremely conducted with this method have produced mixed
acceptable; in addition, the method is safe and results; a high degree of error has occurred with
presents little burden to the subject. Although this very lean and very obese people; and the validity
Fig. 14.23: Measurement of fat mass of whole body by DEXA method

of a single-site measurement at the biceps is BIA (Bioelectrical Impedance)

questionable. Numerous sources report that more The only method that is based on measuring
research is needed to substantiate the validity, something, not estimating anything, is Bio-
accuracy and applicability of this method. Impedance measurement. Bio-Impedance is a means
of measuring electrical signals as they pass through
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) the fat, lean mass, and water in the body. Through
An x-ray based method in which a magnetic field laboratory research we know the actual impedance
“excites” water and fat molecules in the body, or conductivity of various tissues in the body, and
producing a measurable signal. A person lies within we know that by measuring current between two
the magnet as a computer scans the body. High- electrodes and applying this information to complex
quality images show the amount of fat and where it proven scientific formulas accurate body
is distributed. MRI takes about 30 minutes and is composition can be determined. The fact that the
very safe as it uses no ionizing radiation, but use is measurement is based on a reading of lean mass and
limited due to the high cost of equipment and analysis. not an estimate of fat mass, lends to a much more
comprehensive testing method and results.
Total Body Electrical Conductivity (TOBEC)
This method is based on lean tissue being a better IDEAL BODY FAT PERCENTAGE
conductor of electricity than fat. A person lies in a The absolute perfect body fat percentage does not
cylinder that generates a very weak electromagnetic exist. Age and gender make a big contribution to
field. The strength of the field depends on the the ideal value. Some people might feel and
electrolytes found in the person’s body water. In perform better at a higher or lower body fat
about 10 seconds, TOBEC makes 10 conductivity percentage than others of the same age and sex.
readings that estimate lean body mass. Although The following table consist of body fat percentage
very accurate, its use is limited due to the high for the average population.
cost of the equipment. The first table gives the ideal body fat
percentage ranges for the general population. The
Computed Tomography (CT) second table is the average body fat percentage
CT produces cross-sectional scans of the body. An for different athletes. Anywhere within the range
X-ray tube sends a beam of photons toward a is good. Staying below the upper limit should be
detector. As the beam rotates around a person, data your target but as you’ll soon see lower is not
is collected, stored, and applied to complex necessarily better.
algorithms to build images that determine body
composition. CT is particularly useful in giving a WEIGHT LOSS
ratio of intra-abdominal fat to extra-abdominal fat.
Weight loss is simple, burn more calories then one
It is noninvasive, but potential is limited by
consume. If one can fully understand that then you
exposure to radiation and high equipment cost.
are on your way to weight loss. There are four
BOD POD (Air Displacement) simple steps to weight loss. These are as follows:
1. Count how many calories you eat in a normal
Based on the same principle as under water
day. Don’t change anything, just eat like your
weighing, the BOD POD uses computerized
normally do and count how many calories.
sensors to measure how much air is displaced while
Also, weigh yourself.
a person sits for 20 seconds in a capsule. It uses a
2. Starting the day after you counted calories,
calculation to determine body density, then
for example, eat 300 calories less then you
estimated body fat. The equipment is ver y
normally do. So pretend the day you counted
expensive and limited in availability.
calories you counted 2500 Cal. For the rest
Table 14.2: Body fat percentage for the average population
Age Up to 30 30-50 50+

Females 14–21% 15–23% 16–25%
Males 9–15% 11–17% 12–19%
Table 14.3: Average body fat percentage of athletes
Sport Male Female Sport Male Female

Baseball 12–15% 12–18% Rowing 6–14% 12–18%
Basketball 6–12% 20–27% Shot Putters 16–20% 20–28%
Body building 5–8% 10–15% Skiing (X country) 7–12% 16–22%
Cycling 5–15% 15–20% Sprinters 8–10% 12–20%
Football (Backs) 9–12% No data Swimming 9–12% 14–24%
Football (Linemen) 15–19% No data Tennis 12–16% 16–24%
Gymnastics 5–12% 10–16% Triathlon 5–12% 10–15%
High/long Jumpers 7–12% 10–18% Volleyball 11–14% 16–25%
Ice/field Hockey 8–15% 12–18% Weightlifters 9–16% No data
Racquetball 8–13% 15–22% Wrestlers 5–16% No data
of the week, eat 2200 Cal. Instead of eating 3 balance in the body. Strength training increase
big meals a day or eating all day all the time, muscle and fat loss. Muscles burn calories. Get at
spread those 2200 calories out over 5 small least 8 hours of sleep a night.
meals. Eat one every 2 and a half to 3 hours.
Doing this will speed the metabolism. HOW TO GAIN WEIGHT
3. Increase daily physical activity for weight loss.
Jogging, walking, swimming, etc., i.e. the To gain weight, you must consume more calories
activity should be sub-maximal level (aerobic then you burn. This is the reverse process as weight
type) and should at lest for 30 minutes a day, loss. There are four simple steps to weight gain.
5 days a week. These are as follows:
4. At the end of that week, weigh yourself. 1. Count how many calories you eat in a normal
You’ll notice a difference just after one week day. Don’t change anything, just eat like your
Anymore then ½ or 1 kilogram lost a week is normally do and count how many calories
unhealthy. So look for ½ or 1 kilogram loss you ate. Also, weigh yourself.
at the end of the week. You can lose 2 to 2. Starting the day after you counted calories,
4 kilogram a month! So if you have a lot of for example eat 300 calories more then you
weight to lose, you can lose it. If have just a normally do. So pretend the day you counted
few kilogram to lose, you can lose it! calories you counted 2500 Cal. For the rest
Avoid more fat. Get rid of the chips, candy, fast of the week, eat 2800 Cal. Instead of eating 3
food, fried, etc. Stay away from high carbohydrate big meals a day or eating all day all the time,
foods which will eventually turn into fat. Foods spread those 2800 calories out over 5 small
like bread, rice, potatoes, are high in carbohydrates. meals. Eat one every 2 and a half to 3 hours.
However, can be eaten, but don’t eat bread and 3. Decrease physical activity. At the end of that
potatoes all the time. High protein and low week, weigh yourself. Anymore then ½ or 1
carbohydrate/low fat foods like lean fish (and other kilogram gained a week is unhealthy and
seafood), chicken breast, fruits, and vegetables, etc. means you’re putting on fat, not muscle. So
are suggested. Drink water around 2 to 3 liter a look for ½ or 1 kilogram gains at the end of
day, more if you can. This will maintain fluid the week. In this way you can gain 2 or 3
kilogram a month.
Fig. 14.24: Schematic representation of weight gain and weight loss.
4. At some point, you will stop seeing weight Otherwise an athlete following a program of training
gains. At this point, you will have to eat even for a competition expected to reach his peak
more. So, when you see weight gain stops for performance at the time of pre-fixed date is likely to
at least 2 weeks, eat an extra 200 calories a day. be left behind by his competitors in other countries.
Everytime you see you haven’t gained weight
for at least 2 weeks, add an extra 200 calories. SUMMARY
Fat should be avoided as you don’t want to gain
i. The Kinanthropometry is defined as the study
fat. High protein and low fat foods like lean fish
of human size, shape, propor tion,
(and other seafood), chicken breast, lean meats,
composition, maturation and gross function
fruits and vegetables, etc are suggested. Drink water
in order to help understand growth, exercise,
around 2 liter a day, more if you can. Strength
performance and nutrition.
training increase muscle and fat loss. Muscles burn
Kinanthropometric investigations have been
calories. Get at least 8 hours of sleep a night.
conducted on the Olympic athletes during
the Olympics more than three decades. The
REVERSIBILITY OF BODY COMPOSITION different characteristics examined include
IN SPORTSMEN investigations of their size and shape, using
large number of variables by sports and
The reversibility process starts operating immediately
after the cessation of physical activity, no matter how events.
long the athlete remained under strenuous work ii. Anthropometry means the measurement of
loads. It seems the adaptations of body composition man, whether living or dead and consists
in the organism are gradually wiped out with the primarily in the measurement of the
passage of increased inactive phase of an athlete. The dimensions of the body. It is the measurement
regular physical exercise in top-athletes is so essential of man provides scientific methods and
that even in case of injury; they need quick relief observations on the living man and the
under active conditions. The advantage in skeleton. The anthropometry has developed
physiotherapy has made it possible. This is essential primarily in the sports fields by physical
in order to avoid reversibility of the adaptive changes. anthropologists. Physical anthropology deals
with the study of man’s biological defined ectomorphy. Somatotype if studied in large
behavior in time space. population, a variety of somatotypes with
iii. The use of proper equipment is most essential varying strengths of different components will
for anthropometric measurements. The be observed. These somatotypes can be
equipments need high precision and accuracy. classified into 13 classifications.
The most commonly used and available vii. As somatotype is a three-number expression
equipments are Anthropometric rod, and meaningful analysis can be conducted
Weighing machine, Stadiometer, Sitting only with special techniques. Somatotype
height table, Somatotype turn table, Strength data can be analyzed by both traditional and
dynamometer (Hand grip & Back non-traditional descriptive and comparative
Dynamometer), Goniometer, Steel measuring statistical methods although descriptive
tap, Sliding caliper, Chest caliper, Spreading statistics are used for each of the components,
caliper, Skinfold caliper, etc. comparative statistics should be made in the
iv. The accurate marking of the landmark is more first instance using the whole (or global)
essential for more precise anthropometric somatotype rating. All human being
measurements. However, the technique of including athletes are made up of the three
taking measurement by using the instrument extreme body types so we are all par t
is equally important. The technique of endomorph, part of mesomorph and part of
measurement of various anthropometric ectomorph. By classifying our own body
parameters must be a standard one and physiques using somatotyping, we can
producing accurate results, the investigator compare our body type with that of other
should be well trained and skillful. Before athletes. Graphs and tables have been
listing the measurements made to determine developed to decide which sports suit which
the various dimensions are necessar y to somatotypes better.
understand the landmarks from which such viii. Body size refers to the person’s height and
measurements are conventionally made. weight. The ideal size for an athlete depends
v. Somatotyping is a form of body classification, on their sport and sometimes on the position
i.e. it is a shorthand method of describing an they play in. Theoretically, the body can be
individual’s physique according to certain divided into several compartments according
physical characteristics. Somatotyping was to definable tissues. The two component
originally developed by an American model used commonly divides the body to a
psychologist - William Sheldon in 1940s, after fat portion, and further divides the fat free
he studied over 4,000 photographs of college mass to skeleton, muscle and the remainder.
age men. Sheldon divided physique into three The fluids, etc can also be studied in terms of
basic categories or somatotypes, known as total body water, extra-cellular water, intra-
‘extreme somatotypes’ by dividing body into cellular water, total body potassium, calcium,
five areas: such as (i) head, face and neck; (ii) sodium and so on. However, the athletes have
thoracic trunk; (iii) arms, shoulders, heads; mostly been studied considering the body
(iv) abdominal trunk; (v) legs and feet. either as two or four compartment model.
vi. A new improved somatotype method with ix. The estimation of body composition has been
universal application to both sexes, for all ages attempted using various techniques. These
and which is reproducible was innovated after are cadaver studies, fat cell size and number,
requisite, validation. This method is known skinfolds, body density, anthropometric
as modified somatotype method and is methods, roentgenogrammetry, fat soluble
designed by Barbara Honeyman Heath and gases, creatinine excretion, total body water,
JE Lindsey Carter in 1967. The new method total body potassium, total body nitrogen,
retained the well accepted terminology of total body carbon, nuclear resonance
somatotype; endomorphy, mesomorphy and scattering, ultrasound, computed tomo-
graphy, nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, procedure of measuring (i) Biacromial diameter
radioactive krypton, total body electrical and (ii) sitting height of an individual.
conductivity, electrical impedance and infra- 5. Define Physique. What are the different
red interactance, etc. components of somatotype? Write
x. The absolute perfect body fat percentage classification of somatotype with example.
does not exist. Age and gender make a big 6. Discuss Heath-Carter somatotype. What are
contribution to the ideal value. Some people the measurement techniques of anthropometric
might feel and perform better at a higher or somatotype?
lower body fat percentage than others of the 7. What do you mean by extreme somatotype?
same age and sex. Weight loss process is Discuss somatochart with suitable example.
simple, burn more calories then one
How can you plot a elite shot put thrower in
consume. If you can fully understand that
somatochart?
then you are on your way to weight loss. To
8. What is somatopoint? Distinguish between
gain weight, you must consume more calories
somatotype attitudinal distance and
one usually you burn. This is the reverse
somatotype attitudinal means.
process as weight loss.
9. Differentiate between body built, body size
and body composition.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
10. What is densitometry? How is it used to assess
1. Define Anthropometry. What do you mean the body composition of the athlete? What
by Kinanthropometry? Write in brief about is the major weakness of densitometry with
the scope and development of respect to its accuracy?
anthropometry. 11. What are several field techniques for estimating
2. What are the different planes of human body? body composition? What are their strength
What do you mean by the F-H planes? and weaknesses?
Discuss Mid–Sagittal planes. 12. What is the relationship of relative leanness
3. Name some important anthropometric and fatness to performance in sports?
equipment. Write the procedure of 13. What is more impor tant to spor ts
measurement of height by the stadiometer. performance, body fat or body weight? Why?
4. Write some important land marks for 14. What is the principal of weight loss and weight
anthropometric measurements and write the gain? Discuss with example.
CHAPTER
15
Doping
 Historical Perspectives  Prohibited Classes of Substances

 Prohibited Classes of Substances and Prohibited  Narcotic Analgesics
Methods  Anabolic Agents
 Prohibited Method  Nonsteroidal Anabolic Agents
 Blood Doping  Peptide Hormones, Mimetic and Analogues
 Pharmacological, Chemical and Physical  Drug Abuse
Manipulation  Drug Testing
 Classes of Prohibited Substances subject to  Plan and Procedure for Sample Collection
Certain Conditions  Notification of Athletes
 Alcohol  Preparing for Sample Collection
 Marijuana  Conduction of Sample Collection Session
 Local Anesthetics  Collection of Urine Samples
 Corticosteroids  Collection of Blood Samples
 List of Doping Substances  World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)
The desire to take medicine to improve physical HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES

and mental health is perhaps the greatest feature
Since the dawn of recorded history, a great variety
which distinguishes man and animals. The word
of drugs have been taken by athletes hoping to
originated from a primitive South-East African
improve performance, and few- if any-have stood
Alcoholic drink called ‘DOP’ that was used as
the time. Even in the first Olympic Games, held in
stimulant in ceremonial dances. This word reached Greece in 300 BC, doping methods were used,
the English language via the Bores “Doping”, first competitors sought to improve their performance
appeared in an English Dictionary in 1889. Over by eating certain mushrooms.
the years, literally hundreds of ingredients have been The first documented case of illicit drug use in
used as “the magic potion”: Camphor, ephedrine, sports occurred in 1865 among the channel
gelatin, iron, oxygen, aspartic acid, amphetamines, swimmers of Amsterdam. This spread rapidly, and
tranquilizers, vitamins, steroids and red blood cells. by 1879 the six days bicycle racers of several nations
The current is to use varying mixtures of these were using caffeine, alcohol, nitroglycerine, ether
substances, vitamins, and the male hormone dropped on sugar cubes, strychnine pills, cocaine
testosterone. Polypharmacy (the use of multiple and opium. According to an article in the Journal
drugs) has reached its most absurd proportions of American Veterinary Medical Association, the
among athletes. problem of doping was evident even in ancient
Rome. The Romans gave their horse’s hydromel, a of physiological substances in abnormal amounts and
mixture of honey and water that increased their with abnormal methods, by health personnel with
endurance and speed during cart races. For hundreds the exclusive aim of attaining an artificial and unfair
of perhaps thousands of years, Indian tribes in Central increase of performance in competition.”
America have chewed coca leaves to help them in
long and arduous mountain journeys, a stimulant PROHIBITED CLASSES OF SUBSTANCES
contained in the leaves increases endurance and AND PROHIBITED METHODS
decreases weariness. In modern times, especially in
America and Western Europe, sports are so Adopted by the union Cycliste International (UCI)
commercial that there is an exaggerated emphasis on President on the proposal of the Anti-Doping
winning. This social pressure forces many athletes Commission of the UCI.
and even some trainer to seek shortcuts to the extra
Doping Classes
degree of superior performance.
In 1920s and 1930s, doping was already a Class-I
serious problem in sports such as horse racing and
(i) Stimulants: The physiologic changes that
dog racing. But in human sports the doping has
prepare a body for strenuous exercise are some-
only become an important issue in 1960s. The
times called the “fight or flight” response. These
first recorded death from the use of doping in sport
changes persist during exercise and are necessary
was in 1886 when a cyclist died from an overdose
for maximal performance. Blood flow through
of Trimethyl. In 1904 Olympics, marathon runner
working muscles increases as do alertness and the
Thomas Hicks was using a mixture of brandy and
focusing of attention. Activity of the sympathetic
strychnine and nearly died. Heroin, cocaine and
nervous system results in these changes, during
caffeine were widely used until heroin and cocaine
which release of epinephrine into circulation by
became available only on prescription. During the
the adrenal glands, adrenal medulla plays a key
1930s it was amphetamines that replaced
strychnine. In the 1950s the Soviet Olympic team role. Amphetamines constitute a class of central
used male hormones to increase strength and nervous stimulants that are related in structure to
power. The American’s developed steroids as a epinephrine. It soon became obvious that some
response. people were taking the drugs in excessively high
In the 1952 Winter Olympics, several speed doses simply to derive a feeling of well-being
skaters became ill and needed medical attention (euphoria). This misuse led to addiction, and the
after taking amphetamines. In 1960, during an drugs are thus now classified as narcotics in many
Olympic road race, a young Danish cyclist countries. The only correct medical use of these
collapsed and later died as a result of an excessive drugs today is in the treatment of narcolepsy, an
dose of amphetamine. During the 1970s anabolic abnormally increased need for sleep.
steroids became the form of doping. The reason for the inclusion of stimulants in the
In 1988 Seoul Olympics, a Canadian sprinter doping register is that they conceal the feeling of
Ben Johnson was stripped of his Olympic gold exhaustion. Most athletes try to get themselves
medal for taking stanozolol, a banned substance. “psyched up” before an important contest. That
‘Doping contravenes the fundamental principle of is, they deliberately stimulate the sympathetic
Olympism, Sports and Medical ethics’. nervous system. The use of amphetamines in sports
in which maximum force or aggression is desired;
Definition
it is also used by jockeys and wrestlers for appetite
A commission of experts convened by the Council suppression during attempts to lose weight.
of Europe in 1963 gave the following definition of Amphetamine use is associated with increased time
doping: “Doping is defined as the administering to exhaustion while cycling and with increased knee
or use substances in any form alien to the body, or extension strength.
Doping  301
The four most notorious examples of stimulants during exercise, and thus sparing glycogen in muscle,
that are used in sports are amphetamine, cocaine, the loss of which can limit exercise.
ephedrine and caffeine etc. Side effects: The toxic effects of caffeine include
(ii) Cocaine: It is an alkaloid related to caffeine restlessness, tremor and irritability. At very high doses
and nicotine. It is used medically as a topical seizures may occur.
anesthetic and vasoconstrictor, particularly in the (iv) Nicotine: It is an alkaloid used for its
upper respiratory tract. It is used to increase property as a mild stimulant of the central nervous
endurance and promote a sense of well-being. system (CNS). It causes facilitation of attention but
Side effect: Deleterious effects of cocaine include relaxation of skeletal muscle. Nicotine is
psycho-social problems, psychological dependency, vasoconstrictor and tends to decrease the perfusion
of tissues by blood as well as elevate blood pressure
and sometimes damage to the tissue through which
and heart rate.
the drug is absorbed, such as the nasal mucosa.
Side effects: Tobacco contact with the oral mucosa
(iii) Caf feine
Caffeine
feine: Caffeine is a central nervous system is associated with damage to the gums and increased
stimulant found in coffee, tea and many soft drinks as cancer of the mouth. Smoking is associated with a
well as in tablets to combat drowsiness. It has been decrease in maximal O2 uptake capacity. It may
used by runners, cyclists, swimmers, and other athletes impair performance by causing airway constriction.
to diminish feelings of fatigue. Caffeine can improve Smoking is habituating and is also associated with
work production by promoting metabolism of lipids the cancer, heart disease and other health problems.
Adrenergic Stimulants associated with the potent euphoric properties of

The adrenergic stimulants (sympathetic amines, also the drugs. The euphoria produced by morphine
known as alpha or beta2 stimulants)— ephedrine and morphine like preparation differs from that
and ephedrine derivatives are related chemically to evoked by cocaine or amphetamine in that the
the body’s own ‘stress hormones’, adrenaline and individual withdraws into his or her own
nor-adrenaline. High doses of ephedrine given dreamworld and becomes drowsy and inactivate.
intravenously will give an amphetamine like effect. This state is hardly conducive to heightened
The chief medical use of these substances is in the performance.
treatment of asthma and nasal congestion. The doping effects of morphine like analgesics
Ephedrine is an ingredient of many cough are thought to modify fear in marked nervousness
medicines. The banning of ephedrine and phenyl- and anxiety states and to have analgesic effect on
propanolamine and related compounds has caused injuries.
considerable problems in how to interpret the IOC Side effects: The greatest risk associated with the
regulations. In pharmacological terms, all alpha use of morphine like analgesics is the risk of addiction.
stimulants can be considered as ‘related The drugs are classified as string narcotics. Combined
compounds’. This means that all nasal with alcohol, even small doses of the weakest of the
decongestants are banned, although all nasal preparations may result in respiratory arrest and
decongestant applied locally are permitted. death. The use of narcotics induces a false sense of
effects
Side ef fects: All preparations containing ephedrine security that may cause an athlete to ignore a
and its derivatives can cause troublesome potentially serious injury, risking further damage.
palpitations, agitation, tremors, insomnia and Other potential dangerous side effects are:
effects on the blood pressure even at normal dose.  Addiction
Large doses of the preparation may even result in  Loss of balance and coordination
damage to the heart muscle.  Nausea and vomiting
Other potential side ef fects ar
effects e:
are:  Loss of sleep and depression
 Loss of appetite  Breathing become slower
 Loss of sleep (insomnia)  Decreased heart rate
 Increased body temperature (hyperthermia)  Decreased ability to concentrate.
 Euphoria
 Hallucination (psychosis) Anabolic Agents
 Trembling
Adre nergic anabolic steroids:
Adrenergic
 Restlessness, agitation and tenseness
 High blood pressure (hypertension)
Anabolic adrenergic steroids are man-made
 Palpitations and heart rhythm disorders
substances related to male sex hormones. Anabolic
 Diminished coordination, judgmental ability and “refers to muscle building”, and “adrenergic” refers
self-criticism. to increased masculine characteristics. “Steroids”
refers to the class of drugs. These drugs are available
Narcotic Analgesics legally only by prescription, to treat conditions that
occur when the body produces abnormally low
Morphine like analgesics is the most effective of all
amounts of testosterone, such as delayed puberty
analgesics, and is indispensable to the practice of
and some types of impotence. They are also used
medicine. In addition, they are powerful anxiolytics
to treat body wasting in patients with AIDS and
and sedatives. They are derived from opium, which
other diseases that result in loss of lean muscle mass.
in turn is derived from the poppy plant. They act
Abuse of anabolic steroids, however, can lead to
on CNS and reduce feelings of pain. Narcotic
serious health problems, some are irreversible.
analgesics may be used to mask the sensation of
Athletes and body builders abuse anabolic steroids
pain. Besides reducing pain, narcotic analgesics are
to enhance performance and improve physical
used to depress coughs. Their use, however, is
Doping  303
appearance. Anabolic steroids are taken orally or coining of the phrase “Road rage”. Steroids
injected, typically in cycles of weeks or months commonly abused by athletes include nandrolone,
(referred to as “cycling”), rather than continuously. oxandrolone and stanozolol, the structures of
Cycling involves taking multiple doses of steroids nandrolone and dextosterone, and its natural
over a specific period of time, stopping for a period, counterparts of the common steroids.
and starting again. In addition, users often combine
several different types of steroids to maximize their Other Anabolic Agents
effectiveness while minimizing negative effects Other anabolic agents are substances which are
(referred to as “stacking”). Higher doses also have pharmacologically not related to the androgenic
psychological effects. Studies have shown that the anabolic steroids, but which might have a similar
intake of large doses of anabolic steroids combined anabolic effect. This doping class has been
with intensive training increases muscle strength. established because of the abuse of the beta-2
The effects of anabolic steroids on women are agonist clenbuterol. In veterinar y medicine
relatively clear. Muscle mass and strength appear clenbuterol is used to treat calves for colds and
to increase when these agents are used in coughs, beta-2 agonists or beta-2 adreno-receptor
conjunction with strength training. This means that, agonist actually belong to the class of stimulants
with large doses of anabolic steroids, a woman’s and have been developed for the treatment of
athletic performance could approach that of a man. chronic bronchitis, and emphysema and asthma.
People discovered that while using clenbuterol
Side Effects in large quantities with calves the percentage of fat
was reduced and the muscular tissue increased. It
The major side effects from abusing anabolic
is assumed that athletes also started to use
steroids can improve liver tumors and cancers,
clenbuterol on the basis of these findings.
jaundice (yellowish pigmentation of skin, tissues
Scientifically the alleged anabolic effects on humans
and body fluids), fluid retention, and high blood
are dubious.
pressure; in addition there are some gender specific
side effects:
Side Effects
i. For Men: Shrinking of the testicles, reduced
sperm count, infer tility, baldness,  Trembling
development of breast, and increased risk of  Restlessness, agitation
prostate cancer.  Feeling of anxiety
ii. For W omen: Growth of facial hair, male

Women:  Heart rhythm abnormalities (arrhythmias)
patterned baldness, changes in or cessation  Muscle cramps
of the menstrual cycle, enlargement of the Not only clenbuterol has been banned, but also
clitoris, deepened voice. all other substances that belong to the class of beta-
iii. For Adolescents: Growth halted prematurely 2 agonist are also banned. Most sports governing
through premature skeletal maturation and bodies made an exception for salbutamol and
accelerated puberty changes. This means that terbutaline when administered by inhalation for
adolescents risk remaining shor t the respiratory congestion.
remainder of their lives if they take anabolic
Diuretics
steroids before the typical adolescent growth
spurts. Diuretics are drugs which increase the amount of
Research has also shown that aggression and fluid excreted by the kidneys. They do this by
other psychiatric side effects may result from abuse inhibiting the re-absorption of water in the kidney.
of anabolic steroids. Many users report feeling good Diuretics are used by sportsmen and women to
about themselves while on anabolic steroids, but decrease body weight, to increase power to weight
extreme swings also can occur, including maniac- ratios and to help qualify for certain weight
like symptoms leading to violence, leading to the categories, e.g. boxing and judo. By taking diuretics,
the athletes run the risk of severe dehydration and testosterone. Human Chorionie Gonadotropins may
even gout. Other side effects include potassium be used because it seems to increase muscle size and
deficiency, leading to muscle cramps, if a potassium strength when the individual taking it is experienced
sparing diuretic isn’t used. in strength training, is performing strenuous strength
training concurrently and is well nourished.
Side Effects
Side Effects
 Dehydration
 Decreased circulation of blood volume  Breast development—gynecomastia (in males)
(hypovolemia)  Menstrual disorders (in females)
 Muscle cramps
 Renal disorders Human Growth Hormone (hGH)
 Dizziness when standing up (orthostatic Human growth hormone (hGH) is a hormone that
hypotension) is synthesized and secreted by cells in the anterior
 Heart rhythm abnormalities (arrhythmias) pituitary gland located at the base of the brain.
Human Chorionie Gonadotropins is known to act
Important Note
on many aspects of cellular metabolism and is also
The use of diuretics in sports is forbidden. Non necessary for skeletal growth in humans. The major
medical use of diuretics can be very dangerous. role of hGH in body growth is to stimulate the liver
Because of dehydration one will not be able to and other tissues to secrete insulin like growth factor
perform at his best. Losing too much water may (IGF-1). IGF-1 stimulates production of cartilage
cause heart and kidney failure which could lead to cells, resulting in bone growth and also plays a key
death. role in muscle and organ growth. hGH is prohibited
both in- and out-of-competition under the World
Peptide Hormones and Analogues
Anti-Doping Agency’s (WADA) list of Prohibited
Since 1989 the IOC has classified the Human Substances and Methods.
chorionic gonadotropins (hCG), Adrenocorticotr- effects:
Side ef fects: Commonly reported side effects for
opin (ACTH), and Human growth hormone (hGH) hGH abuse are: diabetes in prone individuals;
as doping agents. Peptide and glycoprotein hormones worsening of cardiovascular diseases; muscle, joint
are natural substances that act as messengers within and bone pain; hypertension and cardiac deficiency;
the body and cause the production of other abnormal growth of organs; accelerated
endogenous hormones like testosterone and osteoarthritis. In untreated acromegalic individuals
corticosteroids. Human Chorionie Gonadotropins (over-production of hGH), many of the symptoms
can increase the production of testosterone in male described above are observed and life expectancy is
subjects, that is why it is banned. ACTH has been known to be significantly reduced. Because of the
misused to considerably increase the blood level of role that hGH plays in stimulating IGF-1 secretion,
endogenous corticosteroids and as corticosteroids excessive use of hGH may also lead to metabolic
injected either intravenously or intramuscularly have dysfunction, including glucose intolerance and
been banned, it was only logical to add ACTH to the other side effects associated with excess levels of
list of forbidden substances. Human Chorionie IGF-1.
Gonadotropins has been used to bring about similar A test for hGH was first introduced at the 2004
effects to anabolic steroids, and its misuse was Summer Olympic Games in Athens, Greece. The
considered both unethical and unsafe due to several test to detect hGH abuse is a blood test. The current
dangerous side effects. test is reliable. Another test, in its final development
stage, will be combined with the current test to
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) further enhance the detection window for hGH
This hormone increases the production of abuse. The concepts and development of both hGH
endogenous steroids and the effect is similar to using tests have been systematically reviewed by
Doping  305
international independent experts in such fields as damaged tissues and muscles. If used for long periods
hGH, endocrinology, immunoassay, analytical of time it would cause muscle wasting.
chemistry, etc. In addition, these tests are the
outcome of nearly US$6 million in research over Side Effects
the course of more than 10 years. Research was
 Sleeping problems—insomnia
initiated by the International Olympic Committee
 High blood pressure—hypertension
(IOC) and the European Union, and then taken
 Diabetes mellitus
over by WADA when it was created and had adopted
 Stomach ulcer
scientific research as one of its priority activities.
 Poor healing of wounds
The current test is based on the blood matrix
 Loss of bone mass—osteoporosis
and was initially implemented on a limited scale to
a number of the WADA-accredited Anti-Doping
Erythropoietin (EPO)
laboratories worldwide. The antibodies used for the
current tests were initially produced in a research Erythropoietin is a peptide hormone that is
environment. The production of antibodies in a produced naturally by the human body. EPO is
research environment is characteristically small. released from the kidneys and acts on the bone
Industrial production of the antibodies was the marrow to stimulate red blood cell production. An
following step for the widespread implementation increase in red blood cells improves the amount of
of the hGH test. oxygen that the blood can carry to the body’s
Ef for ts made by WADA for widespread muscles. It may also increase the body’s capacity to
production of antibodies needed for hGH detection buffer lactic acid.
were slowed following the take-over if the company Normal levels of EPO are 0 to 19 (some say up
with which WADA had an agreement for the to 24 milli units per milliliter). Higher levels might
development of these antibodies, and the decision indicate that an athlete has been abusing EPO for
made by the company’s new management in 2006 a competitive advantage. EPO has been misused as
to stop its cooperation with WADA. WADA a performance enhancing drug in aerobic sports
subsequently found a new partner for the large-
such as cycling (in the Tour de France), long
scale production and distribution of antibodies kits.
distance running, speed skating, and Nordic (cross
The kits have now been validated, and mass
countr y) skiing etc. when misused in such
production of the kits has started.
situations, EPO is thought to be especially
The test was introduced at the Athens Olympic
dangerous (perhaps because dehydration due to
Games in 2004 and other major sport events.
vigorous exercise can further increase the thickness
However, because hGH is often taken by doping
athletes in the off-season to optimize performance, (viscosity) of the blood, raising the risk for heart
the test is most effective when implemented in a attacks and strokes. EPO has been banned by the
no-advance-notice out-of-competition strategy. Tour, the Olympics, and other sports organizations.
Widespread implementation of the test may change
Side Effects
these statistics.
According to the majority of international While proper use of EPO has an enormous
experts, the blood matrix is the most suitable matrix therapeutic benefit in the treatment of anemia
for the detection of hGH. hGH in urine is found related to cancer or kidney disease, its misuse can
in extremely small quantities (less than 1% than that lead to serious health risks for athletes who use this
found in blood). WADA is collaborating with substance simply to gain a competitive edge. It is
research teams to explore the development of urine- well known that EPO, by thickening the blood,
based detection methods for hGH. leads to an increased risk of several deadly diseases,
such as heart disease, stroke, and cerebral or
Adreno-corticotrophic Hormone (ACTH) pulmonary embolism. The misuse of recombinant
This hormone increases the level of endogenous human EPO may also lead to autoimmune diseases
corticosteroids. ACTH may be used to repair with serious health consequences.
Implementation of Test to Detect EPO  Low blood pressure (hypotension)

A test for EPO was introduced at the 2000 Summer  Slow heart rate (bradycardia)
Olympic Games in Sydney (Australia). The test,  Cardiac failure
validated by the International Olympic Committee  Impaired circulation
(IOC), was based on the blood and urine matrix.
 Impotence
A blood screening was performed first, and a urine
test was then used to confirm possible use of EPO.
Important Note
In June 2003, WADA’s Executive Committee
accepted the results of an independent report stating The ban has created many problems, particularly in
that urine tests alone can be used to detect the shooting, as even top class participant in these sports
presence of recombinant EPO. This report, may be in their late middle age and may suffer from
requested by WADA’s stakeholders and high blood pressure or symptoms due to
commissioned by the Agency to evaluate the validity arteriosclerosis of the coronary arteries (angina
of urinary and blood tests for detecting the presence pectoris).
of recombinant EPO, concluded that urinary
testing is the only scientifically validated method PROHIBITED METHOD—CLASS-II
for direct detection of recombinant EPO. This
report also recommended that urine testing be used Blood Doping
in conjunction with blood screening for a variety
of reasons, including the cost savings of performing Blood doping is the misuse of certain techniques
blood screening prior to testing urine. Some and/or substances to increase one’s red blood cell
international sports federations still use both urine mass, which allows the body to transport more
and blood matrix for the detection of EPO. oxygen to muscles and therefore increase stamina/
endurance and performance.
Beta Blockers There are three widely known substances or
methods used for blood doping: erythropoietin
Beta blockers act to reduce tremors and palpitation (EPO), synthetic oxygen carriers, and blood
and have now been classified as doping drugs. These transfusions. Each is prohibited under the World
drugs are widely used in the treatment of patients Anti-Doping Agency’s (WADA) List of Prohibited
with angina pectoris, systemic hypertension, Substances and Methods.
arrhythmias, and also in migraine. Beta blockers Blood doping is based on physiological principles.
are mainly used to steady and slow the heart rate. In sports that require muscles to work over an
These are not depressants but sometimes are extended period of time, the oxygen carried to muscle
used to blunt the “stage fright” or flight or fight
by blood is an important—and possibly limiting—
response associated with sports especially like
factor. Several studies have shown that people who
archery, shooting, modern pentathlon, diving etc.
breathed oxygen while exercising could maintain high
might benefit from using it. Beta blockers can be
work levels for longer time than while breathing air.
used to control anxiety. Beta blockers can cause a
However, this is not possible during competitions.
decreased in maximal cardiac output and work
Another way of improving the amount of oxygen
capacity and therefore are contraindicated when
carried by blood is to increase the hemoglobin
maximal work is required.
concentration. Clinical procedure is done as follows:
Side Effects Approximately one liter of blood is drawing from
the athlete and deep frozen. In response to this blood
Exercise performance is adversely affected by the loss, athlete’s blood forming organs increase their
use of beta blockers, as the perception about production of red blood cells. After 3 to 4 weeks the
exertion is increased and reduction in endurance amount of blood and the hemoglobin level return to
time during progressive exercise. Furthermore, they normal. A day or so before to competition/exercise
have adverse effects like: tests, the drawn blood is re-infused into the athlete,
Doping  307
thereby increasing the hemoglobin concentration.  Dizziness and hot flushes

Several controlled studies found that aerobic  Kidney stones
performance was increased by this method.
Blood doping procedure is more complicated and Catheterization
usually requires the support of people with medical  Cystitis (bladder infection)
knowledge. There are many practical problems, such  Inflammation of lower urinary tract.
as storing of blood, and then transportation to the
competition site, how to arrange transfusion and so Gene Doping
on.
Gene of cell doping is define as the non-theraputic
Side Effects use of genes, genetic elements and/or cell that have
the capacity ot enhance atheletic performence.
 Blood clots which cause strokes (embolism)
 Life threatening hypersensitivity reaction
(anaphylactic shock) and other transfusion
CLASSES OF PROHIBITED SUBSTANCES
reactions. SUBJECT TO CERTAIN CONDITIONS—
 Infections (hepatitis, AIDS) CLASS-III
 Allergic reactions (fever, rash, etc.)
Alcohol
Pharmacological, Chemical and Physical
Manipulation Alcohol has two entirely different effects on the
brain. One is an anxiolytics (anxiety relieving) or
Pharmacological, chemical and physical tranquillizing effect, the other a stimulatory effect.
manipulation consists of the use of substances and/ There were reports of cyclists in 24 hours races
or methods which may alter the integrity and/or drinking rum and champagne throughout the race,
validity of urine samples obtained in doping marathon runners and walkers consuming
controls. In this class, catheterization, urine considerable quantities of cognac or beer during
substitution and/or tampering, probenecid, epi- competition. Supposedly alcohol had a refreshing
testosterone application and related compounds are effect and the ability to restore the athlete’s
banned. Probenecid inhibits the transport of strength.
organic acids across some tissue barriers. This is
most important in the kidney, where many drugs Anxiolytics Effect
and drug metabolites are excreted. The effect of
probenecid is twofold. It increases the blood level The anxiolytics, or tranquillizing, effects of alcohol
of any drug, which gives a more pronounced effect are often exploited by people who tend to worry
with the usual dosage (or the usual effect with a unnecessarily under normal circumstances and who
lower dosage). Secondly, probenecid reduces the become even more anxious when faced with
amount of trace substances (for example, anabolic demanding situations, for example public
steroid) released in the urine, thus making such appearances. The relief offered in these situations
substances much more difficult to detect in a urine by the anxiolytic effects of alcohol may lead to habitual
sample. drinking, with an increasing need for larger quantities
of alcohol. In a relatively short time, these people are
Side Effects unable to cope without alcohol.
All the methods and substances stated above have Stimulatory Effect
harmful side effects such as:
Research has shown that alcohol stimulates certain
Probenecid brain functions. It helps a person to relax and
promotes a feeling of well-being (euphoria).
 Headache Alcohols are a group of toxic chemicals; the most
 Intestinal problems common is ethanol or ethyl alcohol obtained by
the fermentation of sugar. Alcohol consumed in small Reproductive System

quantities reduces trembling, improve self-confidence
 Decreased sperm count and motility
and relaxes.
 Disturbances with ovulation (in female).
Side Effects
Important Notes
Depending on the amount, alcohol can have many
adverse effects such as: Marijuana is prohibited in some sports. However,
 Long-term use of alcohol leads to addiction
tests may be carried out at the request of an inter
 Alcohol decreases balance, reaction time, hand-
national sports governing body.
eye coordination
 Alcohol induces violent and aggressive behavior
Local Anesthetics
 Excessive long-term use causes liver problems Local anesthetics are used to block the sensation of
pain from any injured part of the body. The use of
Marijuana local anesthetics induce a risk of concealing the
Marijuana and Hashish come from the complex severity of injury or disease, therefore, aggravating
Indian Hemp Plant Cannabis Sativa. Over 400 the problem. Administration of local anesthetics
compounds have been isolated from this plant, of aims to make parts of the body insensitive to pain
which 61 have been identified as cannabinoids. but to leave the central nervous system functions
Marijuana is a relaxant and impairs judgment. In unaffected.
high doses, it causes hallucinations. Marijuana is
the general term of crude preparations of the dried Side Effects
leaves, seeds, stems and sometimes flowers of the
The use of local anesthetics may aggravate an injury.
cannabis plant.
In case of hypersensitive or an overdose the
following may happen:
Side Effects
 Fear
There can be no doubt that the immediate and long-  Confusion
term effect of cannabis use are detrimental to  Disturbed speech
sporting performance due to effect on the heart,  Visual and hearing problem
lungs and CNS. Furthermore, marijuana can have  Muscle spasm in the face
an effect on the reproductive system. In case of accidental intravascular injection the
following may happen:
Heart
 Tremors
 Increased heart rate  Muscle cramps
 Increased blood pressure  Convulsions
 Heart failure
Lungs  Apnea because of respiratory depression.
 Inflammation of lung tissue and cancer

Important Notes
Central Nervous System The use of local anesthetics is only permitted in
 Impaired balance and coordination the following conditions:
 Loss of memory (short-term) i. It must be justified on medical grounds,
 Loss of concentration ii. Its application must be local,
 Hallucination (psychosis) iii. In case injection, it must be local, e.g. intra-
 Abnormal body temperature. articular,
Doping  309
iv. The use of cocaine is prohibited: a different b. If the application is systemic:

anesthetic must be used, such as procaine, i. It must be justified on medical ground.
xylocaine, carbocaine, bupivacaine, liodocane, ii. A document must be presented to the UCI
mepivacaine and related substances. Anti-Doping Commission.
Justification on medical grounds and the method iii. The consent of the Anti-Doping Commission
of application must be proved by the rider in the must be obtained; except if the medical
form of a medical certificate; for riders of Trade urgency is incompatible with the consent, this
Teams I and II, only the registration on the health written consent must be obtained before the
record booklet will be taken into consideration. application.
Apart from the conditions cited above, the use iv. The application must be registered in the
of local anesthetics is prohibited. Thus systemic use health record booklet.
and for example, intramuscular injections are v. The above procedure must be followed in case
prohibited. of treatment renewal except for the conditions
cited above and the use of
Corticosteroids Glucocorticosteroids is prohibited.
The corticosteroids are mainly used as anti-
inflammator y dr ugs. They influence the LIST OF DOPING SUBSTANCES
concentrations of natural corticosteroids hormones Adopted by the UCI President on the proposal of the
released in the body from adrenal cortex. The Anti-Doping Commission of the UCI Table: 15.1.
therapeutic use of corticosteroids is to treat
inflammation, asthma and pain. In high doses they PROHIBITED CLASSES OF SUBSTANCES
also produce euphoria. In sports, they carry the
risk of impaired healing of wounds and fractures. Stimulants
The IOC medical commission has therefore,
banned the use of corticosteroids except for topical  Amfepramone ethamivan nikhetamide
 Amineptine ethylamphetamine orciprenaline
use (aural, ophthalmologic, and dermatological),
 Amiphenazole etilefrine pemoline
inhalation therapy in asthma and allergic rhinitis,
 Amphetamine fencamfamine pentetrazol
and local or intra-articular injections.
 Amphetaminil fenethylline phendimetrazine
Side Effects  Bambuterol fenoterol phenmetrazine

 Benzhetamine fenproporex phentermine
 Loss of sleep  Bromatane furfenorex pipadrl
 High blood pressure  Carphedone hepatimol procaterol
 Poor healings of wounds  Chlorphentermine isoprenaline prolintane
 Heartburn  Clobenzorex mefenorex propylhexedrine
 Diabetes mellitus  Clorpeenaline mesocarbe pyrovalerone
 Loss of bone mass  Cocaine metaraminol reproterol
 Cropropamide (constituent of “Micorene”)
Important Notes
methoxyphenamine selegiline
a. If the application is local:  Crothetamide (constituent of “Micorene”)
i. It must be justified on medical grounds. methylamphetamine strychnine (nux vbmica)
ii. Justification on medical grounds and the  Dimethylamphetamine methylphenidate
method of application must be proved by the  Etaphedrine morazone and related substances as
rider in the form of a medical certificate; for well as -
riders of Trade Teams I and II, only the Caffeine: For caffeine, a sample shall be
registration on the health record booklet will considered as positive if the concentration in the
be taken into consideration. urine exceeds 12 micrograms/ml.
Cathine: (norpseudoephedrine): For cathine For morphine, a sample shall be deemed positive
(norpseudoephedrine), a sample shall be considered if the concentration in the urine exceeds 1
as positive if the concentration in the urine exceeds microgram/ml.
5 micrograms/ml. Note: Codeine, dextromethorphan, dextropro-
poxyphene, dihydrocodeine, diphenoxylate,
Ephedrine ethylmorphine, propoxyphene, tramadol and
pholcodine are permitted.
Methyl ephedrine: For ephedrine and methyl
ephedrine, a sample shall be considered as positive Anabolic Agents
if the concentration in the urine exceeds 10
micrograms/ml. Androgenic Anabolic Steroids
Phenylpropanolamine and Pseudoephedrine: For
Examples:
Phenylpropanolamine and Pseudo-ephedrine a sample
i. Androstenediol methandienone
shall be considered as positive if the concentration in
ii. Androstenedione methyl testosterone
the urine exceeds 25 micrograms/ml.
iii. Bolasterone nandrolone
 Formoterol
iv. Boldenone 19-norandrostenediol
 Salbutamol
v. Clostebol 19-norandrostenedione
 Salmeterol
vi. Dehydrochlormethyltestesteron norethan-
 Terbutaline
drolone
Formoterol, salbutamol, salmeterol and terbutaline
vii. Dehydroepinandrosterone oxandrolone
are permitted in the form of aerosols for the purpose
viii. Dehydrotestosterone oxymesterone
of preventing and/or treating asthma and stress
ix. Fluoxymesterone oxymetholone
related asthma. Asthma and/or stress related asthma
x. Gestrinone stanozolol
must be confirmed by a lung specialist or a team
xi. Mesterolone testosterone
doctor. The rider must produce a medical certificate xii. Methemonole and related substances
and a prescription issued by a lung specialist or a The Anti-Doping Commission can have any
team doctor during the drug tests (for riders of Trade sample or part of a sample analyzed by a Gas-
Teams I and II only the registration of the health chromatography/Combustion/Isotope Ratio Mass
record booklet will be taken into consideration). If he Spectrometry (GC/C/IRMS) in any laboratory
does not comply with this, and the laboratory finds which has this apparatus. It will inform the rider
traces of one of those substances, he will be considered about this; if this analysis shows an exogenous
positive. For salbutamol a concentration of less than application, the rider will be considered positive.
100 nanograms per milliliter will not be taken into In other cases, the Anti-Doping Commission can
consideration. ask for further tests. If the rider refuses to undergo
these tests, he will be considered positive.
Narcotic Analgesics For dehydrotestosterone, a sample will be
Examples: considered positive if the concentrations of
i. Alphaprodine methadone dehydrotestosterone and its metabolites and/ or
ii. Anileridine morphine their ratio of non-5 alpha steroid exceed the normal
iii. Buprenorphine nalbuphine level of a human being in such a way that they can
iv. Dextromoramide pentazocine not be attributed to endogenous production.
v. Diamorphine (heroin) pethidine For nandrolone and its derivatives, a sample will
vi. Dipipanone phenazocine be considered positive if the nandrosterone
vii. Ethoheptazine trimeperidine concentration found in the urine after hydrolysis
viii. Levorphanol and related substances exceeds 5 ng/ml. If the concentration is in between
ix. Morphine 2 and 5 ng/ml. or is equal to 5 ng/ml, Anti-Doping
x. Pentazocine Commission can request further analysis. If the rider
Doping  311
refuses to undergo the tests, he will be considered Nonsteroidal Anabolic Agents

as positive. Examples:
For analysis other than those performed with a i. Bambuterol salbutamol
GC/C/IRMS apparatus, a sample will be ii. Clenbuterol salmeterol
considered positive for testosterone and if the level iii. Fenoterol terbutaline
of testosterone/epitestorone is higher than 6 iv. Formoterol zeranol
inicrogram. Nevertheless, the rider can request an v. Reproterol and related substances
endocrinological examination to determine if the Except with a therapeutic justification for use
level is due to a physiological or pathological state. by inhaling as described above, for use by inhaling
The request for an endocrinological examination as described under point I.A.1; for salbutamol a
must be made to the UCI. Anti-Doping sample shall be considered as positive in the class
Commission at the latest 5 working days after of anabolic agents if the concentration in the urine
receipt of the registered letter to the rider’s national exceeds 1000 nanograms per milliliter.
federation informing it of the positive result, i.e.
within the deadline for the request of a counter Diuretics
analysis (article 64 AER). The Anti-Doping
Examples:
Commission will decide which laboratory and date
i. Acetazolamide mannitol
will be chosen for the analysis. The cost of the ii. Ethacrynic acid mersalyl
analysis must be paid in advance by the rider. The iii. Bumetanide spironolactone
date of the analysis can not be postponed. If the iv. Chlorthalidone triamterene
result of the endocrinological examination show v. Furosemide
that the level of T/E is due to a physiological or vi. Hydrochlorthiazide
pathological state, the UCI will refund to rider the Hydrochlorothiazide and related substances-1
cost of the examination must be paid by the rider. prohibited by intravenous injection
If the rider requests a counter-analysis, he must do
so within the deadline stipulated in article 64 AER, Peptide Hormones, Mimetic and Analogues
even if he requests an endocrinological examination.
1. Chorionic Gonadotr ophin (hCG- Human
Gonadotrophin
If the counter analysis does not confirm a positive
chorionic gonadotr ophin – pr
gonadotrophin ohibited in
prohibited
result, the rider will not be considered positive and
males only): It is well known that the
the endocrinological examination will not be
administration of human chorionic
conducted. gonadotrophin or other related compounds
Instead of an endocrinological examination, the leads to an increase in the production of
rider can request, within the same deadline, that the natural androgenic steroids and is considered
Anti-Doping Commission carries out a retrospective equivalent to the exogenous administration of
analysis of previous results, which should be addressed testosterone. A sample would be considered
to the commission within 3 working days of the positive if the concentration is above 20 ImU/
request. If the Anti-Doping Commission judges that ml. During the analysis, two different immuno-
the request is not valid it may oblige the rider to have assay methods must be used in this case.
an endocrinological examination. If the rider refuses, 2. Pituitar
Pituitaryy and Synthetic Gonadotr ophin
Gonadotrophin
he is considered positive. If the circumstances justify (LH- pr ohibited in males only): Pituitary
prohibited
it, the Anti-Doping Commission may immediately hormones are secreted from the pituitary gland
propose a retrospective analysis. (such as LH) which stimulate the testes and
The Anti-Doping Commission may also demand ovary. In males it act as hCG and stimulate
a long-term examination consisting of random tests ovulation in female. LH is a potential drug of
conducted during a period which it will determine. abuse, hence banned by IOC in 1999. It is
prohibited for male only.
3. Corticotrophin (ACTH, tetracosactide): Notes:

Corticotrophin has been misused to increase 1. This list is based on the list contained in the
the levels of endogenous corticosteroids in appendix to the Anti-Doping Code of the
the blood, particularly to obtain the mood- Olympic movement, but is not wholly
elevating effects of corticosteroids. The identical. It stays in effect until a new list is
administration of corticotrophin is regarded published.
as equivalent to the oral, intramuscular or 2. It is recalled that under the Anti-Doping
intravenous administration of corticosteroids. Examination Regulations, all products,
4. G rro
owth Hormones (hGH, Somato- regardless of denomination, that contain even
tr ophin): The use of growth hormone in
trophin): a minor amount of the above mentioned
sports is regarded as amoral and dangerous substances are prohibited.
by reason of its various side effects such as 3. War ning: The listings of examples in this
arning:
allergic reactions, diabetogenic effects, and document are not exhaustive! Numerous
acromegaly when administered in large doses. substances that are not itemized in this list
5. Insulin-like Gr owth Factors (IGF-1):
Growth are considered prohibited under the
Insulin-like growth factors is one of the designation of ‘related substances’. Riders and
combinations of about seventy amino acid, other permit-holders must make sure that
polypeptide. In fact in muscle fiber all ever y dr ug, supplement, preparation,
biological actions of growth hormone
particularly if sold over the counter, as well
appeared to be mediated by IGF. So, it is an
every other substance they use does not
impor tant stimulator of a number of
contain any prohibited substance.
biological activities involving anabolic process
4. W a rrning:
ning: This list relates to a sports
in skeletal muscle. Some athletes use IGF-1
regulation. The use of, and traffic in, a
to take advantage of its anabolic effects.
number of substances on this list is prohibited
6. Er ythr
Erythr opoietin (EPO): A glycoproteinic
ythropoietin
or regulated in the national laws of many
hormone produced in the human kidney which
countries. Provisions for criminal penalties
regulates the synthesis of RBC, apparently by
may be laid down. A substance or method
retroaction, the rate of synthesis of erythrocytes.
that is not prohibited under the present list
7. Insulin: Permitted only to treat insulin-
may be prohibited under national law, as for
dependent diabetes. The rider must produce a
example with regard to cannabinoids.
medical certificate issued by an endocrinologist
or team doctor, certifying his condition as an
Drug
insulin-dependent diabetic (for riders of Trade
Teams I and II only the registration on the A drug, broadly speaking, is any chemical substance
health record booklet will be taken into that, when absorbed into the body of a living
consideration). organism, alters normal bodily function. There is
8. Also pr ohibited for males are clomiphene,
prohibited no single, precise definition, as there are different
cyclofenil, tarr yoxifen and aromatase meanings in medicine, government regulations, and
inhibitors. colloquial usage. In pharmacology, defines a drug
Without prejudice to the concentration as “A chemical substance used in the treatment, cure,
stipulated for hCG, the presence of an abnormal prevention, or diagnosis of disease or used to
concentration of an endogenous hormone in class otherwise enhance physical or mental well-being.”
(E) or its diagnostic markers in the urine of a Drugs may be prescribed for a limited duration, or
competitor constitutes an offence unless it has been on a regular basis for chronic disorders.
proven to be due to a physiological or pathological Recreational drugs are chemical substances that
condition. affect the central nervous system, such as opioids
Doping  313
or hallucinogens. They may be used for perceived how of many other scientific disciplines. For example,
beneficial effects on perception, consciousness, biochemistry explains the metabolism of doping
personality, and behavior. Some drugs can cause agents and pharmacokinetics describes the time
addiction and habituation. Drugs are usually course of the blood and urine concentration of doping
distinguished from endogenous biochemicals by agents and their metabolites. In under sport, the
being introduced from outside the organism. For biological fluid available for analysis is urine. There
example, insulin is a hormone that is synthesized are two types of drug testing which are commonly
in the body; it is called a hormone when it is used: (a) Competition testing (b) Out of competition
synthesized by the pancreas inside the body, but if Testing.
it is introduced into the body from outside, it is
called a drug. Many natural substances such as Competition Testing
beers, wines, and some mushrooms, blur the line
Even though there is slight variation in the policy of
between food and drugs, as when ingested they
law to select the athletes, in most cases of individual
affect the functioning of both mind and body.
events, it is the three medal winners, 4th and 5th
places and one picked up at random, thus totaling
DRUG ABUSE six athletes for each event. For team sports such as
Comparison of the perceived harm for various football or hockey, one or two players per team are
psychoactive drugs from a poll among medical randomly selected. As soon as each event is over,
psychiatrists specialized in addiction treatment. selected athletes are notified and he/she, under
Drug abuse has a wide range of definitions related supervision of the doping control escort is asked to
to taking a psychoactive drug or performance come to the doping station within an hour, where
enhancing drug for a non-therapeutic or non- the sample for testing is collected as per laid down
medical effect. All of these definitions imply a procedure.
negative judgment of the drug use in question
(compare with the term responsible drug use for Out of Competition Testing
alternative views). Some of the drugs most often It is mainly for anabolic agents, peptide hormones,
associated with this term include alcohol, mimetic and analogues and prohibited methods.
amphetamines, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, Random samples are taken during training seasons
cocaine, methaqualone, and opium alkaloids. Use without prior notification.
of these drugs may lead to criminal penalty in The urine sample has been chosen as the body
addition to possible physical, social, and fluid for evidence of drug abuse. The American
psychological harm, both strongly depending on Medical Association (AMA), Council on Scientific
local jurisdiction. Other definitions of drug abuse Affairs have laid down/enumerated the following
fall into four main categories: public health reasons for this selection:
definitions, mass communication and vernacular i. The collection of urine is not invasive.
usage, medical definitions, and political and criminal ii. Large volumes can be collected easily.
justice definitions. iii. Drugs and their metabolites are generally
present in higher concentration in urine than
DRUG TESTING in other tissues or fluids because of the
Drug testing is an integral part of the system of concentrating function of kidneys.
dope control. It has become a way of life for many iv. Urine is easier to analyze than blood and other
athletes. Its aim is to provide correct and things because of usual absence of protein and
dependable analytical results which are based on cellular constituent.
scientific data. Drug testing in sports is a very v. Drugs and their metabolites are usually very
complex area and comprises not only the methods stable in frozen urine allowing long-term
of modern analytical chemistry but also the know- storage of positive samples.
On the contrary, for some substances like Human main activities are information gathering, risk
Growth Hormones, blood assay is the only method evaluation and developing, monitoring, evaluating
available to detect its abuse. Similarly, methods of and modifying the test distribution plan.
detecting blood doping require blood specimens. The Anti-Doping organization (ADO) shall
define and document the criteria for athlete to be
Why Athletes Use AAS? included in a registered testing tool. This shall
The goals of individuals who use anabolic steroids include as a minimum for international federations
depend upon the activities in which they participate, and for national Anti-Doping organizations.
e.g. Requirements for collecting athlete’s
 Bodybuilders desire more lean mass and less
information for the purposes of out of competition
body fat. testing. The collection, maintaining and monitoring
 Weightlifters desire to lift maximum amount of
sufficient information to ensure that sample
weight as possible. collection can be planned and conducted without
 Field athletes want to put the shot or throw the
prior advanced notice for all athletes included in
hammer, discus or javelin farther than other the registered testing tools, and when athletes failed
competitors or record holders. to provide accurate and timely information, taking
 Swimmers and runners hope to perform their
appropriate action to ensure the information stage
up to date and complete in all respects. As a
frequent high intensity, long duration workouts
minimum of the following information regarding
without physical breakdown.
athletes shall be collected.
 Football players want to increase their lean body
1. Name of the candidate
mass and strength.
2. Sports/game/discipline
Plan and Procedure for Sample Collection 3. Home address
4. Contact/telephone numbers
The main purpose of International Standard for 5. Training times and venues
Testing is to plan for effective testing and to 6. Training camps
maintain the integrity and identity of the samples, 7. Traveling plans
from notifying the athlete to transporting the 8. Competition schedule
sample for analysis. 9. Disability if applicable, including the
The International Standard for Testing includes requirement for 3rd party involvement with
standard for test distribution planning, notification notification.
of athletes, preparing for and conducting sample For this purpose a format of sample collection
collection, security/post-test administration and to be used which is prepared by WADA.
transport of samples. The ADO shall evaluate the potential risk of
 Planning doping and possible doping pattern for which sports
 Notification of athletes and\or discipline based on:
 Preparing for sample collection a. Physical demands of the sports and possible
 Conduction of sample collection session performance enhancing effects that doping
 Security/post-test administration may elicit
 Transports of sample and documentation b. Available doping analysis statistics
c. Available research on doping trends
Planning d. Training periods and competition season.
The objective of the planning is to plan and The ADO shall also establish a system for
implement an effective distribution of athlete’s test. maintaining test distribution planning data, such data
Planning starts with establishing criteria for athletes shall be used to assist with to determining modification
to be included in a registered testing tool and ends to the plan, if necessary. This information shall include
with selecting athletes for sample collection. The as a minimum for each test:
Table 15.1: List of various agents banned by WADA (Chemical Name)
Anabolic agents Hormones and Beta-2 Diuretics Stimulants* Narcotic Beta

related substance agonists analgesics blocker
a. Exogenous AAS
i. Boldione Erythropoetin (EPO) Bitolterol Acetazolamide Adrafinil Alphaprodine Acebutalol
ii. Bolasterone Growth Hormone Orciprenaline Amiloride Amfepramone Anileridine Alprenolol
(hGH) & Insulin-like
growth factor (IGF-I)
iii. Boldenone Gonadotrophins Reproterol Bendroflumethiazide Ampetaminil Buprenorphine Bataxolol
(hCG & LH)
iv. Calusterone Insulin Rimiterol Benzethiazide Amineptine Dextromoramide Bisoprolol
v. Clostebol Corticotrophins Salbutamol Bumetanide Amphetamine Diamorphine(Heroin) Bunolol
(ACTH, tetracosactide)
vi. Danazol Salmeterol Canrenone Andrafinil Dipipanone Carteolol
vii. Delta-1 Terbutaline Chlormerodrin Benzphetamine Ethoheptazine Carvedilol
Androstenediol
viii. Dehydroclormethyl Formoterol Chlorthalidone Bromantane Fentanyl Celiprolol
ix. Ethylestrenol Diclofenamide Carphedone Hydrocodone Esmolol
x. Testosterone Ethacrynic acid Cathine Levorphanol Labetolol
xi. Drostanolone Hydrochlorthiazide Clobenzorex Methadone Levobunolol
xii. Fenoterole Indapamide Cocaine Morphine Metipranolol
xiii. Formebolon Mannitol Dimetamfetamine Nalbuphine Metoprolol
xiv. Furazabol Metolazone Ephedrine Pentazocine Nadolol
xv. Gestrinone Spironolactone Etamivan Pethidine Oxprenolol
xvi. Mestanolone Triamterene Fencamine Phenazocine Propanolol
Doping
Contd...

315
Anabolic agents Hormones and Beta-2 Diuretics Stimulants* Narcotic Beta
related substance agonists analgesics blocker
xvii. Mesterolone Probenecid Fentylline Trimpridine Pindololol

xviii. Methyltestosterone Fenproporex Sotalol
xix. Methyltrienolone Furfenorex Timolol
xx. Nandrolone Heptaminol
xxi. Norbolethone Mefenorex
xxii. Norethandrolone Mesocarbe
xxiii. Orabolin Methylephedrine
xxiv. Oxandrolone Morazone
xxv. Quinbolone Metraminol
xxvi. Stanozolol Nikethamide
xxvii. Delta-1 dehydro Pemoline
testosterone
b. Endogenous AAS Pentetrazol
i. Androstenediol Phentermine
ii. Androstenedion Pyrovaledrine
iii. Dehydroepinandrosterone Selegiline
iv. Dehydrotestosterone
*Note:
a. Cathine is prohibited when its concentration in urine is greater than 5 micrograms/ml.
b. Ephedrine is prohibited when its concentration in urine is greater than 10 µg/ml.
c. For methyl ephedrine, the definition of positive is a concentration in urine greater than 10 microgram/ml.
Doping  317
1. The sports/game/discipline Preparation for Sample Collection

2. The country represented by the athlete (if Preparing for the sample collection session starts
applicable) with the establishment of a system for obtaining
3. The type of sample collection relevant information for effective conduct of the
4. The date of sample collection session and ends when it is confirmed that the
5. The country in which the sample collection sample collection equipment confirms to the
was conducted. specified criteria.
In addition, for each advanced analytical finding: The DCO shall only use sample collection
a. Dates of sample collection and analysis equipment systems that are authorized by the ADO,
b. Classes of substance found which at a minimum, shall meet the following
c. Actual substances detected criteria. They shall:
d. Sections of Anti-Doping rules if violation any i. Have a unique numbering system incorporated
For selection of athletes the ADO shall select into all bottles, containers, tubes or any other
athletes for sample collection using target testing item used to seal the athlete’s sample.
and random selection methods. As minimum target ii. Have a sealing system that is temper evident.
testing athletes should be considered based on the iii. Ensure the identity of the athlete is not evident
following information: from the equipment itself.
a. Injury iv. Ensure that all equipment is clean and sealed
b. Withdrawal or absence from expected prior to use by the athlete.
competition
c. Way into or coming out of retirement Conduction of Sample Collection Session
d. Behavior indicating doping The sample collecting session starts with defining
e. Sudden major improvements in performance overall responsibility for the conduction of the
f. Changes in athlete’s information that can sample collection session and once the sample
indicate a potential increase in the risk of collection documentation is complete. The main
doping, including moving to a remote activities are:
location. i. Preparing for collecting the sample
g. Athlete’s sport performance history
ii. Collecting the sample and
h. Details of first doping controls
i. Reliable information from a third party. iii. Documenting the sample collection.
Following the selection of an athlete for sample In conducting the sample collection session the
collection and prior to notification it should be following information should be recorded as a
ensured that selection decisions were disclosed only minimum:
to those who need to know in order to ensure the i. Date, time and type of notification.
athlete can be notified and tested on a no advance ii. Date and time of sample provision.
notice basis. iii. The name of the athlete.
iv. The date of birth of the athlete.
Notification of Athletes v. The gender of the athlete.
vi. The athlete’s home address and telephone
The objective is to ensure that the selected athletes
number.
is notified, the rights of the athlete are maintained,
vii. The athlete’s sports and disciplines.
there are no opportunities to manipulate the sample
viii. The sample code number.
to be provided and the notification is documented.
ix. The name and signature of the person who
It starts when the ADO initiates the notification of
witnessed the urine sample provision.
the selected athlete and ends when the athlete
x. The name and signature of the blood collection
arrives at the Dope Control Center or when the
official who collected the blood sample, where
athlete’s possible failure to comply is brought to
is applicable.
the ADO’s attention.
xi. Required laboratory information on the sample. The main activities are arranging for the secure
xii. Medications and supplements taken and recent transport of samples and related documentation to
blood transfusion details if applicable within the WADA-accredited laboratory or as otherwise
the timeframe specified by the laboratory as approved by WADA, and arranging for the secure
declared by the athlete. transport of sample collection documentation to
xiii. Any irregularities in procedures. the ADO.
xiv. Athlete comments or concerns regarding the
conduct of the session, if provided. Collection of Urine Samples
xv. The name and signature of the athlete; To collect an athlete’s urine sample in a manner
xvi. The name and signature of the athlete’s that endures: (i) Consistency with relevant
representative if required; and principles of internationally recognized standard
xvii. The name and signature of the DCO. precautions in health care settings so that the health
The athlete and DCO shall sign appropriate and safety of the athlete and sample collection
documentation to indicate their satisfaction that the personnel are not compromised. (ii) The sample is
documentation accurately reflects the details of the of a quality and quantity that meets laboratory
athlete’s sample collection session including any guidelines. (iii) The sample is clearly and accurately
concerns recorded by the athlete. The athlete’s identified, and (iv) The sample is securely sealed.
representative shall sign on behalf of the athlete if The collection of a urine sample begins with
the athlete is a minor. Other persons present who ensuring the athlete is informed of the sample
had a formal role during the athlete’s sample collection requirements and ends with discarding
collection session may sign the documentation as a any residual urine remaining at the end of the
witness of the proceedings. The DCO shall provide athlete’s sample collection session. The DCO has
the athlete with a copy of the records of the sample the responsibility for ensuring that each sample is
collection session that have been sign by the athlete. properly collected, identified and sealed. The DCO
has the responsibility for directly witnessing the
Security/Post-test Administration passing of the urine sample.
All the samples collected at the Doping Control Pr ocedur
Procedur
ocedure:e: At the beginning, the DCO shall
Station and sample collection documentation are ensure that the athlete is informed of the
requirements of the sample collection including any
securely stored prior to their departure from the
modification if necessary.
Doping Control Station. Post-test administration
The DCO shall ensure that the athlete is offered
begins when the athlete has left the Doping Control
a choice of appropriate equipment for collecting
Station after providing his/her sample/s, and ends
the sample. If the nature of athlete’s disability
with preparation of all the collected samples and
requires that he/she use additional or other
documentation of transport.
equipment and the DCO shall inspect the
equipment to ensure that it will not affect the
Transports of Sample and Documentation
identity or integrity of the sample.
All the collected samples and related documentation The DCO shall instruct the athlete to select a
arrived at the WADA accredited laboratory or as collection vessel. When the athlete selects a
otherwise approved by WADA in proper condition collection vessel and for selection of all other sample
to do the necessary analysis. Transport starts when collection equipments that directly holds the urine
the sealed samples and documentation leave the samples, the DCO will instruct the athlete to check
Doping Control Station and ends with the that all seals on the selected equipment is intact
confirmed receipt of the samples and sample and the equipment has not been tampered with. If
collection documentation at their intended the athlete is not satisfied with the selected
destinations. equipment, he/she may select another one. If the
athlete is not satisfied with any of the equipment
Doping  319
available for the selection, this shall be recorded by Finally, the DCO shall use the relevant
the DCO. If the DCO does not agree with the laboratory’s guidelines for pH for specific gravity
athlete’s opinion that all of the equipment available to test the residual urine in the collection vessel to
for the selection is unsatisfactory and the DCO shall determine if the sample is likely to meet the
instruct the athlete to proceed with the sample laboratory’s guidelines. If it is not then the DCO
collection. If the DCO agrees with the reasons put should record that the sample do not meet
forward by the athlete that all of the equipments laboratory pH and specific gravity guidelines.
available for the selection is unsatisfactory, the DCO
shall terminate the collection of the athlete’s urine Collection of Blood Samples
sample and same should be recorded by the DCO.
To collect an athlete’s blood sample in a manner
The athlete shall retain control of the collection
that ensures: (i) The health and safety of the athlete
vessels and any sample provided until the sample is
and sample collection personnel are not
sealed, unless assistance is required by an athlete
compromised. (ii) The sample is of a quality and
disability. The DCO/Chaperone who witnesses the
quantity that meets the relevant analytical
passing of the sample shall be of the same gender
guidelines. (iii) The sample is clearly and accurately
as the athlete providing the sample. And thereafter,
identified and (vi) The sample is securely sealed.
the officials and athlete shall proceed to an area of
The collection of blood sample begins with
privacy to collect the sample. The officials shall
ensuring the athlete is informed of the sample
witness the sample leaving the athlete’s body and
record the witnessing in writing. collection requirements and ends with properly
The DCO shall use the relevant laboratory’s storing the sample prior to dispatch for analysis at
specifications to verify, in full view of the athlete the WADA-accredited laboratory or as otherwise
that the volume of the urine sample satisfies the approved by WADA.
laboratory’s requirements for analysis. If the volume The DCO has the responsibility for ensuring
of urine is insufficient, the DCO shall conduct a that: each sample is properly collected, identified
partial sample collection procedure. and sealed; and all samples have been properly
The DCO shall instruct the athlete to select a stored and dispatch in accordance with the relevant
analytical guidelines. The blood collection officials
sample collection kit containing/marked A & B
has the responsibility for collecting the blood
bottles. Once a sample collection kit has been
sample, answering related questions during the
selected, the DCO and the athlete shall check that
provision of the sample, and proper disposal of used
all code numbers match and that these code
blood sampling equipment not required for
numbers are recorded accurately by the DCO. If
completing the sample collection session.
the athlete or the DCO finds the numbers are not
Pr ocedur
Procedur e: Procedures involving blood shall be
ocedure:
the same, the DCO shall instruct the athlete to
consistent with relevant principles of internationally
choose another kit and in this case the DCO shall
recognized standard precautions in health care
record the matter.
settings. Blood sample collection equipment shall
The athlete shall pour the relevant laboratory’s
consist of either an A sample tube, or a B sample
prescribed minimum volume of urine into the B
tube. If the sample collection consists solely of
bottle and then fill the A bottle as much as possible.
blood then a B sample shall be collected and used
The athlete shall then fill the B bottle as much as
as a confirmation if required.
possible with the remaining urine. The athlete shall
The DCO shall ensure that the athlete is informed
ensure that a small amount of urine is left in the of the requirements of the sample collection, including
collection vessel. The athlete shall seal the bottles any modifications for athletes with disabilities. The
as directed by the DCO. The DCO shall check, in DCO/Chaperone and athlete shall proceed to the
full view of the athlete that the bottles have been area where the sample will be provided. The DCO
properly sealed. shall ensure that the athlete is offered comfortable
conditions including being in a relaxed position for at completing the sample collection session. The athlete
least 10 minutes prior to providing a sample. shall seal his/her sample into the sample collection
The DCO shall instruct the athlete to select the kit as directed by the DCO. In full view of the athlete,
sample collection kits required for collecting the the DCO shall check that the sealing is satisfactory.
sample to check that the selected equipment has Finally, the sealed sample shall be kept at a cool,
not been tampered with and the seals are intact. If but not freezing, temperature prior to analysis at
the athlete is not satisfied with a selected kit, he/ the doping control station or dispatch for analysis
she may select another one. If the athlete is not at the WADA-accredited laboratory or as otherwise
satisfied with any kits and others are available, this approved by WADA.
shall be recorded by the DCO. If the DCO agrees
with the reasons put forward by the athlete that all Detection Time
available kits are unsatisfactory, the DCO shall The elimination time for drugs that appear on the
instruct the athlete to proceed with the sample banned list is a major factor in the testing program.
collection session. But if the DCO agrees with the There are significant biological and physiological
reasons put forward by the athlete that all available variances between individuals. Only a brand
kits are unsatisfactory, the DCO shall terminate the generalization can be made regarding elimination
collection of the athlete’s blood sample and this of particular drug from the system. Individual
shall be recorded by the DCO. metabolism, amount of substance used, frequency
When a sample collection kit has been selected, of use, length of time used and normal
the DCO and the athlete shall check that all code biodegradation process in any individual varies.
number matches and that this code number is
recorded accurately by the DCO. If the athlete or Detection Limit
DCO finds that the numbers are not the same, the After taking a pharmaceutical dose of a drug, the
DCO shall instruct the athlete to choose another following range of drug concentration should be
kit and the DCO shall record the matter. achieved in urine:
The blood collection official shall clean the skin Stimulants 0.5 – 50 µg/ml
with a sterile disinfectant wipe or swab in a location Narcotic analgesics 0.5 – 50 µg/ml
unlikely to adversely affect the athlete or his/her Anabolic steroids 0.1 – 2 µg/ml
performance and if required, apply a tourniquet. Diuretics 0.1 – 2 µg/ml
The blood collection official shall take the blood Beta blockers 0.5 – 50 µg/ml
sample from a superficial vein into the final
collection container. The tourniquet, if applied, WADA Sanctions for Doping Offence
shall be immediately removed after the
i. Disqualification of results in event during
venipuncture has been made. The amount of blood
which an Anti-Doping rule violation occurs.
removed shall be adequate to satisfy the relevant
ii. Imposition of ineligibility for prohibited
analytical requirements for the sample analysis to substances and prohibited methods except for
be performed. the specific substances.
However, if the amount of blood that can be a. First violation: Two years ineligibility
removed from the athlete at the first attempt is b. Second violation: Lifetime ineligibility
insufficient, the blood collection official shall repeat iii. Specified substances:
the procedure. Maximum attempts shall be three. The period of ineligibility for the use of specified
Should all attempts fail, then the blood collection substance will be as follows:
officials shall inform the DCO. The DCO shall a. First violation: At a minimum, a warning and
terminate the collection of the blood sample and reprimand and no period of ineligibility from
record this and the reasons for terminating the future events, and at a maximum, one years
collections. The blood collection official shall apply ineligibility.
a dressing to the puncture site/s and dispose of b. Second violation: Two years ineligibility
used blood sampling equipment not required for c. Third violation: Lifetime ineligibility.
Doping  321
WORLD ANTI-DOPING AGENCY example, heroin and cocaine can only be detected
for a few hours after use, but their metabolies can
(WADA) be detected for several days in urine.
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) was World Anti-Doping Agency is to establish list of
established on November 10, 1999 in Lausanne. It banned substances coordinate unannounced out-of-
is the first worldwide agency to try to combat use competition drug testing, develop standards for
of drugs in sports. World Anti-Doping Agency collecting and analyzing samples, set unified drug
(WADA) promotes and coordinates the fight sanction and promote research. It selected six cities
against doping in sports internationally. The WADA as finalists, to become WADA’s permanent
was set up as a foundation under the initiative of headquarters. Bonn-Germany, Lausanne-Switzerland,
the WADA with the support and participation of Lille-France, Montreal-Canada, Stockholm-Sweden
intergovernmental organizations, governments and and Vienna-Austria.
other public and private bodies to eradicate doping The purposes of the world Anti-Doping program
from sports. It was set up in 1999 following a series and the code are:
of high profile doping scandals. The mission of  To protect the athlete’s fundamental right to
WADA is to promote and coordinate at participate in doping-free sports and thus
international level to fight against doping in all
promote health fairness and equality for athletes
forms. World Anti-Doping Agency coordinates and
worldwide; and
comprehensive Anti-Doping program at
 To ensure harmonized coordinated and effective
international level with the support of the following:
Anti-Doping programs at the international and
i. International Olympic Committee (IOC)
national level with regard to detection deterrence
ii. International Sports Federation (ISF)
and prevention of doping.
iii. National Olympic Committee (NOC)
iv. The athletes The main elements of world Anti-Doping
The following (Table 15.2) table reveals the programs are:
apporoximate detection periods for each substance Level 1: The code
by test type i.e after this period the below mentioned Level 2: International standards
banned substances will bot be present in the sample. Level 3: Models of the best practice
The detection depend upon multiple factors -drug
class amount and frequency of use, metabolic rate, The Code
body mass, age, overall health, and urine pH. For The code is the fundamental and universal document
ease of use, the detection times of metabolites have upon which the world Anti-Doping program in sports
been incorporated into each parent drug. For is based. The purpose of the code is to advance the
Table 15.2: Elemination times of different banned substance
Drugs Elimination time

1. Stimulants:
i. Amphetamines and derivatives 1–7 Days
ii. Cocaine—occasional use 6–12 Hours
Repeated use—with 48 hours 3–5 Days
iii. Over the counter cold medications ephedrine 24–48 Hours
derivatives as decongestants
2. Narcotics in cough medicine 24–48 Hours
3. Marijuana (Tetrahydrocannabinol) 3–5 Weeks
4. Anabolic steroids:
i. Fat—soluble injectable type 6–18 Months
ii. Oral of water—soluble types 4–6 Weeks
5. Beta blockers and Diuretics 24–72 Hours
Anti-Doping effort through universal harmonization competitions. The use of performance enhancing
of core Anti-Doping elements. drugs is mostly done to improve athletic
performance. This is why many sports ban the
International Standards use of performance-enhancing drugs.
The following international standards for different 2. The World Anti-Doping Agency’s (WADA)
technical and operational areas within the Anti- mission is to promote, coordinate and monitor
Doping program have been developed in the fight against doping in sport in all its forms.
consultation with the signatories and governments Its key activities include scientific research,
and approved by WADA: education, development of Anti-Doping
 International standard for laboratories capacities, and monitoring of the World-Anti-
 International standard for testing Doping Code (Code)—the document
 International standard for therapeutic use harmonizing Anti-Doping policies in all sports
exemptions. and all countries. WADA is a Swiss private law
foundation. Its seat is in Lausanne,
Models of Best Practice Switzerland, and its headquarters are in
Montreal, Canada. WADA works towards a
A model of best practice based on the code has vision of the world that values and fosters a
been developing to provide state of the art-solution doping-free culture in sport. This section
in different areas of Anti-Doping. Recently WADA provides information about WADA’s
has issued the following guidelines/forms: constitution, structure and governance.
a. Guidelines for athlete information 3. Prohibited classes of substances are stimulants,
b. Guidelines for result management opioid analgesics, anabolic agents, diuretics,
c. Guidelines of transition from ISO/pas
peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues.
18873:1999 to World Anti-Doping Program prohibited methods are blood doping,
d. Guidelines for bodies operating certification
pharmacological, chemical and physical
of quality systems for doping control program manipulation. Classes of drugs subject to
e. International standard for laboratories version restrictions are alcohol, cannabinoids, local
4.0 August, 2004
anesthetics, corticosteroids and beta blockers.
f. Chain of custody form 4. The adrenergic stimulants—ephedrine and
g. Requirement for Anti-Doping analysis of ephedrine derivatives are related chemically to
whole blood, plasma, serum or other blood
the body’s own ‘stress hormones’, adrenaline
fractions and noradrenaline. The physiologic changes
h. Reporting Norandrosterone findings that prepare a body for strenuous exercise are
i. Reporting and evaluation guidance for
sometimes called the “fight or flight” response.
testosterone, epitestosterone T/E ratio and These changes persist during exercise and are
other endogenous steroids. necessary for maximal performance. The
reason for the inclusion of stimulants in the
SUMMARY doping register is that they conceal the feeling
1. Doping is defined as the administering or use of of exhaustion.
substances in any form alien to the body, or of 5. Morphine like analgesics are the most effective
physiological substances in abnormal amounts of all analgesics and they are powerful
and with abnormal methods, by health anxiolytics and sedatives. They act on CNS and
personnel with the exclusive aim of attaining reduce feelings of pain. Narcotic analgesics
an artificial and unfair increase of performance may be used to mask the sensation of pain.
in competition. In sports, the use of The greatest risk associated with the use of
performance-enhancing drugs is commonly morphine like analgesics is the risk of
referred to by the disparaging term “doping”, addiction. The drugs are classified as string
particularly by those organizations that regulate narcotics. Combined with alcohol, even small
Doping  323
doses of the weakest of the preparations may (anxiety relieving) or tranquillizing effect, the
result in respiratory arrest and death. other a stimulatory effect. Probably alcohol has
6. Anabolic adrenergic steroids are man-made a refreshing effect and the ability to restore the
substances related to male sex hormones. Athletes athlete’s strength. Marijuana is a relaxant and
and bodybuilders abuse anabolic steroids to impairs judgment. In high doses, it causes
enhance performance and improve physical hallucinations. There can be no doubt that the
appearance. The effects of anabolic steroids on immediate and long-term effect of cannabis use
women are relatively clear. Muscle mass and are detrimental to sporting performance due
strength appear to increase when these agents to effect on the heart, lungs and CNS.
are used in conjunction with strength training. 9. Drug is defined as “A chemical substance used
This means that, with large doses of anabolic in the treatment, cure, prevention, or diagnosis
steroids, a women’s athletic performance could of disease or used to otherwise enhance
approach that of a men. The major side effects physical or mental well-being.” Drugs may be
from abusing anabolic steroids can improve liver prescribed for a limited duration, or on a
tumors and cancers, jaundice, fluid retention, regular basis for chronic disorders. Drug abuse
and high blood pressure. has a wide range of definitions related to taking
7. Diuretics are drugs which increase the amount a psychoactive drug or performance-enhancing
of fluid excreted by the kidneys. Diuretics are drug for a non-therapeutic or non-medical
used by sportsmen and women to decrease effect. Drug testing is an integral part of the
body weight, to increase power to weight ratios system of dope control. It has become a way
and to help qualify for cer tain weight of life for many athletes. Its aim is to provide
categories, e.g. boxing and judo. Human correct and dependable analytical results which
growth hormone (hGH) is known to act on are based on scientific data.
many aspects of cellular metabolism and is also
necessary for skeletal growth in humans. The REVIEW QUESTIONS
major role of hGH in body growth that is 1. Define ‘Doping’. What is the historical
muscle and organ growth. hGH is prohibited perspective of doping?
both in- and out-of-competition under the 2. What are the prohibited classes of substances
WADA’s List of Prohibited Substances and and prohibited methods of doping?
Methods. The common side effects for hGH 3. What do you mean by drug? What is drug
abuse are: diabetes in prone individuals; abuse? Discuss the type of drug testing.
worsening of cardiovascular diseases; muscle,
4. What is presently known about the use of
joint and bone pain; hypertension and cardiac
amphetamines in athletics competition? What
deficiency; abnormal growth of organs;
are the potential risks of using amphetamines?
accelerated osteoarthritis.
5. What are the adrenergic stimulants? What are
8. Blood doping is the misuse of cer tain
the side effects of this group of stimulant?
techniques and/or substances to increase one’s
6. Under what circumstances might beta blockers
red blood cell mass, which allows the body to
be ergogenic aids? Write some of their ergolytic
transport more oxygen to muscles and
therefore increase stamina/endurance and properties.
performance. The common side effects are 7. What is known about Cocaine and Marijuana
blood clots which cause strokes (embolism), as an ergogenic aids? How might caffeine
life threatening hypersensitivity reaction improve athletic performance?
(anaphylactic shock), and other transfusion 8. What is anabolic agent and Diuretics? Are
reactions. Alcohol has two entirely different diuretics ergogenic? What are the potential
effects on the brain. One is an anxiolytics risks associated with the use of diuretics?
9. What is known about human growth hormone 12. Write the systematic plan and procedure of
as potential ergogenic aid? What are the risks sample collection for drug testing.
associated with its use? 13. Discuss about the Collection of Urine and
10. What is blood doping? Does blood doping Blood Samples. What do you mean by the
improve athletic performance? Discuss with detection time and limit?
suitable example. 14. What do you mean by World Anti-Doping
11. How does the use of alcohol in moderate or Agency (WADA)? Write down about the
large doses affect athletic performance? WADA sanctions for doping offence.
Index
Page numbers followed by f refer to figure and t refer to table
A Anabolic agents 302, 303, 310

Anaerobic
ABO system 35, See Blood groups
metabolism 119
Acclimatization to exercise in heat 220
threshold 131, 240
Achieving heat acclimatization 220
Androgenic anabolic steroids 310
Achromatic spindle 14
Anterio posterior chest depth 275
Acid-base readjustment 227
Anterior
Acidosis and alkalosis 118
hypothalamus center 213
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome 36
or ventral plane 268
Active
pituitary 214
muscles for production of energy 137f
Anthropometric
Active recovery 245
instruments 269
Acts protein reserve 35
measurements 196
Acute
for young and middle age 196
mountain or altitude sickness 226
rod 269
stress response 102
somatotype method 279
Adaptation to aerobic training 136
Antidiuretic hormone 113
ADH regulate water balance in body 112f
Antioxidant role of specific vitamins 155
Adipose tissue 16, 17, 17f
Antivitamins 153
Adrenal
Anxiolytics effect 307
cortex 214
Apertures, atrioventricular 37
medulla 214
Applications in sports science 288
Adrenergic
Aquatic sports 259
anabolic steroids 302
Archery 259
stimulants 302
Areolar tissue 16, 17
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone 110, 305
Arm circumference
Aerobic and anaerobic
relaxed 276
energy 126f
Army boys sports companies 256
metabolism 119
Arterioles 41
training 184
Artery, structure of 41
methods 133
Ascorbic acid 153 See vitamin C
Aerobic
Assessment integrity 254
capacity 181
Associated respiratory organs 59
metabolism 121
Athletes heart 54, 57
Agglutinin 35
Athletic ability 202
Agglutinogen 35
Athletics middle and long distance running 259
Agranulocytes 34
ATP-CP system 118
Air conducting passage 58
Atrioventricular
Alactacid and lactacid debts 128
apertures 37
Alcohol 307
valves 37
Allied health and wellness 5
Autonomic nervous center, role of 213
Alternate hot and cold baths or showers 245
Average height and weight of boys 173t
Altitude
acclimatization 224
related medical problems 225 B
training and sea level
performance 229 Bachelors degree EPC 6
training 229 Balance
Alveoli 16 exercise with rest and recovery 244
Amenorrhea 206 of body heat gain and loss 211f
American College of Sports Medicine 204 Balanced
Amino acids 8 diets 160
ectomorph 279 Bones 175, 196

endomorphy 278 Borrelia burgdorferi 11
mesomorph 279 Bowman's capsule 15
Balancing blood 24 Boys
Ball game and girls with increase, fat free body mass of 195
football 259 average height and weight of 173t
hockey 259 Brain protection 21
Basal metabolic rate 186 Brainstem 21
BMR 117 and cerebellum 20
Basement membrane 15 Breathing in and out 22
Basic Bulimia nervosa 206
Guidelines for Resistance Exercise Progression 184
steps of muscle contraction process 84
Basophil cells 17 C
Basophils 34 Caffeine 301
produce heparin 34 Calculating anthropometric somatotype 280
Beep test 143 See Multistage fitness test Calf circumference 276
Behavioral manifestations of fight-or-flight 103 Calipers
Biacromial breadth 275 anthropometry 292
Bicuspid valves or mitral valves 37 skinfold measurements 292
Bi-iliocristal breadth 275 Calorie
Biologic age 173 and nutrient requirements, computation of 161
Biology of stress response 102 requirement 161
Blank somatochart 287f Camellia senensis 237
Bleeding vessels, blood coagulates and 35 Capsicum annuum 237
Blood Carbohydrate, fat, classification and functions of 149
and hemopoietic tissue 16, 18 Carbohydrates 149
carries oxygen 31 functions of 150
coagulates and bleeding vessels 35 Carbon dioxide 21
color of 32 in physical solution 67
composition of 32 transport 67
doping 306 Cardiac cycle 42
functions of 34 time 42
groups 35 See ABO system Cardiac
in heart during during maximal exercise 46
diastolic 38 during rest 46
systolic 38 during sub-maximal exercise 46
lactate accumulation, onset of 239 effect of training on 46
pressure 51, 181 muscle 18f, 19
effect of training on 53 output 42, 180
samples, collection of 318, 319 Cardiorespiratory
shedding of 35 adaptation 202
transfusion of 35 effects 224
vessels Cardiovascular
artery 41 changes 186
capillary 41 function 178
vein 41 system 22, 32
volume 32 Cartilage 16, 18
Body Catabolism 117
and oxygen-poor 31 Catecholamines 111
CO2 reach 31 Causes and symptoms 235
fat 175, 186, 195 of fatigue 235
analyzing-comparing methods for measuring 291 Cell
percent for men and women of various ages 196t body tissue 124
fluid balance 218 genome 10
sweating 218 nerve 19f
size and composition 222 nucleus 10
temperature 49 prokaryotic 10
rise of 118 structure and functions 10
tissue cells 124 structure of 11
water and water balance 161 tissue, organ and system 10
weight control and exercise 164 wall 10
Bone density 187
Index  327
Central human blood 33f

adaptations 200 Compound epithelial tissue 16
nervous system 16, 308 Computation of calorie and nutrient requirements 161
Centrosome 14 Concentric (isotonic) action 85
Cerebellum 20, 21 Conducting system of heart muscle 40
Cerebrum 20 Conduction
role of 213 over AV node 40
Change of over bundle of His 40
fat 176 through Purkinje system 40
fat free mass 176 Connective tissue 16
skin 176 Contractile process: sliding filament theory 82
Change of height and weight with age of boys and girls 174 Contrast water therapy 245
Changes in Controls metabolic functions 63
body mass and composition 228 Cooper 12 minute run and walk test 142
circulating hormonal concentrations 104 Cortex, adrenal 214
muscular strength with aging 190 Corticotrophin
Chelone glabra 237 acth 312
Chemical tetracosactide 312
changes in muscle 91 Cortisol 110
processing factory 24 Cristae mitochondriales 12
structure of D-glucose 149f Cubical
Chest cells 15
breadth 275 cuboidal 15
caliper 271 Cytoplasm 11
circumference 276 Cytoplasmic
Child's lower VO2 max value 181 inclusions 11
Chorionic gonadotrophin 311 organelles 11
Chromatin 14 ribonucleic acid 11
Chromium picolinate 107
Chronological age 171
Circular path of blood circulation 40 D
Circulation of blood through heart 38 Daily dietary allowances established by nation 160
Circulatory system 27, 31 Danish influence 3
Classes of prohibited substances 307 Decrease in plasma volume 227
Classification and functions of Deep breathing exercises 238
carbohydrate, fat 149 Definition of hormone 95
vitamins and mineral 152 Derivation and content of kinanthropometry 266f
Classification of Developmental change in ventilatory components 178
epithelial tissue 15 Developmental norms 172
foods 149, 149f Diaphragm and abdominal muscles 62
minerals 158 Diastolic pressure 51
muscle 76 Diencephalon 21
proteins 151 Diet and exercise, optimizing HGH therapy with 106
somatotypes 278 Dietary changes 236
tissue and functions 14 Diets affect performance 167
vitamines 153 Difference between skeletal and
CO2 reach 22 cardiac muscles 76
Cocaine 301 smooth muscles 76
Cola nitida 237 Differences between men and women 194
Cold acclimatization 222 Digestive
Collection of blood samples 318, 319 gland 15
Color of system 29, 31
blood 32 Digital stadiometer 269f
face 235 Dimension of bleep test protocol 144f
Color therapy 238 Disaccharide 150
Columnar Distal plane 268
cylindrical 16 Dominant somatotype rating and respective sports 288
Combat sports 259 Donor's group 36
Common Doping 299
tests for all games/sports/events 259 Drainage of waste products 34
warning signs of overtraining 242 Drug
Composition of abuse 313
blood 32 testing 313
Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) 293 Exchanging gases 21

Dynamic lung volume 63 Excretory
Dyslipoproteinemia 7 functions 63
system 29, 31
Exercise
E and antioxidant 156
Eat properly 244 body weight control and 164
Eating disorders 206 cardiac output during
Economic benefits of exercise 7 maximal 46
Ectomorphic sub-maximal 46
endomorph 279 in cold 221
mesomorph 279 physiological responses to 223
Effect of in heat 219
aging on VO2 max 140 physiological response to 215
concurrent training on muscle growth 88 physiology in high performance, role of 7
exercise stroke volume in 47
formation of urine 25 Expiratory reserve volume 73
on growth 175 External
training on intercostal muscles 61
blood pressure 53 respiration 60
cardiac output 46 Extreme somatotypes 277
heart rate 50
stroke volume 47
Electrocardiogram 43 F
Electron Face, color of 235
microscopic structure of skeletal muscle 82 Factors affecting
transport system 123 BMR 117
Elemination times of different banned substance 321t body heat loss 222
End-diastolic volume 47 heart rate 48
Endocrine lung volumes and capacities 63
gland in human body 96f Factors effecting cardiac output 45
glands 97, 97t Fallopian tube of ovary 16
role of 214 Fat metabolism 123, 201
secretions, functions, 97, 97t Fatigue and recovery 234
system 29, 31, 95 physiological basis of 234
Endomorphic Fatigue lactic acid, physiological basis of 239
ectomorph 279 Fatigue, causes and symptoms of 235
mesomorph 278 Fats, functions of 152
Endoplasmic reticulum 11 Fat-soluble vitamins 153
End-systolic volume 47 Fatty acids 151
Endurance capacity on return to sea level 228 Feces, water loss in 163
Energy 117 Female athlete triad 207
active muscles for production of 137f Femur bicondylar diameter 276
for muscle contraction 2 Fiber type conversions 88
for muscular contraction 84 Fibroblasts, histiocytes 17
metabolism 116 Fick principle 45
rest, exercise and recovery 125 Fight-or-flight
Eosinophils 34 behavioral manifestations of 103
Epithelial tissue, classification of 15 response 102
Equations for First component (endomorphy) 278
decimal anthropometric somatotype 281 Flattened vesicles 12
somatotype analysis 287 Fluid loss 226
Erythropoietin (EPO) 305, 312 Food
peptide hormone 305 classification of 149, 149f
Essential definition 149
for life 24 requirements 160
oils 237 supplements during competition 166
Estimation of body composition 289 Foot length 275
Eukaryotic cells 10, 11 Forced expiratory
Eumenorrhea 204 time 73
Events in cardiac cycle 42 volume 73
Excess post exercise oxygen 128 Forced vital capacity 73
Index  329
Forearm exhaustion 216

circumference 276 illness, prevention of 217
length 275 related disorders 216
Formed elements of blood 32 strain 215
Frontal or coronal plane 268 stress 215, 232
Function of stroke 216
blood coagulation 35 syncope 216, 232
immunity 36 Heath-carter somatotype
Functional aspect of respiration 63 method 278
Functions of rating form 280
blood 34 Height
carbohydrates 150 and weight with increase in age of boys and girls 195
fats 152 measuring table 270f
muscular tissue 19 Hemoglobin 32
protein 151 Henle's loop 15
WBC 34 Herbal remedies 237
Heredity, role of 140
High altitude
G and return to sea level 228f
Game/sports/event related specific anthropometric 259 cerebral edema 226
Gaseous exchange 63 pulmonary edema 226
Gender differences in endurance performance 198 High and low intensity, O2 deficit and O2 debt at 127
Genetical/hereditary trait of sports talent 249 Hollow sprints 136
Glycerol 152 Hormone 95
Glycolysis, reaction sequence of 119 adrenocorticotrophic 110
Goblet cells 16 and exercise 105
Golgi apparatus 11, 12, 14 definition of 95
structure of 13f Hot and
Goniometer 271, 272f dry environment 219
Granulocytes 33 humid environment 219
Growth Human
and development of tissues 173 blood, composition of 33f
and maturation 184 body 20f, 211
development and young athlete 171 brain 20
effect of exercise on 175 chorionic gonadotropin 304
hormone 106 circulatory system 25f
HGH, somatotrophin 312 digestive system 27f
significantly improves body composition 107 endocrine system 28f
Gymnema sylvestre 107 excretory system 28f
growth hormone 304
heart 22
H and circulatory path 39f
kidney 24
Hair-like processes 16 limitations in heat 215
Harvard liver 23
fatigue laboratory 3 lungs 21
step test 143 structure of 59f
Heart muscular system 25f
and blood vessels 15 nervous system 26f
and circulation 37 physique 276
and various arteries and veins 37 reproductive system
beat 22, 42 female 29f
muscle, conducting system of 40 male 29f
rate response to respiratory organ
exercise 49 lungs, structure of 58
maximal exercise 49 respiratory system 26f
submaximal exercise 49 skeletal system 24f
rate, stroke volume, cardiac output 23, 47, 179, 180f stomach 23
size and heart rate 196 Humerus bicondylar diameter 275
sounds 41 Hydrodensitometry weighing
Heat underwater weighing 291
acclimatization to exercise in 220 Hyperthermia, prevention of 217
cramps 216
Hyper-vitaminosis 155 Left

Hypothalamus, role of 213 atrium 38
Hypothermia 223 ventricular
internal dimension 54t
mass 54t
I volume 54t
Identification of talent in sports 247 wall 54t
Importance of nutrition 148 Level of endogenous corticosteroids 305
Impulse through heart, conduction of 39f Lifestyle changes 237
Increase in Light and dark band of skeletal muscle fibers 81f
age of boys and girls, muscle mass with 175 List of
age, muscle mass of boys and girls with 195 doping substances 309
red blood cell 227 various agents banned by WADA 315
Increased Location of all endocrine gland in human body 96
cardiovascular responses 225 Long-term adjustment to altitude 226
pulmonary ventilation Low lactate threshold 240
hyperventilation 225 Lower leg length 275
Inferior vena cava 42 Lung
Influence of growth factors on physical fitness 172 function 65
Ingestion of food 53 volume and capacities 63
Inspiratory capacity 73 Lungs 38, 59
Inspiratory reserve volume 73 and respiratory response 197
Insulin 109 Lyme disease 11
and glucagon 109 Lymphatic system 36
like growth factors 312 Lymphocytes 34
Interconversion in body 118 Lysosomes 11, 13
Intercostal muscles 59
Internal respiration 60
Intraventricular septum 37 M
Introduction to Maintenance of
energy metabolism 116 acid base balance 34
kinanthropometry 265 body temperature 35
Involuntary muscles water balance 34
cardiac muscles 75 Major respiratory muscles involved during rest 61
smooth muscles 75 Marasmus 151
Marijuana 308
Mast cells 17
J Master degree EPC 6
Jelly-like tissue 16 Maximal oxygen
Job of EPC trained person 5 consumption 136, 198
Jogging 136 uptake 141
Maximum
heart rate 48, 50
K voluntary ventilation 73
Mean age of players nationwise participating 253
Kidney, pelvis of 16 Measurement of
Kidneys dysfunction 25 blood pressure 51
Kinanthropometry, derivation and content of 266f lung function 64
Krebs cycle 122f See TCA cycle Mechanism of heat
reaction sequence of 121 loss 211
Kwashiorkor 151 production 211
Medulla, adrenal 214
Mega vitamins 157
L Membranous organelles 11, 12
Lactate Menarche 203
shuttle 239 Menopause 207
threshold 132 Menstrual dysfunction 204
tolerance training sessions 240 Menstruation and athletic performance 203
Lactic acid, production of 129 Mentha X piperita 237
Layer of cells 16 Mesomorph
Layrs in artery and vein 41f ectomorph 279
Lean body weight 186 endomorph 278
Index  331
Mesomorphic N
ectomorph 279
endomorph 278 Narcotic analgesics 310
Metabolic National Sports Talent Contest 256
equivalents 118 Nationwise retention rate of selected talent 253t
water 162 Nation-wise talent development in million 254t
Metabolism 117 Natural selection 248
of fat, protein and carbohydrate 124f Near infrared interactance 293
Methods of recovery 235 Negative effects of stress responsein humans 103
Methyl ephedrine 310 Nerve cell 19f
Midsagittal plane 268 Nervous system 27, 31, 175, 187
Million nephrons 24 and thermotaxis 213
Minerals 157 role of 232
and exercise performance 159 Nervous tissue 19
classification of 158 Neuromuscular adaptation 202
in body, role of 158 Neutrophils 33
sources, functions and deficiency symptom 158 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide 239
Mitochondria 11, 12 Nicotine 301
Mitochondrion and internal structures 13f Nonsteroidal anabolic agents 311
Model of talent identification and monitoring 260 Non-systematic approaches 251
Monitoring of trainees 257 Normative value for adult males 142t
Monocytes 34 Norwegian and finish influence 4
Motor fibers of cerebrospinal system, role of 213 Notification of athletes 317
Multistage fitness test 143 See Beep test Nuclear membrane 14
Muscle 2, 17, 175, 194 Nucleolus 14
abdominal, diaphragm and 62 Nucleus 11, 14
cardiac 18f, 19 Nutrient requirement 161
classification of 76 Nutrients, transport of 34
conduction Nutrition
over atrial 40 and physical performance 148
through ventricular 41 importance of 148
contraction process, basic steps of 84
endurance capacity and aging 191
fiber 87
O
distribution and sports performance 90 O2 and CO2 in tissue and in lungs 68f
type and aging 191 O2 consumption by telemetric metabolic gas analyze 4
function 223 O2 deficit and O2 debt at high and low intensity 127
glycogen ? Obesity 6, 53
loading or supercompensation 167 Oligomenorrhea 204
stores in muscle 168f Olympic success 253
growth, effect of concurrent training on 88 Onset of blood lactate accumulation 239
hyperplasia 91, 92 Opening of SAG centers 257
mass of boys and girls with increase in age 195 Optimizing HGH therapy with diet and exercise 106
mass with increase in age of boys and girls 175 Optimum GH enhancing routine 107, 108f
of head and neck 78, 78f Organ systems 31
of lower extremities 78, 79, 80f of human body and functions 26
of respiration 59 Organs of human body 20
of trunk 78, 79, 79f Osseous tissue (bone) 16, 18
of upper extremities 78, 79, 80f Ovary
raise and lowers chest cage 62 covering of 15
role of 215 fallopian tube of 16
size and strength 186 Overtraining, common warning signs of 242
strength and power 201 Overview of endocrine system 95
used in inspiration 60 Oxygen
Muscular debt 127
movement in man 2 delivery limits 137
system 27, 31, 75 supply to heart 23
tissue 18 transport in tissues 67
tissue, functions of 19 transport of 65
Mycoplasma 10
P Psychology of stress response 102

Pulmonary
Pacemaker 22 artery 38
Panax ginseng 237 function 178
Parietal pleura 59 veins 37
PC and alactacid O2 debt 129 ventilation 60, 71
Pelvis of kidney 16 Pulse rate 42
Peptide hormones Pump carries oxygen-poor 22
and analogues 304
mimetic and analogues 311
Peptidoglycan 10 Q
Periodical evaluation and assessment of existing 259t
Phases of respiration 60 Queens college step test 142
Phenylpropanolamine and pseudoephedrine 310
Phospholipid bilayer 10
Physical activity and environmental factors play 164 R
Physiological changes accompanying aging process 185 Reaction
Physiological/motor qualities 255 of blood 32
Physiology sequence of
and anthropometry, role of 260 glycolysis 119
of altitude acclimatization 224 Krebs cycle 121
of stress response 102 Recoil tendency of lungs 62
Pigment cells 17 Recommended oral rehydration solution 164
Pituitary and synthetic gonadotrophin 311 Recovery heart rate 51
Planes of human body 269f Red blood corpuscles (RBCs) 33, 33f
Plasma 33 Regulates
cells 17 acid-base balance 63
membrane 10-12 blood loss 35
volume, decrease in 227 body temperature 63
Plasmalemma or cell membrane 12, 30 water balance 63
Plasmids 11 Regulating blood pressure 25
Platelets or trombocytes 34 Regulation of
Polysaccharide 150 body temperature 210
Post-competition meal 167 hormone secretion 101, 104f
Posterior Relationship between exercise intensity and blood 133
hypothalamus center 213 Release of food into small intestine 23
or dorsal plane 269 Removal of lactic acid from blood
Potential dangerous side effects 302 and muscle 131
Practical recommendations for fluid replacement 217 rest recovery 131
Pre-competition meal 166 Repetitions of sprints 135
Pregnancy 205 Replace fluids 244
Prevention of Replenishment of energy stores during recovery 128
heat illness 217 Reproductive system 30, 31, 308
hyperthermia 217 Resistance (strength) training 182
Primary or nutritive food 149 Respiratory
Production of lactic acid 129 changes 186
Prohibited classes of substances 309 function of blood 2
Prokaryotic cell's plasma membrane 10 gasses, transport of 65
Prokaryotic cells 10 muscles 60
Proper sleep 245 quotient (RQ) 118
Properties of muscles 75 regulation of acid-base balance 72
Proportional to total surface area 211 system 21, 27, 31, 58
Protective function 35 Response to heat 197
Protein Rest and recovery after exercise 243
factories 14 Resting cell 14
functions of 151 Resting heart rate 48, 50
metabolism 123 Restoration of
Proteins 150 muscle and liver glycogen 129
classification of 151 oxygen stores (O2-myoglobin stores) 131
Proteusterone 108 Reticular tissue 16, 17
Provitamins 153 Reticuloendothelial tissue 16, 18
Proximal plane 268 Rheumatoid arthritis 6
Index  333
Rh-factor 36 cells 22
Rhythmicity of heart muscle 40 electron microscopic structure of 82
Ribonucleic acid 14 fibers, light and dark band of 81f
Ribosome 14 structure of 80
Right Skeletal system 26, 31
atrium 38 Skin fold 276
ventricle pumps 22 by skin fold caliper 292f
Rise of body temperature 118 caliper 270
Role of harpenden 271f
autonomic nervous center 213 Sleep deprivation hinder sports performance 243
cerebrum 213 Sliding caliper 270
endocrine glands 214 with vernier scale 271f
exercise physiology in high performance 7 Small and large intestine 16
heredity 140 Smooth muscle around arterioles 215
hypothalamus 213 Sodium bicarbonate 240
minerals in body 158 Somatotype
motor fibers of cerebrospinal system 213 Attitudinal
muscles 215 distance 287
nervous system 232 means 287
physiology and anthropometry 260 classification of 278
spinal cord in heat regulation 213 turn table 270
sports science 260 Sources of energy 118
sweat glands 214 Special area games 256
water soluble vitamins in metabolism 157 Specific vitamins, antioxidant role of 155
Rosmarinus officinalis 237 Speed play 136
Rowing ergometer 2f Spinal cord in heat regulation, role of 213
Running Spleen 36
economy 181 Sports
speed and anaerobic threshold 132f anthropometry 265
director 6
hostel 257
S progams 6
Sagittal plane or anterio-posterior plane 268 project development area 256
Salivary gland 15 science, role of 260
Sample volleyball basketball and racquet 259
and documentation, transports of 318 Spreading caliper 270f, 271
collection session, conduction of 317 Sprinting and jumping 260
Scandinavian influence 3 Static
Schemes of sports authority of India 255 isometric
Scholander microgas analyzer 4f action 86
Scientific selection 248 lung volume 63
Second component (mesomorphy) 278 Steady state heart rate 48
Secondary or protective food 152 Steal measuring tape 271, 272f
Secretory vesicles 12 Steps
Security guard 24 for talent identification 260
Security/post-test administration 318 of anaerobic metabolism 119
Selected factors affecting blood pressure 53 Stimulants 300
Selection of talents 7 Stimulatory effect 307
Sequence of events during cardiac cycle 43f Stomach 16
Serous membrane 15 Storage of food 23
Serum 35 Strength
Shedding of blood 35 coach 6
Simple training recommendations for prepubescent 183
epithelial tissues 15 Stress response, psychology of 102
pavement epithelium 15f Stroke volume 46, 54t, 179
Sitting height table 270 in exercise 47
Skeletal and Structure of
cardiac muscles, difference between 76 artery 41
smooth muscles, difference between 76 cell 11
Skeletal muscle 18f, 19, 75, 78, 215 Golgi apparatus 13f
adaptation 90 human
capacity limiting 138 lungs 58, 59f
respiratory organ of sample and documentation 318

skeletal muscle 80 Treating overtraining syndrome 242
Submaximal heart rate 50 Treatment of hypothermia 224
Sub mueosus and sub serous tissues 17 Tricuspid valves 37
Suicide bag 13 Trunk length 275
Summer olympic games of five nations 253t Tunica
Superior and inferior vena cava 37 adventitia 41
Supplementation of vitamins 156 intima 41
Sweat glands, role of 214 media 41
Swedish influence 4 Turnera diffusa 237
Symptoms of fatigue 235 Types of
Syndrome, acquired immune deficiency 36 muscle action 85
Systematic WBC 33
governmental systems 251
non-governmental systems 251
Systole and relaxation phase is diastole 42 U
Systolic pressure 51 Ultra structure of human skeletal muscles 81f
Union cycliste international 300
Universal
T donor 36
Talent recipient 36
identification Upper
in India 255 arm length 275
system of different countries 251 leg length 275
in sports, identification of 247 Ureter 16
selection 247 Urethra 16
program 257 Urinary bladder 16
TCA cycle 122f See Krebs cycle Urine, water loss in 163
Terminal respiratory bronchioles 15 Uterus 16
Testosterone 105
Thermal stress 182
Thermoplasma 10 V
Thigh circumference 276 Valves, atrioventricular 37
Three systems by which ATP formed 125t Various anthropometric measurement
Thyroid 15, 214 interior view 274
hormone 112 posterior view 273
Thyroxin 112 Various events in cardiac cycle 42
Tibiale Vegetarian diet 167
laterale 273 Veins 41
mediale 273 Venous blood 38
Timing of nutritional intake 166 Ventilation and perfusion of respiratory wall 59
Tissue Ventilatory
and functions, classification of 14 components, developmental change in 178
and in lungs, O2 and CO2 in 68f equivalent 72
in human body 15f for oxygen 178
level changes 227 threshold 132
Total Vessels and nerves 17
arm length 275 Visceral
body electrical conductivity (TOBEC) 294 muscle 18f, 19
leg length 275 pleura 59
Traditional chinese medicine 238 Vital capacity 73
Training Vitamin
adaptation in aged 187 B-complex 153
young athlete 182 C 153 See ascorbic acid
Transfusion of blood 35 Vitamins 152
Transitional epithelium 16f and exercise performance 156
Transport and mineral, classification and functions of 152
hormones 34 definition 152
of nutrients 34 sources, functions, deficiency symptoms, 153
of oxygen 65 VO2 max in athletes and non athletes 140
of respiratory gasses 65
Index  335
W sources 162
Ways to recover quickly after exercise 244
WADA sanctions for doping offence 320
WBC produce trephons 34
Walk test, cooper 12 minute run and 142
Weighing machine 269
Warning signs for anorexia nervosa 206
White
Warning signs for bulimia nervosa 206
blood corpuscles 33, 34f
Water 161
fibrous tissue 16, 17
balance 162
Windchill 222
body water and 161
Woman's heart 196
content in body 162f
Women athletes 194
from liquids 162
World anti-doping agency's (WADA) 306, 322
functions 162
Wrist diameter 276
in foods 162
intake 162
loss Y
in feces 163
in urine 163 Yellow elastic tissue 16, 17
through skin 163 Young athletes, physical performance in 176
output 163
requirement in exercise 164
soluble vitamines 153 Z
in metabolism, role of 157 Zingiber officinale 237

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A Textbook of

SPORTS AND EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY

Swapan Kumar Dey PhD

JAYPEE BROTHERS MEDICAL PUBLISHERS (P) LTD

Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd

© 2012, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers

Inquiries for bulk sales may be solicited at: [email protected]

A Textbook of Sports and Exercise Physiology

First Edition: 2012

My parents, wife and son

Swapan Kumar Dey

1. Historical Perspective of Exercise Physiology ......................................................... 1

2. Cell, Tissue, Organ and System .............................................................................. 10

3. Cardiovascular System ............................................................................................ 32

4. Respiratory System .................................................................................................. 58

6. Endocrine System .................................................................................................... 95

7. Energy Metabolism ................................................................................................ 116

Adaptation to Aerobic Training 136

8. Nutrition and Physical Performance .................................................................... 148

9. Age, Sex and Physical Performance ..................................................................... 171

10. Women Athletes...................................................................................................... 194

11. Environment and Physical Performance.............................................................. 210

12. Physiological Basis of Fatigue and Recovery ...................................................... 234

13. Identification of Talent in Sports .......................................................................... 247

14. Sports Anthropometry ............................................................................................ 265

15. Doping .................................................................................................................... 299

Index ............................................................................................................................... 325

 Brief History  Places where EPC should be able to Work?

BRIEF HISTORY the word ‘PHYSIOLOGY’ means the study of the

Fig. 1.3. Measurement of O2 consumption by telemetric

cardiology, nutrition, pulmonology, endocrinology,  Sports director

 Dyslipoproteinemia for their daily work, which was beneficial to them.

physiologists to the Harvard fatigue laboratory physiological per formance is required.

 Cell Structure and Functions  Skeletal System

Membranous Organelles Functions:

Fig. 2.2: Structure of Golgi apparatus

Fig. 2.3: Mitochondrion and its internal structures

Fig. 2.4: Schematic diagram of classification of various tissues in human body

ii. The supporting loose vascular connective tissue,

Fig. 2.7: Adipose tissue Fig. 2.8: Yellow elastic tissue

Classification of muscular tissue: There are

Functions: Location: Inside the skull

Fig. 2.12: Structure of human heart

Organ systems are composed of two or more

Fig. 2.17: Human respiratory system (image courtsey of G Huang)

Major Role: The main role of the skeletal system

Fig. 2.19: Human excretory system (image courtsey of G Huang)

Fig. 2.20: Human endocrine system (image courtsey of G Huang)

Fig. 2.21: Human reproductive system (female and male)

 Formed Elements of Blood  Effect of Training on Cardiac Output

FORMED ELEMENTS OF BLOOD Composition of Blood

Fig. 3.1: Schematic representation of composition of human blood

Plasma: Plasma is the pale yellow colored fiberless

HEART AND CIRCULATION ventricles. Thus, the whole heart consists of

Fig. 3.7: Conduction of impulse through heart

CONDUCTING SYSTEM OF d) Conduction through purkinje system: The

Fig. 3.8: Path of cardiax im pulse in the heart.

Arterioles: These are the smallest tubes of arterial