1.

RESEARCH
“Research is defined as a systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem,
formulating a hypothesis, collecting facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching
certain conclusions either in the form of solution(s) towards the concerned problem
or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation.”
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet.
➢ To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.
➢ To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group.
➢ To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else.
➢ To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables.
➢ It helps to arrive at conclusions and provide solutions for the problem.
Research is significant to:
➢ To those who are to write a Masters or PhD thesis. It may mean careerism or a way
to attain a high position in the social structure.
➢ To professionals in research methodology, it may mean a source of livelihood.
➢ To philosophers and thinkers, it may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights.
➢ To literary men and women, it may mean the development of new styles and
creative work.
➢ To analysts and intellectuals, it may mean the development of new theories.

2. Objectives of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet.
• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group.
• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else.
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables.
• It helps to arrive at conclusions and provide solutions for the problem.

3. RESEARCH PROCESS
The Research process consists of the following:
1. Formulating the Research Problem:
There are two types of Research problems, those which relate to relationships between
variables and those which relate to states of nature. At the very outset, the researcher must
single out the problem he wants to study. They are:
i) Understanding the problem thoroughly and ii) Rephrasing the same into
meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
2. Extensive Literature Review:
Once a problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. At this
juncture, the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the
problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published/unpublished
bibliographies are the first place to go.
3. Development of Working Hypothesis:
After extensive literature review/survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to
draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. Hypothesis should be very specific
and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested.
4. Preparing the Research Design:
The presentation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem,
involves usually the consideration of the following:
➢ The means of obtaining the information.
➢ The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff.
➢ The time available for research.
5. Determining the Sample Design:
The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or the sample design. The sample
design is a definite plan determined before any data is actually collected for obtaining a
sample. Some important sample designs are:
➢ Simple Random Sampling
➢ Deliberate Sampling
➢ Systematic Sampling

6. Collecting the Data:

It is necessary to collect data that is appropriate for the research. There are several ways of
collecting the appropriate data. Primary data can be collected through experiment or
through surveys. In case of surveys, data can be collected through:
➢ Observation
➢ Personal Interviews
➢ Telephone Interviews
➢ Mailing of Questionnaire
➢ Schedules

7. Execution of the Project:

Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution
proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable. The
researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and on time.
8. Analysis of Data:
After the data has been collected, it has to be analyzed. The analysis of data requires a
number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the application of
these categories to raw data through:
➢ Coding
 ➢ Tabulation
➢ Drawing Statistical Inferences
9.Hypothesis Testing:
After analysing the data, the researcher needs to test the hypothesis, if any, he had
formulated earlier. Various test such as chi-square test, T-test, F-test etc. have been
developed by statisticians for the purpose.
10. Generalization and Interpretation:
If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to
arrive at generalization, that is, to build a theory.
11. Preparation of the Thesis:
The report compilation that starts from the problem formulation to the interpretation is the
final part of the process. Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been
done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care, keeping in view the following:
The layout of the report should be as follows:
➢ Preliminary Pages
➢ Main text
➢ End matter
Thus, in this step, the researcher’s expertise in analysing, interpreting and recommending,
is of prime importance.
 4. Research Design Types-
There are several types of research designs, each suited for different research objectives
and methodologies. Here are some common types of research designs:
1. Explanatory Research Design- Explanatory research is a method established to explore
phenomena that have not before been researched or adequately explained. Its primary
goal is to notify us about where we may get a modest bit of information. With this
strategy, the researcher obtains a broad notion and uses research as a tool to direct them
more quickly to concerns that may be addressed in the future. Its purpose is to discover
the why and what of a subject under investigation. In short, it is a type of research
design that is responsible for finding the why of the events through the establishment
of cause-effect relationships. The most popular methods of explanatory research are:

• Literature research
• In-depth interview
• Focus groups
• Case studies

2. Experimental Design: In an experimental design, researchers manipulate one or more

variables to observe the effects on another variable. This design aims to establish cause-
and-effect relationships.
3. Descriptive design- Descriptive design is a theory-based research method describing the
research’s primary subject matter. This type of research design uses data collection
techniques like natural observation, case studies, and surveys to derive results.
This type of research design provides insight into the why and how of research.

4. Observational Design: Observational designs involve observing and documenting

phenomena without manipulating variables. Researchers gather data by watching and
recording events or behaviors as they naturally occur.
5. Cross-sectional Design: This design collects data from a sample at a specific point in
time. It provides a snapshot of a population or phenomenon and is useful for studying
prevalence or associations.
 5. RESEARCH design formulation process-
The formulation process of a research design involves several steps to ensure the research study
is well-planned and aligned with the research objectives. Here is an overview of the research
design formulation process:

1. Identify the Research Problem: Clearly define the research problem or question that the
study aims to address. This involves understanding the gap or area of interest in the existing
literature or practical field.

2. Review Existing Literature: Conduct a comprehensive review of previous studies and

relevant literature to determine what is already known about the research topic. This helps in
refining the research problem and identifying gaps or areas for further investigation.

3. Set Research Objectives: Based on the identified research problem and literature review,
establish clear and specific research objectives or research questions. These objectives provide
a clear direction for the study and guide the formulation of the research design.

4. Select Research Approach: Determine the overall approach or methodology that will be
used in the study. This could be qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods, depending on the
research objectives and the type of data needed to address the research problem.

5. Determine Sampling Strategy: Decide on the appropriate sample size and sampling
strategy for data collection. This involves defining the target population and selecting the
sample that is representative of that population.

6. Choose Data Collection Methods: Identify the specific data collection methods that will be
used to gather relevant information. This could include surveys, interviews, observations,
experiments, or document analysis.
7. Develop Research Instruments: Create or adapt research instruments, such as
questionnaires or interview guides, to collect data according to the research objectives and data
collection methods chosen.
8. Plan Data Analysis Techniques: Determine the appropriate data analysis techniques and
tools that will be used to analyze the collected data. This includes both quantitative analysis
(e.g., statistical tests) and qualitative analysis (e.g., thematic analysis).

9. Consider Ethical Considerations: Carefully consider and address any ethical

considerations related to the research design, such as informed consent, data privacy, and
potential risks to participants.

10. Create a Research Timeline: Develop a timeline or schedule for the various research
activities, including data collection, data analysis, and report writing. This helps ensure that the
research study stays on track and is completed within the desired timeframe.
 6. Criteria for good research-
Good research is characterized by several key criteria that ensure its quality, reliability, and
validity. Here are some important criteria for evaluating the quality of research:

Clear research question: Good research begins with a well-defined research question or
objective. The question should be specific, focused, and address an important issue or gap in
knowledge.
Relevance: The research should be relevant to the field of study and contribute to existing
knowledge. It should address a current issue or problem and have potential implications for
theory, practice, or policy.
Methodological rigor: A strong research study employs robust and appropriate methods. The
methodology should be clearly described and justified, and the study design should be
appropriate for answering the research question. The data collection and analysis methods
should be reliable and valid.
Validity and reliability: Good research strives for validity, which refers to the accuracy and
soundness of the research findings, and reliability, which refers to the consistency and
repeatability of the research results. Researchers should use valid and reliable measures, collect
data carefully, and analyze it accurately.
Ethical considerations: Ethical principles should be followed throughout the research process.
This includes obtaining informed consent from participants, protecting their privacy and
confidentiality, ensuring voluntary participation, and minimizing any potential harm or risk.
Sample representativeness: The research sample should be representative of the target
population or relevant group under study. The sample size should be appropriate to draw
meaningful conclusions, and the sampling method should be transparent and appropriate for
the research question.
Peer review: Good research undergoes rigorous peer review by experts in the field. Peer review
helps ensure the quality, validity, and reliability of the research findings before they are
published or disseminated.
Clear communication: The research findings should be communicated clearly, accurately, and
transparently. The research report or publication should provide sufficient details about the
methodology, results, and limitations to allow others to understand and evaluate the research.
Contribution to knowledge: Good research makes a significant contribution to the existing
body of knowledge. It should build on previous research, challenge or extend current theories,
or provide new insights or practical implications.
Replicability: Good research should be replicable, meaning that other researchers should be
able to replicate the study using the provided methodology and obtain similar results.
Replicability enhances the reliability and credibility of the research findings.
These criteria collectively help ensure that research is rigorous, reliable, and valuable, making
a meaningful contribution to the field of study.
 7. Focus groups and interview types-
Focus groups and interviews are commonly used research methods to gather qualitative data
and insights from participants. They can provide valuable information about people's attitudes,
opinions, beliefs, and experiences. Here's an overview of focus groups and different types of
interviews:

Focus Groups:
Focus groups involve bringing together a small group of participants (usually 6-12 people) to
engage in a guided discussion facilitated by a moderator. The group dynamic allows
participants to interact with one another, share ideas, and build upon each other's responses.
Focus groups are useful for exploring a range of perspectives and generating in-depth insights.
They are commonly used in market research, product development, and social sciences.
Interviews:
Interviews involve one-on-one interactions between a researcher (interviewer) and a
participant. The interviewer asks questions to gather information and the participant responds
based on their own experiences and perspectives. Interviews can be conducted in various
formats, including:
a. Structured Interviews: These interviews follow a predetermined set of questions, often with
standardized response options. They provide a consistent framework for data collection and are
useful for quantitative analysis or when comparing responses across participants.
b. Semi-Structured Interviews: These interviews have a flexible format, with a set of core
questions but also room for the interviewer to explore specific topics in more depth. They allow
for a balance between structure and flexibility, enabling participants to share their unique
insights while still covering key areas of interest.
c. Unstructured Interviews: Also known as open-ended or in-depth interviews, these have no
fixed format or set questions. The interviewer guides the conversation based on the participant's
responses, allowing for a more conversational and exploratory approach. Unstructured
interviews are often used in qualitative research to gather rich, detailed data.
d. Phone or Video Interviews: With the advancement of technology, interviews can also be
conducted remotely via phone or video calls. This approach allows for geographical flexibility
and can be more convenient for participants who may not be able to attend in-person sessions.
Each of these research methods has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice between
focus groups and interviews depends on the research objectives, the nature of the topic being
explored, and the available resources. Researchers often use a combination of these methods
to gain a comprehensive understanding of their research area.
 8. Guidelines of report writing-
When it comes to report writing, there are several guidelines you can follow to ensure your
report is clear, well-structured, and effectively communicates your findings or
recommendations. Here are some general guidelines for writing a report:
1. Understand the Purpose: Clearly define the purpose and objective of your report.
Determine what information you need to convey and to whom the report is intended.
2. Plan and Outline: Create an outline before you start writing. This will help you
organize your thoughts and ensure a logical flow of information throughout the
report. Consider including sections such as an introduction, methodology, findings,
analysis, conclusions, and recommendations.
3. Use a Formal Tone: Reports typically have a formal tone, so use clear and concise
language. Avoid slang, jargon, or overly technical terms that might confuse the
reader. Write in a professional manner, maintaining a neutral and objective stance.
4. Start with an Introduction: Begin your report with an introduction that provides
background information, states the purpose, and outlines the scope of the report.
This section should give the reader a clear understanding of what to expect.
5. Present Findings and Analysis: Present your findings in a logical and organized
manner. Use headings and subheadings to structure the content and make it easy to
navigate. Include relevant data, facts, and evidence to support your findings.
Provide a clear analysis and interpretation of the information.
6. Use Visual Aids: Incorporate visual aids such as graphs, charts, tables, and diagrams
to present complex data or information in a more understandable format. Ensure
that your visual aids are labeled properly and support the points you are making.
7. Draw Conclusions: Summarize the key findings and draw conclusions based on
your analysis. Clearly state any limitations or constraints that may have affected
your research or findings.
8. Provide Recommendations: If applicable, offer recommendations or suggestions
based on your findings. Make sure your recommendations are practical, realistic,
and supported by the evidence presented in the report.
9. Proofread and Edit: Review your report for grammar, spelling, and punctuation
errors. Ensure that the report is well-structured and flows smoothly. Consider asking
a colleague or peer to review it as well for a fresh perspective.
10. Use Proper Citations: If you include information or references from external
sources, make sure to provide proper citations using an appropriate citation style,
such as APA or MLA. This gives credit to the original authors and enhances the
credibility of your report.
 9. STEPS IN RESEARCH REPORT WRITING
Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work. The usual steps
involved in writing report are: .
1. Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step which is primarily concerned
with the development of a subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject
(a) logically and (b) chronologically. The logical development is made on the basis of
mental connections and associations between the one thing and another by means of
analysis. Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or
occurrence.
2. Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing the research report
“Outlines are the framework upon which long written works are constructed. They are
an aid to the logical organisation of the material and a reminder of the points to be
stressed in the report.”3
3. Preparation of the rough draft: This follows the logical analysis of the subject and
the preparation of the final outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for the
researcher now sits to write down what he has done in the context of his research study.
4. Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: This step happens to be most difficult
part of all formal writing. Usually, this step requires more time than the writing of the
rough draft. The careful revision makes the difference between a mediocre and a good
piece of writing. While rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for
weaknesses in logical development or presentation. He should check the mechanics of
writing—grammar, spelling and usage.
5. Preparation of the final bibliography: Next in order comes the task of the preparation
of the final bibliography. The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research
report, is a list of books in some way pertinent to the research which has been done. It
should contain all those works which the researcher has consulted. The entries in
bibliography should be made adopting the following order:
• For books and pamphlets, the order may be as under:
• Name of author, last name first.
• Title, underlined to indicate italics.
• Place, publisher, and date of publication.
6. Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The final draft should be written
in a concise and objective style and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as “it
seems”, “there may be”, and the like ones. While writing the final draft, the researcher must
avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon.
 10. Reason for inaccuracy in report
There can be several reasons for inaccuracies in a report. Here are a few common factors
that can contribute to inaccuracies:
1. Insufficient or unreliable data: If the data used in the report is incomplete, outdated,
or unreliable, it can lead to inaccuracies. It is crucial to ensure that the data used for
analysis is comprehensive, up-to-date, and sourced from reliable and credible
sources.
2. Human error: Mistakes made by individuals involved in the report's preparation,
such as data entry errors, miscalculations, or misinterpretation of information, can
introduce inaccuracies. Reviewing and double-checking the data and analysis can
help minimize these errors.
3. Bias or subjectivity: Bias or subjectivity can influence the accuracy of a report. It
could be unintentional, arising from personal beliefs, preconceived notions, or
unconscious biases of the report's author or the team involved. It is important to
strive for objectivity and take steps to mitigate bias when preparing a report.
4. Methodological flaws: Inaccuracies can arise from flaws in the methodology used
for data collection, analysis, or interpretation. If the methodology is flawed, it can
produce misleading or incorrect results. Ensuring that the chosen methodology is
appropriate and rigorous can help minimize such inaccuracies.
5. Changing circumstances: If the report's subject matter is dynamic and subject to
frequent changes, such as in the case of rapidly evolving industries or market
conditions, the information may become outdated quickly, leading to inaccuracies.
Regular updates and monitoring of the subject matter can help mitigate this issue.
6. External factors: In some cases, external factors beyond the control of the report's
author or team may contribute to inaccuracies. These can include unforeseen events,
changes in regulations, or new information becoming available after the report's
publication.
To minimize inaccuracies, it is important to employ robust research and data collection
methods, use reliable sources, verify information, maintain objectivity, and employ
rigorous quality control processes during the report's preparation. Regular review and
updates can also help address any potential inaccuracies that may arise due to changing
circumstances.
 11. Type 1 and Type 2 errors-
Type 1 and Type 2 errors are concepts related to hypothesis testing in statistics. These errors
are associated with the acceptance or rejection of null and alternative hypotheses. Here's an
explanation of Type 1 and Type 2 errors:

1. Type 1 Error (False Positive): A Type 1 error occurs when the null hypothesis is mistakenly
rejected when it is true. In other words, it is the error of concluding that there is a significant
effect or relationship when, in fact, there is none. It represents a false positive result. The
probability of making a Type 1 error is denoted as α (alpha) and is typically set as the
significance level (e.g., 0.05 or 0.01).

2. Type 2 Error (False Negative): A Type 2 error occurs when the null hypothesis is erroneously
accepted when it is false. In other words, it is the error of failing to detect a significant effect
or relationship when it exists. It represents a false negative result. The probability of making a
Type 2 error is denoted as β (beta).

To better understand this, consider the following scenario: A pharmaceutical company is testing
a new drug for effectiveness. The null hypothesis (H0) is that the drug has no effect, while the
alternative hypothesis (Ha) is that the drug is effective.

- Type 1 Error: If the company mistakenly rejects the null hypothesis (H0) and concludes that
the drug is effective when it is actually not, this is a Type 1 error. It is a false positive result,
indicating that the company falsely believes the drug works.
- Type 2 Error: If the company erroneously accepts the null hypothesis (H0) and concludes that
the drug has no effect when it is actually effective, this is a Type 2 error. It is a false negative
result, indicating that the company fails to detect the drug's effectiveness.

It's important to note that Type 1 and Type 2 errors are inversely related. As you decrease the
probability of making a Type 1 error (α), the probability of making a Type 2 error (β) tends to
increase, and vice versa. Researchers aim to minimize both types of errors by carefully
choosing sample sizes, conducting power analyses, and setting appropriate significance levels,
depending on the specific research context and objectives.
 12. Hypothesis and it’s elements
A hypothesis is a statement or assumption that proposes a possible explanation or prediction to
be tested through research. It serves as the foundation for the research and guides the data
collection and analysis. A hypothesis typically consists of three elements:

1. Independent Variable: This is the variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher.
It is the factor that is expected to have an effect on the dependent variable. For example, in a
study investigating the effect of exercise on weight loss, the independent variable would be the
exercise regimen.

2. Dependent Variable: This is the variable that is measured or observed to determine its
relationship with the independent variable. It is the outcome or response that is influenced by
the independent variable. In the same study mentioned above, the weight loss would be the
dependent variable.

3. Relationship or Statement: The hypothesis expresses the expected relationship or difference

between the independent and dependent variables. It states the proposed cause-and-effect
relationship or the expected group differences. For example, the hypothesis in the exercise
study can be: "Regular exercise leads to significant weight loss compared to no exercise."

It's important to note that there are two types of hypotheses:

1. Null Hypothesis (H0): The null hypothesis states that there is no significant relationship or
difference between the variables. In other words, any observed relationship or difference is due
to chance. Researchers aim to reject the null hypothesis in favor of an alternative hypothesis.

2. Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): The alternative hypothesis contradicts the null hypothesis and
states that there is a significant relationship or difference between the variables. It is the
hypothesis that the researcher hopes to support with evidence.

Hypotheses should be specific, measurable, and testable to guide the research process
effectively. They provide a clear direction for research, help design appropriate studies, and
allow for meaningful interpretation of results.
13. Internal and external validity
Internal validity and external validity are important concepts in research that help assess the
quality and generalizability of study findings.

1. Internal Validity: Internal validity refers to the extent to which a research study accurately
determines the causal relationship between variables being examined. It addresses whether the
observed effects can be attributed to the manipulation of the independent variable rather than
other factors. Various threats can compromise internal validity, such as selection bias, history
effects, or measurement errors. Researchers strive to minimize these threats to ensure that their
findings are valid and reliable within the study's context.

2. External Validity: External validity refers to the extent to which study findings can be
generalized from a particular sample or setting to a broader population or real-world situations.
It assesses the degree to which the results can be applicable and relevant beyond the immediate
study conditions. External validity can be threatened by factors such as the characteristics of
the study sample, the artificiality of the study setting, or the specific conditions under which
the study was conducted. Researchers often aim to increase external validity by utilizing
diverse samples, conducting studies in naturalistic settings, or using methods that can be
replicated in multiple contexts.

In summary, internal validity focuses on the accuracy and reliability of causal inferences within
a specific study, while external validity considers the degree to which the study findings can
be generalized or applied to other populations, settings, or conditions. Both internal and
external validity are important considerations in research to ensure robust and meaningful
results.
 14. Projective techniques
Projective techniques are a set of research methods used in psychology, marketing, and market
research to gather insights into individuals' thoughts, feelings, and motivations. These
techniques aim to uncover unconscious or hidden aspects of an individual's mindset by
projecting them onto ambiguous stimuli or situations. Here are some common projective
techniques:

1. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): The TAT involves presenting individuals with a series
of ambiguous pictures and asking them to create stories based on what they see. These stories
are then analyzed to understand the individual's underlying motivations, desires, and conflicts.

2. Rorschach Inkblot Test: The Rorschach test involves showing individuals a series of inkblots
and asking them to describe what they see. Their interpretations are analyzed to assess
personality traits, emotional states, and cognitive functioning.

3. Word Association Test: In the word association test, participants are presented with a set of
words and asked to respond with the first word or phrase that comes to mind. The patterns and
associations in their responses provide insights into their thoughts, attitudes, and unconscious
beliefs.

4. Sentence Completion Test: In this technique, individuals are given incomplete sentences and
asked to complete them. The responses are analyzed to understand their unconscious
motivations, attitudes, or expectations.

5. Picture Completion Test: Participants are shown pictures with missing parts, and they are
asked to identify or complete the missing elements. This technique aims to uncover individuals'
unconscious needs, desires, or anxieties.

6. Collage or Image Sorting: Participants are given a set of images or magazines and asked to
create a collage or sort the images based on certain criteria. The chosen images and the
interpretations provide insights into their preferences, aspirations, or self-perceptions.

7. Thematic Construction: This technique involves asking individuals to construct a scene or

scenario using various materials, such as toys, figures, or drawings. The constructed scenes are
analyzed to understand their underlying thoughts, emotions, or conflicts.

Projective techniques can provide rich qualitative data and allow individuals to express and
explore subconscious or sensitive issues. However, they also have limitations, such as
subjectivity in interpretation and potential bias. Thus, these techniques should be used
alongside other research methods for a more comprehensive understanding.
 15. Primary source and secondary source of data-
Primary sources of data are original and firsthand sources of information that provide raw or
uninterpreted data. These sources are directly collected or generated by individuals or
organizations for the purpose of research or analysis. Examples of primary sources of data
include:

1. Surveys and Questionnaires: Data collected through surveys and questionnaires that directly
capture responses from individuals.

2. Interviews: Data obtained through one-on-one or group interviews with individuals or

experts in a specific field.

3. Observations: Data collected by directly observing and recording events, behaviors, or

phenomena as they naturally occur.

4. Experiments: Data generated through controlled experiments where variables are

manipulated and their impact on outcomes is measured.

5. Fieldwork: Data collected through immersive experiences, such as ethnographic research,

where researchers spend time in a specific community or culture.

On the other hand, secondary sources of data are sources that interpret or analyze primary
data. These sources draw upon primary data to provide a synthesis or interpretation of the
original information. Examples of secondary sources of data include:

1. Books and Articles: Publications that analyze or summarize previous research or primary
data.

2. Literature Reviews: Summaries of existing research on a specific topic, usually based on

secondary sources.

3. Government Reports: Reports published by government agencies that provide data and
analysis on various subjects.

4. Academic Journals: Scholarly articles that present research findings, often based on primary
data, and provide analysis and interpretation.

5. Websites and Blogs: Websites and blogs that report on or interpret research findings or
aggregate data from various sources.

While primary sources provide firsthand and original data, secondary sources provide a curated
and analyzed perspective on the primary data. Both types of sources are valuable in research
as they provide different insights and perspectives on a given topic.
16. Scaling types
When it comes to scaling, there are various types of scaling that can be applied in different
contexts. Here are some common types of scaling:
1. Vertical Scaling (Scaling Up): Vertical scaling involves increasing the capacity of a
single server or machine by adding more resources such as RAM, CPU power, or
storage. It focuses on making a single machine more powerful to handle increased
workloads. This type of scaling is typically limited by the maximum capacity of a
single machine.
2. Horizontal Scaling (Scaling Out): Horizontal scaling involves adding more
machines or servers to distribute the workload across multiple devices. It aims to
improve scalability by dividing the load among multiple machines, thus increasing
overall capacity. This type of scaling is more flexible as it allows adding more
machines as needed to handle increasing demands.
3. Elastic Scaling: Elastic scaling refers to the ability of a system to automatically
adjust its resources based on the current demand. It involves dynamically
provisioning and deprovisioning resources based on usage patterns, ensuring
optimal resource allocation and cost-efficiency. Elastic scaling is often associated
with cloud computing and virtualization technologies.
4. Proportional Scaling: Proportional scaling involves increasing the resources of a
system in proportion to the load increase. For example, if the workload doubles, the
resources are doubled as well. This type of scaling maintains a consistent ratio
between resources and workload, ensuring a balanced system.
5. Application-Level Scaling: Application-level scaling involves scaling specific
components or modules within an application rather than the entire system. It allows
focusing resources on critical parts of the application that require additional
capacity while leaving other components unaffected. This type of scaling can be
useful when certain parts of the application experience higher demand than others.
6. Database Scaling: Database scaling refers to scaling the database infrastructure to
handle increased data storage and processing requirements. It can be achieved
through techniques such as sharding (partitioning data across multiple database
instances), replication (creating copies of the database), or using distributed
databases.
7. Caching: Caching involves storing frequently accessed data in a cache memory or
a separate caching layer to improve response times and reduce the load on the
backend systems. Caching can be applied at various levels, such as database
caching, application-level caching, or content delivery network (CDN) caching.
These are some of the commonly used scaling types, and the choice of scaling approach
depends on factors such as system architecture, workload characteristics, performance
requirements, and cost considerations.
17. Probability and non-probability sampling
Probability Sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling technique in which each member
of the population has a known and non-zero chance of being selected for the sample. This
means that every individual or element in the population has an equal opportunity to be
chosen as part of the sample. Probability sampling methods are based on random selection,
and they allow researchers to make statistical inferences about the population.
Some common probability sampling methods include:
1. Simple Random Sampling: In this method, each member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected. For example, using a random number generator to
select participants from a list.
2. Stratified Random Sampling: The population is divided into homogeneous
subgroups called strata, and then a random sample is drawn from each stratum. This
method ensures that important subgroups are adequately represented in the sample.
3. Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters or groups, and a random
sample of clusters is selected. Then, all members of the selected clusters are
included in the sample. Cluster sampling is useful when it is difficult or impractical
to create a comprehensive sampling frame of the entire population.
Non-Probability Sampling: Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique in which the
probability of any particular member of the population being selected for the sample is
unknown or unequal. Non-probability sampling methods do not rely on random selection,
and they are often used in situations where it is difficult or impossible to obtain a random
sample.
Some common non-probability sampling methods include:
1. Convenience Sampling: Participants are selected based on their convenience or
availability. This method is often used for quick and easy access to participants, but
it may introduce bias since the sample may not be representative of the entire
population.
2. Purposive Sampling: Researchers intentionally select participants who meet
specific criteria relevant to the research objective. This method is subjective and
relies on the researcher's judgment, which can introduce bias.
3. Snowball Sampling: Initially, a small group of participants is selected, and then
additional participants are recruited through referrals from the initial participants.
This method is useful when the population of interest is hard to reach or identify.
It's important to note that while non-probability sampling methods have their limitations,
they can still provide valuable insights in certain research contexts. However, they may not
allow for generalization of findings to the entire population, as probability sampling
methods do.
 Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Causal Research

Amount of Uncertainty Highly ambiguous Partially defined Clearly defined

Characterizing
Decision Situation
Key Research Research question Research question Research hypothesis
Statement
When Conducted? Early stage of decision Later stages of decision Later stages of decision
making making making

Usual Research Unstructured Structured Highly Structured

Approach
Examples "Our sales are "What kind of people "Will consumers buy
declining for no patronize our stores more products in a blue
apparent reason." compared to our package?"
"What kinds of new primary competitor?" "Which of two
products are "What product features advertising campaigns
fast-food customers are most will be more
interested in?" important to our effective?"
customers?"
Nature of Results Discovery oriented, Can be confirmatory Confirmatory oriented.
productive, but still although more research Fairly conclusive with
speculative. Often in is sometimes still managerially
need of further needed. Results can be actionable results often
research. managerially obtained.
actionable.