Magnitude What is the Elastic Rebound Theory?

• Each increase in M > the energy by 32 times • Explains how energy is stored in rocks.
• Strength / Power of earthquake ( Atom bomb – 5.0 ) – Rocks bend until the strength of the rock is exceeded –
• Measure of strain energy released at hypocenter. Rupture occurs, and the rocks quickly rebound to an
• Determined by seismographs undeformed shape
• It is independent of place –Energy is released in waves that radiate outward from
• It is based on the seismic moment of the the fault
earthquake, which is equal to the rigidity of the
Earth multiplied by the size of the area that slipped Seismographs - record earthquake events
and average amount of slip on the fault.
• Richter scale suffers from saturation for bigger
earthquakes.

INTENSITY
• Is not Quantitative.
• Modified Mercalli’s Intensity scale.
• Measure of damaging effect of earthquake at a site
At convergent boundaries
• Depends on
• focal depth increases along a dipping seismic zone
• Local soil conditions
called a Benioff zone
• Type of structures • Focal Depth
• Knowledge on Earthquake Engg.
Where Do Earthquakes Occur and How Often?
• Amount of shaking
~80% of all earthquakes occur in the circum-Pacific belt
• Frequency Content
– most of these result from convergent margin activity
• Epicentral distance etc.
– ~15% occur in the Mediterranean-Asiatic belt
– remaining 5% occur in the interiors of plates and on
Intensity of Earthquake – Modified Mercalli’s Scale
spreading ridge centers
– more than 150,000 quakes strong enough to be felt
are recorded each year

Faults
Normal Fault
Reverse Fault
Strike Slip Fault

The Economics and Societal Impacts of EQs

Building collapse
Fire
Tsunami
Ground failure

What are Seismic Waves?

What are Earthquakes?
Response of material to the arrival of energy fronts
• The shaking or trembling caused by the sudden
released by rupture
release of energy.
Two types:
• Usually associated with faulting or breaking of rocks
–Body waves
• Continuing adjustment of position results in
• P and S
aftershocks
–Surface waves
Focus and Epicenter of an Earthquake
• R and L
• The point within Earth where faulting begins is the
focus, or hypocenter.
• The point directly above the focus on the surface is
the epicenter.
Body waves What are the Destructive Effects of Earthquakes?
– P or primary waves Ground Shaking
• fastest waves –amplitude, duration, and damage increase in poorly
• travel through solids, liquids, or gases consolidated rocks
• compressional wave, material movement is in the
same direction as wave movement Can Earthquakes be Predicted?
Earthquake Precursors
– S or secondary waves – changes in elevation or tilting of land surface,
• slower than P waves fluctuations in groundwater levels, magnetic field,
• travel through solids only electrical resistance of the ground
• shear waves - move material perpendicular to wave – seismic dilatancy model
movement – seismic gaps
Earthquake Prediction Programs
Surface Waves: R and L waves – include laboratory and field studies of rocks before,
–Travel just below or along the ground’s surface during, and after earthquakes
– Slower than body waves; rolling and side-to-side – monitor activity along major faults
movement – produce risk assessments
– Especially damaging to buildings

How is an Earthquake’s Epicenter Located?

Seismic wave behavior
– P waves arrive first, then S waves, then L and R
– Average speeds for all these waves is known
– After an earthquake, the difference in arrival times at
a seismograph station can be used to calculate the
distance from the seismograph to the epicenter.

How is an Earthquake’s Epicenter Located?

Time-distance graph showing the average travel times
for P- and S-waves. The farther away a seismograph is
from the focus of an earthquake, the longer the interval
between the arrivals of the P- and S- wave.

How is an Earthquake’s Epicenter Located?

• Three seismograph stations are needed to locate
the epicenter of an earthquake.
• A circle where the radius equals the distance to the
epicenter is drawn.
• The intersection of the circles locates the epicenter.

How are the Size and Strength of an Earthquake

Measured?
Intensity
– subjective measure of the kind of damage done and
people’s reactions to it
– isoseismal lines identify areas of equal intensity
Magnitude
– Richter scale measures total amount of energy
released by an earthquake, independent of intensity
– Amplitude of the largest wave produced by an event is
corrected for distance and assigned a value on an open-
ended logarithmic scale
Effect of Inertia Newton’s First Law of Motion System Capacity
Every object continues to remain in its initial status • Good governance / corruption
unless acted upon by external force. • No. of physicians / hospital beds
• Insurance coverage
Newton’s Second Law of Motion • Water resource
Everyone unconsciously knows the second law that • Agricultural management
heavier objects require more force to move the same
distance as lighter objects Lifelines
• Lifelines are most important systems (basic needs) for
Newton’s Third Law of Motion habitation.
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction • Without lifelines life becomes hampered.
Rockets Action: Push down on ground with powerful • One of the objectives of disaster management is to
engine. stop damage to lifeline or restore it at the earliest.
Reaction: Ground pushes the rocket upwards with equal • Lifelines may be different for different regions
force. depending on lifestyle and availability of resources.
• Drinking water, Electricity, Communication, telephone,
Earthquake Resistant Design Philosophy road network etc. are lifelines
Level 1 Design
• Design Basis Earthquake
– Common earthquake which the structure can
experience in its lifetime
– Probability of occurrence in 50 years is more
SYSTEM CAN UNDERGO SOME DISTRESS WITHOUT
SERIOUS STRUCTURAL DAMAGE Level 2 Design
• Maximum Credible Earthquake
– Biggest earthquake that may not be experienced
during the life of structure
– Less probability of occurrence in 50 years

What is a disaster?
An occurrence inflicting widespread destruction and
distress: calamity, cataclysm, catastrophe, and tragedy.
Disaster may be natural or manmade.

What is a disaster Management?

It is managing the disaster such that the loss of life and
economic loss are minimum & common man does not
feel the effect of disaster.

Exposure
• Population exposed to natural disaster such as
earthquake, flood, cyclone, and drought Vulnerability
• Susceptibility
• System Capacity
• Individual Capacity

Susceptibility
• Public infrastructure: Population without access to
sanitation, and clean water, population in slum
• Nutrition: Population under below par nutrition
• Poverty
• Population below poverty line
• GDP
Earthquakes Earthquakes
• the most devastating hazards. • causes shaking of the ground or in other words, it
• causes considerable destruction and the toll of causes displacement of the ground.
human lives and properties is unimaginable. • can also trigger landslides, and occasionally volcanic
• defined as a wavelike motion generated by forces in activity.
constant turmoil under the surface layer of earth • When the epicenter of a large earthquake is located
travelling through the Earth’s crust. offshore, the seabed may get displaced sufficiently
• vibrations or tremors of the Earth. to cause a tsunami.
• The occurrence of earthquake is due to the sudden inner core
release of energy in the Earth’s crust that creates a • having temperatures up to 5,500°C and is a solid
series of waves, known as seismic waves. mass of iron and nickel.
• Caused mostly by ruptures taking place in form of outer core
geological faults, but also by other events such as • is a liquid layer of iron and nickel, extremely hot,
volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear this layer has temperatures similar to the inner core
tests. (the inner and outer cores together constitute
Seismic Waves barysphere)
• The seismicity of a region is earthquakes over a the mantle
period and refers to the frequency, type and size of • characterized by medium density and semi-solid
an earthquake for that particular region. The size of material, is the widest section of the Earth,
an earthquake is defined by its intensity and approximately 2,685 km thick. The upper parts of
magnitude. the mantle are hard rock, but its lower part is softer
Seismograph (Seismometer) and begins to melt.
• For recoding the occurrence of an earthquake and crust
vibrations • which is part of lithosphere (comprised of the crust
• Measures magnitude of an earthquake and upper mantle), is a solid rock layer which is
Seismogram about 35 km in thickness in plains and 100 km in
• The record of measurement thickness in Himalayan regions. It is the outer layer
• Mercalli Intensity Scale of the planet.
• Measures intensity of shaking The crust and the upper mantle
Landslides • form a cold, strong layer floating on the lower
• are a common phenomenon during earthquakes. liquidous mantle.
Focus or Hypocenter or Focal Area Lithosphere
• The place of origin of earthquake • is fragmented into a dozen of huge, irregularly
• the point of initial rupture shaped pieces, called tectonic plates. There are 7
Epicenter large and several small moving plates.
• the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the
focus, the point of origin of earthquake As the hotter mantle rises upwards, the cooler material
• It may be taken note of that for an earthquake to sinks; the material rises and spreads out while the crust
trigger; it is not merely a point but a considerable splits and diverges; the plates converge and subduct as
area of variable extent that is involved in elastic the material sinks.
rebound of rocks. However, this is idealized to be a
point, the focus. Subduction
• a tract and not an isolated point. • occurs when plates collide, and one is drawn
beneath another. This process can take thousands of
Mapping of the hazard zones years. The collision of plates creates mountains as
• paramount importance to ensure safe construction rock layers are forced upward. As the plates diverge,
of the civil engineering structures. lava pushes through the mantle, cools and forms a
new section of crust.
Seismic waves • the wave can take on different surface
• are formed due to an earthquake, explosion, or a characteristics.
volcano that imparts low-frequency acoustic energy • can travel only through solids, since fluids (liquids
waves that travel through the Earth’s layers. and gases) do not support shear stresses.
• These are recorded by mean of instruments known • S-waves are slower than P-waves, and speeds are
as seismometer, hydrophone (in water), or typically around 60% of that of P-waves in any
accelerometer. given material.
• The two main types of waves are body waves and • S-waves usually have larger amplitude than the P-
surface waves. waves. These waves arrive at seismograph stations
• Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body after the P-waves during an earthquake.
and surface waves. • Shear waves are more devastating than primary
Body waves waves.
• travel through the interior of the Earth. The • Surface waves
examples are P- and S-waves. • are analogous to water waves and travel along the
• travel deep into the body of the Earth before Earth’s surface.
emerging on the Earth’s surface. • The examples of surface waves are Love waves and
• These waves create ray paths refracted by the Rayleigh waves.
varying density and modulus (stiffness) of the • travel slower than body waves.
Earth’s interior. • Because of their low frequency, long duration, and
Primary Waves (P-waves) large amplitude, they can be the most destructive
• compressional waves that are longitudinal in nature type of seismic wave.
(the particles vibrate in the direction of • called surface waves because they diminish as
propagation), and accordingly they are also known they get further from the surface.
as compression waves or longitudinal waves. Love Waves
• are pressure waves that travel faster than other • are horizontally polarized shear waves (SH waves),
waves through the Earth to arrive at seismograph existing only in the presence of a semi-infinite
stations first, and hence are called primary waves. medium overlain by an upper layer of finite
• are also called push and pull waves since oscillations thickness.
occur to and fro in the path of the wave. • The displacement of particles in L-waves is
• can travel through any type of material, including horizontal, in the direction of propagation.
fluids. • They are named after AEH Love, a British
• In air, they take the form of sound waves; hence mathematician, who created a mathematical model
they travel at the speed of sound. Typical speeds are of the waves in 1911. They usually travel slightly
330 m/s in air, 1450 m/s in water and about 5000 faster than Rayleigh waves and have the largest
m/s in granite; they travel fastest in the rigid rocks. amplitude.
• P-waves are not as destructive as the other waves, Rayleigh waves
since they have smaller amplitude and the force • also called ground roll, travel as ripples with
that their customary vertical motion creates, rarely motions that are similar to those of waves on the
exceeds the force of gravity. surface of water
S-waves • The existence of these waves was predicted by John
• are shear waves which are transverse in nature. William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, in 1885.
• also called transverse waves or distortional waves. • They are slower than body waves, about 90% of the
• Being transverse in nature, they displace the velocity of S-waves for typical homogeneous elastic
ground perpendicular to the direction of media.
propagation; the particles vibrate at right angles to
the direction of propagation.
• may develop violent tangential vibrations strong
enough to cause great destructions.
CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHQUAKES Deformation of Ground Surface
Severe tremors and resultant vibrations caused by
On the Basis of Depth of Focus earthquakes result in the deformation of ground
• Earthquakes are classified as shallow-focus surface. This is due to the rise and subsidence of ground
earthquakes—when depth of focus is up to 70 surface and faulting activity (formation of faults).
km below the Earth’s surface; intermediate-
focus earthquakes— originate between 70 to Liquefaction
300 km below the Earth’s surface and; deep- Under earthquake loading, some soils may get
focus earthquakes—also called plutonic, compacted; increasing the pore water pressure and
originate between 300 to 700 km. The deep causing a loss of shear strength and behave like liquid
focus earthquakes are associated with the mud. This is known as liquefaction. Consequently, this
Benioff zone. may lead to settlement of buildings.

On the Basis of Mode of Origin Indirect Effects

• Earthquakes are classed as tectonic
earthquakes—caused due to faulting or relative Fires
movement of crustal plates and; non-tectonic The strong vibrations caused by severe earthquakes
earthquakes—caused due to volcanic eruptions, shake the buildings and may cause severe fi res in
atomic explosions, landslides, reservoir induced houses, industries and mines because of the damaging
seismicity (Koyana earthquake, Maharashtra), of gas lines, contact of live electric wires, and
etc. displacement of other fi re related and electric
appliances.
On the Basis of Magnitude
• Representation of earthquakes by its magnitude Flash Floods
may also be considered its class. The sloshing of enclosed water in reservoirs, lakes and
harbours may cause severe fl ash fl oods, termed as
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES sieches. Severe fl oods are also caused because of
Elastic Rebound Theory blocking of water fl ow of rivers due to rock blocks and
Plate Tectonic Theory debris produced by severe tremors in the hill slopes
Causes of Non-Tectonic Earthquakes facing the river valleys; the rivers may even change their
main course.
EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
Direct Effects Tsunamis
The seismic waves caused by violent movement of sea
Damage to Structures floor (measuring more than 7 on the Richter scale)
Earthquakes cause great damage to structures such as travelling through sea water generate high sea waves
buildings, roads, rails, factories, dams, bridges, etc., and and cause great loss of life and property. These waves,
thus cause heavy damage to human property. One of known as tsunamis, are of extremely long time periods
the reasons for the loss of human life in highly and usually take place in subduction zones.
populated areas is due to collapse of buildings.
Magnitude
Landslides • a measure of the energy released by the
The shocks produced by earthquakes, particularly in earthquake, which defines its size.
hilly areas and mountains which are tectonically • Intensity
sensitive cause landslides. The debris fall on human • describes how much ground shaking occurred,
settlements and transport system on the lower slope or in other words how strong an earthquake
segments, inflicting damage to them. was, at a particular location.
Isoseismal Tsunami
Lines joining locations of equal intensity. A series of water waves caused by the displacement of
large volume of body of water, generally on an ocean
Aftershocks due to submarine earthquakes.
These occur when rocks adjust to the new uniform
stress fi eld after an earthquake. Tremor
A relatively minor seismic shaking.
Aseismic Fault
on which no earthquake has been observed, i.e., a
region free from earthquake. The design of buildings to
withstand earthquakes is known as aseismic design.

Continental Drift
It is the movement of the Earth’s continents gradually
over the surface of the planet on a substratum of
magma and comprises of formation or reformation of
continents.
Epicenter The projection on the surface of the Earth
directly above the focus (hypocenter).

Fault
It is a crack in the Earth’s crust, resulting from the
displacement of one side of the rock with respect to the
other. It may result from the sliding of one tectonic plate
under the other, resulting in tension and faulting in the
Earth’s crust.

Focus
Location of earthquake just below the epicenter.

Foreshocks
These occur due to stress release in the weaker zones
across the fault prior to an earthquake.
Hypocenter Location of initial radiation of seismic wave
(first location of dynamic rupture). It is also known as
focus.

Precursor
An earthquake precursor could be any anomalous
phenomena that can give effective warning of the
imminence or severity of an impending earthquake in
each area.

Tectonic
Related to, causing, or resulting from structural
deformation of the Earth’s crust.
1. Which of the following describes the build-up and 9. Body waves consist of the
release of stress during an earthquake? (a) P-waves only
(a) Modifi ed Mercalli Scale (b) S-waves only
(b) Elastic rebound theory (c) P- and S-waves
(c) Principle of superposition (d) Surface waves
(d) Travel time difference
10. With increasing travel time, the difference in arrival
2. The amount of ground displacement in an earthquake times between the P- and the S-waves
is known as (a) epicentre (b) dip (c) slip (d) focus (a) increases
(b) decreases
3. The place where movement occurs in a crustal plate (c) stays constant
that triggers an earthquake is called (d) cannot be ascertained
(a) epicentre (b) dip (c) focus (d) strike
11. Earthquake A has a Richter magnitude of 7.0 and
4. Which of the following sequence of seismic waves that of earthquake B is 6.0.
correctly lists the different arrivals from fi rst to last? (a) A is 10 times more intense than B.
(a) P-waves, S-waves , Surface waves (b) A is 1000 times more intense than B.
(b) Surface waves, P-waves, S-waves (c) Richter magnitude does not measure intensity.
(c) P-waves, Surface waves, S-waves (d) B is 0.01 times as intense than A.
(d) S-waves, P-waves, Surface waves
12. In general, the most destructive earthquake waves
5. How do rock particles move during the passage of a P- are
wave through the rock? (a) P-waves (b) S-waves (c) Surface waves (d) L-waves
(a) Back and forth parallel to the direction of wave travel
(b) Back and forth perpendicular to the direction of 13. Where does the focus lie with respect to the
wave travel epicenter?
(c) In a rolling circular motion (a) Directly below the epicenter
(d) The particles do not move (b) Directly above the epicenter
(c) In the P-wave shadow zone
6. How many seismograph stations are needed to locate (d) In the S-wave shadow zone
the epicentre of an earthquake?
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 14. Which of the following measure of an earthquake’s
intensity is based on the observed effects on people and
7. Supposing that only density increases with increasing structures?
depth within the Earth, the velocity of a P-wave should (a) Ritchter scale
(a) stay the same (b) Modifi ed Mercalli scale
(b) increase (c) Centigrade scale
(c) decrease (d) Moment magnitude scale
(d) not vary
15. How do rock particles move during the passage of P-
8. If an S-wave were to pass from a solid to a liquid wave through the rock?
stratum, what would happen to its velocity? (a) Back and forth, parallel to the direction of wave
(a) Stay the same travel
(b) Increase (b) Perpendicular to the direction of wave travel
(c) Decrease to zero (c) In a rolling elliptical motion
(d) Can not be ascertained (d) In a rolling circular motion