COMMUNICATING MEANING

When you communicate, what do you usually use as a medium? Do you use only
words? Do you use other means to emphasize your ideas? What are they?
Verbal vs Non-Verbal Communication
Communicating meaning utilizes verbal and non-verbal expressions. Verbal
communication uses words which can be expressed either written or orally. (It is
therefore wrong to say verbal to mean “oral”, like, “verbalize” you concern, to mean
saying it orally). Non-verbal on the other hand is a wordless communication. Other
means are used to convey meaning like facial expressions, proxemics,
paralanguage, appearance, gestures, oculesics, body language and posture,
artifacts, haptics and chronemics.
For better understanding about these different non-verbal cues, let us discuss
each of them.

Facial Expressions

Facial expressions are a form of non-verbal communication. They are used by

humans to convey various types of meaning in various contexts. Facial expressions
such as a frown, a raised eyebrow, a smile can send meanings depending on the
context.
Ekman (1992) claimed that there is a set of expressions that are innate, and
they mean that the person making that face is experiencing an emotion. For
example, brow raising means. “I feel surprised.” He also claimed that there are
culturally acquired facial expressions used to modulate the innate emotional
expressions, so-called display rules, and others that are used for communication.
 While nonverbal communication and behavior can vary dramatically between
cultures, the facial expressions for happiness, sadness, anger, and fear are similar
throughout the world.
What is important to note is that, facial expressions must be consistent with the
meaning that a speaker intends to convey. Sometimes, communication breakdown
happens because of the inconsistency in the facial expression and the intended
meaning. For example, when you say you are happy, but displays a frowning
expression, there comes the confusion. It is expected that when one claims to be
happy, a smiling or gleeful expression accompanies the emotion.
Proxemics

Edward T. Hall, the cultural anthropologist who coined the term in 1963, defined
proxemics as the interrelated observations and theories of human use of space
as a specialized elaboration of culture. (study.com)

Proxemics is the study of human use of space and the effect that population
density has on bahavior, communication and social interaction. It refers to an
individual’s perception of the use of space, both personal (how much space do
they take up) and social (distance from one another).

Study this illustration. How can proxemics communicate meaning? Can you easily
detect people who are intimately close without them having announce publicly that
they are in a certain kind of relationship? When you see a couple who are normally
so close everyday, but suddenly sits apart or does not walk side by side, what
usually is your assumption?
 People often refer to their need for "personal space," which is also an important
type of nonverbal communication.5 The amount of distance we need and the amount
of space we perceive as belonging to us is influenced by a number of factors
including social norms, cultural expectations, situational factors, personality
characteristics, and level of familiarity.
The amount of personal space needed when having a casual conversation with
another person usually varies between 18 inches to four feet. On the other hand, the
personal distance needed when speaking to a crowd of people is around 10 to 12
feet.

Paralanguage

Paralanguage is the technical term for the voice cues that accompany spoken
words. It is concerned with the sound of the voice and the range of meanings that
people convey through their voices rather than the words they use
The meaning of what you express is contained, in part, in the words you say, but
how you say it also contains powerful meanings. For example, the word “Yes”, can
completely convey different meanings, even in the exact same sentence, depending
on how it is said—whether it is spoken sincerely or sarcastically. The “how”—you say
something—is referred to as paralanguage, which includes your conscious or
unconscious intonation, accent, pitch Opens in new window, pace, pause, silence,
emphasis, word and syllable stress.
Basically, paralanguage is your voice minus the words you speak. Again, it
denotes the tone (sound) of your voice. The sound of your voice communicates,
revealing to others your emotional state, attitudes, status, personality, etc.
The tone of your voice can help you communicate what you mean to convey,
or it can reveal thoughts you mean to conceal. It can reinforce or negate the words
you speak. How you speak influences how others interpret your intentions, as well as
how credible, intelligent, or attractive they judge you to be. With this in mind, you
may assess yourself by responding to the following questions:
 Does my voice enhance or detract from the impression I make?
 Does my voice support or contradict my intended meaning?
 If I were interacting with me, would I want to listen to the sound of my
voice?
Deliberate movements and signals are an important way to communicate meaning
without words. Common gestures include waving, pointing, and using fingers to
indicate numeric amounts. Other gestures are arbitrary and related to culture.
Gestures are woven into the fabric of our daily lives. You may wave, point, beckon, or
use your hands when arguing or speaking animatedly, often expressing yourself with
gestures without thinking. However, the meaning of some gestures can be very different
across cultures. While the OK sign made with the hand, for example, conveys a positive
message in English-speaking countries, it’s consider offensive in countries such as
Germany, Russia, and Brazil. So, it’s important to be careful of how you use gestures to
avoid misinterpretation

1. Body Language and Posture

Consider how your perceptions of people are affected by the way they sit, walk, stand, or
hold their head. The way you move and carry yourself communicates a wealth of information
to the world. This type of nonverbal communication includes your posture, bearing, stance,
and the subtle movements you make.
6. Oculesics or Eye Gaze
The eyes play an important role in nonverbal communication and such things as
looking, staring and blinking are important nonverbal behaviors. When people encounter
people or things that they like, the rate of blinking increases and pupils dilate. Looking at
another person can indicate a range of emotions including hostility, interest, and attraction.

People also utilize eye gaze as a means to determine if someone is being

honest.6 Normal, steady eye contact is often taken as a sign that a person is telling the truth
and is trustworthy. Shifty eyes and an inability to maintain eye contact, on the other hand, is
frequently seen as an indicator that someone is lying or being deceptive.
7. Haptics

Communicating through touch is another important nonverbal behavior. There has

been a substantial amount of research on the importance of touch in infancy and early
childhood.
Harry Harlow's classic monkey study demonstrated how deprived touch and contact
impedes development. Baby monkeys raised by wire mothers experienced permanent
deficits in behavior and social interaction. Touch can be used to communicate affection,
familiarity, sympathy, and other emotions.
In her book Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters, author Julia Wood
writes that touch is also often used as a way to communicate both status and power.7
Researchers have found that high-status individuals tend to invade other people's
personal space with greater frequency and intensity than lower-status individuals. Sex
differences also play a role in how people utilize touch to communicate meaning.
Women tend to use touch to convey care, concern, and nurturance. Men, on the
other hand, are more likely to use touch to assert power or control over others.

8. Appearance
This non-verbal cue is quite controversial. We're taught not to judge a book by its
cover. We can't assess a person's intelligence or demeanor by the clothes they wear. Yet, in
a professional setting, one's appearance does send a message. This is why we wear suits to
interviews or enjoy casual Friday at the workplace.
Our everyday attire and hairstyle sends a message. Imagine a woman who always wears
bright, bold tones. Perhaps she wears orange suits with red blouses or yellow skirts with
royal blue shirts. This is a woman who's not looking to be a wallflower. You can probably roll
the dice on her high level of self-confidence.
On the other hand, just because someone chooses muted tones or grays, it doesn't mean
they're shy. They might simply prefer a simplistic style. To them, less may be more.
Either way, how we present ourselves to people and situations tells a story. We're told to
take our hats off at the table, put a comb through our hair, and wear our Sunday best for a
reason. It shows we put a little thought into the interaction.
9. Artifacts

Objects and images are also tools that can be used to communicate nonverbally. On
an online forum, for example, you might select an avatar to represent your identity online
and to communicate information about who you are and the things you like.

People often spend a great deal of time developing a particular image and
surrounding themselves with objects designed to convey information about the things that
are important to them.

Uniforms, for example, can be used to transmit a tremendous amount of information

about a person. A soldier will don fatigues, a police officer will wear a uniform, and a doctor
will wear a white lab coat. At a mere glance, these outfits tell people what a person does for
a living.
 COMMUNICATION FILTERS/ BARRIERS
The communication process may not always result to a positive experience. When
the intended meaning is not perceived by the recipient of the message,
miscommunication happens. Sometimes, people misunderstand one another for a
variety of reasons. Specific items that can distort or prevent communication refer
to communication barriers or filters. To further understanding of the communication
barriers, the types of barriers are explained below.

Types of Communication Filters

Cultural Barriers
Culture refers to the attitudes and beliefs that come from our personal environment
and experience. How can culture be a barrier to communication? Study the following
illustrations:

People grow from different cultural backgrounds and beliefs. How they perceive
things therefore differ from other cultures.
For example, basic pleasantries differ from culture to culture. Filipinos usually greet
elders by “pagmamano”; The Japanese bow their heads as a form of greeting or
respect; the Americans shake hands or kiss those who are relatively close to them.
When one is not particular about cultural differences, communication breakdown
happens.

What to do about cultural barriers?

1. Consider the cultural makeup of the intended audience.

2. Seek to understand where are the differences.
3. Fashion the message to ensure that it says what you exactly mean.
 Language Barrier
Inability to converse in a language that is known by both the sender and the receiver
is the greatest barrier to effective communication.
Examples of language barriers that prevent individuals from effective communication
include:
 Dialects - While two people may technically speak the same language, dialectal
differences can make communication between them difficult. Examples of dialectical
language barriers exist worldwide. Chinese, for example, has a variety of dialects
that are commonly spoken, including Cantonese and Mandarin.
 Language Disabilities - Language disabilities are physical impediments to
language. Physical language disabilities that cause language barriers include
stuttering, dysphonia or an articulation disorder and hearing loss.
When a person uses inappropriate words and jargons while conversing or writing, it
could lead to misunderstanding between the sender and the receiver.
Can you think of a specific example or situation or maybe an experience where
communication failed or resulted to hilarious situation because of language
differences?
In the classroom, when your teacher uses jargons (technical terms), do you easily
understand? Tendency is you would end the day learning nothing, unless the
concepts are simplified and explained further.
What to do?
 In a work place or in a more formal setting, use visual methods of communication
more than audio. Show more than tell. Explain it with pictures as much as possible.
Use pictures in your instruction manuals rather than words. Almost every step in
every process can be described in picture format. Give your listeners signs, cue
cards or other methods to help them learn.
 Use repetition. As with any new concept, most people don't learn something the
first time they hear it. People need to hear the same message over and over before
they fully grasp it. Don't expect people to learn anything after being told once. This is
true of all of people whether they have a language barrier or not.
 Never raise your voice or over-enunciate your words. Talk slower, not louder.
Speak clearly, not forcefully. People of a different language and culture can hear
fine. They probably also are intelligent enough to grasp what you are saying if you
intelligently deliver your message without talking down to them. Don't speak "Pidgin
English." Speak correct English the correct way, just more clearly. People cannot
learn the language right if you don't speak it right.
 Use simpler words with fewer syllables. Be aware of the complexities of your
words. Use more common words that convey your message in simpler terms. Again,
don't talk down; just use a less complex vocabulary.
 Minimize the use of slang or idiom.
 Keep it clear
 Use an interpreter whenever possible
(Source: https://guides.co/g/the-seven-barriers-of-communication/37696)
Physical Barriers

Physical barriers are easy to spot : doors that are closed, walls that are erected,
and distance between people all work against the goal of effective
communication.
Physical barriers can be anything from background noise, distractions,
interruptions, equipment, connection glitches and the like. When on the phone,
and you experience signal interruption, when sending text messages, but you
suddenly run out of load so the message failed to send, when you are talking with
somebody in a noisy environment, when taking a synchronous online exam and
there is a sudden power interruption, those are considered physical barriers.
Examples of physical barriers that prevent individuals from effective
communication include:
 Environment -Some barriers are due to the existing environment. For
example, if you are standing in adverse weather conditions, your conversation
would be hampered because you would not be able to pay full attention to what
the other person is saying.
 Distance -Distance also plays an important part in determining the course of a
conversation. For example, if the staff in an organization are made to sit in
different buildings or different floors, they might have to substitute face to face
communication with phone calls or emails.
 Ignorance of Medium -Communication also includes using signs and
symbols to convey a feeling or a thought. However, if there is a lack of ignorance
about the medium in which sender is sending the message, the conversation can
be hampered.
Perceptual Barriers
We all have our own preferences, values, attitudes, origins and life experiences that
act as "filters" on our experiences of people, events and information. Seeing things
through the lens of our own unique life experiences or "conditioning" may lead to
assumptions, stereotyping and misunderstandings of others whose experiences
differ from our own.

Anything that inhibits or prevents us from making accurate perceptions is called a

perceptual barrier or a perceptual error. ... Five of the most common perceptual
barriers are selective perceptions, stereotypes, halo effect, projections, and
expectations.

Perceptual barriers are internal. If you go into a situation thinking that the person
you are talking to isn't going to understand or be interested in what you have to say,
you may end up subconsciously sabotaging your effort to make your point. You will
employ language that is sarcastic, dismissive, or even obtuse, thereby alienating
your conversational partner.

Think of movie scenarios in which someone yells clipped phrases at a person they
believe is deaf. The person yelling ends up looking ridiculous while failing to
communicate anything of substance.
Examples of perceptual barriers that prevent individuals from effective
communication include:

 Perceptual Filters -We all have our own preferences, values, attitudes,
origins and life experiences that act as "filters" on our experiences of people,
events and information. Seeing things through the lens of our own unique life
experiences or "conditioning" may lead to assumptions, stereotyping and
misunderstandings of others whose experiences differ from our own.
 Triggers and Cues -What we say is affected by how we say it (tone, volume)
and by our nonverbal cues, such as body language and facial gestures. For
example, you may perceive a situation differently if the person you are speaking
with is smiling or frowning, has body odour and is standing too close or is not
giving you direct eye contact.

What to do?
To overcome perceptual barriers within the workplace, there are a few things
you can do:
The audience may make assumptions about you or the situation; perhaps you
are new to the organization, or the situation is a challenging one. To get your
message past these barriers, provide evidence to support your claims and enhance
your credibility.
Effective communication relies on being aware of nonverbal aspects of
interactions with others. It is equally important to be aware of one's own nonverbal
behaviours and be sensitive to how they may be perceived. For instance,
maintaining eye contact when communicating indicates interest. Staring out the
window or around the room is often perceived as boredom or disrespect.
(Source: https://guides.co/g/the-seven-barriers-of-communication/37756)

Emotional Barriers
Emotional barriers can be tough to overcome, but are important to put aside to
engage in conversations. We are often taught to fear the words coming out of our
own mouths, as in the phrase "anything you say can and will be used against you."
Overcoming this fear is difficult, but necessary. The trick is to have full confidence in
what you are saying and your qualifications in saying it. People often pick up on
insecurity. By believing in yourself and what you have to say, you will be able to
communicate clearly without becoming overly involved in your emotions.
Examples of emotional barriers that prevent individuals from effective communication
include:

 Anger- Anger can affect the way your brain processes information given to
you. For example, angry people have difficulty processing logical statements,
limiting their ability to accept explanations and solutions offered by others
 Pride -The need to be right all the time will not only annoy others, it can shut
down effective communication. For example, you might focus only on your
perspective, or you might come up with ways to shoot down other people before
you even listen to their points.
 Anxiousness -Anxiety has a negative impact on the part of your brain that
manages creativity and communication skills. For example, your constant worries
can hinder your ability to concentrate on the information you are giving or
receiving.

To overcome emotional barriers within the workplace, here are some helpful hints:

 Removing Yourself.Angry people have difficulty processing logical

statements, limiting their ability to accept explanations and solutions offered by
others. With this in mind, remove yourself from communication until you feel you
can collect your thoughts, think clearly and hold back potentially hurtful and
undue comments.
 Accepting Imperfections. The drive to win every argument or get the last
word often spawns from overcompensation, or trying to cover emotional
insecurities with a sense of superiority. Other people might find you easier to
communicate with when you accept your imperfections from time to time.
 Relaxation Exercises. While a mental health professional should address
anxiety disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder or phobias -- typical
anxiety, like the anxiety you feel before giving a speech -- can be managed with
relaxation exercises.
Gender barriers have become less of an issue in recent years, but there is still the
possibility for a man to misconstrue the words of a woman, or vice versa.

Even in a workplace where women and men share equal stature, knowledge and
experience, differing communication styles may prevent them from working together
effectively. Gender barriers can be inherent or may be related to gender stereotypes
and the ways in which men and women are taught to behave as children.

Although not all men or all women communicate the same way as the rest of
their gender, several traits that tend to be more common in one gender or the other
have been identified. Understanding these tendencies is key in creating a work
environment that fosters open communication among all employees.

Examples Of Gender Barriers

According to Heather R. Huhman of Forbes, becoming aware of the following

generalizations may help you more effectively communicate at work:

 Women talk about other people. Men talk about tangible things like business,
sports, food and drinks.
 Women ask questions to gain an understanding. Men talk to give information
rather than asking questions.
 Women are more likely to talk to other women when a problem or conflict
arises. Men are often known for dealing with problems or issues internally
 Women focus on feelings, senses and meaning. They rely on their intuition to
find answers. Men focus on facts, reason and logic. They find answers by
analyzing and figuring things out.
 A disagreement between women affects many aspects of their relationship and
may take a long time to resolve. Men can argue or disagree and then move on
quickly from the conflict.
Please keep in mind that these are generalizations, and do not necessarily apply to every
individual.
Overcoming Gender Barriers
To overcome gender barriers within the workplace, here are some helpful hints:

 Educate Team About Gender Bias.Bias is embedded in stereotypes and

organizational practices that can be hard to detect, but when people are made aware of
it, they see possibilities for change.
 Create Safe "Identity Workspaces".Companies should encourage women to build
communities in which similarly positioned women can discuss their feedback, compare
notes, and emotionally support one another's learning. Identifying common experiences
increases women's willingness to talk openly, take risks, and be vulnerable without
fearing that others will misunderstand or judge them.

Interpersonal Barriers

Interpersonal barriers are what ultimately keep us from reaching out to each other and
opening ourselves up, not just to be heard, but to hear others. Oddly enough, this can be the
most difficult area to change. Some people spend their entire lives attempting to overcome a
poor self-image or a series of deeply rooted prejudices about their place in the world. They
are unable to form genuine connections with people because they have too many false
perceptions blocking the way.
Luckily, the cure for this is more communication. By engaging with others, we learn what our
actual strengths and weaknesses are. This allows us to put forth our ideas in a clear,
straightforward manner.

Examples of interpersonal barriers that prevent individuals from effective

communication include:

 Desire to Participate -The lack of desire to participate in the communication process

is a significant barrier. There is nothing more frustrating than trying to communicate with
an individual that clearly does not want to.
 Desire to Explore -Unwillingness to explore different ideas, opinions, and priorities
create communication barriers every day of our lives. A clear lack of desire to explore
your views, opinions, or ideas can be extremely frustrating.
To overcome interpersonal barriers within the workplace, here are some helpful
hints:
 Use simple words to convey the message.To have an effective process of
interpersonal communication, you have to simplify language. Everyone hates to decipher
spoken words, reserve the deciphering to the writing and when speaking, keep it simple
and easy to understand.
 Learn the art of listening.A person will always try to get his opinions across first
before listening to the other person's point of view. To improve interpersonal
communication, listen both attentively and proactively.
 Keep composure while communicating.The process of interpersonal
communication is more effective if emotions are kept at bay. Keeping your composure
while talking or negotiating with a business partner will keep you on the right track
towards your goal.
 Provide constructive criticism.Constructive criticism is perhaps the best sign that
you are communicating with the other person on a more personal level. Both the sender
and receiver of communications may use feedback for effective interpersonal
communication.
 More than 350
million in the world has been speaking English as their first language. On the other
hand, almost half a billion people are using English as their second language.
English has become the major language of many countries worldwide
especially in dealing with economic and political trades.
How do we connect with people across the globe?
Online platforms are always available especially to those who have access in
it. During this pandemic, most of us do not let the acquisition of learning stop. We
participate in webinars and workshops which allow us to widen our knowledge. We
connect with different people across the globe and the medium of instruction used is
English.

English as the Lingua Franca (ELF)

Source: slideshare.net (2017)

What does lingua franca mean?

The term ‘lingua franca’ was originally formed by Arabic speakers to
communicate with the European travelers. It usually means “any lingual medium of
communication between people of different mother tongues, for whom it is a second
language."
It is also known as a bridge language, trade language or common language used
to make communication possible between people who do not share a native
language in particular.
English as a lingua franca is a contact language between persons who share
neither a common native tongue nor a common culture.
 The way English is used as a lingua franca is heavily dependent on the
specific situation of use.
Speakers accommodate to each other’s cultural backgrounds and may also
use a common language understandable for both.

Development of English as an International Language

Nowadays, the world

has become the global village and with the rise of the Internet, English got a
distinguished role in world communication. It has become a language of self-
representation and communication with people from all over the globe.
We can therefore say that English language is owned by everyone, and we
cannot live without it. For example, if we want to interact with people outside our
locality, we would surely introduce ourselves using the English language

The demand for English as a

lingua franca will increase and continue possibly as more and more people use it as
 basic global communication tool. Speaking English became a trend as it gains
popularity day by day because it has its own potential to attract people in many
different countries.
Even if you are just simply surfing the Internet, you may already explore
anything that the world offers. In terms of global leadership, you must have
command on English i.e., speaking, writing and reading.
Hence, English is a vital language for learning and communicating to the
world.

Varieties of English Language

Source: aston.ac.uk

Did you know that there are different ways to speak the English language? Which
variety should we follow?
How we speak is influenced by many things. Our way of pronouncing words is
all part of learning how to speak and somehow copying the speech of those around
us. Depending on our family history or background, we could ether be monolingual,
bilingual or multilingual, then we may learn to speak English alongside another
language. As we go further schooling, we will eventually learn the standardized
forms of the English language in terms of spelling, punctuation and grammar which
is known as the standard English.
As we move across the country, we experience not only changing landscape
and architecture but also a gradual change in the sounds we hear, in the accents
and dialects that relate to the place in which they are spoken and to which they
belong.
DIALECT – a variety of English that differs from other dialects or varieties in three
specific ways:
 Lexis (vocabulary)
 Grammar (structure)
 Phonology (pronunciation or accent)
ACCENT – refers to the differences in the sound patterns of a specific dialect and
not its vocabulary and grammar
Attitudes towards Variations of English
For mainly historical reasons, certain English dialects or varieties have been
viewed more positively than others. Thus, standard English, because of its
association with being the national English language, has been perceived as the
most prestigious English variety.
As society changes, so too do attitudes towards dialect, accent and
variational use of English generally. Until not so very long ago, variational uses of
English were associated with social class. Today, issues of social class are not
straightforward as they were once; increased educational opportunity and economic
prosperity means that more and more young people are exposed to Standard
English than ever before. Also, increased variety of accents in the media for
example, is a great help to break down prejudice towards variational use of English.

British VS. American English

Source: learningenglish.voanews.com

There is an old saying that America and Britain are “two nations divided by a
common language.” No one knows exactly who said this, but it reflects the way many
Brits feel about American English. My British friend still tells me, “You don’t speak
English. You speak American.” But are American and British English really so
different
Vocabulary
The most noticeable difference between American and British English is vocabulary.
There are hundreds of everyday words that are different. For example, Brits call the
front of a car the bonnet, while Americans call it the hood.
Americans go on vacation, while Brits go on holidays, or hols.
New Yorkers live in apartments; Londoners live in flats.
There are far more examples than we can talk about here. Fortunately, most
Americans and Brits can usually guess the meaning through the context of a
sentence.
Collective nouns
There are a few grammatical differences between the two varieties of English. Let’s
start with collective nouns. We use collective nouns to refer to a group of individuals.
In American English, collective nouns are singular. For example, staff refers to a
group of employees; band refers to a group of musicians; team refers to a group of
athletes. Americans would say, “The band is good.”
But in British English, collective nouns can be singular or plural. You might hear
someone from Britain say, “The team are playing tonight” or “The team is playing
tonight.”
Auxiliary verbs
Another grammar difference between American and British English relates to
auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs, are verbs that help
form a grammatical function. They “help” the main verb by adding information about
time, modality and voice.
Let’s look at the auxiliary verb shall. Brits sometimes use shall to express the future.
For example, “I shall go home now.” Americans know what shall means, but rarely
use it in conversation. It seems very formal. Americans would probably use “I will go
home now.”
In question form, a Brit might say, “Shall we go now?” while an American would
probably say, “Should we go now?”
When Americans want to express a lack of obligation, they use the helping verb do
with negative not followed by need. “You do not need to come to work today.” Brits
drop the helping verb and contract not. “You needn’t come to work today.”

Past tense verbs

You will also find some small differences with past forms of irregular verbs.
The past tense of learn in American English is learned. British English has the option
of learned or learnt. The same rule applies to dreamed and dreamt, burned and
burnt, leaned and leant.
Americans tend to use the –ed ending; Brits tend to use the -t ending.
In the past participle form, Americans tend to use the –en ending for some irregular
verbs. For example, an American might say, “I have never gotten caught” whereas a
Brit would say, “I have never got caught.” Americans use both got and gotten in the
past participle. Brits only use got.
Don’t worry too much about these small differences in the past forms of irregular
verbs. People in both countries can easily understand both ways, although Brits tend
to think of the American way as incorrect.
Tag questions
A tag question is a grammatical form that turns a statement into a question. For
example, “The whole situation is unfortunate, isn’t it?” or, “You don’t like him, do
you?”
The tag includes a pronoun and its matching form of the verb be, have or do. Tag
questions encourage people to respond and agree with the speaker. Americans use
tag questions, too, but less often than Brits.
Spelling
There are hundreds of minor spelling differences between British and American
English. You can thank American lexicographer Noah Webster for this. You might
recognize Webster’s name from the dictionary that carries his name.
Noah Webster, an author, politician, and teacher, started an effort to reform English
spelling in the late 1700s.
He was frustrated by the inconsistencies in English spelling. Webster wanted to spell
words the way they sounded. Spelling reform was also a way for America to show its
independence from England.
You can see Webster’s legacy in the American spelling of words like color (from
colour), honor (from honour), and labor (from labour). Webster dropped the letter u
from these words to make the spelling match the pronunciation.
Other Webster ideas failed, like a proposal to spell women as wimmen. Since
Webster’s death in 1843, attempts to change spelling rules in American English have
gone nowhere.
Not so different after all.
British and American English have far more similarities than differences. We think
the difference between American and British English is often exaggerated. If you can
understand one style, you should be able to understand the other style.
With the exception of some regional dialects, most Brits and Americans can
understand each other without too much difficulty. They watch each other’s TV
shows, sing each other’s songs, and read each other’s books.
They even make fun of each other’s accents.
Here is the list of British words (words in blue) and their American
counterparts (words in black) arranged alphabetically for your easy reference.

British English American English

accommodation Accommodations
action replay instant replay
aerofoil Airfoil
aeroplane Airplane
agony aunt advice columnist
Allen key Allen wrench
aluminium aluminum
aniseed anise
anticlockwise counterclockwise
articulated lorry tractor-trailer
asymmetric bars uneven bars
aubergine Eggplant
baking tray cookie sheet
bank holiday legal holiday
beetroot beet(s)
biscuit cookie; cracker
black economy underground economy
blanket bath sponge bath
block of flats apartment building
boiler suit Coveralls
bonnet (of a car) Hood
boob tube tube top
boot (of a car) Trunk
bottom drawer hope chest
bowls lawn bowling
braces Suspenders
brawn (the food) Headcheese
breakdown van tow truck
breeze block cinder block
bridging loan bridge loan
bumbag fanny pack
candyfloss cotton candy
car park parking lot
casualty emergency room
catapult Slingshot
central reservation median strip
chemist drugstore
chips French fries
cinema movie theater; the movies
cling film plastic wrap
common seal harbor seal
consumer durables durable goods
cornflour cornstarch
cos (lettuce) Romaine
cot crib
cot death crib death
cotton bud cotton swab
cotton wool absorbent cotton
council estate (housing) project
courgette zucchini
court card face card
crash barrier guardrail
crisps chips; potato chips
crocodile clip alligator clip
cross-ply bias-ply
crotchet (music) quarter note
current account checking account
danger money hazard pay
demister (in a car) defroster
dialling tone dial tone
diamante Rhinestone
double cream heavy cream
draughts (game) checkers
drawing pin thumbtack
dressing gown robe; bathrobe
drink-driving drunk driving
drinks cupboard liquor cabinet
drinks party cocktail party
driving licence driver’s license
dual carriageway divided highway
dummy (for a baby) Pacifier
dust sheet drop cloth
dustbin garbage can
earth (electrical) Ground
engaged (of a phone) Busy
real estate agent,
estate agent
realtor (trademark)
estate car station wagon
ex-directory unlisted
faith school parochial school
financial year fiscal year
fire brigade/service fire company/department
first floor second floor
fish finger fish stick
fitted carpet wall-to-wall carpeting
flannel washcloth
flat apartment
flexitime flextime
flick knife switchblade
flyover overpass
football soccer
footway sidewalk
fringe (hair) bangs
full stop (punctuation) period
garden yard; lawn
gearing (finance) leverage
gear lever gearshift
goods train freight train
greaseproof paper wax paper/waxed paper
green fingers green thumb
grill (noun) broiler
grill (verb) broil
ground floor first floor
groundsman groundskeeper
hairslide barrette
hatstand hatrack
hen night bachelorette party
hire purchase installment plan
hoarding billboard
hob stovetop
holdall carryall
holiday vacation
holidaymaker vacationer
homely homey
hosepipe (garden) hose
in hospital in the hospital
hot flush hot flash
housing estate housing development
hundreds and thousands sprinkles (for ice cream)
ice lolly Popsicle (trademark)
icing sugar confectioners’ sugar
indicator (on a car) turn signal
inside leg inseam
jelly babies jelly beans
Joe Bloggs Joe Blow
Joe Public John Q. Public
jumble sale rummage sale
jump lead jumper cable
jumper sweater
junior school elementary school
kennel doghouse
ladybird ladybug
a lettuce a head of lettuce
level crossing grade crossing
lift elevator
lolly lollipop
lollipop lady (or man) crossing guard
loose cover slipcover
lorry truck
loudhailer bullhorn
low loader flatbed truck
lucky dip grab bag
luggage van baggage car
maize corn
mangetout snow pea
market garden truck farm
marshalling yard railroad yard
maths math
metalled road paved road
milometer odometer
minim (music) half note
mobile phone cell phone
monkey tricks monkeyshines
motorway expressway; highway
mum/mummy mom/mommy
nappy diaper
needlecord pinwale
newsreader newscaster
noughts and crosses tic-tac-toe
number plate license plate
off-licence liquor store; package store
opencast mining open-pit mining
ordinary share common stock
oven glove oven mitt
paddling pool wading pool
paracetamol acetaminophen
parting (in hair) part
patience solitaire
pavement sidewalk
pay packet pay envelope
pedestrian crossing crosswalk
peg clothespin
pelmet valance
petrol gas; gasoline
physiotherapy physical therapy
pinafore dress jumper
plain chocolate dark chocolate
plain flour all-purpose flour
polo neck turtleneck
positive discrimination reverse discrimination
postal vote absentee ballot
postbox mailbox
postcode zip code
potato crisp potato chip
power point electrical outlet
pram baby carriage; stroller
press stud snap
press-up pushup
private soldier GI
public school private school
public transport public transportation
punchbag punching bag
pushchair stroller
pylon utility pole
quantity surveyor estimator
quaver (music) eighth note
queue line
racing car race car
railway railroad
real tennis court tennis
recorded delivery certified mail
registration plate license plate
remould (tyre) retread
reverse the charges call collect
reversing lights back-up lights
right-angled triangle right triangle
ring road beltway
roundabout (at a fair) carousel
roundabout (in road) traffic circle
rowing boat rowboat
sailing boat sailboat
saloon (car) sedan
sandpit sandbox
sandwich cake layer cake
sanitary towel sanitary napkin
self-raising flour self-rising flour
semibreve (music) whole note
semitone (music) half step
share option stock option
shopping trolley shopping cart
show house/home model home
silencer (on a car) muffler
silverside rump roast
skeleton in the cupboard skeleton in the closet
skimmed milk skim milk
skipping rope jump rope
skirting board baseboard
sledge sled
sleeper railroad tie
sleeping partner silent partner
slowcoach slowpoke
snakes and ladders chutes and ladders
solicitor lawyer
soya/soya bean soy/soybean
splashback backsplash
spring onion scallion
stag night bachelor party
Stanley knife utility knife
starter appetizer
state school public school
storm in a teacup tempest in a teapot
surtitle supertitle
swede rutabaga
sweet(s) candy
takeaway (food) takeout; to go
taxi rank taxi stand
tea towel dish towel
terrace house row house
tick check mark
ticket tout scalper
timber lumber
titbit tidbit
toffee apple candy apple or caramel apple
touch wood knock on wood
trade union labor union
trading estate industrial park
trainers sneakers
transport cafe truck stop
trolley shopping cart
twelve-bore twelve-gauge
underground Subway
vacuum flask thermos bottle
verge (of a road) Shoulder
vest Undershirt
veterinary surgeon veterinarian
wagon (on a train) car
waistcoat vest
walking frame walker
wardrobe closet
water ice Italian ice
weatherboard clapboard
 white coffee coffee with cream
white spirit mineral spirits
wholemeal bread wholewheat bread
windcheater windbreaker
windscreen windshield
wing (of a car) fender
worktop countertop
zebra crossing crosswalk
zed (letter Z) zee
zip zippe

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

 identify the varieties and registers of spoken and written language;
 compare and contrast “lect” from “standard english”;
 give some of the jargons from specific professional groups;
 identify ethnic slurs and offensive gestures across nations.

Lesson: Local and Global Communications in

Multicultural Settings
Introduction:
Communication is guided by culture and context. It is predicted by the type of
culture dictated by its context. Culture is manifested in our actions and affects how
we tell the world who we are and what we believe in. It is also the basis of how we
behave in a certain communication context. The context of communication brings a
better understanding about culture in general and our own culture in particular.
Context was contextualized by Edward T. Hall, a cultural anthropologist, as anything
that refers to the stimuli, environment, or ambience surrounding an event. Our notion
of context leads us to be better able to adapt to a multicultural perspective of
communication.
Local communication is highly grounded on the cultural context. This context
of communication reflects the culture of people who are creating their self-identity
and community. On the other hand, global communication has turned to be a
modifying factor of local communication. It attempts to bring changes that affect
communication conversations.
 The increasing diversity of cultures throughout the world requires the study of
intercultural communication, a discipline that focuses on how culture affects
communication. Intercultural communication concerns on the ability to understand
and value cultural differences. It considers the context of communication where
people from different cultural backgrounds interact and underscores the wide range
of communication processes and problems that naturally appear within a social
context.
Language is a cultural component that is linked to intercultural understanding.
How language is used and its non-verbal forms are decoded based on culture.
Hence enhancing oral and written communication in intercultural environments is a
way to achieving intercultural competence.

Varieties and Registers of Spoken and Written Language

Language Variety
 It is also called lect.
 It is any distinctive form of a language or linguistic expression.
 it refers to any of the overlapping subcategories of a language including :

a. dialect
b. register
c. jargon
d. idiolect

Varieties of English refer to the different kinds of English used around the
world based on geographical locations.
Several Major Varieties are:
American English
British English
Australian English
New Zealand English
Black English
Other Varieties are:
Singapore English
Philippine English
*These are identified as variations based on the phonological (speech sounds) and
lexical (vocabulary/grammar and construction) levels of use. Language variations are
more or less similar and while most English speakers can understand each other,
problems occasionally arise. (Manzano, et al. 2018)

Difference of Lect from Standard English

Lect Standard English

Developed for a number of reasons:

 a form of the English language that
1. Geographical = people who live in is written and spoken by educated users.
different geographic areas often develop
distinct dialect – variations of Standard  it is synonymous to good and correct
English. English usage.
2. Jargon = language from specific academic and  it also refers to a specific geographical
professional groups which is known to and dialect of English or a dialect of English
understood by members of the group.
 or a dialect favored by the most powerful
3. Idiolects = developed by individuals at a and prestigious social group.
particular period of time

Subcategories of Language Variety

Greek word : dia = ‘across,between’ + legein = ‘speak’
Dialect prejudice: certain dialects gained negative connotations in the U.S., thus
the term refers to discrimination based on a person’s dialect or way of speaking.

According to Carolyn temple and Donna Christian in their article, “Applied Social
Dialectology:
“… dialect prejudice is endemic in public life, widely tolerated and institutionalized in
social enterprise that affect almost everyone such as education and media.”
There is limited knowledge about and little regard for linguistic study showing that all
varieties of a language display systematically and that the elevated social position of
standard varieties has no specific linguistic basis.

2. Register is the way a speaker uses language differently in different

circumstances. It is the level and style of your writing, and it should be appropriate to
the situation you are in. It determines the vocabulary, structure and grammar of your
writing.

Observe how you speak with a friend and

compare it with the way you should speak before an audience or during an interview;
 it varies formality. This variation is called stylistic variation known as register in
linguistics.

Factors which determine Registers:

 social occasion
 context
 purpose
 audience
- They are marked with a variety of specialized vocabulary and turns of phrases,
colloquialisms, the use of jargon and difference in intonation and pace.
- Registers may be extremely rigid or very intimate depending on the following:

1. grammar
2. syntax
3. tone
Forms of Language Register

1. Formal Register – is more appropriate for professional writing

- is impersonal
*This form of language register is most appropriate in professional and business
writing. It entails the use of formal writing which seems to be the most difficult type of
writing. Not all professionals are good at it because of the many complexities that
writing requires. It is impersonal which means that it requires strict implementations
of rules in standard writing and is written without considering emotions. (Manzano, et al.
2018)

Examples:
o Business letters
o Business reports
o Announcements
o Some essays
o Official speeches
o Professional emails
Rules of Formal Language Register:

a. Do not use contractions – cannot instead of can’t; have not instead of haven’t
b. Spell out numbers less than one hundred – nineteen, seventy-eight, twenty-two, six
c. Write in the third person point of view – avoid using: I, we, you, us
d. Avoid using too much passive voice – Passive: The bone was eaten by the dog;
Active: The dog ate the bone
e. Avoid using slang, idioms, exaggeration, and clichés – awesome/cool, ok/okay,
check it out
f. Avoid abbreviations and acronyms – Department of Education (DepEd), influenza
(flu)
g. Do not begin a sentence with words like and, so, but, also – Use these words
instead: Nevertheless, Additionally, However, In addition, As a result of, Although
h. Always write in complete sentences.
i. Write longer, more complex sentences. – *Longer and complex sentences are
acceptable as long as they do not become wordy. Write using substantial and
meaningful sentences.

2. Informal Language Register – is conversational

Informal writing is written in the way we talk to our friends and family. This form is
used when writing to someone you know very well.
Examples:
o Personal emails
o Short notes
o Most blogs
o Phone texts
o Friendly letters
o Diaries and journals

3. Neutral Register – is not necessarily formal or informal

- is used to deliver facts
Some writings are written in a neutral language, which means that they are not
specifically formal or informal, positive or negative. The neutral language register is
used with non-emotional topics and information.
Examples:
o Reviews
o Some letters
o Technical writing
o Articles
o Some essays
o Some reports

3. Jargons
 refers to the specialized language of a professional or occupational group.
 Such language is often meaningless to outsiders.
 George Packer describes jargon in a similar vein in a 2016 article in the New
Yorker magazine:
“Professional jargon—on Wall Street, in humanities departments, in government
offices—can be a fence raised to keep out the uninitiated and permit those within it
to persist in the belief that what they do is too hard, too complex, to be questioned.
 Jargon acts not only to euphemize but to license, setting insiders against outsiders
and giving the flimsiest notions a scientific aura.

In other words, jargon is a faux method of creating a sort of dialect that only those on
this inside group can understand.
Jargon has social implications similar to dialect prejudice but in reverse:
 It is a way of making those who understand this particular variety of language more
erudite and learned;
 those who are members of the group that understands the particular jargon are
considered smart, while those on the outside are simply not bright enough to
comprehend this kind of language.

Your Turn… (PARTICIPATION)

Give at least five jargons in your specific field of specialization.

MEANING IN
WORD FIELD MEANING
OTHER FIELD

Architecture/Engineering A vertical component

used in building
construction HRM - Dishware
Ex. Plate

 Please proceed to the ASSESSMENT SECTION and post your response.

Types of Lects
1. Regional dialect:A variety spoken in a particular region.
Examples:
 Ilocano
 Chavacano
 Waray

2. Sociolect: Also known as a social dialect, a variety of language (or register) used
by a socioeconomic class, a profession, an age group, or any other social group.
Examples:
 gay lingo
 jejemon

3. Ethnolect:A lect spoken by a specific ethnic group.

Example: Ebonics (the vernacular spoken by some African-Americans).

4. Idiolect:The language or speech pattern of one individual at a particular period of

time.
Example, one would say:
 “buhfor” instead of “before”

Cultural Practices and Nuances

Korea
In a country where almost half the population have the same last name, you may be
forgiven for becoming a little confused about who is who and what is what. Valuable
for anyone researching Korean culture, customs, language, society, manners,
 etiquette, values, business norms and essentially wanting to understand the people
better.
Whether visiting South Korea on business, for tourism or even hosting Korean
colleagues or clients in your own country, this guide will help you understand your
South Korean counterparts, improve communication and get the relationship off to
the right start. How do we know all this information? Well, we are experts in cultural
awareness training courses on Korean culture!

FACTS AND STATISTICS

 Location: Eastern Asia, southern half of the Korean Peninsula bordering the East
Sea and the Yellow Sea
 Capital: Seoul
 National anthem: Aegukga
 Nationality: Korean
 Ethnic Make-up: Homogenous (except for small percentage of the population who
are from elsewhere but reside in the country permanently). It is one of the most
racially pure countries in the world.
 Population: 50,924,172 (July 2016 Est.)
 Population growth rate: 0.53% (2016 Est.)
 Climate: temperate, with rainfall heavier in summer than winter
 Time Zone: Korea Standard Time UTC (UTC+09:00)
 Currency: South Korean ‘won’
 Government: Republic
 Internet penetration: 92.1% (2016)
LANGUAGE IN SOUTH KOREA
Koreans share one language, with approximately seventy million people
around the globe speaking Korean.
 The language structure, grammar
and vocabulary are similar to Japanese. Dialects are regional; differing mainly in
accent, but are so similar that comprehension for speakers, or listeners, is not an
issue. Key difference in dialect are also attributed to social status.
Korea has one of the highest literacy rates in the world due to the phonetic nature of
the written language which was invented in the mid-fifteenth century to give one
language to Koreans.

SOCIAL CUSTOMS & ETIQUETTE TIPS FOR SOUTH KOREA

The Concept of Kibun
 Kibun is a word with no literal English translation; the closest terms are pride, face, mood,
feelings, or state of mind.
 If you hurt someone's kibun you hurt their pride, cause them to lose dignity, and lose face.
Korean interpersonal relationships operate on the principle of harmony.
 It is important to maintain a peaceful, comfortable atmosphere at all times, even if it means
telling a "white lie".
 It is important to know how to judge the state of someone else's kibun, how to avoid hurting
it, and how to keep your own kibun at the same time.
 In business, a manager's kibun is damaged if his subordinates do not show proper respect.
A subordinate's kibun is damaged if his manager criticizes him in public.
 Nunchi is the ability to determine another person's kibun by using the eye.
 Since this is a culture where social harmony is crucial, being able to judge another person's
state of mind is critical to maintain the person's kibun. Nunchi is accomplished by watching
body language and listening to the tone of voice as well as what is said.
Naming Conventions
 In South Korea names operate in the reverse of Western cultures; Family name (surname),
a second family name shared by all of that generation, and finally their given name.
 It is considered very impolite to address a Korean with his or her given name. They should
be addressed using their professional titles, or Mr, Mrs Etc, until permission is given
otherwise.
 Meeting & Greeting

 Bowing is the traditional way to greet in South Korea

 Handshakes often accompany the bow among men
 Your left hand should support your right forearm when shaking hands
 Korean women do not always shake hands and may slightly nod instead of a full bow
 Always bow to individuals when departing

Communication style
 Communication can be complicated in South Korea due to an inherent dislike of
saying ‘no’ as it is considered poor etiquette
 Discussions can be prolonged due to the avoidance of declining or refusing
 If disquiet is verbally or visibly displayed it is a sure sign that something is amiss
 Good posture and positive body language is most beneficial in meetings; patience
and politeness must be maintained throughout
 Do not use excessive or overt body language
 Use two hands, or support your right arm with your left, when passing on business
cards, gifts, or when receiving an item
 Respect, trust and satisfaction are displayed through a deeper bow
 Personal Space
 It is insulting for Koreans to be touched by someone with whom they are unfamiliar;
don’t pat them on the back or hug them
 Prolonged, direct eye contact can be inferred as a challenge and is seen as impolite,
especially when dealing with others of a higher social standing
 Keep your body within its own personal space; avoid extended or crossed legs and
limit arm movements when explaining something so as to evade others’ personal
space
 If calling someone over to you do not point with your index finger, instead use your
hand palm down in a claw movement
 In cities (especially Seoul) pushing, shoving and touching are regular occurrences –
don’t be offended by the lack of apologies
 Friends, of both sexes, will often walk arm in arm together, especially teenagers and
the younger generations
Gift Giving Etiquette

 Koreans are generous people and enjoy giving gifts

 Accept the gift with both hands – but never open the gift immediately, wait until the
giver is absent
 Return the favour and offer something of a similar value. Koreans enjoy Western
gifts and items so be prepared before leaving home
 If giving gifts be sure to wrap and present them in an attractive way. Avoid using dark
wrapping paper, especially red, instead choose bright yellow/green
 If invited to a Korean home always take the hostess a gift; chocolates, sweets, cakes
or flowers but preferably not alcohol
 Gifts are often given at the first business meeting and the host should present his
first. To reciprocate, give good quality alcohol such as scotch, or desk accessories
 Do not give overly expensive gifts as Koreans feel indebted to give as they receive
 Avoid gifts such as knives, scissors, sets of four, and red writing (these are seen as
‘cutting ties’ and signifying death respectively)

Dining & Food

Dining & Food

 Always wait to be seated by your host. If given the seat of honour (looking at the
front door) it is polite to demonstrate a slight objection
 Elders are served first and begin the dining process
 Food and dining are important parts of Korean culture and are used to build
relationships. Be sociable and work at shaping good associations for pleasure
and business as they are interlinked
 Don’t pour your own drink, although it is considered good manners to pour another’s.
Women often pour for men but not for other women. Rather than refuse more drink
(remember, Koreans don’t like outright refusal) simply leave your glass part full, as
opposed to empty
 Do not tip if you see a ‘no tipping’ sign
 There are often prolonged periods of silence during Korean meals – socialising can
happen once everyone has feasted
 Don’t forget to pass and receive food with two hands or with just your right if it is
supported by your left
 When it comes to settling the bill, the invitee may offer to pay but the host will
generally pay for everyone.
 If you are invited to continue after dinner with drinks or a party, don’t refuse this
invitation.
 On occasion you may be asked to sing a solo after dinner. Try not to refuse this
request, instead sing with enthusiasm and spirit
 Do not point with your chopsticks, or leave them sticking out of your bowl
 The national drink of Korea is ‘Soju’, a clear vodka-like drink that is generally 18-25%
alcohol

Visiting a home

 Always remove your shoes before entering a Korean home (in recent years there
has been an increase in Western culture and this may not always be the case -
follow the lead of your host if unsure)
 It is possible to arrive up to thirty minutes late without causing offence but punctuality
is highly respected
 Remember, never pour your own drink. The host will do this in your presence
 Being invited into a Korean’s home is considered an honour (especially if it is for a
meal) so it is essential to treat it as such. Be polite, respectful and observe their
customs
 Bring a gift to reciprocate your host’s kindness
 Once the party is over you will usually be escorted to your car or the gate by the
host. This is a sign of respect

Taboos in South Korean Culture

 Do not wear your shoes in places of worship or peoples’ homes
 Do not put your feet on furniture
 Do not eat or drink in public places while walking
 Do not place your thumb between your middle and index finger while making a fist as
this an obscene gesture
 Do not use red ink. This is a symbol of death and is reserved only for writing the
names of the deceased. It is considered unlucky and suggests you wish death to the
recipient
 Do not use the number four if at all possible – if giving gifts, do not give four of
something. It is considered unlucky due to the similarity between the Korean word for
death and the pronunciation of the word ‘four’
 Do not stand too close to people you are meeting for the first time – keep an arms
length between you

BUSINESS CULTURE, ETIQUETTE AND PROTOCOL IN SOUTH KOREA

If you are considering doing business in South Korea, or with a South Korean, it is
essential to understand their culture and business etiquette to maximise your
potential and avoid any unnecessary awkwardness.
Korean culture is profoundly influenced by Confucian principles and this pervades not only
personal lives, but also business. Confucianism supports group harmony, respect for elders
and authority, the importance of family, friendship and ancestors, and also, tradition. Kibun
(equivalent to face, or honour) is highly significant to Koreans and they will always attempt to
maintain their Kibun, or personal dignity. Confrontation is to be avoided at all cost as once
Kibun is lost it cannot be regained.
In South Korea, good relationships are crucial to success both in personal and business
circles, and these are assimilated within the business world. Korean’s make friends first, and
clients second. To make the most of your business acumen you must also appear
trustworthy, honourable and respectable in a social and business setting.
Korean business is founded upon relationships; even large corporations are often
family managed with members still acting in executive positions. The Confucian
principles regarding respect for age, family, rank and tradition have ensured the
continuance of this system. There have been recent calls for reforms, due to
economic downturns, in Korea but this will take time due to the entrenched systems
in place.
 Alongside the formal power structures in place within a company one must learn to
recognise, and assess, the informal structures which may be based on long-standing family
ties, personal relationships and allegiances. Insight into these practises will ensure a greater
comprehension of Korean business etiquette.

What to wear?
 Dress is conventional and conservative for both women and men
 Dark suits, white shirt and tie are accepted as the norm for men
 Suits, dresses, or blouse and skirt are acknowledged for women. Trousers are not
generally worn for business
 Women should avoid sleeveless, tight-fitting garments
 Colours should be understated and traditional
 Good quality accessories are accepted
 Be aware that winter can be very cold, and summer very hot, in South Korea
Titles
 As discussed previously, Koreans have three names; they are used in order of
surname, generation name, and then given name.
 If unsure address people as Mr_____ (surname) or surname ______ and then their
title (teacher, professor, etc)
 Generally, Koreans will offer you their name, which may be a westernised version of
their Korean name
Business cards
 Business cards are considered important and ritualistic in Korea
 It is advisable to have one side printed in English and the other in Korean
 Give and receive cards with both hands, with the Korean side uppermost for ease of
reading
 Take time to read and examine the cards you are given – it is respectful
 Place cards in a holder to keep them safe and show you are treating them well
 Never write on or mark the cards you are given
Meetings
 Organise your meeting ahead of time, giving plenty of notice
 Arrive punctually and be prepared
 The most senior Korean will enter and be seated first
 As Koreans live and conduct business within a Confucian framework, initial meetings
are often used in an introductory fashion and business may be instigated later
 Do not show impatience at this stage as these pleasantries are a way of getting to
know you
 Only remove your jacket once the senior Korean does
 Choose delegates who are on par with their Korean counterparts – this shows
respect and knowledge
 Exchange business cards in a respectful manner after the initial introductions
 Ask open ended questions that do not require a yes or no answer as Koreans dislike
refusals
 Negotiating
 Allow the senior Korean to instigate business discussions
 Phrase questions in a manner that allows for discussion (Ask ‘When can we expect
delivery?’ And not, ‘Will delivery be within two weeks?’)
 Avoid using an outright ‘No’ in response to questions
 Be aware of others’ Kibun – do not force an issue if you sense reluctance as you
may harm you own dignity and lose their respect
 Always show respect for senior colleagues and management
 There are often times of silence during meetings, try not to break these as they are
moments of contemplation and show consideration for others
 Avoid a hard sell and forceful negotiations – remember Kibun
Management
 Korean business and personal lives are based upon strict hierarchical structures
 Confucianism supports this structure within the family and workplace
 Older and senior delegates should be deferred to at all times
 'Sonsaengnim' means "respected person" and is frequently used when addressing
someone of a higher position
 In South Korea managers take a paternalistic role with employees and may be
familiar with staff in a personal manner
 This allows for a mutual respect and understanding so don’t be put off if asked
questions of a personal nature

UAE (United Arab Emirates)

Whether visiting Abu Dhabi on business or Dubai for tourism or even hosting Emirati
colleagues or clients in your own country, this guide will help you understand your
counterparts, improve communication and get the relationship off to the right start.
FACTS AND STATISTICS
 Location: Middle East, bordering the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, between Oman
and Saudi Arabia.
 Capital: Abu Dhabi.
 Flag: The flag of the United Arab Emirates was adopted in 1971. Its colours of red, green,
white and black represent the unity of the Arab countries.
 National anthem: The National Anthem of the United Arab Emirates is also known as Ishy
Bilady (Long Live my Nation) It was adopted in 1971 when the UAE was first formed and
composed by Mohammed Abdel Wahab as an orchestral piece. It was not until 1996 that the
lyrics written by Arif Al Sheikh Abdullah Al Hassan were officially adopted.
 Nationality: Emiratis.
 Ethnic Make-up: Emirati 11.6%, South Asian 59.4% (includes Indian 38.2%, Bangladeshi
9.5%, Pakistani 9.4%, other 2.3%), Egyptian 10.2%, Philippine 6.1%, other 12.8% (2015
est.)
 Population: 6,072,475 (July 2017 est.
 Population growth rate: 1.2% annual change (2016).
 Climate: Desert; cooler in The eastern mountain area.
 Time Zone: Gulf Time Zone – UTC+4:00
 Currency: Dirham.
 Government: Federal Constitution.
 Internet penetration: 70.0% of the population – est 2011
BASIC INTRODUCTION
The United Arab Emirates was formed as an independent federation on December
2nd, 1971 and originally included six countries: Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman,
Umm Al Quwain and Fujairah.
The following year Ras al-Khaymah joined the federation. The Sheikhdoms also known as
the Trucial States were formerly a British Protectorate from 1820 until they achieved
independence in 1971. In the 18th and early 19th Century, the Trucial coast (south-eastern
Persian Gulf) was known in the West as the ‘Pirate Coast’ as shipping vessels in the area
were frequently targeted by local tribal inhabitants. The British Government retaliated and
were successful in bringing matters under control. These events led to the creation of the
‘General Treaty of Peace’ in 1820 which established Britain’s obligation to maintain peace in
the Gulf.
Since the second half of the 20th Century, the discovery of oil has been a driving force in the
economy of the UAE. The international finance and banking crisis in 2008 saw a severe
economic slump in UAE and they narrowly avoided being caught up in the so called ‘Arab
Spring’ that ricocheted around the Middle East in 2010. As a response to the crisis, the UAE
embarked upon an ambitious programme of economic and political reform. The poorer areas
of the UAE received significant investment to improve the infrastructure and raise
educational standards.
The UAE is a member of the US-led anti-Islamic State coalition along with 61 other states.

LANGUAGE IN THE UAE

Arabic is the official language of the UAE although English is widely spoken and
understood.
 Since the UAE is home to a large expatriate community, a number of other languages are
widely spoken which primarily include: Persian, Hindi, Urdu, Bengali and Chinese.

SOCIAL CUSTOMS & PROTOCOL

Naming conventions:
 The first name is the personal name followed by ibn which means son of and the name of
the father, then followed again by ibn meaning the name of the father of his father. This is
then followed by the family name.
 Where a daughter is concerned the ibn becomes bint. Her first name followed by bint
(daughter of) father’s name, then ibn to indicate the grandfather’s name followed by the
family name.
 When a couple marry, the wife retains her family name and children will take the name of the
father.
 In modern times ibn and bint are often only used in official circumstances. Additionally,
addresses are likely to only included son or daughter of the father as opposed to both father
and grandfather, e.g. the first prime minister of the UAE was addressed as Sheikh Maktoum
bin Rashid Al Maktoum

Meeting & Greeting:

 A long but steady handshake is common. Ensure you only use your right hand.
 Greetings between individuals of the same gender who know each other well are
often warm and include hugs and embraces.
 Arab men or women may decline to shake the hands of those from the other sex.
This is a religious adherence practiced by many male and female Muslims. It is not
personal and it should not be taken offensively. We suggest therefore, that men wait
to see if a female offers her hand prior to offering his.
 Likewise, if a female offers her hand and it is refused by a male, then we suggest the
use of a gesture that is often used across the Muslim world as an alternative greeting
whereby the right hand is placed flat over the heart, coupled with a brief nod of the
head and a smile.
 It is polite to greet the oldest or most senior members of the group first.